8.william Poole (2010
8.william Poole (2010
8.william Poole (2010
CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE FINANCIAL
CRISIS OF 2007–2009
WILLIAM POOLE*
By the early fall of 2009, the business contraction that began
in December 2007 appeared to be ending,1 but the outlook, re‐
mained hazy. Despite a number of “green shoots,” as Federal
Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke liked to put it,2 the data were
not decisive enough to declare the end of the contraction. Em‐
ployment was still falling through September 2009.3 Although
in October 2009 it certainly seemed that the economy was near
the bottom, it was not safe to say that the crisis was history.4
Nevertheless, much is already known about the causes of the
financial crisis and government responses to it, permitting a
much more than speculative review. David Wessel has pro‐
vided a superb blow‐by‐blow account of events during the cri‐
sis;5 there is no point in repeating that account here.
Nevertheless, a brief chronology of the phases of the financial
crisis should help to organize the discussion.
* Senior Fellow, Cato Institute; Distinguished Scholar in Residence, University of
Delaware. Attitudes toward the crisis are, inevitably, shaped by the perspective of
the observer. My own perspective is that of a Chicago‐school economist with strong
libertarian leanings. My perspective is also shaped by my ten years (March 1998 to
March 2008) as president and CEO of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.
1. NAT’L BUREAU OF ECON. RESEARCH, DETERMINATION OF THE DECEMBER 2007
PEAK IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY (2008); BD. OF GOVERNORS OF THE FED. RESERVE SYS.,
SUMMARY OF COMMENTARY ON CURRENT ECONOMIC CONDITIONS BY FEDERAL
RESERVE DISTRICT, OCTOBER 2009, at i–vi (2009) [hereinafter CURRENT CONDITIONS].
2. Shobhana Chandra & Matthew Benjamin, Bernanke ‘Green Shoots’ May Signal False
Spring Amid Job Losses, BLOOMBERG.COM, Apr. 6, 2009, http://www.bloomberg.com/
apps/news?pid=20601103&sid=aJa8WNMvKaxg.
3. See Press Release, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Dep’t of Labor, The Employ‐
ment Situation—February 2010, at 1 (Mar. 5, 2010), available at http://www.bls.gov/
news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf.
4. See CURRENT CONDITIONS, supra note 1, at i.
5. DAVID WESSEL, IN FED WE TRUST: BEN BERNANKE’S WAR ON THE GREAT
PANIC (2009).
I. CHRONOLOGY OF THE FINANCIAL CRISIS
The crisis broke in mid‐August 2007, when the market suddenly
cut off funding to several financial entities.6 The Federal Reserve’s
initial response in August was to reduce the discount rate—the
interest rate the Fed charges on loans to banks—in the hope that
banks could provide funds to firms cut off by the market.7
In mid‐September 2007, the Fed began to cut its main policy
interest rate, the federal funds rate. The rate had stood at 5.25%
from June 2006 through August 2007.8 Although the Fed ordi‐
narily changes its fed funds rate target in steps of twenty‐five
basis points, the first reduction in September was by fifty basis
points.9 As financial strains grew and the economy gradually
weakened, the Fed continued to reduce its fed funds target
rate, reaching 3% in late January 2008.10
In mid‐March 2008, financial strains intensified as the market
cut off funding to Bear Stearns, a large New York investment
bank.11 To prevent Bear Stearns from failing, the Federal Re‐
serve provided an emergency loan and assumed the credit risk
on some Bear Stearns assets, which persuaded JP Morgan
Chase to buy Bear Stearns.12 A few days later, the Federal Re‐
serve cut its federal funds rate target by seventy‐five basis
points, down to 2.25%.13 The Bear Stearns bailout marked the
end of the first phase of the financial crisis.
6. CONG. RESEARCH SERV., FINANCIAL CRISIS? THE LIQUIDITY CRUNCH OF
AUGUST 2007, at 9 (2007).
7. Press Release, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys., Federal Reserve Board
Discount Rate Action (Aug. 17, 2007), available at http://www.federalreserve.gov/
newsevents/press/monetary/20070817a.htm.
8. Fed. Reserve Bank of N.Y., Historical Changes of the Target Federal Funds and
Discount Rates, http://www.newyorkfed.org/markets/statistics/dlyrates/fedrate.html
(last visited Mar. 24, 2010).
9. Id.
10. Id.
11. Turmoil in U.S. Credit Markets: Examining the Recent Actions of Federal Financial
Regulators: Hearing Before the S. Comm. on Banking, Hous. & Urban Affairs, 110th
Cong. (2008) (statement of Ben S. Bernanke, Chairman, Bd. of Governors of the
Fed. Reserve Sys.).
12. Minutes of the Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys. (Mar. 16, 2008), avail‐
able at http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/press/other/other20080627a2.pdf.
