UNIT-II

EIA METHODOLOGIES
Process and Framework of EIA
The united nation conference on Human environment held at Stockholm in june,1972
urged developing countries to take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of
human environment. Long term and sustainable development can only be achieved through
sound environmental management. Needs methodologies, analytical tools and conceptual
frameworks to integrate environmental concerns in development plans, programs and objects.
National international funding agencies are eager to identify and adopt methodologies to
improve project financing making projects more multidisciplinary, less sectoral, and more
responsive to ecological constraints and parameters.
Though the bad effects of development activities are identified it may not always be
possible to make a quantative evaluation in terms of money of certain environmental effects or
the cost of long term damage.
Environmental impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the most important tools to assess
the viability of any development project from all point of view including cost , environment
and sustainable development/. The preparation EIA is closely related to cost benefit analysis
EIA has to specially deal effectively with the following.
i. Risk evaluation in terms of long-term consequences, with special reference to
events with high negative effects like desertification, rehabilitation, deforestation
etc.
ii. Comparative weighing with the present and future costs and benefits.

Definition and Frame Work of Eia

Environmental impact analysis (EIA) is a study of the effects of a proposed action on
the environment. Environment in this context will include all aspects of the natural and
human environment. Environment is made up of both biophysical and socio economic
elements. Thus depending upon the scale of the proposed action, EIA may include studies of
air, water. Land ecology, sound, weather, flora and fauna, human health, urban migration,
economics, resources etc. EIA will seek to establish the condition of physical, biological,
social, economic and other parameters before and after a project is undertaken. The type and
the number of parameters to be studied in different projects will vary from project to project.
Impact means change, either positive or negative from a desirability standpoint. A
environmental impact analysis is, therefore, a study of the probable changes in the various
socioeconomic and biophysical characteristics of the environment which may result from a
proposed or impending action.
 For any given project, there can be a number of alternative approaches including a zero
option approach, which mean not taking up the project at all. Each option will have economic
coasts and benefits, as well as losses and beneficial environmental impacts. Adverse
environmental impacts may be reduced at a higher projects cost. Economic benefits to an
individual industry may have to be reduced to some environmental cost resulting in social
benefit. All feasible alternative are supposed to be studied in an EIA of any project. EIA
should finally determine mix of environmental and economic coasts andbenefits.
The framework for EIA can thus summarized as:
1. The study of the effects of a proposed action on the environment.
2. The comparison of various alternatives by which a desired objective may be realized
and seeks to

3. identify the one which represents the best combination of economic and environmental
coasts and benefits.
4. The prediction of changes in environ-mental quality which would result from the
proposed action.

5. An attempt to weigh economic costs and benefits.

6. A decision making tool.
Description of Environmental Setting
Environment in India is made of villages, towns, cities etc; and their surroundings
made up of irrigated land, forest land, rivers, hillocks, wastelands, reservoirs etc. In pre-
independence days, Indian villages, towns, and cities used to present a peaceful and
meaningful life. But with increasing population, industrialization and urbanization, the
physical scenario in Indian villages, towns and cities has deteriorated with corruption,
improper implementation of rules and regulations and lack of civic sense.
Comfortable housing, sufficient quality of safe drinking water, proper civic amentias
like drains, roads, street lights, parks and gardens and other public conveniences have become a
rarity. Construction of big dams, and starting of big industries without considering their impact
on environment have resulted in rehabilitation of villages, inundation of forests, reduction in
flora and fauna, pollution of air, water and land, increase in slums, deforestation, desertication
etc. Industrialization around Bombay and Hyderabad, Bhopal gas tragedy, smog atmosphere
in Delhi during winters, load qualityof life in Rajasthan and Orissa villages, pollution of Dhal
lake in Kashmir are all examples of improper development without caring for the
environmental impact.
Before initiating any action like the construction of a dam, or the construction of a long
irrigation canal, or the construction of a big industry, site –specific environmental setting has
to be understood properly. In an systematic procedure, information onenvironmental setting as
a quesifiltering mechanism, eliminating consideration of impactsunrelated to the specific site.
Need of Environmental Impact Analysis
Development through use of technologies is necessary to improve the standard of
living. In view of the fact that development projects are interfering too much with the
environment, before any development project can be taken up there should be an analysisof the
necessary for the development by comparing the monetary costs and monetary benefits. Of
recent, society has become aware of the need for assessing the effect on the environment or it
is ecological cost and benefit. Environmental impact analysis involves a combination of the
ecological and monetary benefits and coast.
The evaluation of the impact of any development project is a part of many steps to be
followed by any development project. Steps to be followed in a project are listed below:
i. Prepare a statement of the major objectives of the proposed project.
ii. Analysis the technologic possibilities of achieving the objectives.
iii. Identify actions to achieve the stated objectives. Alternative plans for achieving the
set objectives have to be identified.
iv. Prepare a report on the condition of the existing environment before the proposed
action.
v. Finalize about principal engineering proposals with analysis of monetary benefit
and costs.
vi. Prepare Environmental impacts analysis of the magnitudes (degree, extensive and
importance of impact). The pertinence of each action is reflects by numerical
values of magnitude and importance.
vii. Assess the impacts of the separate actions which comprise the project upon the
different
environmental factors.

