konseptz

COMPUTER
APPRECIATION
KONSEPTZ
1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Objectives:

At the end of this session, you will be able to;

 Define a computer
 Identify the different generations of computer
 List the areas of application of a computer
 Understand the different terms associated to computer
 Identify and classify the various components of a computer
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of computer
 Understand the common mouse operations
 Understand the keyboard orientation

Many inventions have been directed toward mechanization in various fields of

human endeavours. Some machines are made to reduce our workload, whereas
some are made entirely for our pleasure and enjoyment. A typewriter can only
type letters. A cassette player can only play and record music. A video game
player can only be used for playing games. A television can only show movies
and television programs. The telephone can only be used to send and receive
calls and messages (sms). However, computer is a special invention that amazes
human being because unlike all other machines can perform all these functions
and much more – you can create your own program to suit your need. Today, it
has become a part and parcel of almost everybody’s life. This is because its uses
are varied, it can be modified to do anything that human imagination can make it
do and therefore its popularity is expanding day-in-day-out.

What is Computer?
A Computer is an electronic device that works under a set of instructions
stored in it called programs, capable of accepting data as Input, processing the
data arithmetically, logically, according to the instruction given, produces the
result as output either for printing or modification.

Other definitions of computer by experts:

 A Computer is an electronic device that accepts Data (INPUT),

processes data, produces information (OUTPUT) and stores the
data and information.

 Computer is an electronic device which accepts data in a prescribed form,

store, process the data and supply the result of the processed data in a
specific format as information or as signal to control automatically some
other machines or processes.

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  The computer is an electronic machine capable of retrieving data (input),
processing, storing and giving out result (output) according to
order/commands of the user(operator).

No matter how computer is defined, each definition confirms computer as an

electronic device that;
a) accepts data
b) processes data
c) gives out information
d) and stores data/information

Fig. 1.1: computer

1.1 ACTIVITIES OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Since computer is also a computing device, it is also known as a processor.
When computer is processing, it actually performs a number of separate
activities, which include; input, process, store and output. The input is known
as data, output as information, and calculation to be performed on the data is
the process. The same idea can be explained through figure 1.2 as given
below.

DATA PROCESSOR INFORMATION

Goes in Goes out

Fig. 1.2: Data processing cycle

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 This figure shows the data processing cycle, where the data is fed to the
processor for it to be processed into the output. Let’s understand the concept
by visiting our favourable place at home, the kitchen.

Do you like strawberry milk shake? Let’s see how it can be prepared;

STRAWBERRY MIXER MILK SHAKE

CRUSH + MILK

fig. 1.3: Example of Data Processing Cycle

DATA
Data are the raw facts which comprise of numbers, alphabets, or any other form
like picture, sound, videos etc that are put into the computer through the input
units and the computer transforms them into a form that could be processed by
the computer. The data which is put in through the input unit could either be
processed by the central processing unit or stored in the memory. Data can also
be referred to as input.

Examples of data could be; old, Udo, 16 years, 10/02/2005, , , etc.

Data on its own is not that useful unless it is arranged or combined with some
more data.
Take the examples above; it’s nice to have Udo as a data, but when it combines
with some data like; Udo is going to be 16 years old as at the
10/02/2005, it become very useful.

INFORMATION
This is the result of a processed data. When data has been acted upon to give it
more meaning, it is called information. It’s also called output. It is displayed in a
user readable form, or in a way that the user needed it. It could be either soft
copy (held by the monitor) or the hard copy(printed out from the printer.

PROCESSING
This is the ability of converting raw facts (data or input) captured by the input
units into something meaningful (information or output). The data are
manipulated, stored, classified and summarized to put them in usable forms. The
series of activities involved in the transformation of data into information is called
data-processing. Processing could be any mathematical or logical operation
done on the data. Example of mathematical calculations is addition, subtraction,
multiplication or division operations. Logical calculation could involve decision
making like comparisons. Operators used for comparison jobs are <,>, =, IF, OR,
etc

To put it in a nutshell, to get information from the computer one has to:
 Input the correct data
 Give in the instructions to the process and the computer gives the output.

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 Data and information are relative terms. The data for one group of people could
be information for the other group of people and vice versa. It depends on the
group’s requirements. Consider the following statement:

 Okon has scored 85% marks

This statement is certainly an information for Okon as he come to know his score,
but the same statement could be a piece of data for the teacher, who could be
interested in further processing it to calculate his grade in the class.

Comparative study for data and information

S/n Data Information

1 A collection of facts and numbers Organized and arranged data

2 Not of much use Is always useful

3 Gets converted to information Can also get converted to data

Table 1.1: comparative study of Data and Information

STORAGE
This is the keeping of information for future use. There are two types of storage
namely; (i) temporary storage and (ii) permanent storage
Temporary storage: The temporary storage or primary or main storage, used
by the computer while data is processing is in progress is volatile, that is, when
electric power is switched off, its content disappears.
Permanent storage: The permanent storage or secondary storage makes safe
and reliable record of data, regardless of the system being on or off. Some
secondary storage devices are; Hard disk, Floppy disk or Diskette, Zip, CD-ROM
etc.