13. Fed. Reserve Bank of N.Y., supra note 8.
In April, the Fed lowered its funds rate target another notch to
2%, which it held until September.14 During this second phase of
the crisis, the economy was drifting downward, but not at an
alarming pace. This phase ended with the Lehman crisis. The
Fed did not bail out Lehman Brothers, an investment bank twice
the size of Bear Stearns, and Lehman declared bankruptcy on
September 15.15 Lehman’s collapse marked the beginning of
phase three of the crisis, when market strains went from serious
to calamitous. The Fed bailed out American International Group
(AIG), a huge insurance company, the day after Lehman failed.16
In October 2008, the Fed cut its target funds rate in two steps to
1% and further to near zero in December.17
The flight to safety was so intense that in November and De‐
cember 2008 the market bid the yield on Treasury bills literally
to zero on some days.18 Credit strains were severe and eco‐
nomic activity declined sharply. There is no particular date or
event to mark the end of phase three of the crisis; markets
gradually improved and the economy transitioned to phase
four, in which credit conditions became more settled and credit
began to flow again.
The financial crisis was worldwide, with European banks
and markets as severely affected as those in the United States.19
Asian banks were stronger than U.S. and European banks, but
Asia could not escape the effects of the crisis.20 Output and em‐
ployment fell around the world.
14. Id.
15. Press Release, Lehman Brothers, Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. Announces
It Intends to File Chapter 11 Bankruptcy Petition (Sept. 15, 2008), available at
http://www.lehman.com/press/pdf_2008/091508_lbhi_chapter11_announce.pdf.
16. Press Release, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys., Federal Reserve
Board, with full support of the Treasury Department, authorizes the Federal Re‐
serve Bank of New York to lend up to $85 billion to the American International
Group (AIG) (Sept. 16, 2008), available at http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/
press/other/20080916a.htm.
17. Fed. Reserve Bank of N.Y., supra note 8.
18. John Waggoner, Investors rush to earn nothing: 4‐week T‐bills sell like hotcakes at
0% interest, USA TODAY, Dec. 10, 2008, at 1B.
19. Output Slumps Across Europe, EURONEWS, Oct. 12, 2008, http://www.euronews.net/
2008/12/10/output‐slumps‐across‐europe/.
20. Ben S. Bernanke, Chairman, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys., Ad‐
dress at the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco’s Conference on Asia and the
Global Financial Crisis: Asia and the Global Financial Crisis (Oct. 19, 2009), available
at http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/bernanke20091019a.htm.
II. CONDITIONS LEADING TO THE CRISIS21
After the stock market peak in 2000 and to resist the 2001 re‐
cession, the Fed reduced its target federal funds rate in steps,
eventually reaching 1% in 2003.22 With interest rates low and
memories of the dot‐com stock crash fresh, investors searched
for higher yielding investments. They thought that they had
found the perfect vehicle in collateralized debt obligations
(CDOs) backed by subprime mortgages. The CDOs were struc‐
tured obligations, with several tranches of differing risk charac‐
teristics. The senior tranche had first claim on the mortgage
interest and principal paid by the subprime mortgages in the
mortgage pool backing each CDO issue. The senior tranches
were rated triple‐A by the rating agencies.23
As the decade proceeded, underwriting standards for sub‐
prime mortgages deteriorated. Mortgage brokers, who origi‐
nated the subprime mortgages, lent to households without
adequate income or assets to service the mortgages.24 Income
and asset documentation was weak or nonexistent.25 Some of
the mortgage borrowers were investors anticipating quick re‐
sale of the properties they purchased—the “flippers.”26 Never‐
theless, the market was so hungry for yield that investment
banks found that they could easily package subprime mort‐
gages into CDOs and peddle them to investors. Too many in‐
vestors, unfortunately, took the triple‐A ratings at face value
and loaded their portfolios with the CDOs.
Citigroup is a good, but by no means unique, example. Citi had
formed structured investment vehicles (SIVs) as off‐balance‐sheet
entities to hold CDOs.27 Because mortgages return principal
gradually over a period of years, these CDOs were inherently
long‐term assets for the SIVs. The SIVs financed their purchases
21. For a more complete treatment, see William Poole, The Credit Crunch of 2007–
08: Lessons Private and Public, 44 BUS. ECON. 38 (2009).
22. Fed. Reserve Bank of N.Y., supra note 8.
23. Roger Lowenstein, Triple‐A Failure, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 27, 2008 (Magazine), at 36.
24. Kurt Eggert, The Great Collapse: How Securitization Caused the Subprime Melt‐
down, 41 CONN. L. REV. 1257, 1276 (2009).
25. Id. at 1281–82.
26. Id. at 1288–89.
27. Arthur E. Wilmarth, Jr., The Dark Side of Universal Banking: Financial Conglomerates
and the Origins of the Subprime Financial Crisis, 41 CONN. L. REV. 963, 1033 (2009).
28. Id.
29. Id.
30. Id.
31. Id.; see also INT’L MONETARY FUND, GLOBAL FINANCIAL STABILITY REPORT:
CONTAINING SYSTEMIC RISKS AND RESTORING FINANCIAL SOUNDNESS 72 (2008)
(explaining how consolidation of SIVs impacts a company’s balance sheet).