viii. Summarize and give recommendations including a discussion on the relative merits
and rationales of the action plan.
For maintaining clean and healthy environment, the state and central government have
a responsibility to protest the environment. Through the department of Environment,
Government of India has to formulate and recommend: n a t i o n a l policies for the
improvement of the quality of the environment. Through gathering information, reviewing
program, conducting investigations and by preparing Environmental Impact Assessment for
different projects the departmental of Environment will keep informs the central Government
about environmental status around the country. Environmental Impact Analysis is thud
mandatory for all big projects like constructions of major dams. Major industries, mining
activity, development of townships etc. The environmental impact statement should include a
description of the environmental impact of the proposed action, unavoidable adverse impacts
which would result should action take place, possible alternatives and discussion on short term
versus long-term advantages of the proposal. It is obligatory to circulate the Environmental
impact analysis publicly and consider both the analysis made by experts and publicly response
to it when making it is final decision on the proposal.
The specific purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment, is to influence the
decisions to be made for maintaining the environment and its values, for sustainable
development. Through the world has gained by industrialization, we are now facing many
environmental problems like holes in the ozone layer, global warming, greenhouse effect, acid
rains, deforestation etc. Poverty and environmental degradation are the two sides of the same
coin and a good approach to development through proper environmental impact analysis will
result in better things to happen.
The need for Environmental Impact Analysis can be summarized as:
i. To identify all environmental factors in the project area which will be influenced
by all the activities of the project under consideration.
ii. To identify alternative approaches including no action plan, their levels of impacts
and economic considerations.
iii. To describe the environmental setting, to collect data and the factors associated
with the proposed action. Methods for impact analysis can aid in identifying data
needs and planning field studies.
iv. To identify the tools and methodologies to be adopted in the Environmental Impact
Analysis.
v. To evaluate control measures.
vi. To provide information and encourage public participation in evaluating the impact
of the proposed project
Criteria for Choosing a Methodology:
There are number of methodologies evolved by different people. For preparing
Environmental Impact Analysis. Depending upon the specific needs of the user and the type of
project being undertaken, one particular methodology may be more useful than the other. To
select the most appropriate methodology, the following criteria have to be considered.
i. What is the objective of the proposed E.I.A?
Is the analysis primarily a decision or an information document? A decision
document is impartment for determining the best course of action, and required
emphasis on identification
 of key issues, quantification and direct comparison of alternative. On the other
hand, an informati0on document primarily. On the other hand, an information
document primarily revolves implications of the selected choices and required a
more comprehensive analysis and concentrations on interpreting the significance
of a broad spectrum of possible impacts.
ii. What are the available resources like money, time, skill, data and computer
facilities? Comprehensive E.I.A. require more of everything.
iii. Is the person in charge of preparing E.I.A. familiar with the type of action
contemplated and the area in which the project has to come up? Grated familiarity
will improve the quality of E.I.A.
iv. How big are the issues being dealt with? All other things being equal, the bigger
the issue, the grated the need to be explicit, to quantify and to identify key issues.
Arbitrary comparison of on type of impact, says for example on environment, with
another type of impact, say like economic, and become less appropriate.
Criteria for choosing an EIA methodology:
A number of people like Adkins, Burke, Dee, Jain, Leopold, Moore, Smith, Warner
etc; have used one form or the other of EIA. Methodologies like adhoc, overlay, checklist,
matrix, network of combination computer-aided etc. Important criteria to be considered. In
choosing and evaluating an impact assessment methodologies are: comprehensive nature,
flexibility of detecting project-generated impacts, and objectivity. the methodology chooses
should ensure input expertise, utilize the state of the art, employ explicitly defined criteria,
provided for assessment of impact magnitude, provide for overall assessment of total impacts
and detect environmentally sensitive areas.
In view of the large number of models and methodologies being practiced in EIA
studies, one must choose between two extremes: complete uniformity or complete uniqueness.
So far as uniformity, reproducibility and comparability are concerned, it would be profitable if
one uniform method could be prescribed for any EIA. On the other hand, each environment is
so unique that a standard methodology would most probably neglect the unique factors. This is
why many specialists on EIA made their own methodologies for watch one of the projects.
Finally, any EIA methodology is expected to de three main things, viz; i.e.,
i. Identification , ii. Prediction and iii. Evaluation.
In the process of identification, the existing system has to be clearly described, the
components of the project have to be clearly identified, and modifications in the project area
as also in all the projects components have to be defined effectively. In the process of
prediction, Identification of environmental modifications that may be significant is expected.
It is necessary to forecast the quantity and special dimensions of change in the environment of
the project area. I is along with some time frame. In the process of evaluation, it become
necessary to determine the incidence of costs and benefits to user group and populations
affected by the project. It became necessary to prepare specifications and comparisons of the
tradeoff (costs or effects being balanced) between various alternatives
Follow up of E.I.A:
Environmental Impact Assessment should be followed by analytical studies of the
special impacts on the environment which appears most adverse. This is achieved by
techniques such as materials balance, dispersion modeling, market simulation, marginal cost
analysis and trade-off analysis.
The first and most basic analysis is to prepare a materials balance model of projects
operational showing all materials inputs and outputs. Inputs will depend on the type of project
and residuals released to the environment will be related to the processes involved and the
controls incorporated in the project.
It is them, necessary to study the dispersion of residuals released to the ecosystem. In
this way we arrive at concentration and movements of pollutants which will allow us to
assess potential damage and other damage costs associated with subsequent uses of the
environmental media.
The next step is to construct a market simulation of the ecosystem which involves
attaching shadow prices to unpriced values. Easily obtained market prices will be for project
development coasts, materials, power, labor and other operating coasts and product prices. Un
priced components will be related to the ecosystem and are the values attached to water
quality, air quality, wilderness quality, scenic views, biological health, species balance and
hazards to species. Some of these unpriced components, can be valued as the cost of
rectification or avoidance; damage costs of poor air, air and water quality can be determined
by estimating the costs of removal of pollutants to a desirable or safe level.
The optimum level of environmental quality may not immediately apparent because
the marginal cost for each degree of quality is not constant.

