Acid Rain

What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain is a result of air pollution. When any type of fuel is burnt, lots of different
chemicals are produced. The smoke that comes from a fire or the fumes that come out of a car
exhaust don't just contain the sooty grey particles that you can see - they also contains lots of
invisible gases that can be even more harmful to our environment.
Power stations, factories and cars all burn fuels and therefore they all produce polluting
gases. Some of these gases (especially nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide) react with the tiny
droplets of water in clouds to form sulphuric and nitric acids. The rain from these clouds then
falls as very weak acid - which is why it is known as "acid rain".  The release of sulphur dioxide
can also occur naturally when a volcano erupts.
How acidic is acid rain?
Acidity is measured using a scale called the pH scale. This scale goes from 0 to 14. 0 is
the most acidic and 14 is the most alkaline (opposite of acidic). Something with a pH value of 7,
we call neutral, this means that it is neither acidic nor alkaline.

Very strong acids will burn if they touch your skin and can even destroy metals. Acid rain
is much, much weaker than this; it is never acidic enough to burn your skin.
Rain is always slightly acidic because it mixes with naturally occurring oxides in the air.
Unpolluted rain would have a pH value of between 5 and 6. When the air becomes more
polluted with nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide the acidity can increase to a pH value of 4.
Some rain has even been recorded as being pH2. Vinegar has a pH value of 2.2 and lemon
juice has a value of pH2.3. Even the strongest recorded acid rain is only about as acidic as
lemon juice or vinegar and we know that these don't harm us - so why do we worry about acid
rain?

The effects of acid rain

Acid rain can be carried great distances in the atmosphere, not just between countries but also
from continent to continent. The acid can also take the form of snow, mists and dry dusts. The
rain sometimes falls many miles from the source of pollution but wherever it falls it can have a
serious effect on soil, trees, buildings and water.  In the 1970s the effects of acid rain were seen
at their worst.Forests all over the world were dying... in Scandinavia the fish were dying; lakes
were crystal clear but  contained no living creatures or plant life. Many of Britain's freshwater
fish were threatened  their eggs were damaged and deformed fish were being hatched . This in
turn led to to fish-eating birds and animals also being affected. It is thought that acid rain can
cause trees to grow more slowly or even to die but scientists have found that it is not the only
cause. The same amount of acid rain seems to have more effect in some areas than it does in
others.
As acid rain falls on a forest it trickles through the leaves of the trees and runs down into
the soil below. Some of it finds its way into streams and then on into rivers and lakes. Some
types of soil can help to neutralise the acid - they have what is called a "buffering
capacity".Other soils are already slightly acidic and these are particularly susceptible to the
effects of acid rain.Acid rain can effect trees in several different ways.It may:
• dissolve and wash away the nutrients and minerals in the soil
which help the trees to grow such as potassium, calcium and magnesium
• cause the release of harmful substances such as aluminium into the soil and waterways which
further affects wildlife.
• wear away the waxy protective coating of leaves, damaging them
and preventing them from being able to photosynthesise properly.
A combination of these effects weakens the trees which means that they can be more easily
attacked by diseases and insects or injured by bad weather. It is not just trees that are affected
by acid rain, other plants may also suffer.

Lakes and rivers

It is in aquatic habitats that the effects of acid rain are most obvious. Acid rain runs off the land
and ends up in streams, lakes and marshes - the rain also falls directly on these areas.
As the acidity of a lake increases, the water becomes
clearer and the numbers of fish and other water animals
decline. Some species of plant and animal are better
able to survive in acidic water than others. Freshwater
shrimps, snails, mussels are the most quickly affected by
acidification followed by fish such as minnows, salmon
and roach. The roe and fry (eggs and young) of the fish
are the worst affected, the acidity of the water can cause
deformity in young fish and can prevent eggs from
hatching properly and fish  struggle to take in oxygen.
The acidity of the water does not just affect species directly, it also causes toxic
substances like aluminium to be released into the water from the soil, harming fish and
other aquatic animals.