32. Russell Roberts, How Government Stoked the Mania, WALL ST. J., Oct. 3, 2008, at A21.
33. Id.
34. U.S. GOV’T ACCOUNTABILITY OFFICE, FANNIE MAE AND FREDDIE MAC:
ANALYSIS OF OPTIONS FOR REVISING THE HOUSING ENTERPRISES’ LONG‐TERM
STRUCTURES 2 n.7 (2009).
35. Lawrence H. White, Federal Reserve Policy and the Housing Bubble, 29 CATO J.
115, 119 (2009).
housing and an increase in house prices fed the boom.36 Mort‐
gages, both prime and subprime, appeared to be reasonably safe
investments because a borrower in distress could refinance or
sell the property for enough to repay the mortgage. As house
prices leveled off in 2006, and adjustable‐rate mortgages taken
out in the low interest rate environment of 2003–2004 began to
adjust up, the music stopped.37 Defaults began to rise, and in
mid‐2007, some firms had trouble financing their positions.38
Analysts continue to argue about how much responsibility for
the financial crisis belongs to the federal government. My view
is that the federal government was a supporting actor but the
responsibility rests primarily with the private sector. The gov‐
ernment did not make or even directly encourage Bear Stearns
to sponsor hedge funds investing in subprime CDOs—hedge
funds that collapsed in July 2007. Citigroup was not compelled
to form its SIVs holding subprime assets. It did so in part to take
assets off its balance sheet to escape bank capital requirements.
Nor do I fault lax regulation. The fundamental problem was
a failure of economic analysis in both the private sector and
among regulatory agencies. Neither market participants nor fed‐
eral agencies thought that a significant decline in the national
average of house prices could occur. The failure to understand
fully the risks of subprime mortgages and to foresee the decline
in house prices might be an honest mistake of portfolio manag‐
ers and federal authorities alike. Building portfolios with risky
long‐maturity assets financed with little equity capital and short‐
maturity liabilities, however, is an inexcusable mistake. The fed‐
eral government pursued policies to encourage home owner‐
ship, but that fact cannot justify the portfolio policies that
crashed. The private‐sector managers of firms that built such
portfolios bear the responsibility for building houses of cards.
36. Roberts, supra note 32.
37. See Press Release, S & P Indices, Home Prices Continue to Send Mixed Messages
as 2009 Comes to a Close According to the S & P/Case‐Shiller Home Price Indices (Feb.
23, 2010) (showing a graph depicting the fall in housing prices in 2006).
38. Randall S. Kroszner, Governor, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys.,
Address at the Consumer Bankers Association 2007 Fair Lending Conference: The
Challenges Facing Subprime Mortgage Borrowers (Nov. 5, 2007), available at
http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/kroszner20071105a.htm.
III. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT’S
MANAGEMENT OF THE CRISIS
Although the National Bureau of Economic Research did not of‐
ficially identify the cycle peak in December 2007 until a year later,39
after August 2007 the financial stress was obvious, as were signs of
a weakening in the general economy. The Federal Reserve was the
first responder to the crisis; fiscal policy responses came later.
To understand the Fed’s management of the crisis, it is im‐
portant to distinguish monetary policy from credit policy. Mone‐
tary policy involves central bank control over interest rates and
the aggregate quantity of central bank funds in the system. The
Fed’s main monetary policy instrument is the federal funds in‐
terest rate, which is the rate on overnight loans between banks.
Traditionally, the Fed controls this rate through purchases and
sales of government securities in the open market.
Credit policy refers to the central bank’s efforts to provide
funds to particular borrowers or borrowing sectors. From the
beginning, the Fed had a credit‐oriented view as to how to re‐
spond to the crisis. Its first policy action in August 2007, as the
crisis began, was not to reduce its fed funds target rate but in‐
stead to lower the discount rate, which is the rate the Fed
charges on its loans to banks.40 The discount rate had for some
years been one hundred basis points above the fed funds target
rate, but the Fed cut the margin to fifty basis points on August
17, 2007.41 Predictably, that action had little effect because most
banks were still able to borrow readily in the market at the fed
funds rate, which was fifty basis points cheaper.