1.2 AREAS THAT COMPUTER CAN BE APPLIED

Some of the areas where computers have become a common sight are:
 Commercial Applications:
 Electricity Bill generation
 Railway and Airway ticket booking
 Banking
 Automatic teller Machines ATM
 Controlling stocks and sales of goods in supermarkets and
companies
 Paperless money through credit cards
 Designing new products and planning production schedules

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  Tele Conference
 Tele Communication
 E-mailing Immigration
 Traffic Control
 Criminal Detection etc.

 Educational Institutions
 School Database Management
 E-libraries/E- learning
 Distant Education
 Writing online exams like UTME(Unified Tertiary Matriculation
Examination)
 Gathering examination marks for printing mark sheet

 Broadcasting Services
Nigerian Television Authority (NTA)
Akwa Ibom State Broadcasting Cooperation (AKBC)

 Fun Tool: The use of computer games

Apart from these;

 Computers are used in offices for payroll, inventory management control,
Human Resource Development.
 Computers are used in homes for typing, designs, playing games and
family budgets.
 Computers are used in Architectural and Fine Art Studios for designing.
 Computers are also used in modern agricultural farms.

1.3 CARING FOR COMPUTERS

The computer is a very sensitive and expensive electronic machine, which
requires a lot of protective measures against dust and power (electric current)
fluctuation. Power fluctuation can do a lot of damage to some cells or at times
the whole computer system hence, the use of stabilizer and surge protector is
necessary or mandatory. Beside, the use of Uninterruptible Power Supply
(UPS) is also recommendable. We can care for our computers in the following
ways;
i. The computer should always be cleaned with dry materials to remove
dusts.
ii. It must be covered with dust cover.
iii. You are not expected to touch your fingers on the monitor.
iv. You must follow the rules of powering on and off of the computer.
v. You must not touch the casing of the system unit with metallic materials.
vi. You must make sure you switch on the socket before switching on the
computer.

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 vii. Always put your computer on a dry desk or table.
viii. If there is power failure, switch off your computer and socket before
going out.
ix. Any fault should be reported to the computer engineer.
x. You must not enter the Bio-Setup for any reason if you are not an
engineer.
xi. For no reason should any cable be removed while the computer is on.
xii. The monitor, which is very fragile, should be handled with care while on
transit.
xiii. Computer should be sent for servicing after being used for a given
period.
xiv. Diskettes from other computers should be scanned for virus before any
document is opened or saved in them.
xv. Computers must be kept in an air-conditioned room.

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTERS

Computer is very important in all areas of life. Unlike human beings,
computers are tireless and systematic, which makes it work more than human
beings who is easily and undisciplined in some areas. The importance of
computer in our daily life cannot be overemphasized. Some of these are;

 Speed: It can carry out computations very fast.

 Accuracy: The computer results are always accurate. In some cases any
mistake or error in computing is due to error in inputting of data by user.
That is why we say “garbage in-garbage-out”, meaning that what you
give is what you will get from the computer
 Reliability: Computers do not proceed on break or complain of being
overworked, provided that appropriate maintenance procedures are in
place and the environment is conducive.
 Flexibility: Most general-purpose computers are flexible because they
can be used for many purposes.
 All-purpose: computers are used for many purposes both at homes,
schools and offices.
 Automatic: The operations of computers are automatic. Once a program
is in the computer’s memory, the individual instruction is executed
without human help.
 Neatness in presentation: When computer is used in processing, it is
always printed in orderly manner.
 Storage: computers can store data and information for future usage.
 Printing: computers can help print your jobs i.e. printing your headed
papers, logos, complimentary cards etc.

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1.5 LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Drawbacks related to computers are;
 Failure to take decisions: they need inputs from the user for decision
making.
 Inability to distinguish between valid and invalid data: computers
need to be given correct data in order to generate correct information.
 Requires regular maintenance: computers are machine; hence regular
maintenance is requires to keep it in working conditions.

1.6 HISTORY AND CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

1.6.1. HISTORY OF COMPUTER

The history of computer is as old as mankind. In time past, simple arithmetic
and calculations were done by using different parts of the human body e.g.
finger, toes, brain etc. Also used were objects such as stones, sticks and
drawing of line and marks on surfaces. The origin and development of
modern computers involved so many people, ideas and processes.