The above figure depicts a conceptual framework that can be used for preparing a
description of the environmental setting. The methodology involves (1) the identification of
one from several lists of environmental factors, (2) the application of a screening process
leading to a selected list of environmental factors, (3) the procurement of relevant data for the
 selected factors and/or the conduction of pertinent baseline studies, and (4) the preparation of
the description of the setting.
EIA report should contain a description of the existing environment that would be or
might be effected directly or indirectly by the proposed project. Environmental baseline
monitoring (EBM) is a very important stage of EIA. On one hand, EBM plays a very vital role
in EIA, and on the other hand, it provides feedback about the actual environmental impacts of
a project. EBM during the operational phase helps in judging the success of mitigation
measures in protecting the environment. Mitigation measures, in turn, are used to ensure
compliance with environmental standards and to facilitate any needed project design or
operational changes. Description of the existing environment should include natural, cultural,
and socioeconomic systems and their interrelationships. The intention is not to describe all
baseline conditions, but to focus the collection and description of baseline data on those valued
environmental components (VECs) that are important and are likely to be affected by the
proposed industrial activity.
Environmental baseline monitoring:
EBM studies are carried out to identify environmental conditions that might influence
project design decisions, for example, site layout and structural and operational characteristics;
identify sensitive issues or areas requiring mitigation and compensation; provide input data to
analytic models used for predicting effects; and provide baseline data against which the results
of future monitoring programs can be compared. . At this stage of EIA process, EBM is
primarily discussed in the context of first purpose wherein feedback from EBM programs may
be used to determine available assimilative capacity of different environmental components
within the designated impact zone and whether more or less stringent mitigation measures are
needed and improve predictive capability of EIAs.
There are many institutional, scientific, quality control, and fiscal issues that must be
addressed in implementation of an environmental monitoring program. Careful consideration of
these issues in the design and planning stages will help to avoid many of the pitfalls associated
with environmental monitoring programs. Monitoring refers to the collection of data through a
series of repetitive measurements of environmental parameters, more generally, to a process of
systematic observation. Design of the environmental quality monitoring program depends upon
the monitoring objectives specified for the selected area of interest. (The main types of EIA
monitoring are baseline monitoring, effect monitoring, and compliance monitoring).
Prediction and Assessment of Impact on Air pollution:
Air pollution can be defined as the presence of one or more contaminants (pollutants) in
each quantity in the outdoor atmosphere of such duration as may be injurious to human, plant, or
animal life or to the property.
Air pollution may be caused by one or more contaminants. Examples of traditional
contaminants include sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, ozone,
oxidants, hydrogen sulfide, particulate matter, smoke and haze. This list of air pollutants can be
divided into 2 categories: gases and particulates. Gases, such as sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen exhibit diffusion properties and are normally formless fluids which can be changes to
the liquid or solid state only by combined effect of increased pressure and decreased temperature.
Particulates represent any dispersed matter, solid or liquid in which the individual aggregates are
larger than single small molecules (about 0.002 micrometer in diameter) but smaller than about
500 micrometers.
Additional air pollutants or atmospheric effects which have become of concern include
photochemical smog, acid rain and global warming.
Photochemical smog refers to the formation of oxidizing constituents, such as ozone, in
the atmosphere as a result of the photo-induced reaction of hydrocarbons (or volatile organic
chemicals) and oxides of nitrogen. Acid rains refer to atmospheric reactions which can lead to
precipitation which exhibits a pH value less than the normal pH of rainfall (which is
approximately 5.7 when carbon dioxide equilibrium is considered). Causative agents in acid-rain
formation are typically associated with sulfur dioxide emissions and possibly, nitrogen dioxide
emissions, along with gaseous hydrogen chloride.
Another issue of importance from a global perspective is the influence of air pollution on
atmospheric heat balances and associated absorption or reflection of incoming solar radiation. As
a result of increasing levels of carbon dioxide and carbon-containing compounds in the
atmosphere, there is a growing concern that the earth’s surface has already started exhibiting
increased temperature levels, and this in turn, have major implications in terms of shifting
climatic conditions throughout the world.
Sources of Air pollution:
The sources of air pollution can be classified based on the type of activity, their frequency of
occurrence and spatial distribution, and the types of emissions, and can be delineated as arising
from natural sources or from man- made sources.
• Natural sources: windblown dust, volcanic eruptions, Lightening- generated forest fires
and biological activity.
• Man- made sources: transportation vehicles, industrial processes, power plants,
construction activities, and military training activities.
Based on number and spatial distribution the air pollution sources are to be classified to
include single or point sources (stationary), area or multiple sources (stationary or mobile), and
line sources.
Single or Point sources: Pollutant emissions from industrial process stacks, as well as stacks of
different fuel combustion.
Area or Multiple sources: vehicular traffic, fugitive - dust emissions from resource - material
stockpiles or construction, or military training activities over large geographical areas.