Many in the Fed thought that “stigma” explained why banks
used the discount window so sparingly.42 Banks, they thought,
were unwilling to borrow from the window because doing so
would be a sign to the market of financial weakness, even
though the Fed maintained the confidentiality of the borrow‐
39. See NAT’L BUREAU OF ECON. RESEARCH, supra note 1.
40. See Press Release, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys., supra note 7.
41. Fed. Reserve Bank of N.Y., supra note 8.
42. Ben S. Bernanke, Chairman, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys.,
Address at the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond 2009 Credit Markets Sympo‐
sium: The Federal Reserve’s Balance Sheet (Apr. 3, 2009), available at http://
www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/bernanke20090403a.htm.
ing.43 The Fed searched for another mechanism to inject more
funds into the banking system and in December 2007 launched
the Term Auction Facility, or TAF.44 The TAF was a type of dis‐
count window borrowing in which the Fed auctioned off
blocks of funds to the highest bidders.45
The TAF did not, however, solve the basic problem that the
banks and bank credit markets faced. As the crisis deepened,
most banks were reporting large losses; discount window lend‐
ing, including that through the TAF, was collateralized.46 Banks
retained the credit risk on the collateral. At the time of the Leh‐
man failure in mid‐September 2008, TAF credit outstanding was
$150 billion, but availability of TAF funds did nothing to make
banks more willing to lend to Lehman or other risky borrow‐
ers.47 Thus, the TAF did little to improve bank credit availability.
Nor did the TAF do much to bring down bank lending rates to
creditworthy borrowers. A bank borrowing from the Fed, even at
the attractive TAF auction rate, could choose either to make new
loans with the funds or to let its other liabilities, such as certifi‐
cates of deposit (CDs), run off. Thus, the marginal cost of making
a new commercial loan was still the CD rate and not the TAF auc‐
tion rate. Essentially, TAF provided a modest increase in bank
earnings because the TAF borrowing rate was below a bank’s cost
of funds from other sources, such as from issuing CDs. The TAF
did not solve the asset‐liability duration mismatch problem banks
faced. Banks held substantial longer‐term loans financed with
shorter‐term funds. Even the ninety‐day TAF funds did not ad‐
dress this problem. At best, the TAF was a stopgap measure that
did not address the fundamentals of the financial crisis.
As TAF funds outstanding grew, and as the Fed invented
other special facilities to ease credit strains in particular sectors
of the market, the Fed did not increase the total funds it made
43. Id.
44. Press Release, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys., Federal Reserve and
other central banks announce measures designed to address elevated pressures in
short‐term funding markets (Dec. 12, 2007), available at http://www.federalreserve.gov/
newsevents/press/monetary/20071212a.htm.
45. Id.
46. Id.
47. Press Release, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys., Federal Reserve
and other central banks announce further coordinated actions to expand signifi‐
cantly the capacity to provide U.S. dollar liquidity (Sept. 29, 2008), available at
http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/press/monetary/20080929a.htm.
available to the market. Just before the Lehman failure, total re‐
serve bank credit was only 3.6% above the figure a year earlier,
which did not evidence an expansionary monetary policy.48 The
Fed had reduced its fed funds target rate, but the reductions
had barely kept pace with the decline in the demand for funds
in the market. Although total reserve bank credit had grown by
$30 billion over the fifty‐two weeks prior to mid‐September
2008, the Fed’s holdings of government securities had declined
by $300 billion.49 During this phase of the crisis, the Fed in ef‐
fect financed the Bear Stearns bailout, the TAF, and other spe‐
cial credit facilities by selling government securities from its
portfolio.50 The easier credit policy was not reinforced by an in‐
crease in the aggregate supply of funds to the market.
Whether the Fed should have pursued a more expansionary
monetary policy before Lehman’s collapse is not clear. In the
summer of 2008, employment was not in a freefall and the
enormous increase in energy prices to a peak in July raised valid
inflation concerns.51 Fed monetary policy changed dramatically
after the Lehman failure and the bailout of AIG. After Lehman,
the Fed financed new credit extensions by printing new money.
The Fed held its government securities portfolio roughly con‐
stant and allowed total reserve bank credit to explode from $888
billion just before Lehman to $2.25 trillion52 at the end of 2008.53
Term auction credit rose to $450 billion, and several other credit
programs were expanded or newly invented.54
48. See BD. OF GOVERNORS OF THE FED. RESERVE SYS., FEDERAL RESERVE
STATISTICAL RELEASE H.4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING RESERVE BALANCES OF DEPOSITORY
INSTITUTIONS AND CONDITION STATEMENT OF FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS, SEPTEMBER
11, 2008 (2008).
49. Id.
50. See id.
51. See Press Release, Bureau of Labor Statistics, supra note 3; see also The Semi‐
annual Monetary Policy Report to the Congress: Hearing Before the S. Comm. on
Banking, Hous. & Urban Affairs, 110th Cong. (2008) (statement of Ben S. Ber‐
nanke, Chairman, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys.).
52. This figure is based on the weekly average for the week ending December 31.
53. BD. OF GOVERNORS OF THE FED. RESERVE SYS., FEDERAL RESERVE STATISTICAL
RELEASE H.4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING RESERVE BALANCES OF DEPOSITORY INSTITUTIONS
AND CONDITION STATEMENT OF FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS, DECEMBER 29, 2008 (2008);
BD. OF GOVERNORS OF THE FED. RESERVE SYS., FEDERAL RESERVE STATISTICAL RELEASE
H.4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING RESERVE BALANCES OF DEPOSITORY INSTITUTIONS AND
CONDITION STATEMENT OF FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS, SEPTEMBER 4, 2008 (2008).