 ABACUS: Abacus is the first mechanical counting device invented around

500 B.C (7th Century) and widely used in china up till today. It is used for
addition and subtraction. Abacus is made up beads threaded on lines of
wire frame. The beads on the first line are counted the units. The beads
of the second line are counted the tens. By moving the beads back and
forth along the wires, numbers could be added and subtracted. Beads
moved towards the bar are in the position; those towards the frame are
ignored.

 BLAISE PASCAL: in 1642, a French philosopher and mathematician,

Blaise Pascal, invented and produced the first mechanical adding machine
(called mechanical calculator). He invented it to reduce the counting and
labour involved in his father’s work, which involved supervision of taxation
and expenditure of public funds. In Pascal’s machine, numbers to be
added were entered on dials and results were read from dial position.

 GOTTFRIED LEINEITZ MACHINE: In 1671, a German, Gottfried

Leigneitz, improved on the work of Pascal by producing a machine
(Stepped Reckoner) that could multiply and divide along with adding and
subtracting capability. Leibnitz’s work gave greater advantages of binary
over decimal system for mechanical computers.

 CHARLES BABBAGE: In 1833, Charles Babbage who was considered

the father of modern computer started work on Difference Engine – a
machine that could generate mathematical tables. As designed, it could

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 add, subtract, multiply and divide in automatic sequence at a rate of 60
additions per minutes. Babbage in 1835 designed the Analytical Engine
which is widely regarded as the mechanical forerunner of the modern
computer. Analytical Engine was self-controlled with two important parts,
the storage unit with memory device, and the arithmetic unit called mill.

 JACQUARD LOOM: In 1802, a French weaver called Jacquard, invented

punch cards to control the loom as cloth was woven. When a pattern is
woven, each of a number of threads must be raised or lowered. When
this has been done, the weaving loom pulls another thread between the
raised and lowered threads. Then each of the threads is raised or lowered
in a different way and the loom passed between them again.
Jacquard’s invention could emphasized three concepts;
 Information could be coded on punch cards
 Cards could be linked in a series of instructions and
 Many programs could automate jobs.

 PUNCHED CARD: An American statistician, Herman Hollerith,

developed a punched card on Jacquard’s idea. He invented punched cards
for data processing. Hollerith applied for a patent for a punched card
tabulating machine on the basis of the U.S Bureau of Census commissioned
him as a consultant. With the punched card processing and Hollerith’s
punched card tabulating machine, the census was completed in three
instead of ten years.
Hollerith left the census business in 1896 to form the Tabulating Machine
Company that evolved to become International Business Machine
Corporation (IBM), which is today, the largest computer company.

 THE DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZER: Vannerar Bush in 1930 built the

differential analyzer, for the purpose of solving ordinary differential
equations. This is what would now be called “analog” computer and was
based on the use of mechanical integrators.
Bush differential analyzer, was however, the first device of sufficient
general application to meet general needs, though they occupied too much
space and were heavy.

 EARLY CALCULATORS: The Automatic Sequence Controlled

Calculators was invented by Howard Aiken of Harvard. He achieved this
with the cooperation of IBM, which supplied the components. The machine
was completed in 1943 and was used in 1944. It was a large scale
calculator built mechanical and electromechanical devices that were used
for punched card machines. MARK 1 was capable of multiplying two 23-
digit numbers. It had a large storage capacity and programming capability
but conditional jump facilities. It was follows by MARK 2 and MARK 3, all
built in the same line.

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1.6.2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified with respect to:
(i) Generations (ii) Mode of operation (iii) Purpose (iv) Size

(I) CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO GENERATIONS

Computer made its first appearance somewhere in the 19 th century but
started getting popular in the 20th century. This takes us to the different
stages in the development of the computer.

 First Generation of Computers (1940s)

The first generation emanated in the year 1946 by a team led by Prof.
Eckert ad Prof. Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania in U.S.A. The
computers used high speed vacuum tube as switching device and were
called Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENAIC). Computer
programming in this era was done using machine language.
The characteristics of the first generation computers were;
× It occupied large space of about a football field.
× It was bulky, 50 – 100ft long and about 8 ft high.
× It used vacuum tube.
× It was not reliable (would fail every 15 minutes, since it takes more than
15 minutes to find a tube.
× It was slow in speed.
× Consumed a lot of electric power.

 Second Generation of Computers (1950s)

This generation of computers evolved in 1955 and survived till 1965.
Silicon transistors were used instead of vacuum tube switching purpose.
During this period, magnetic cores were developed and used as large
random access memories and magnetic disk storage. High level
programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL and SNOBOL were
used.

The characteristics of the second generation computers were;

× It used silicon transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
× It was more reliable and faster than first generation computers.
× It was less expensive
× It was smaller in size than first generation computers.
× Storage capacities were introduced

 Third Generation of Computers (1960s)

The third generation computers used germanium transistors to replace silicon
transistors as switching device. In this period, time sharing operating system was
introduced to increase the productivity of programmers. There was also
improvement in the magnetic core memories. Integrated database management
also emerged in this generation.