Air pollution sources category

Effects of Air Pollution:
Air pollution effect (Human health, material damage, climatic and aesthetical effects).
The air pollution effects can be grouped into:
Human health: Effects on human health include eye irritation, headaches, and aggravation of
respiratory difficulties.
Plants and crops: Plants and crops will be subjected to the undesirable consequences of air
pollution, including abnormal growth patterns, leaf discoloration or spotting and death.
Animals: Animals such as cattle will be subjected to undesirable consequences of atmospheric
fluorides.
Materials damage: property devaluation because of odors, deterioration of materials such as
concrete statuary, and discoloration of painted surfaces on cars, buildings, and bridge structures.
Effects on climatic changes include greenhouse effects, ozone depletion, etc.
The aesthetic effects include reductions in visibility. discoloration of air, photochemical smog -
related traffic disruptions at airports, and the general nuisance aspects of odors and dust.
Predicting Changes in Concentrations:
The assessment of air quality impacts usually focuses on determining concentrations of
air pollutants. Predicted concentrations are often compared against national or local air quality
standards or objectives. Much of the pre-project air quality data collection is directed at
determining pollutant concentrations at different times, at different locations, and the variations
in concentration in time and in space. This information not only determines a baseline for
comparison against changes. but also provides background information for predictive models. In
cases where there is concern for higher order effects, predictions of pollutant concentrations are
necessary inputs into predictions of deposition rates: exposure to flora, fauna. and man; made
changes to local climate and visibility.
Air quality modeling:
Air quality models are the primary tools for relating emissions to air quality impacts.
Models, in turn, require acceptable input data for emissions, surface topography, meteorological
parameters, receptor configurations, baseline air quality and initial and boundary conditions for
each modeling scenario. Prediction of impacts on ambient air environment has been carried out
employing mathematical model based on a steady state Gaussian plume dispersion model
designed for point sources for short term. The model simulations deal with the major pollutant
i.e., PM (Particulate Matter), SO2, and NOx emitted from the industrial activity. The Gaussian
Plume Model is the short term area source model is based on a numerical integration over the
area in the upwind and cross wind directions of Gaussian Plume formula. This can be applied to
point, area, or volume sources simultaneously and their resultant incremental concentration of the
pollutant can be predicted. The meteorological data is very much needed in predicting the air
pollution caused by any proposed project/activity.
Meteorological data: Data recorded at the manual weather monitoring station on wind speed,
direction and temperature at one-hour interval for the specified monitoring period. The
conditions to be adopted in the process of predictions air pollution impacts are:
• For the prediction of rise in ground level concentrations of pollutants, the actual
meteorological data recorded near the plant site during the study period is to be used.
• Predictions are carried out for 100% load with control equipment’s in operation.
• Predictions are carried out for particulate matter, SO2, NOx emissions.
• No half life time of the pollutant is considered.
The basic considerations for designing air quality surveillance program include topography,
physical features, micro-meteorology of the region, representation of regional background,
proper representation of upwind and downwind directions, ecologically sensitive locations within
5km.
Prediction and Assessment of Impact on Water environment:
The major activities in the project area delineated around the proposed site (5km radial
distance) are residential activities. The study area is a flat terrain. Water sampling has to collect
to determine the existing quality of water around the project area and also to assess the impact
due to proposed project. Sampling should be done following the standard guidelines for physical,
chemical and bacteriological parameters. Water sample from both surface as well as ground
water sources were collected from locations in the vicinity of project site.
The ground water samples results are compared with the IS: 10500 desirable and
permissible limits, which is stipulated for water to be fit for drinking purpose with ground water
as source. The chemical examination of the water samples reveals that all the locations pH, color,
odour, taste, Iron as Fe, Cadmium as Cd, Lead as Pb and Arsenic as (As) are within the desirable
limits.
Surface water bodies like rivers, streams, canals, reservoirs, estuaries, coastal waters, lakes
etc. play very important role in the sustainability of any ecosystem. It is very important role in
the sustainability of any ecosystem. It is very important to assess the impacts of any
developmental activity on these surface water environments. Impacts on surface waters are
usually caused by physical disturbances i.e., the construction of banks, dams, and other natural or
manmade drainage systems. The discharge of effluents and deposition of air pollutants into water
also causes pollution. These activities and processes effects as follows:
• Changes in surface water hydrology
• Changes in surface water quality
• Changes in sediment behavior
• Changes in salinity
• Changes in aquatic ecology
Prediction and Assessment of Impact on Noise Environment:
Noise is defined as any sound independent of loudness that can produce an undesirable
psychological effect in an individual or a group. Thus noise is an unwanted sound energy and is
also considered as a pollutant when it exceeds certain limits. Noise as a pollutant produces
contamination in environment becoming a nuisance and a cause for annoyance, and affects the
health of a person, his activities and mental abilities.
The intensity of noise can have a direct effect on biological and human communities. The
intensity of a noise determines the distance over which it can be heard. The acceptability and
therefore the impact of a new noise depends on existing noise levels. Noise during sleeping hours
will have a major effect on the human community. Noise during a mating season may have a
major effect on wild life. Short periods of noise may have less effect than persistent noise.
Noise annoys, distracts, disturbs and with sufficient exposure causes physiological effects
leading to deafness. Annoyance results from interference with concentrated work, rest or sleep or
with individual communication or speech. Noise in the work place reduces productivity,
efficiency, accuracy and safety. The noise from industries is called industrial noise; from
transport as transport noise or ambient noise present in the neighborhood due to natural and other
causes.
The indicator used to measure sound levels is a logarithmic function of acoustic pressure,
expressed in decibels (dB). The audible range of acoustic pressures is expressed in dB (A). The
human ear perceives a constant increase in sound level whenever the acoustic pressure is
multiplied by a constant quantity. The scale of sound levels shows that calm environments
correspond to a level of 30 to 50 dB (A), and that beyond 70 dB (A) sound becomes very
disruptive. Occupational noise exposure is also most common cause of Noise- induced Hearing
Loss (NIHL), threatens the hearing of individuals exposed to noise pollution for longer periods of
time, at a less intense level.
In industry, all the equipment in the plant would be designed to have a total noise level
not exceeding 85-90 dB(A) as per the requirement of OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration) standards.
Systematic Methodology for Assessing Environmental Impacts of Noise
Sound and noise may be emitted to the environment from stationary sources (industry,
equipment), road traffic and railways, aircraft operations, and blasting. The emissions can result
in changes in ambient sound and vibration levels as well as noise levels which may adversely
affect health and wellbeing of people living and working in the vicinity of the noise source. The
seven main steps associated with noise environment impacts are:
1. Identification of noise Impacts of proposed project
2. Preparation of description of existing noise environment conditions
3. Procurement of relevant noise standards and/or guidelines
4. Impact prediction
5. Assessment of impact Significance
6. Identification and incorporation of mitigation measures
7. Preparation of final environmental impact statement
Step 1: Identification of Noise Impacts:
The first step in the methodology is to determine the potential impacts of the proposed
project (or activity) on the noise environment. This requires the identification of the noise levels
associated with the project. The sources, of noise are numerous, so they may be broadly
classified into two classes, namely, industrial and non-industrial. The industrial category may
include noises from various industries like transportation, vehicular movements, rockets, defense
equipment and explosions. Among the non-industrial category, the notable sources of noise are
loudspeakers, traffic, air crafts, trains. construction works, radios, TVs, vacuum cleaners, mixers,
power lawn movers and air conditioners in the domestic or commercial use.
Step 2: Description of Existing Noise-Environment Conditions:
In analyzing the potential noise impacts of a proposed project (or activity), it is necessary
to consider the study as area (potential project area or region of influence) associated with the
noise emissions. The primary information which should be accumulated is data on existing noise
levels and noise sources within the study area. Land-use and human-population-distribution maps
in relation to the proposed project would also be needed. If no specific data on existing noise
levels is available for the study area. it might be possible to use published noise-level information
developed for project involving similar land use.
Step 3: Procurement of Relevant Noise Standards and/or Guidelines:
The primary sources of information on noise standards, criteria, and policies will be the
relevant local, state, and federal agencies, which have a mandate for overseeing the noise
environment of the study area. Additional information may be available from international
agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) or the United Nations' Environment
Program. This information can be used to determine the baseline quality and the significance of
noise impacts incurred during projects (or activities); it could also aid in deciding between
alternative actions or in assessing the need for mitigation measures for a given alternative.
Step 4: Impact Prediction:
It involves predicting the propagation of noise from a source and determining the type of
affected land- use.
Step 5: Assessment of Impact Significance:
One basis for evaluation of significant impact is public input; this input could be received
through a continued scoping process of the conduction of public meetings or public participation
programs or both. The general public can often delineate important environmental resources and
values for particular areas. and this should be considered in impact assessment. Professional
judgment can also be useful to assess the percentage changes from baseline conditions in terms
of noise levels and/or exposed human population, or a noise index.
Step 6: Mitigation Measures:
Mitigation measures refer to steps that can be taken to minimize the magnitude of the
detrimental noise impacts. The key approach to mitigation is to reduce or control the noise
expected to be emitted from the project (or activity). Mitigation can proceed along three possible
courses of action, either by changing I. the source of noise, 2. the path of noise from the source to
the receiver, or 3. the receiver of noise.
Step 7: Prediction of Final Impact Statement:
The final environment impact statement should include summary tables and discussion
with industries. The results of analysis will help in decision making. Maps should show location
of surface receptors and measurement rates and size balance.
Prediction and Assessment of Impact on Flora and Fauna:
Flora: The consumption of land and the consequent loss of natural habitat is inherent in road
development. Where new roads intersect habitat, the area occupied by the road itself, borrow pits,
and quarries is subtracted from the total habitat area available to flora and fauna.
When a road cuts through an ecosystem, the sum of the two parts created by the cut is less
than the value of the initial whole, even when the habitat loss is ignored roads of the whole area
more vulnerable to invasions and degradation.
Fauna: Most animal species tend to follow established patterns in their daily and seasonal
movements. The areas, through which they travel on their way to and from feeding, and between
their seasonal ranges, are known as corridors. When a road intersects or blocks a wildlife
corridor, the result is either cessation of use of the corridor because animals are reluctant to cross
the road, an increase in mortality because of collisions with vehicles, or delay in migration which
may result in the weakening or disappearance of an entire generation of the population. Some
animals are attracted to roads for various reasons, including protection from predators, good food
supplies, better travel conditions, etc.