54. FED. RESERVE BANK OF N.Y., DOMESTIC OPEN MARKET OPERATIONS DURING
2008, at 24 (2009).
The initial fiscal policy response to the crisis was the Eco‐
nomic Stimulus Act of 2008,55 enacted in February, which pro‐
vided tax rebates and business tax deductions to counter the
recession that many thought might have begun.56 The Congres‐
sional Budget Office (CBO) estimated that the legislation
would increase the federal deficit by $152 billion in 2008.57 The
deficit is an imperfect measure of the impact of fiscal policy,
but for present purposes will serve as a useful measure of the
size of the fiscal response. The CBO concluded that the legisla‐
tion made a modest contribution, raising consumption in 2008,
but that the impact on overall economic activity disappeared
by the end of that year.58 Thus, this stimulus bill made no last‐
ing contribution to economic stability.
In February 2009, the new Obama Administration passed the
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.59 This fiscal
package was much larger than the one passed a year earlier.
The CBO estimated the impact on the budget deficit to be an
increase of $185 billion in fiscal 2009, of $399 billion in fiscal
2010, and a total of $787 billion over the ten‐year budget hori‐
zon of 2009 to 2019.60 Economists will argue about the effec‐
tiveness of this legislation for years to come.
Both the 2008 and 2009 stimulus bills were attempts to tem‐
per the general economic downturn. Other fiscal actions were
more directly aimed at the financial crisis. In July 2008, at the
urging of Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson, Congress granted
the Treasury authority to provide financial assistance to Fannie
Mae and Freddie Mac.61 At the time, these two nominally pri‐
vate firms had more total obligations, on and off balance sheet,
than the publically held Treasury debt. They were brought into
55. Pub. L. No. 110‐185, 122 Stat. 613.
56. Id. §§ 101–103.
57. CONG. BUDGET OFFICE, COST ESTIMATE: H.R. 5140, ECONOMIC STIMULUS ACT
OF 2008, at 1–2 (2008).
58. CONG. BUDGET OFFICE, DID THE 2008 TAX REBATES STIMULATE SHORT‐TERM
GROWTH? 1 (2009).
59. Pub. L. No. 111‐5, 123 Stat. 115.
60. See Letter from Douglas W. Elmendorf, Dir., Cong. Budget Office, to Charles
E. Grassley, Ranking Member, Comm. on Fin., U.S. Senate (Mar. 2, 2009).
61. Jeanne Sahadi, Senate Passes Landmark Housing Bill, CNNMONEY.COM, July 26,
2008, http://money.cnn.com/2008/07/26/news/economy/housing_bill_Senate/index.htm.
62. CONG. RESEARCH SERV., FANNIE MAE AND FREDDIE MAC IN CONSERVATORSHIP
1 (2008), available at http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/110097.pdf.
63. Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2009, Pub. L. No. 110‐343, 122 Stat. 3765.
64. Ben S. Bernanke, Chairman, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys.,
Address at the National Association for Business Economics 50th Annual Meet‐
ing: Current Economic and Financial Conditions (Oct. 7, 2008), available at http://
www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/bernanke20081007a.htm.
65. Henry M. Paulson, Jr., Secretary, U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, Remarks on Fi‐
nancial Rescue Package and Economic Update (Nov. 12, 2008), available at
http://www.financialstability.gov/latest/hp1265.html.
66. CONG. BUDGET OFFICE, THE TROUBLED ASSET RELIEF PROGRAM: REPORT ON
TRANSACTIONS THROUGH JUNE 17, 2009, at 2 (2009).
67. Id.
IV. EVALUATION OF THE GOVERNMENT’S RESPONSE TO
THE FINANCIAL CRISIS
The Treasury and the Federal Reserve were slow to recog‐
nize that the problem was much more than liquidity. Markets
were cutting off funding to banks and other financial firms be‐
cause investors feared that the firms might be insolvent. Those
fears were justified. Two Bear Stearns hedge funds had col‐
lapsed in July 2007, and a number of other entities were obvi‐
ously and visibly in shaky financial condition.68 There should
have been an earlier recognition that house prices were going
to decline, because prices were out of line with fundamentals.
Thus, not only would subprime mortgages become increas‐
ingly troubled but so also would prime mortgages. Failure to
recognize the implications of declining house prices was not a
regulatory failure but a basic failure of economic analysis.69
Regulators could enforce capital standards on banks and could
monitor bank risk management policies. As ordinarily con‐
ceived, the economic analysis of house prices went beyond
what bank supervisors and examiners were expected to do.