Lakes, rivers and marshes each have their own fragile ecosystem with many different
species of plants and animals all depending on one another to survive. If a species of
fish disappears, the animals which feed on it will gradually disappear too. If the extinct
fish used to feed on a particular species of large insect, that insect population will start
to grow, this in turn will affect the smaller insects or plankton on which the larger insect
feeds.
Buildings
Every type of material will become eroded sooner or later by the effects of the climate.
Water, wind, ice and snow all help in the erosion process but unfortunately, acid rain can help
to make this natural process even quicker. Statues, buildings, vehicles, pipes and cables can all
suffer. The worst affected are things made from limestone or sandstone as these types of rock
are particularly susceptible and can be affected by air pollution in gaseous form as well as by
acid rain.
Where is it coming from?
Until relatively recently air pollution has been seen as a local issue. It was in southern
Scandinavia in the late 1950's that the problems of acid rain were first observed and it was then
that people began to realise that the origins of this pollution were far away in Britain and
Northern Europe. One early answer to industrial air pollution was to build very tall chimneys.
Unfortunately all this does is push the polluting gases up into the clouds allowing emissions to
float away on the wind. The wind carries the pollution many hundreds of miles away where it
eventually falls as acid rain. In this way Britain has contributed at least 16% of the acid
deposition in Norway. Over ninety percent of Norway's acid pollution comes from other
countries. The worst European polluters re Germany, UK, Poland and Spain.  In 1994 each of
them produced over a million tons of sulphur emissions. Governments have since admitted that
acid rain is a serious environmental problem and many countries have taken steps to reduce
the amount of sulphur and nitrogen emissions, but they are still a problem.
What has been done?
The 1979  Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol reduced sulphur dioxide emissions in
Europe by 30% in 1997.  Since the 1990s sulphur dioxide emissions have dropped by 70% in
Europe.Since the 1970s when sulphur scrubbers were fitted to all major power station chimneys
in Britain, atmospheric emissions have been reduced by 85%.1970 was the worst year for air
pollution in the UK with 4 tonnes of mainly sulphur dioxide and nitrates released.  By 2000 this
was reduced to 1 tonne and by 2010 it was hoped it would only be 0.6 tonne.
The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol set limits on emissions which come into force in 2010. 
However, many EU members are not currently on course to meet these targets.  International
agreements failed to include shipping which uses sulphur rich fuels that are now banned on
land so emissions from the North sea can reach countries such as Norway.
An upsurge in industrialisation and reliance on fossil fuels in countries such as China could lead
to a further increase in sulphur dioxide emissions.
What about nitrogen?
Since the amount of sulphur dioxide that is being released has been cut considerably,
more needs to be done about nitrogen oxide from motor vehicles and agricultural fertilizers
which forms nitric acid when it meets rain and has the same effects of leaching important plant
nutrients from the soil and releasing minerals such as aluminium into the water courses. 

Too much nitrogen in our waterways can lead to eutrophication.  This is when algal
blooms and just a few plant species take over, block all the light for underwater plants and take
all the oxygen, leaving none for the aquatic creatures.
Restoring the damage done by acid rain

Lakes and rivers can have powdered limestone added to them to neutralise the water -
this is called "liming". Liming, however, is expensive and its effects are only temporary - it
needs to be continued until the acid rain stops. The people of Norway and Sweden have
successfully used liming to help restore lakes and streams in their countries.

A major liming programme has been taking place in Wales where 12,000 km of its
waterways were acidified.   In 2003 liming of the river Wye  led to a return of the salmon which
had completely disappeared in 1985.  However, other parts of Wales have taken longer to
recover and there are still no signs of life.

Recently a more positive side of acid rain has been noted as it can be very effective at
reducing the natural production of methane, a “greenhouse gas” approximately 23 times more
powerful than carbon dioxide, especially in wetland areas.

What can be done?

Reduce emissions:

• Burning fossil fuels is still one of the cheapest ways to produce electricity so people are now
researching new ways to burn fuel which don't produce so much pollution.

• Governments need to spend more money on pollution control even if it does mean an
increase in the price of electricity.

• Sulphur can also be 'washed' out of smoke by spraying a mixture of water and powdered
limestone into the smokestack.

• Cars are now fitted with catalytic converters which remove three dangerous chemicals from
exhaust gases.
Find alternative sources of energy
• Governments need to invest in researching different ways to produce energy.

• Two other sources that are currently used are hydroelectric and nuclear power. These are
'clean' as far as acid rain goes but what other impact do they have on our environment?