Methods of EIA
The important methodologies for assessing the impacts of any developmental activity on the
environment are:
1. Ad hoc method:
Ad hoc methods indicate broad areas of possible impacts by listing composite
environmental parameters (Ex: flora and fauna) likely to be affected by the proposed activity.
These methods involve assembling a team of specialists who identify impacts in their area of
expertise. Here, each parameter is considered separately and the nature of impacts (long term or
short term, reversible or irreversible) are considered.
These methods give a rough assessment of total impact while giving the broad areas and the
general nature of possible impacts. In this method, the assessor relies on an intuitive approach
and makes a broad-based qualitative assessment. This method serves as a preliminary assessment
and helps in identification of important areas like Wildlife, Endangered species, Natural
vegetation, Exotic vegetation, Grazing, Social characteristics, Natural drainage, Groundwater,
Noise, Air quality, Visual description and services, Open space, Recreation, Health and safety,
Economic values and, Public facilities.
Types of Ad hoc method are:
• Opinion poll
• Expert opinion and
• Delphi methods
This method is very simple and can be performed without any training. It does not
involve any relative weighting or any cause-effect relationship.
It provides minimal guidance for impact analysis while suggesting broad areas for possible
impacts. Moreover, it does not even state the actual impacts on specific parameters that will be
affected. The illustration of the ad hoc method for a hypothetical highway road project is as given
below:
 Impact area No Positive Negative Short Long Reversible Irreversible
effect effect effect term term
Wild life x x x
Natural x x
vegetation
Soil x
characteristics
Ground water x
Noise x
Air quality x
Health, safety x
and welfare
Employment x
opportunities