The Treasury and the Federal Reserve can also be faulted for
failing to engage in adequate contingency planning after the
Bear Stearns bailout. It is hard to read Wessel’s account any
other way.70 The Treasury and the Fed did not seek funding
from Congress because they assumed that Congress would not
be responsive.71 They did not try to make the public case, how‐
ever. After Lehman failed, they had no choice, and Congress
did respond with prompt passage of the TARP legislation. In
contrast, the risks of failing to deal with Fannie Mae and
Freddie Mac were well understood and the two firms were
taken into conservatorship without incident.72
68. WESSEL, supra note 5, at 93.
69. See id. (noting that the Fed’s main policy concern as of July 2007 was the risk
of rising inflation and not the housing bubble).
70. See id. at 178–80.
71. Id. at 179 (“Paulson and Bernanke concluded that there wasn’t any point in
asking Congress—unless the crisis intensified to the point where there were no
other options.”).
72. Id. at 186–87.
The Treasury and the Federal Reserve have not made a strong
case for financial reform.73 Large banks have become larger; the
problem of too big to fail (TBTF) is much more serious. Baker
and McArthur estimate that the public subsidy to the big banks,
because of the market’s assumption that any large bank in trou‐
ble will be bailed out, runs somewhere between $6 billion and
$34 billion per year.74 The issue is not primarily the subsidy aris‐
ing from the fact that big banks can borrow more cheaply than
can small banks.75 Instead, the subsidy permits the big banks to
grow even bigger, increasing the risk to the financial sector if (or
when) they get into trouble again. Moreover, cheap financing
encourages the big banks to take risks they might not otherwise
take; with implied federal backing, banks need not fear that the
market will cut off financing.
More than eighteen months after the Bear Stearns bailout,
there seems to be no sense of urgency in addressing the TBTF
problem and in instituting reforms to make the financial sys‐
tem more robust. This situation reflects a failure of political
leadership in Washington. Although banks are currently more
cautious than they were before the financial crisis, underlying
conditions and incentives have not changed. As the economy
improves and memories of the financial crisis fade, there is real
danger that a new financial crisis will be taking shape.
V. LEGAL AND GOVERNANCE ISSUES
David Wessel is generally very complimentary of the policies
pursued by the Federal Reserve. His introductory chapter to In
Fed We Trust is titled “Whatever It Takes,”76 and he repeats that
phrase frequently in his commentary on Fed creativity in in‐
venting new credit facilities to deal with the crisis. It will take
73. The Senate is now considering a reform bill, and the House passed a bill in
December 2009. Sewell Chan, Reform Bill Adds Layers of Oversight, N.Y. TIMES, Mar.
16, 2010, at B1.
74. See DEAN BAKER & TRAVIS MCARTHUR, CTR. FOR ECON. & POL’Y RESEARCH,
THE VALUE OF THE “TOO BIG TO FAIL” BIG BANK SUBSIDY 2 (2009).
75. Id. (arguing that the mentioned subsidy arises precisely from the fact that
banks enjoying protection under the “too big to fail” concept are able to borrow
more cheaply).
76. WESSEL, supra note 5, at 1.
some years to accumulate research findings as to just how ef‐
fective the Fed’s credit facilities were.77
A legal issue, or governance issue, surrounds the Federal Re‐
serve’s use of Section 13(3)78 of the Federal Reserve Act.79 This
Section came into the Act as an amendment in 1932.80 Under
the Federal Reserve Act, the basic power of the Fed is to make
loans to banks and to conduct open market operations in obli‐
gations issued or guaranteed by the federal government. Sec‐
tion 13(3) provides emergency authority for the Federal
Reserve to lend to nonbanks when such lending is deemed
necessary in “unusual and exigent circumstances.”81
The Federal Reserve invoked Section 13(3) as its legal justifi‐
cation for several different actions. The Fed appealed to Section
13(3) as the legal basis for the emergency funds to bail out Bear
Stearns and AIG. The same justification was offered, however,
for some other special credit facilities, including the commer‐
cial paper funding facility, illustrating the issues surrounding
such justifications in general. The amendment was inserted late
in the legislative process and was not subject to committee or
floor debate. There is case law, however, indicating what “un‐
77. See William Poole, The Bernanke Question, CATO.ORG, July 28, 2009, http://
www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub _id=10388.
78. David Fettig provides useful background information on Section 13(3). See
David Fettig, The History of a Powerful Paragraph: Section 13(3) enacted Fed business
loans 76 years ago, REGION, June 2008, at 33; see also David Fettig, Lender of More
Than Last Resort: Recalling Section 13(b) and the years when the Federal Reserve opened
its discount window to business, REGION, Dec. 2002, at 14.
79. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913, Pub L. No. 63‐43, ch. 6, § 13, 38 Stat. 251,
263 (codified as amended at 12 U.S.C. § 343 (2006)).
80. Pub. L. No. 72‐302, ch. 520, § 210, 47 Stat. 709, 715 (codified at 12 U.S.C.
§ 343 (2006)).
