Lecture-1

Course:

Integrated

Circuits (EL-333)

Instructor Name:
Dr. Saleha Bano
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Course Outline

• IC Process Technologies
• Review of models for active devices
(single stage amplifiers)
• Differential Pairs
• Current mirrors and active loads
• Output Stages
• Op-amps (structure and
applications)
• Logic Families (inverters, NMOS,
CMOS logic gates)
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• ​Integrated Circuits ​An integrated

circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or
microchip, is a semiconductor ​wafer on

which thousands or millions of tiny

resistors, capacitors, and transistors are

fabricated. An IC can function as an

amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter,

computer ​memory, or microprocessor.

• ​Discrete Circuits ​Discrete circuits are

electronic circuit built up of discrete
components such as resistor, ​capacitor,

inductor, transistors etc. Later, these

components are connected together by

using conducted wires on a circuit board .

Advantages of ICs
• An integrated circuit quite small in

size practically around ​millions of

electronic components can be

incorporated in a single square inch

of IC chip.
• Many complex circuits are
fabricated on a single chip and hence

this simplifies the designing of a

complex circuit. Also it improves the

performance of the system.

• IC’s will give high reliability b/c of

the elimination of solder ​joints.

• These are available at low cost due

to bulk production on a small
semiconductor wafer.

Advantages of ICs

• IC’s consume very tiny power or

less power b/c of small size and

low voltage operation.

• Increased speed due to absence
of parasitic ​capacitance effect.
• Light weight owing to miniaturized
circuits.
• Matching of the device is good b/c
no. of components are fabricated ​on

a same Si wafer with same

fabrication process.
• All components are formed within
the chip.

Disadvantages of ICs

• After fabrication of an IC, it is not

possible to modify the parameters
within which an integrated circuit will

operate.
• When a component in an IC gets
damaged, the whole IC has to be

replaced by new one.

• For higher value of capacitance
(>30pF) in an IC, We should have to

connect a discrete component

externally
• IC functions at low voltage and only

limited amount of power is ​handled.

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Types of IC
• IC are classified as: ​1) Analog IC 2) Digital
IC

1) Analog IC ​In this ​type of ICs​, the input

and output both signals are continuous. The
output ​signal level depends upon the input

signal level and the output signal level is a

linear function of input signal level. A linear

IC or analog IC is one in which a change in

input voltage causes a directly proportional

change in the output. The output voltage ​of

linear circuit is continuous and follow

changes in input. An important application

of analog IC is the operational amplifier

commonly referred to as op-amp.

2) Digital IC ​In digital IC’s the output

voltage is not continuous. It is either high or
low not in ​between the two. They find wide

applications in logic circuits,

microprocessors etc.​7

From Fabrication
point of View

1) Monolithic IC ​2) Thick and Thin

Film IC ​3) Hybrid IC

1) Monolithic IC ​In the monolithic

ICs, all the active and passive

components along with ​their

interconnections are manufactured

on a single silicon chip. In general,

the monolithic ICs has power

limitations ; hence they are ​preferred

only in low power applications.

2) Thick and Thin Film IC ​For

slightly higher power applications, the

thick-thin film ICs are ​employed.

These are larger in size than the

monolithic ICs; but smaller in size

than the discrete circuits. With

thick-thin film ICs, some of the

passive components like resistors,

capacitors are integrated, but the

components like BJT, diodes are

connected as discrete components to

complete the circuit. Thus, in general,

thick-thin film circuits are the

combinations of integrated and

discrete components.

3) Hybrid IC ​For high power

applications, hybrid ICs are used.

Hybrid ICs combine ​two or more

monolithic ICs in one package. They

may combine monolithic ICs with

thick-thin film circuits.

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Classification on
Bases of Chip Size

Moore’s Law ​Moore's law is the

observation that the number of

transistors in a dense ​integrated

circuit doubles about every two

years. The observation is named

after Gordon Moore, the

co-founder of Fairchild

Semiconductor and was the CEO

and co-founder of Intel, whose

1965 paper described a doubling

every year in the number of

components per integrated circuit.

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Steps of IC
Fabrication

1. Crystal growth and water

preparation ​2. Epitaxial
growth/Layering 3. Oxidation ​4.
Photolithography ​5. Etching ​6.
Diffusion ​7. Ion Implantation 8.
Metallization ​9. Assembly and
packaging
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IC Fabrication
Process

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1. Crystal Growth and
Wafer Preparation
• Si is found abundantly in nature in

​ reacted ​with
the form of SiO​2​. SiO​2 is

Carbon at very high temperature

(1800​o​C).
SiO​2​+ 2C Si ​(MGS) +
​ 2CO

• MGS is metallurgical graded Si

which has impurities such as Fe, Al

and heavy metals. MGS is furthered

purified to yield Electronic ​graded Si

(EGS).
Si (solid) + 3HCl (gas) SiHCl​3 (gas)
​ + H2
(gas)
• SiHCl​3 is
​ then converted to highly
pure EGS by reacting with H​2​.
• EGS is formed by reacting
trichlorosilane with hydrogen:
2SiHCl​3 (gas)
​ + 2H​2 (gas)
​ 2Si (solid) + 6HCl
(gas)

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Czochralski Crystal
Growth Method
• This method is used for Si crystal
growth from which Si wafer are

produced. The apparatus used for

crystal growth is called czochralski

crystal growth apparatus or puller.