The drawbacks of this method are listed below:

Some of the drawbacks of this method are:
• This method provides no or little guidance for an impact assessment
• The EIA report may not include all the relevant impacts.
• It is difficult to identify and include a proper panel of experts to assess each type of
impact
• EIA by ad-hoc method suggests broad area of possible impacts but lacks information
about cause effect relationships.
• The detailed scientific investigation of environmental impact of project is not taken into
consideration.
• This method is very poor for identification, prediction and analysis of impact.
2. Checklist method:
n this method, environmental factors are listed in a structured format by giving importance
weightings for factors and application of scaling techniques for impacts of each alternative.
Checklists are strong indicators of impact identification. They effectively garner the attention and
awareness of their audience. Impact identification is a fundamental function of an EIA.
Checklists may be:
1. Simple
2. Descriptive
3. Scaling or
4. Scaling Weighting type
Simple checklists:
In simple checklists, a valid approach to provide systemization to an EIS is represented. It
consists of a simple list of generalized knowledge of environmental parameters likely to be
affected.
Descriptive checklists:
It involves recognizing the environmental parameters and guidelines regarding the
methodology of collecting data on specific parameters. It consists pof convincing information
whether the impact would occur or not, along with the nature and magnitude of impacts, owing to
a development activity.
For instance, noise pollution in a particular area can be assessed by the currentnoise
levels, sources of noise, movement of vehicular traffic, noise mitigation measures, models used
for study of noise propagation, conducting surveys, the number of people affected by the noise,
etc.
There are several descriptive checklists for the use of water resources projects. Several
environmental factors are suggested by Canter and Hill for project evaluation. For each and every
factor, information is included on its prediction of impacts, functional curves for data
interpretation and its definition and measurement.
Scaling checklists:
The most fundamental function of an EIA is impact identification and for this process, all
types of checklists do well. But the Oregon scaling checklist method go ahead and given an idea
of impact nature by assigning long term direct i.e., textual rating of impact. In impact
measurement, this process is not suitable and it provides very less in decision-making process.
In latter types, the scaling and weighing element which is inherent makes iot easy in
decision-making. These checklists are strong in impact identification and the impact
measurement functions are incorporated to a certain degree of evaluation and interpretation.
Weighing and scaling checklists:
To select alternatives, various methods were developed based on the following:
• The measurement units for each and every factor have to be estimated.
• The aggregation method is established across all the factors produced.
• The important environmental factors for the activity for which EIA has to be done are
fixed.
• The fixed unit data with respect to different sets of environmental factors have to be
collected.
• For each and every environmental factor, the interval scale must be fixed and conversion
of data into environmental; factor index.
The checklist method of EIA covers all the environmental aspects to be investigated. It helps
to organize the work and identify important issues related to the environment. This method is
sufficient for small scale projects.
It helps to assess the nature of the impacts, for instance-adverse/beneficial, short term/long
term, no impact/ significant impact, reversible/ irreversible.
Further, this method encourages to discuss on environmental issues during the early stages of
project.
The advantages of this method are:
1. It is simple to understand and use
2. It is good for site selection and priority setting
Disadvantages of this method are:
1. It does not distinguish between direct and indirect impacts
2. It does not link action and impact
3. It is cumbersome at times
3. Matrix method:
This methodology provides a framework of interaction of different activities of a project
with potential environmental impacts caused by them. A simple interaction matrix is formed
when project actions are listed on one axis (usually vertical) and environmental impacts are listed
along the other axis. This technique was pioneered by Leopold et al in 1971. It lists about 100
project actions and about 88 environmental characteristics and conditions.
Ex:

4. Network method:
This method is used in predicting the potential impact by using directional diagrams in an
easy-to-understand manner. This method was developed by Sorenson in 1971. In this method, the
different types of possible impacts (namely, the primary, secondary and tertiary impacts)
resulting from developmental activities are envisioned and the web of environmental
relationships are depicted in the form of a network.
The figure given below is a diagrammatic representation of a network for a proposed
developmental activity.