81. 12 U.S.C. § 343 (2006) (“In unusual and exigent circumstances, the Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System, by the affirmative vote of not less than
five members, may authorize any Federal Reserve bank, during such periods as
the said board may determine, at rates established in accordance with the provi‐
sions of section 357 of this title, to discount for any individual, partnership, or
corporation, notes, drafts, and bills of exchange when such notes, drafts, and bills
of exchange are indorsed or otherwise secured to the satisfaction of the Federal
reserve bank: Provided, That before discounting any such note, draft, or bill of
exchange for an individual or a partnership or corporation the Federal reserve
bank shall obtain evidence that such individual, partnership, or corporation is
unable to secure adequate credit accommodations from other banking institu‐
tions. All such discounts for individuals, partnerships, or corporations shall be
subject to such limitations, restrictions, and regulations as the Board of Governors
of the Federal Reserve System may prescribe.”).
82. See Good Roads Mach. Co. of New Eng. v. United States, 19 F. Supp. 652, 653 (D.
Mass. 1937); Carson v. Allegany Window Glass Co., 189 F. 791, 796 (D. Del. 1911).
83. BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY 721 (3rd ed. 1933).
84. Pub. L. No. 107‐297, tit. III, § 301, 116 Stat. 2322, 2340 (2002) (codified at 12
U.S.C. § 248(r) (2006)).
85. 12 U.S.C. § 248(r).
86. 12 U.S.C. § 248(r)(2)(A)(ii)(III) (requiring before the Board exercises its 13(3)
powers that it determine that exigent circumstances existed, that the borrower is
unable to secure credit through other means, that action is necessary to prevent
“serious harm to the economy or the stability” of the U.S. financial system, that
they have been unable to contact the other board members by any means avail‐
able, and that waiting any further to do so would be impossible).
The Fed’s reliance on Section 13(3) is fully justified in the
context of decisions to bail out Bear Stearns and AIG, whatever
the merits of those bailouts, for those situations were clearly
emergencies. The case for relying on Section 13(3) to justify the
program to buy commercial paper, however, is much less clear.
The Fed announced its Commercial Paper Funding Facility
(CPFF) on October 7, 2008.87 The first loans were made about
three weeks later, on October 27. By year end, this program had
an outstanding balance of $332 billion. The program reached a
peak of $350 billion in mid‐January 2009.88
The launch of CPFF did not reflect a weekend emergency.
The financial crisis called for quick and decisive action, but not
immediate action decided in a matter of hours. If there was an
emergency at all, it was because of congressional unwillingness
to act, not because Congress did not have time to act. If Con‐
gress was unwilling to act because of its concern about the poli‐
tics of a program to provide credit to large corporations, a
federal agency should not make its own decision on what is
necessary, committing hundreds of billions of dollars in tax‐
payer resources.
One possible view is that the Fed found itself in an unfortu‐
nate position, but that it did what it had to do given October’s
financial turmoil. That seems to be Wessel’s view: “whatever it
takes.”89 The Fed should have made a strong public case that
Congress had to act to provide the needed credit. There would
have been a public debate about the wisdom of the proposed
program. We know nothing of the internal debates in the Fed
about the CPFF. Essentially, the Fed simply asserted that the
program was necessary to reduce financial turmoil. The Fed‐
eral Reserve has never explained, either in October 2008 or
since, why assistance to the particular borrowers eligible for the
CPFF was essential to dealing with the financial crisis, whereas
assistance to other potential borrowers was not essential.
If Congress had acted, the CPFF would have been adminis‐
tered by the Treasury, instead of by the Fed, and financed by
new Treasury debt, instead of by monetary expansion. As with
other federal credit programs, eligibility, reporting require‐
87. Press Release, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys. (Oct. 7, 2008), avail‐
able at http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/press/monetary/20081007c.htm.
88. WESSEL, supra note 5, at 228–29.
89. Id. at 229.
90. Id. at 269.
91. Press Release, Bd. of Governors of the Fed. Reserve Sys. (Nov. 25, 2008), avail‐
able at http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/press/monetary/20081125b.htm.
92. BD. OF GOVERNORS OF THE FED. RESERVE SYS., FEDERAL RESERVE STATISTICAL
RELEASE H.4.1 FACTORS AFFECTING RESERVE BALANCES OF DEPOSITORY
INSTITUTIONS AND CONDITION STATEMENT OF FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS, JANUARY
15, 2009, tbl.1 (2009).
been used to buy bonds from hard‐pressed state governments,
or to expand mortgage relief for borrowers near foreclosure.
The point is not to argue here the merits of alternative uses of
$1.25 trillion but to emphasize that decisions on credit pro‐
grams have historically been left to Congress. Once the finan‐
cial crisis is fully resolved, Congress should take up this issue.
What are the appropriate constraints on the Federal Reserve?