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 The characteristics of the third generation computers were;
× It used less power
× It used germanium transistor (Integrated Circuit) instead of silicon
transistors
× It has improved storage method and capacity
× Increase in speed and efficiency of operation
× Much smaller in size than second generation computers.
× It cost less than the second generation computers.
× Integrated database management was introduced

 Fourth Generation of Computers (1970s)

This generation computers were sub-classified in two phases;
 First Phase(1976 -1984)
This computers used Large and Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (LSI &VLSI)
as their switching device. Magnetic core memories were replaced by
semiconductor memories. Microprocessors were also used. The used networks
and large memories emerged in this era.
 Second Phase(1986 -1998)
This is the period where speed of the microprocessors were increased(the
Pentium series). Computers consumed less power supply. The nodes(number of
computers) in a network and the size of memories were also increased.

The characteristics of the fourth generation computers were;

× They were thousand times faster than the third generation.
× Less expensive than third generation computers.
× More powerful than third generation computers.
× Smaller in size, higher speed and more reliable.

 Fifth Generation of computers

Computers in this generation are based on artificial intelligence input. They
support parallel processing and could react to natural language input and are
able to learn and organize-itself. Super Large-Scale Integration (SLSI) is the
technology used by fifth generation computers. It had features like;
× Windows
× Mouse pointers
× Graphic User interface (GUI) instead of commands

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MODE OF OPERATION

There are three types of computer here. The difference based on the input fed to
the computers.
 DIGITAL COMPUTERS: These are computers that display discrete
variables. The word “digital” means whole number (discrete). Digital
computers which are electronic machines which use electronic signals

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 (series of 0s and 1s or binary codes) to perform operations on data
represented in number form.

 ANALOG COMPUTERS: These are computers that display continuous

variables. Analog computers are computers used mainly in measuring
instruments such as thermometer, speedometer, and voltmeter. It has
limited memory. It is capable of processing data which are represented by
some physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, voltage or
current. The output from analog computers is often in the graph form
whose information can be used directly to control the operation of some
other machines or processes.

 HYBRID COMPUTERS: Hybrid computers are computers that combine

the characteristics of digital and analog computers.

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

 SPECIAL PURPOSE: These are computers designed for a particular

purpose. They cannot be used for any other purpose unless their circuits
are redesigned. Examples used are for traffic control, robots, brain box
etc.

 GENERAL PURPOSE: These are computers designed to solve a wide

variety of problems. It can be used to carry out different jobs or tasks
within the limit imposed by the their particular tasks or job. New
programs can be prepared and old ones dropped, because it is designed
to do a wide variety of jobs rather than to perform a specific activity. The
general purpose machine comprises of certain aspect of speed and
efficiency to pay in many cases for the advantage of flexibility. A typical
example of a general purpose machine is the microcomputers.

C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE

Computer systems range in size from portable handheld personal computer systems
to desktop models to massive system of interconnected computers that supports
thousands of people. The size of the computer often determines its function and
processing capacity. The larger the computer, the greater its processing power.
There are four types of computers in this category.

 MICROCOMPUTERS: There is no commonly accepted definition of a

microcomputer. However, a microcomputer is just a small computer, which
comprises the processor, primary and secondary storage devices. The
computer case contains two broad sections. These are the motherboard,
which in turn consist of the central processing unit (CPU) and primary
storage. The CPU is also called the microprocessor or processor.

Microcomputer can be divided into two groups; (i) Personal computers and
(ii) Workstation.

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 Personal computers
o Desktop Computers: These are small computers that fit on top or
along the side of a desk and yet are too big to be carried around. They
are easy to use, since their keyboards can be moved and kept in a way
that is convenient to the user.

o Sub-Notebooks: These are frequent flyers and life-on-the road

type. Weigh between 2 and 6 pounds. Fits easily in briefcase.

o Notebooks: These are smaller versions of laptop computers. They

weigh between 5 to 10 pounds and can fit into most briefcases. The
users are students, sales person, and journalists etc. who use computer
for not-taking.

o Laptops: Laptops weigh between 10 and 16 pounds, may be either

electrical-powered, battery-powered or both. The users are directors,
managers, accountants or financial persons who need to work on a
computer away from desk.

o Tower: The tower personal computers are similar to the desktop, but
the system unit cabinet sits as a tower on the (mini tower) or on the
floor, next to the desk (full tower).

 Workstation
The most powerful type personal computer is sometimes called workstation. A
workstation is a personal computer for people who need very fast
computational capabilities, like scientists and engineers. Workstations are also
used to perform detailed simulations such as generating special effects for
movies. These same graphic capabilities are used by scientist to help visualize
and study complex phenomena.