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• The <111> planes have the highest

density of atoms on the surface, so crystals
grow most ​easily on these planes and

oxidation occurs at a higher pace when

compared to other ​crystal planes.

• Traditionally, bipolar devices are

fabricated in <111> oriented crystals
whereas <100> ​materials are preferred for

MOS devices.

• <100> orientation helps to achieve a lower

threshold voltage.

• The largest flat, called the "major" or

"primary" flat, is usually relative to a specific
crystal orientation ​and serves for
mechanical alignment.

• Other smaller flats are called "secondary"

flats that serve to identify the orientation
and conductivity type of the wafer.

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• When seed crystal is pulled out of

the molten due to solidification, Si

ingot gets formed exactly as the seed

crystal.
• Standard diameter of ingot is about

150mm, length is 2m and Weight ​is

60 Kg.
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• Diameter of wafer is around 300mm

and thickness is 775um.
• The surface of wafer should be
smooth without impurities. If there are

impurities, it will effect the

conductivity of chip.
• To make surface free of impurities
chemical mechanical polishing is
done.

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Chemical Mechanical
Polishing

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• Material used for polishing is called

Slurry made of SiO​2 +
​ NaOH.

• This mechanical substance is used

for creating friction to the wafer.
• NaOH is used to remove impurities

so it is called chemical polishing ​while

SiO​2 is
​ used for rubbing so it is called

mechanical polishing.

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Two main two processes are: ​1) Chemical
Vapour deposition (CVD) 2) Physical
Vapour Deposition (PVD)

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2. Layering/Epitaxial
Growth
Chemical Vapour
Deposition (CVD)
• This is used for the formation of
polysilicon/SiO​2​/Si​3​N​4​.
• For formation of polysilicon Silane

compound (SiH​4​) is heated at a ​very

high temperature.
0​
SiH​4 →
​ Si+2H​ 2​ (1000​ C)
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Chemical Vapour
Deposition
• For Formation of silicon Nitride
(Si​3​N​4​). Silicon Nitride is use for

masking of IC 3 ​ SiCl​2​H​2 +​ 4 NH​3 →​

0​
Si​3​N​4 +
​ 6 HCl + 6 H​ 2​ (700 -750​ )
• For formation of SiO2 which is used

for dielectric and for protection ​layer.

0​
SiH​4 +
​ O​ 2​ → SiO​ 2​ + 2 H​ 2​ (400-450​ )

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Process of CVD
Growth
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Physical Vapour
Deposition (PVD)

• PVD process is the last step of

fabrication after that packaging is
done.

• This process is used for deposition

of metals for interconnects and to

connect drain and source to the

electrodes.

• This process is also called

sputtering or metallization

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3. Oxidation and its
Properties

• The process in which a thin layer of

SiO​2 is
​ formed on Si wafer using

thermal ​growth is called Oxidation.

• Some properties of SiO​2 is:

​ ​1) It acts
as a protective layer or mask against
diffusion of dopants & Ion

implantation process into Si wafer. 2)

​
It provides isolation between active
circuits & multi-level interconnect
layers/active devices. 3)
​ It provides
physical & chemical support to the
MOS device. ​4) It acts as a good
dielectric for the formation of

capacitor which is desired for ​CMOS

operation. 5)
​ It provides surface
passivation.
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• There are two types of Oxidation: ​1)

Wet Oxidation 2) Dry Oxidation

• ​Wet Oxidation ​Si is reacted with

water vapours for oxidation at high
pressure.
Si + 2H​2​O→ SiO​2 +
​ 2 H​2 (Fast
​
Process)

• Wet oxidation is a fast process and

is used for thick layer of oxides. It ​is

used for masking, isolation and for

chemical and mechanical protection.

• It has poor dielectric property.

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Dry Oxidation
• Si is reacted with Oxygen gas.
Si + O​2​→ SiO​2 (Slow
​ Process)
• Its growth rate is poor means it is a
slow process and is used for thin

layer of ​oxides.

• Its dielectric property is good.

• It is used for the formation of
capacitor dielectric.

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Oxidation Process
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Nitridation

• SiO​2 and
​ Si​3​N​4 can
​ be obtained
from CVD. Both can be used at the
outer layer. ​The difference is:

• Melting point is high.

• It is used for passivation
• It protects the device from
corrosion.
• It provides better isolation from
external impurities.

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4. Photolithography
• It is a process of transferring the
designed pattern or image to the
surface of wafer from mask. It is an

IC patterning process.
• Photolithography means writing on
stones.
• UV light are used for the patterns.
• It transfers light from photomask to
the light sensitive polymer called

photoresist. Photoresist
​ ​ hotoresist
P
is a material placed over the

substrate which is sensitive to ​UV

light and change its chemical

property.

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Types of Photoresist
• Photoresists (PR) are of two types:
1) Positive PR ​2) Negative PR

1) Positive PR ​It prints the pattern

same as that on the mask.

2) Negative PR ​It prints a pattern that

is opposite to that on the mask.
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Positive and Negative

PR

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Steps of
Photolithography

• Wafer Clean
• Dehydration Bake/Pre-Bake
• Spin coating and Photoresist
• Soft Bake
• Alignment and Exposure
• Development
• Pattern Inspection
• Hard Bake

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