• Other sources could be solar energy or windmills but how reliable would these be in places
where it is not very windy or sunny?

• All energy sources have different benefits and costs and all theses have to be weighed up
before any government decides which of them it is going to use.
 
Conserving resources

• Greater subsidies of public transport by the government to encourage people to use public
transport rather than always travelling by car.

• Every individual can make an effort to save energy by switching off lights when they are not
being used and using energy-saving appliances - when less electricity is being used, pollution
from power plants decreases.

• Walking, cycling and sharing cars all reduce the pollution from 
Acid rain
Another effect of air pollution is acid rain. The phenomenon occurs when sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning of fossil fuels such as, petrol, diesel, and coal
combine with water vapour in the atmosphere and fall as rain, snow or fog. These gases can
also be emitted from natural sources like volcanoes. Acid rain causes extensive damage to
water, forest, soil resources and even human health. Many lakes and streams have been
contaminated and this has led to the disappearance of some species of fish in Europe, USA
and Canada as also extensive damage to forests and other forms of life. It is said that it can
corrode buildings and be hazardous to human health. Because the contaminants are carried
long distances, the sources of acid rain are difficult to pinpoint and hence difficult to control. For
example, the acid rain that may have damaged some forest in Canada could have originated in
the industrial areas of USA. In fact, this has created disagreements between Canada and the
United States and among European countries over the causes of and solutions to the problem
of acid rain. The international scope of the problem has led to the signing of international
agreements on the limitation of sulphur and nitrogen oxide emissions.