 Minicomputers
Minicomputers are computers that are smaller and cheaper than mainframe
computers. It was introduced in the late 1960s. The minicomputers today are
many times as powerful as the largest mainframes of the early 1970s.
In theory, minicomputer can be separated from other computers based
on physical size, processing capability, processor design, memory capacity,
and the number of people that can be serviced simultaneously,
environmental requirements (temperature and humidity), weigh and building
space requirements. But in practice, it is difficult to tell minicomputer from
microcomputer these days.

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  Mainframes Computers
 Mainframes are room-sized, high performance computers, capable of running
complex programs that could be impractical or impossible on smaller
computer systems. They are designed for multiple users and process vast
amount of data quickly.
Installation of mainframe computers involves difficult and tedious tasks and it
is done by the suppliers. Companies like banks, insurance companies,
manufacturers, mail-order companies and airlines are typical users
mainframe computers. Examples of mainframes are IBM 360/370 systems,
NCR V-8800.
 Super Computers
These are the most powerful, most expansive, fastest and high capacity
computers used by very large organizations. They are capable of processing
trillions of instructions per second. Super computers have the capacity to
process seismic data gather during crude oil-seeking exploration. Super
computers also enable simulation of airflow around an air plane at different
speed and altitudes. Auto manufacturers use super computer to simulate
auto accident on video screens. Physicists use super computer to study the
results of explosion of nuclear weapons. Meteorologists employ super
computers to study the formation of tornadoes. Film-making studios in U.S.A.
use advanced graphics to create special effects of movies and TV
commercials.
The greatest obstacle that designers of super computers faced was heat
buildup. Densely packed integrated circuits produce a tremendous amount of
heat.

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

(COMPUTER TRIANGLE)
A computer system is made up of three (3) different components;
I. Hardware components
II. Software components
III. Human-ware

COMPUTER HARDWARE
These are the physical and tangible parts of a computer system. A computer takes in
inputs, processes it and gives out information as an output. Hence, when it comes to
identifying parts of a computer, there should be components to:

Function Part

 To input data -INPUT DEVICE

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  To process data -PROCESSOR

 To get the information -OUTPUT DEVICE

 INPUT DEVICES
The devices used for taking the data from the user are termed as the input
devices. They convert data (raw materials) communicated by the user into a
form that the processor and memory can use. The most widely used input
devices are; keyboard, mouse, scanner, magnetic tape drive, magnetic disk
drive, Optical Character Recognition(OCR), Optical Mark Reader(OMR), Bar
Code Reader(BCR) and Magnetic Ink Character Reader(MICR) etc.

1 THE KEYBOARD
The computer keyboard is a piece of plastic board with several buttons
arranged on it. Theses buttons are called keys used for punching alphabets
(A-Z), numbers (0-9) and other special characters. It looks like an ordinary
typewriter and is an input device where data to be processed is typed into
the computer.

Fig. 1.4: Keyboard

There are different keys on keyboard, which can be grouped under the

following categories;

 Function keys

 Alphanumeric keys

 Numeric keys

 Arrow keys(cursor control keys)

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  Special keys

There are two types of keyboards, namely;

1) Standard keyboard

2) Enhanced keyboard

The difference lies in the number of function keys each has. The standard

keyboard has 10 function keys(F1 – F10) while the Enhanced Keyboard has

12 keys(F1 – F12).

SOME BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE KEYS

Key Description and Uses

Function keys Function keys are usually located horizontally across the top of
the keyboard, sets of functions keys labeled F1 through F12. They
….
F1 F12
are often use to enter commands; their specific meaning depends
on the software being used.

Alphanumeric The Alphanumeric keys occupy the middle of the keyboard. They
keys are used primarily to enter text and numbers. These keys consist
of the letters of the alphabet, number, a SPACEBAR and
punctuation marks.

The ESC (escape) key is often used to cancel or “escape” from an

Esc
operation in progress.

The TAB key is used to move the cursor to a pre specified “next”
Tab data input location. The SHIFT +TAB combination moves the
cursor to the “previous’ location.

In word processor, the TAB key is used much as it is on a

typewriter; the cursor is moved to the next “tab stop” which can
be anywhere on a line.

Letters typed while the SHIFT key is held down appear as

shift
capitals. When typing in all capital letters, the CAPS LOCK key can
Caps be used to avoid the need to hold the SHIFT key down.

Lock 15
 The CTRL (control) key is used as a shorthand way of entering
Ctrl
instructions or commands. Different programs use the CRTL key
in different ways. For instance, Microsoft Word uses the
CRTL+ENTER, key combination to signal the start of a new page
CRTL+B for bolding a letter etc.

Pressing the ALT (alternate) key in combination with other keys

Alt
will display menus and activate commands. For instance, ALT +F4
(will close an active window).

The BACKSPACE key is used when typing to erase the last

character you type. If you press the wrong key, immediate press
the BACKSPACE key, this will erase the last character.