Primary impacts Secondary impacts Tertiary impacts Quaternary impacts

Decline in Decrease in the water Mortaility of aquatic Loss of biodiversity.
groundwater in level of surface water life. Loss of protein
summer season bodies. Loss in fish capture. intake.
Loss of wet land. Loss of biodiversity.
Navigation facilities Increase in
hampered. transportation costs.
Loss of income and Availability of poor Increase in incidence
water withdrawal quality of water. of diseases.
from underground Expenses incurred to Reduced income.
resources. purchase water from
other sources.
Travel to distant Reduce quality of
places to get water. life.
 5. Overlay method (Also known as Mc Harg’s method):
This method was proposed by Dr. Ian Mc Harg at the university of pennsvlvania. In this
method, the environmental impacts are displayed pictorially on transparent maps. A
diagrammatic representation of the overlay method is given below:

Each overlay map consists of a pictorial depiction of the area’s physical features, social
factors, ecological characteristics such as vegetation, settlements, forest cover, wetlands, steep
slopes, soils, food plains, bedrock, wildlife habitats, vegetative communities, biodiversity,
cultural resources and other environmental considerations about the area where the proposed
development is likely to take place. These maps are then overlaid on the project map and a
composite map is obtained which emphasizes the regions with high environmental sensitivity.
Consider an example, where a highway has to be constructed across a region where there are
population and other vegetation that should be taken into consideration. Now in order to fix a
route for the highway with least disturbance to the people and landscape, the overlay method is
used in the following manner:
• A map showing the forest region.
• A map showing the agricultural land.
• A map showing the topographic features of the study area.
• A map showing the roads connecting to the nearby towns and cities.
The four maps are placed one over the another and a composite map is prepared to determine
the best possible route for highway construction. This method is used to assess the changes in the
land before and after a construction activity.
This method is not given much importance as it lacks explanation about the cause of impacts.
However, it is still considered as an important tool for initial evaluation of the project activity.
A modern method of overlay technique is the computer-based Geographic Information
System (GIS). It is used as an important decision making tool to analyze the geographic features
and events on the earth’s surface in digital form.
6. Environmental index using factor analysis
7. Cost/Benefit analysis
8. Predictive or Simulation methods
Models and Modeling:
Modeling is a step-by-step process by which models are developed and / or applied. The three
most common types of models used in EIA are:
 • physical models.
• experimental models.
• mathematical models.
Physical Models:
Physical models are small-scale models of the environmental system under investigation on
which experiments can be carried out to predict future changes. The two types of physical model
are:
a) Illustrative or visual models. and working physical models.
b) Illustrative / visual models depict changes to an environmental system caused by a
proposed development activity using pictorial images developed from sketches,
photographs, films, "photo montages," three-dimensional scale models, and by digital
terrain models or digital image processing systems.
Experimental Models:
Scientific data from laboratory or field experiments provide basic information on the
relationships between environmental components and human activities. Research results are used
to construct empirical models that can infer the likely effects of an activity on an environmental
component. Examples of experiments in which the environmental system is modeled and tested
in the laboratory include toxicological tests on living organisms using polluted air. water. food.
etc.; micro-ecosystem experiments; and pilot-scale plant tests.
Mathematical Models:
Mathematical models use mathematical equations to represent the functional relationships
between variables. In general, sets of equations are combined to simulate the behavior of
environmental systems. The number of variables in a model and the nature of the relationships
between them are determined by the complexity of the environmental system being modeled.
Mathematical modeling aims to limit. as much as possible. the number of variables and thus keep
the relationships between variables as simple as possible without compromising the accuracy of
representation of the environmental system.
𝑄𝑜𝐶𝑜 + 𝑄𝑒𝐶𝑒
C1 =
QO + Qe
The above equation is an example of a mathematical model which is a simple water quality
mixing model which is based on the simplest of mass balance equations. The water quality model
below assumes continuous discharge of a conservative contaminant into a stream.
where:
C1 is the downstream concentration;
Co is the upstream concentration;
Ce is the effluent concentration;
Qo is the upstream flow; and
Qe is the effluent flow.
This model may be used to predict changes in downstream effluent concentrations in response to
pollutants loading by changing the values of effluent concentration (Ce) and the effluent flow
(Qe).
Types of Mathematical Models:
Mathematical models can be described according to the following features:
I. Empirical or internally descriptive:
Empirical: they can be derived solely on the basis. of statistical analysis of observations from the
environment to find the "best fit" equation. empirical models are sometimes called "black box"
models. or
Internally descriptive: equations are based on a priori understanding of the relationship between
variables. The equations therefore represent some theory or assumption of how the environment
works.
II. Generalized or Site specific:
Generalized: they can be applicable to a range of different environment allocations which meet
certain specific characteristics: or
Site specific. as they can be developed or applied only to a specific environmental location.
III. Stationary or dynamic:
Stationary: if conditions in the model are fixed over the period of the prediction
or
Dynamic: if the predictions are made over a period of time in which conditions in the
environment change.
IV. Homogeneous or Non- Homogeneous:
Homogeneous: they can assume that conditions at the source prevail throughout the area over
which predictions are made; or
Non- Homogeneous: as environmental conditions affecting the predicted outcome vary with
distance from the source.
V. Deterministic or stochastic:
Deterministic: input variables and relationships are fixed quantities and the predicted outcome
from a given starting point is a single. unique value: or
Stochastic: simple variables and parameters may be described probabilistically. These models
reflect the natural variations occurring in the environment and results are presented as a
frequency distribution of probable outcomes rather than as a single value.
Steps in Mathematical Modeling:
There are seven steps in mathematical modeling. although not all seven must be applied
in every modeling case.
1. Define the environmental system to be modeled. the system's salient features and the
 effect requiring prediction (for example. the prediction of maximum concentration of a
water contaminant in an area downstream from its point of discharge).
2. Select an appropriate pre-defined model or develop a new model (for the above example,
a predefined model may be used to predict the downstream concentration, or in the
absence of a predefined model. it may be necessary to formulate a suitable new model).
3. Collect the necessary data from existing sources or by monitoring and surveying (for the
above example, data on the input variables (upstream concentration, discharge
concentration. upstream flow and discharge flow) can be collected through actual
monitoring and surveying).
4. If necessary, define the model parameters for the particular application. using either
standard values or experimental data (calibration). For example, to predict the average
annual and maximum concentration of a pollutant emitted from a single tall stack in an
open rural area, a set of atmospheric dispersion parameters should be defined for the
different classes of meteorological conditions using standard empirical formulae
applicable to tall stacks in open rural areas.
5. Test the validity of the model for the intended use by comparing its behavior with
observations from the field.
6. Apply the model to predict the future condition of the environment.
7. Communicate the model results and assumptions to the non-specialist. All relevant
variables, relations. assumptions, and factors omitted from the analysis should be
identified and their implications for the results discussed.
Resource Requirements
Mathematical models require varying amounts of resource inputs. A simple model. such
as the river dilution model used in the above example. may require minimal input data and
simple manual calculation. while a complex Gaussian plume model may require sophisticated
computer techniques and demand considerable resources of input data, time, and expertise.
Assuming that an existing software program may be used, the costs of using the model may be
limited to preparing the input data and to labor costs for technical staff or outside experts to run
the model and interpret the results.
Analysis of alternatives:
The role of alternatives is to find the most efficient way of meeting the need and purpose
of the proposal, either through enhancing the environmental benefits of the proposed activity, and
or through reducing or avoiding potentially significant negative impacts.
Types of alternatives:
A range of types of alternatives exists, not all of which are necessarily appropriate for
each EIA consideration should be given to those that are most appropriate for the potential
project.
An important starting point for determining appropriate alternatives is to consider the following
aspects:
➢ Who is the proponent? (Private or Public sector)
➢ Who is intended beneficiaries? (General public, select groups or individuals)
➢ Where is the proposal to occur? (Zoned land use, common property or private property)
Projects that are proposed on public land and/or for the public good should consider the major
development alternatives that would meet the stated need for and purpose of the project.
The nature and location of the proposed project would require interrogation through activity and
location alternatives.
The following types or categories of alternatives can be identified:
1. Activity alternatives
2. Location alternatives
3. Process alternatives
4. Demand alternatives
5. Scheduling alternatives
6. Input alternatives
7. Routing alternatives
8. Site layout alternatives
9. Scale alternatives
10. Design alternatives