The issue may well be on the congressional agenda at some
point. Wessel flags the issue in his first chapter:
Barney Frank, the sharp‐tongued sharp mind who chaired
the House Financial Services Committee, captured the issue
clearly. Labeling Bernanke “the loan arranger” with his
sidekick, Paulson, Frank said, “I think highly of Mr. Ber‐
nanke and Mr. Paulson. I think they are doing well, al‐
though I think it’s been inappropriate in a democracy to
have them in this position where they were sort of doing this
stuff unilaterally. They had no choice. And it’s not to their
discredit, but . . . this notion that you wait until there’s a ter‐
rible situation and you just hope that the chairman of the
Federal Reserve would pop up with the secretary of the
Treasury and rescue you. It’s not the way in a democ‐
racy . . . you should be doing this. . . .
“No one in a democracy, unelected, should have $800 billion
to spend as he sees fit,” he said.93
Economists almost universally believe that there should not
be political interference with the central bank’s monetary pol‐
icy decisions. A legacy of the Federal Reserve’s expansive
credit programs may be that Congress will enact constraints on
the Federal Reserve that affect its monetary policy decisions as
well as its credit policies. Many will find the position stated by
Barney Frank persuasive; whether they will be able to separate
monetary from credit policies is less clear.
VI. REFORMS TO ENHANCE FINANCIAL STABILITY
A distressing feature of the financial crisis is that such events
have happened so often before. Charles Kindleberger’s classic
book, Manias, Panics and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises,
went through four editions and has been updated since his
93. WESSEL, supra note 5, at 7.
death to a fifth edition.94 A more recent book by Carmen M.
Reinhart and Kenneth S. Rogoff, This Time Is Different: Eight
Centuries of Financial Folly,95 adds a great deal of data to the
Kindleberger history.
The cost of the financial crisis is immense. One number is
sufficient to indicate the scale of the costs in the United States:
The crisis is responsible for reducing employment by eight mil‐
lion jobs and perhaps more depending on exactly when the re‐
covery begins.96 Large banks that get into financial trouble not
only affect their own shareholders and employees, but also firms
and employment across the country and around the world.
The most fundamental reform is to force banks large enough
to create a systemic risk to the economy to hold more capital as
a cushion to protect the deposit insurance fund and to create
more market discipline in their management. Economists have
studied this issue for years; the most promising approach is
that banks should be required to issue a substantial block of
long‐term subordinated debt.97
To illustrate the proposal, suppose every firm with a bank
charter was required to maintain a block of ten‐year subordi‐
nated notes equal to ten percent of its total liabilities. Every
year, the bank would have to roll over the maturing notes; if
the market were unreceptive, the bank would have to shrink its
total assets by ten percent to live within its remaining block of
outstanding subordinated notes. Stability of the banking sys‐
tem and market discipline might be further enhanced by pro‐
viding that a bank could conserve cash that would otherwise
be used to redeem maturing sub debt by converting the sub
debt to equity at a predetermined ratio.
Market discipline requires that some creditors be at risk. Fi‐
nancial stability, however, requires that creditors who fear a
loss must not be able to run. A key function of a bank is to offer
94. CHARLES P. KINDLEBERGER & ROBERT Z. ALIBER, MANIAS, PANICS, AND
CRASHES: A HISTORY OF FINANCIAL CRISES (5th ed. 2005).
95. CARMEN M. REINHART & KENNETH S. ROGOFF, THIS TIME IS DIFFERENT:
EIGHT CENTURIES OF FINANCIAL FOLLY (2009).
96. Floyd Norris, The Jobs News Get Worse, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 4, 2009, at WK3.
97. See BD. OF GOVERNORS OF THE FED. RESERVE SYS. STUDY GROUP ON
SUBORDINATED NOTES & DEBENTURES, USING SUBORDINATED DEBT AS AN
INSTRUMENT OF MARKET DISCIPLINE 172 (1999) (analyzing thoroughly the subor‐
dinated debt proposal).
VII. REFLECTIONS ON FREE MARKETS
formal models based on normality. Yet, there is an enormous
amount of evidence that the probability of extreme events out
in the tails of the probability distribution is much higher than
indicated by the normal distribution—the fat tails problem.98
If this observation is correct, then an appropriate function of
government is to create incentives that offset the market’s un‐
derestimate of tail probabilities. For large banks, the issue is
one of externalities. A large bank failure has costly effects on
many third parties. Eliminating the deductibility of interest on
tax returns would help to control the externality as would a
stiff subordinated debt requirement for banks.
In reflecting on the causes and consequences of this financial
crisis, it is a mistake to think of the subprime mortgage fiasco
as a unique cause that will not recur. It is indeed unlikely that
the subprime mortgage market itself will again create a sys‐
temic risk, but some other new and creative market probably
will. The essence of a dynamic capital market is that it searches
for new opportunities and feeds capital to new ventures. Some
of the new ventures turn out to be busts. What ought not hap‐
pen is that the busts shake the entire economy because they are
financed by banks in too risky a fashion. Federal policy should
require that banks hold a larger capital cushion against the in‐
evitable busts. It is most unfortunate that financial reform is not
yet a consequence of this financial crisis.
98. See Benoit Mandelbrot, The Variation of Certain Speculative Prices, 36 J. BUS.
394 (1963).