The DEL key is used to delete the selected object or a character

Del
to the right hand side of the cursor.

The ENTER key (sometimes called RETURN key) is used to begin

ENTER
new paragraphs. Also it sometimes means, “proceed with chosen
command”

The numeric keys are located right of the ENTER key and are
used to enter numbers and arithmetic operator like +, - , / , * and
Numeric Keys
= just like the calculator keypads.

The NUM LOCK key is a toggle switch. Press it once and it

Num Lock activates the numeric keypad function. Press it again and it
toggles back to deactivate the numeric keypads.

These four key are called ARROW KEYS. They are inscribed with
arrows which indicate the direction in which the cursor will move
when arrow key is pressed. They are; UP ARROW, DOWN
ARROW, LEFT ARROW and RIGHT ARROW.

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 The HOME key moves the cursor to the beginning of a line,
Home
CRTL+HOME will move the cursor to the beginning of a page;
End END key moves the cursor to the end of a line, CRTL+END moves
the cursor to the end of a page.

PAGE UP and PAGE DOWN scroll the document up or down the

Pg up
screen. The CRTL+PAGE UP combination moves the first page of
Up document; CRTL+PAGE DOWN moves the cursor to the last page
Pg dn of a document.
dn

Down
The INS (insert) key is used to toggle between “insert” and
Ins “overstrike” mode of typing. In insert mode, new text is inserted
between the existing texts; in overstrike mode new text replaces
existing text.

Keyboard Alternatives: (1) Light Pen (2) Joystick

2 MOUSE: The mouse is an input device which points and promptly moves the
cursor or mouse pointer around the screen. It has two buttons (left button
and right button) on its upper surface and is kept resting on a flat surface on
a mouse pad. It can be used to plot images in defined location on a screen.
The mouse is a hand held point device that helps you use your application
more easily and effectively.

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 How to use the Mouse
The mouse is supported with the palm of our right hand (with the index
finger on the left button and the second finger on the right button) and
moved across the flat surface. The mouse pointer or cursor on the screen is
controlled by the movement of the mouse.

Basic Mouse Operations

 Pointing/Locating: These involve moving the mouse pointer with the

tip pointing on a specific object or area on the screen.
 Clicking: This is pressing and releasing of the left mouse button once.
 Double - Clicking: This is pressing and releasing of the left mouse button
twice in rapid succession.
 Dragging: This is pressing of the left mouse button and holding it down
while moving the mouse pointer to a desire object or location before
releasing.
 Right-Clicking: This is the pressing and releasing of the right mouse
button once. Usually, a pop-up menu always appear when we right-click.

Some other input devices, which are very widely used today, are;
 MICR: Magnetic Ink Character Reader, which is used mostly in banks for
scanning cheque numbers.
 BCR: Bar Code Reader is used in places like supermarkets, etc. to read the
coded price tag on the items.
 OCR: Optical Character Recognizer, which is used for validating examination
papers and application forms or for reading any, printed matter. A typical
desktop scanner that is used to scan any type of printed matter like the one
shown figure 1.5

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 Fig. 1.5: Scanner

 SYSTEM UNIT
The System Unit (cabinet) houses or encloses other hardware devices such
as; motherboard, ports and central Processing Unit or Processor, Hard Disk
Drive, CD/DVD Rom Drive, Floppy Disk Drive etc.

Fig. 1.6: System Units

 Motherboard: This is basically the biggest Printed Circuit Board (PCB) in

the system unit which provides support and power to other smaller PCBs.
It is usually found screwed to the cabinet’s wall or floor and other PCBs
are inserted into various expansion slots present on this motherboard.

 Central Processing Unit(CPU) or Processor: PCBs carry on them

semiconductor chips. One of chips is the Central Processing Unit. The CPU
is the heart of the computer. It executes programs and controls the entire
operations of all other components of the computer. It is made up;
a. CPU Registers
b. Control unit(CU) and CPU
c. Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) Registers
ALU CU

FIG. 1.7: CPU

a) Arithmetic/Logic Unit: This unit of the CPU takes care of all the
mathematical and logical operation using arithmetic operators such as; +, -,
/, *, ^ and logical operators such as; = ,< ,>, <=, >=, IF, OR, AND etc.

b) Control Unit: This unit controls the whole process of data transfer from one
place to the other while computations are going on.

c) CPU Registers: this unit is meant for storing any data that comes into the
CPU while processing.

 Ports: These are connectors like sockets which serve as points where
peripherals are attached to the motherboard in the system unit. These

19
 ports allow transmission of data and information between the motherboard
and the peripheral devices.

Ports are of two types:

 Serial ports: In these types of ports, a single bit of data passes through
the port at a single instance of time. These ports are used mostly with the
devices like mouse and are sometimes known as the RS-232.