 I. What is Acid Rain?

Acid rain is rainfall that has been acidified. Rain is acidified by oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen. Acid rain usually has a pH of less than 5.6. Acid rain is formed when pollutants called
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, contained in power plant smoke, factory smoke, and car exhaust,
react with the moisture in the atmosphere. Dry deposition, such as soot and ash, sleet, hail,
snow, smog and low level ozone are forms that acid rain can take, despite its name.
II. Causes
Acid rain can be caused by many things. Industrial emissions from factories and power
plants that burn fuels such as natural gas, coal or oil, emit smoke that gives off oxides of sulfur
and nitrogen is one cause. Another cause is vehicles (e.g. cars, buses) that burn gasoline and
diesel. The exhaust emitted by burning these fuels contains sulfur dioxide, an oxide of sulfur.
Also, vehicles that have gas engines will produce oxides of nitrogen, another cause of acid rain.
One other cause is home fires giving off smoke that contains sulfur dioxide. Some fairly minor
causes are natural causes which are volcanoes, swamps and rotting plants giving off sulfur
dioxide. Natural causes only account for 10% of the pollution causing acid rain.
III. Effects and Problems
There are many problems and effects caused by acid rain. Acid rain can cause buildings,
statues and bridges to deteriorate faster than usual. Another problem is it harms thousands of
lakes, rivers, and streams worldwide. It disrupts lake ecosystems and kill wildlife in affected
lakes, rivers and streams. Acid rain also damages soil and the tree roots in it. When soil is
acidified, tree roots are damaged, leaving them not able to draw in enough nutrients to support
the tree. When acid rain falls on trees, it makes their leaves turn brownish-yellow and the tree
can no longer carry out photosynthesis properly. Another problem is it will harm people when
they breathe in smog, acid rain in one of its many forms. Acid rain can also harm people
indirectly. This happens when people eat fish caught in affected lakes or rivers. Also, if the
water source is acidic enough, it will react with copper or lead pipes to harm humans. It also
washes aluminum into the water supply. Birds can be harmed if they live in affected waters or
feed on fish living in affected waters.
IV. Areas Affected
There are several places around the world affected by acid rain and here are the main
ones. The Northeastern section of the United States where acid rain is caused by high numbers
of factories and power plants is one affected area. Also in that same region, the Southeastern
section of Canada is affected and the main cause is factories in the Toronto-Hamilton area.
Central Europe and Scandanavia (Sweden, Norway and Finland) are also affected, here being
the British and other European factories doing the damage. One more main area that is
affected is parts of Asia, specifically India and China, where acid rain is caused by large
numbers of factories.
V. The History of the Acid Rain Problem
Here is a little bit on the history of the acid rain problem. The problem of acid rain
probably originated during the 1730's, at the height of the industrial revolution. It was
discovered in the 1950's and started being noticed in the 1960's. Since the 1960's, the problem
has gotten worse in rural areas because the tall chimneys on factories allow the wind to
transport pollutants far away from their sources. In 1984 it was reported that almost half of the
trees in the famous black forest in Germany had been damaged by acid rain. In 1988, as part of
the United Nations-sponsored Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution Agreement, the U.S.A.
and 24 other nations agreed to some rules limiting nitrogen oxide emissions to 1987
levels.1990 changes to the Clean Air Act set rules to cut down the release of sulfur dioxide from
power plants down to 10 million tonnes by January 1, 2000.
VI. What Acid Rain Has Done
There are many bad things that have happened because of acid rain and here are some.
In Sweden, drinking water once contained enough water to make people's hair turn green. In
the Czech Republic, many trees lost all their leaves as a result of acid rain. The Taj Mahal in
India, one of the ten wonders of the world, is being constantly threatened by acid rain. Some
famous statues, such as the Lincoln Memorial and Michaelangelo's statue of Marcus Aurelius,
have started deteriorating because of acid rain. In London in 1952, killed 4,000 people.
VII. Possible Solutions
There are many possible solutions to the acid rain problem. One is to use fuels that burn
more cleanly. Another solution is to burn coal more efficiently. Power plant and factory
chimneys can be fitted with scrubbers that release 90-95% sulfur free smoke and also produces
sludge from which gypsum, a building material, can be produced. This problem can also be
solved by enforcing tight emission standards on vehicles that burn gas and diesel. One other
solution is fitting devices such as a catalytic converter into car exhaust pipes to minimize the
amount of sulfur dioxide in car exhaust.
VIII. What We Can Do
We can do things to help solve the acid rain problem. We can cut back on car use by
walking, cycling, using public transit or carpooling. We can also help by turning off electrical
devices not in use such as lights and computers.
 Acid Rain
Rain is slightly acidic because it contains dissolved carbon dioxide (CO 2).Sulpher dioxide
(SO2) and Nitrogen oxides (NOx) which are normally present in the air. Acid rain contains more
acidity than the normal value because of presence of acidions due to the dissolution of these
gases present in higher concentration. Acid rain, therefore, is the direct consequence of air
pollutioncaused by gaseous emissions from industrial sources, burning of fuels (thermal plants,
chimneys of brick-kilns or sugar mills.) and vehicular emissions. It is not necessary that acid
rain will occur locally near the sources of air pollution. Due to the movement of air, acid rain
may occur for away from the source. For instance, U.K. contributes 26% of the acidic sulpher
deposited in the Netherlands, 23% in Norway and 12% in Sweden. Acid emissions arise
naturally from volcanoes, forest fires and biological decomposition, especially in the oceans.
But their contribution to a acid rain are SO 2, NOx and to a lesser extent CO2 and HC1 gas. SO2
pollutions is mostly contributed by thermal power plants, refineries industry and NOx form road
transport, power stations and industry. The acidgas concentrations in the air will vary according
to location, time and weatherconditions.

Effects of Acid Rain

The most important effects are: damage to freshwater aquatic life, damage of vegetation
and damage to buildings and material.
a) Damage to aquatic life: - The main impact of fresh water acidification is a reduction in
diversity and populations of fresh water species. The effect on soil and rock will depend upon
the in situ capacity called ‘buffering capacity’ to neutralize the acids. The soil organisms are
killed in acid rain where soils have limited buffering capacity. The acidic leaf litter in forest areas
adds to the nutrient leaching effects of acid rain. This scavenging from cloud increases the
amount of pollution deposited. Trees are quite effective in intercepting the air borne pollutants
than other types of upland vegetation. In the areas of high acid deposition and poor buffering in
the lakes, a PH less than 5 has become common. At PH 5, fish life and frogs begin to
disappear. By PH 4, 5, virtually all aquatic life has gone. Acid rain releases metals particularly
aluminium-from the soil, which can build up in lake water to levels that are toxic to fish and
other organisms. A decline in fish and amphibian population will affect the food chain of birds
and mammals that depend on them for food.
b) Damage to Trees and Plants
For some years there has been concern about the apparent deterioration of trees and
other vegetation. It is not easy to establish the cause of damage: pollution, drought, frost, pests
and forst management methods can all affect tree health. SO 2 has a direct toxic effect on trees
and in parts of central Europe for example where SO 2 levels are very high, extensive areas of
forest have been damaged or destroyed. Acid deposition may combine with other factors to
affect tree health; for instance by making trees more susceptible to attack by pests, or by
acidifying soils which may cause loss of essential nutrients such as magnesium, thus impairing
tree growth. Nitrogen and sulphur are both plant nutrients and deposition can upset the balance
of natural plant communities by encouraging the growth of other plant species. Secondary
pollutants like ozone are also known to exacerbate the effects of acid deposition.