1. Activity alternatives:
These are sometimes referred to as project alternatives, although the term activity can be used
in a broad sense to embrace policies, plans, and programs as well as projects. Consideration of
such alternatives require a change in the nature of the proposed activity.
Ex: Incineration of waste rather than disposal in a landfill, provision of public transport rather
than increasing the capacity of roads. In view of substantive differences in the nature of the
proposed activities, it is likely that this category is most appropriate at a strategic decision-
making level, such as in a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).
2. Location alternatives:
Location alternatives could be considered for the entire proposal or for a component of a
proposal. For example, the location of a processing plant. The latter is sometimes considered
under site layout alternatives. A distinction should also be drawn between alternative locations
that are geographically quite separate, and alternative locations that are in close proximity.
3. Process alternatives
Process alternatives are used for this category, including technological alternative and
equipment alternative. The purpose of considering such alternatives is to include the option of
achieving the same goal by using a different method or process. An industrial process could be
changed or an alternative technology could be used.
Ex: 1000 megawatt of energy could be generated using a coal-fired power station or an array of
wind turbines. At a smaller scale, usually at the scale of a single plant, process alternatives could
include the recycling of process water or the minimization of wastes.
4. Demand alternatives
Demand alternatives arise when a demand for a certain product or service can be met by
some alternative means.
Ex: the demand for electricity could be met by supplying more energy or through using energy
more efficiently by managing demand.
5. Scheduling alternatives:
Scheduling alternatives are sometimes known as sequencing or phasing alternatives. In this
case an activity may comprise a number of components, which can be scheduled in a different
order or at different times and as such produce different impacts.
Ex: activities that produce noise could be scheduled during the day to minimize impacts, and
activities that may impact on birds could be scheduled to avoid the migratory season.
6. Input alternatives:
Input alternatives are most applicable to industrial applications that may use different raw
materials or energy sources in their processes.
Ex: an industry may consider using either high Sulphur coal or natural gas as a source of fuel.
Again, such alternatives could be incorporated into the project proposal and so be part of the
project description, and need not necessarily be evaluated as separate alternatives.
7. Routing alternatives:
Consideration of alternative routes generally applies to linear developments such as power
lines, transport and pipeline routes. In route investigations, various corridors are investigated and
compared in terms of their impacts.
8. Site layout alternatives:
Site layout alternatives permit considerations of different spatial configurations of an activity
on a particular site. This may include particular components of a proposed development or may
include the entire activity.
Ex: siting of a noisy plant away from residences; and secondly, siting of a particular structure
either prominently to attract attention or screened from view to minimize aesthetic impacts.
9. Scale alternatives:
In some cases, activities that can be broken down into smaller units can be undertaken on
different scales.
Ex: in a housing development there could be the option of 100,150 or 200 housing units. Each of
these scale alternatives may be differently impacts.
 10. Design alternatives:
Consideration of different designs for aesthetic purposes or different construction materials in
an attempt to optimize local benefits and sustainability would constitute design alternatives.
Appropriate applications of design alternatives are communication towers.in such cases, all
designs are assumed to have different impacts. Generally, the design alternatives could be
incorporated into the project description, and need not be evaluated as separate alternatives.