 Parallel ports: In these types of ports, passage of more than one bit is
allowed like 8 bits or 16 bits at a time. Transfer of data through these
ports are faster because 8 or more bits can travel together (parallel to
each other) from one part of the computer to the another. Parallel ports
are therefore also referred to as printer ports or sometimes as the
centronics port.

 Another type of port is the USB ports: USB stands for Universal Serial Bus.
Unlike other ports, the UBS is very unique as it uses Advance Technology
System; enhance speed of data transmission and support hot and warm
swapping. The USB port is gradually replacing other computer ports.

 OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is used to communicating information from the computer to
the user. It presents results of operations as a display through the
monitor(soft copy) or printed version (hard copy). There are various
examples of output devices such as printer, visual display unit etc.

1 PRINTER:
The printer is the only permanent form of output device. Unlike
monitors, printers produce hard copy. We use it to print on paper
the result of our calculations, letters and other data processing
Fig.1.8: PRINTER
jobs from the computer. There are many types of printer
available. Printers are classified based on their working principles; impact
printers and non-impact printers.
 Impact printers: These are printers that create character by striking
an inked ribbon against the paper beneath. Impact printers are noisier
and slower than non-impact printers, but can be used to produce
carbon copies. These printers use inked ribbons. Their print head have
contact with paper.

20
 Examples of impact printers are; dot matrix printer, daisywheel
printer and line printers.
 Non-impact printers: These are printers that print without hitting on
the paper. The technology in this set of printers is quite different.
Examples of Non-impact printers are; Thermal printers, Laser
Printers, Ink-Jet Printers.

2 MONITOR (VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT-VDU)

The computer monitor or VDU (Screen also known as Cathode ray tube
(CRT)) is one of the normal devices for viewing computer processed
alphanumeric and graphic output. The output shown on the monitor is
referred to as soft copy. The soft copy in most cases can only be consumed
or utilized by viewing. The three primary attribute of monitors are;
I.The size of the display screen
II.Colour or monochrome display capability
III.Resolution or detail of the display

 The size of the display screen: The screen size is measured diagonally
along the front of a monitor’s cathode ray tube (CRT). This diagonal
dimension of monitors varies from 5 to 25 inches, even though the most
common size is 14 inches.

 Colour or Monochrome display capability: there are colour (many

colours) and the monochrome(one colour) monitors.

 Monochrome Monitors: Displays images in a single colour only, usually

amber, blue, green, red or white, against a solid background on the screen. A
monochrome monitor can, however, display shades of its one colour.

 Colour monitors: The colour monitor adds another dimension to output

displays. The use of colours obviously facilitates the focusing of attention on
the different aspect of the output. Researches have shown that colours
convey ideas and impression faster than words numbers alone.

 Resolution or detail of the display: some monitors especially

monochrome models have a much higher resolution, or quality output. The
higher the resolution, the more precise the image on the screen. Resolution
refers to the number of addressable points or dots on the screen. The number
of points to which light can be directed under program control.

 Graphic Standard: Apart from the classification and distinctions of monitors

embodied in the preceding section, the computer industry further classified
monitors according to graphics standards. Thus, there are four types of
colour monitors;
 M.C.G.A. – Multiple Colour Graphic Array – with high resolution

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  V.G.A. – Video Graphic Array – with very high resolution
 E.G.A. – Enhanced Graphic Array
 A.V.G.A. – Advanced Visual Graphics Array
 S.C.G.A. – Super Visual Graphics Array

COMPUTER MEMORY
Memory is use to store both data and information. Computer memory is the
storage area for data and information in a computer. The amount of data or
information the human brain can hold cannot be quantified because it varies
in different individuals. In computers, the amount of information it can hold
can be quantified depending on the size of its memory. We can logically
represent the computer memory as a number of rectangular cells and groups
of such cells form a block. Each cell can hold one English alphabet or a
numeric digit worth information. Figure 1.9 below shows the logical
representation of the computer’s memory.

C1 C2 --------------------------------------- C7
Cells

Fig. 1.9: Logical representation of the computer memory

Figure 1.9 above shows that the computer memory holds information in cells as labeled C1
to C7 and so on to our convenience. The English alphabets or our numeric digits are the
smallest piece or data that can be stored into the memory. Basically, the computer can
understand only electrical signals that are “ON” or “OFF” and “YES” or “NO”. This same
signals are represented mathematically as “0” and “1”. Therefore all data are represented
only in the form of “1” and “0” hence binary representation of data. A sample piece of data
in binary representation looks like; 00001000. All numbers and alphabets we write in our
daily lives can be converted into this representation using binary mathematics.

Each digit of this binary representation is a binary digit or bit for short.

Thus, all the data pieces are group of such bits.

A group of 4 bits is called nibble

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A group of 8 bits is known as a byte or character; this is the smallest unit of a computer
memory.