c) Damage to Buildings and Materials

All historic buildings suffer damage and decay with time. Natural weathering causes
some of this but there is no doubt that air pollution, particularly SO2, also plays an important
part. SO2 penetrated porous stones such as limestone and is converted to calcium sulphate,
which causes gradual crumbling. Most building damage happens in urban areas where there
are many SO2 emitters (domestic chimneys, factories and heating plant). The introduction of
the Clean Air Acts and the replacement of coal fires by gas and electricity has greatly reduced
sulphur dioxide levels in urban areas. Other materials badly affected by pollutant gases include
marble, stainedglass, most metals and paint. Poorly set or fractured concrete may also
allowsulphates to penetrate and corrode the steel reinforcement inside.

REDUCING ACID POLLUTION

Sulphur Dioxide
The sulphur which is present in nearly all fossil fuels combines with oxygen when the fuel is
burnt and is released into the atmosphere as SO 2 gas. These emissions can be reduced by
measures taken before, during, or after the combustion process. One approach is to use fuels
which naturally have little sulphur in them. The sulphur content of coal can vary considerably.
Some fuels may be treated to reduce their sulphur content, but effective treatment is expensive.
Demand for low sulphur fuels is increasing as more countries develop programmes to
reduce sulphur pollution, so they are becoming more expensive. During combustion it is
possible to reduce the eventual emissions of SO 2 by the introduction of a sorbent such as
limestone. The potential for sulphur reduction by this approach depends on the type of furnace
or boiler.
After combustion, sulphur can be removed from flue gases or ‘scrubbed’. This process is
known as the flue gas desulphurization (FGD). In most FGD system a mixture of limestone and
water is sprayed into the flue gas. The SO2 is converted to gypsum (calcium sulphate), which
can be used in the manufacture of plaster products. However, FGD systems of this type are
expensive and use considerable amounts of limestone. If all power stations were fitted with
FGD, gypsum production would exceed requirements, leading to a waste disposal problem.
Although such a programme would increase limestone extraction by about 5%, there would be
a useful reduction in gypsum quarrying.
An alternative to limestone FGD systems is the regenerative FGD approach in which
SO2 is captured by a substance which can be recycled. Sulphur or sulphuric acid is obtained as
a by-product and can be used in the chemical industry. Again, there are limits to the amount of
by-product which industry can use.
Although FGD can reduce sulphur emissions by up to 90%, such systems use extra
energy and, therefore, increase emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2. Nitrogen Oxides
NOx is produced partly from the oxidation of nitrogen contained in the fuel and partly as a result
of high temperature and pressure combustion, which oxidizes nitrogen in the air. Furnace
burners can be changed to reduce outputs of NOx by up to 40% (low-NOx burners). NOx in flue
gas can be reduced by adding ammonia and passing it over a catalyst to produce nitrogen and
water. This process is called selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and can reduce NOx from
combustion plant by 85%, NOx produced by cars can also be treated by using catalysts; fitting
a catalytic converter to the exhaust system reduces NOx emissions by up to 90%, although it
may
increase emissions of CO2.

Other Options
Since most acid pollution comes from burning fossil fuels, one way of reducing emissions is to
reduce the overall demand for energy by encouraging energy conservation and improving the
efficiency of electricity generation. Another option is to develop non-fossil fuel energy sources
such as nuclear power or renewable energy (solar, wind, tidal power, etc.) However these have
their own environmental problems which must be balanced against those of fossil fuels.
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