Therefore, when we talk about computer memory being measured, the scale is in byte.
However, since modern computers have very large memories, using the byte will require
very huge numbers; hence the concept of counting bytes in thousands and its multiples is
applied as shown below;

1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (Kb or KB)

1024 Kilobytes =1 Megabyte (Mb or MB)

1000 kilobytes

1024 megabytes =1 Gigabyte (Gb or GB)

1000 megabytes
1,000,000 kilobytes

1024 gigabytes =1Terabyte (Tb or TB)

Having studied how data and information are being store in the computer memory, let’s look
at different type of computer memories that we have.

Computer memory can be classified into two:

Primary memory and secondary memory

 PRIMARY MEMORY
The primary memory is also called main memory or central memory. This memory is
resident on the motherboard. It is of two types; ROM and RAM
ROM-Read Only Memory
RAM-Random Access Memory

 Read Only Memory: This is a permanent memory, containing dated and

instructions loaded into it at the time the computer was built. Its name signifies that
it contents cannot be changed; processor can read from ROM but cannot write new
information into it. In contrast to RAM, ROM is nonvolatile; it does not lose it content
the power is turn off.

TYPES OF ROM

1. ROM - Read Only Memory

2. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
3. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
4. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
5. CMOS - Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. It is a special Lionel
memory that holds the BIOs (Basic Input/output system configuration settings)

 Random Access Memory: The Random Access Memory or RAM is the processor’s
temporary working area. It remains empty until the processor needs to use it- that

23
 is, until data and programs are sent to it from an input device. It is also a temporary
(volatile) memory because its loses its contents when the power is turn off. The
bigger the RAM, the faster the computer. RAM storage frequently expressed in
Megabytes. The capacities of RAM commonly used are 32 MB, 64 MB, 128 MB, 256
MB and 512 MB.

TYPES OF RAM

1. RAM - Random Access Memory

2. DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory
3. SRAM - Static Random Access Memory
4. EDORAM - External Data Out Random Access Memory

 SECONDARY MEMORY
Since the primary memory are pretty less; the RAM is volatile and the ROM is non-
writable, the alternative is use of secondary or external memory with which
read/write operations are both possible. Some common Secondary storage
devices;

 HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

The hard disk drive is the workhorse of the computer system. The hard disk can
be thought of a collection of several disk platters that spin continuously at high
speed within a sealed enclosure. The gap between the platters is as thin the
strand of the human hair. The enclosure protects the disk surfaces from
contaminates such as dusts etc. These platters have data stored in them. These
data are stored in block-sized region called sectors which are organized in a set
of concentric rings called tracks. During the read/write operations, the data is
stores or retrieved from disk using a conducting coil called the head. The head
reads and write from the portion of the platters rotating beneath it. The size or
storage capacity of the hard disk ranges from 40GB to over 9000MB (9GB).

 COMPACT DISK (CD) or OPTICAL DISK

The compact disc (CD) is similar to a hard disk, but it terms of storage capacity
hard disks stores huge amount of data. The capacity of a CD is far too higher than
the capacity of a floppy Disk. Also, rate of data retrieval from CD is faster
compared to a floppy disk. Typical storage capacities of a compact disk could be
anywhere between 540 MB to 4GB. These CDs are read using the Compact Disk
Drive(CDD). There are four types of CDs namely;

i. Audio CD: Audio CD (Compact Disc Digital Audio CD, DA) stores about 72
minutes of uncompressed sound information.

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 ii. Data CD: Data CD (Compact Disc Read Only Memory, CD-ROM) usually can store
up to 650MB (two sides of 324MB each) of computer information. It is of two
types, namely:

a) The CD-Recordable (CD-R) is a CD format that allows the use of CD-Recorder

to write onto a specially manufactured disc that can read by compatible CD-ROM
drive.

b) The CD-Erasable (CD-E) and CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) permit recording on

the disk and erasing data from the disc. This allows the disc to be used as many
times as possible.

III. Video CD: Video CD can store up to 74 minutes of VHS-quality digital video
(moving picture) with compressed stereo audio. This is achieved by using a data
compression algorithm (Computer program) designed by a body known as the
Moving Picture Expert Group (MPEG).

IV. Photo CD: Photo CD (Kodak Photo Compact Disc) can store up to 100
photographic-quality (35mm) images, with a maximum resolution of over 18
million pixels per image.

 FLOPPY DISK
The floppy disk or diskette is a magnetic disc medium. Compared to the hard disk,
it is very small terms of capacity. Nevertheless, it assumes importance because of
its portability. They are ideally suitable for copying and carrying data from one
machine to another. All that needs to be done is, insert the disc in the drive(floppy
disc drive-FDD), copy the data from the hard disk to the floppy, and insert it in
the machine where the data is required. It is still one of easiest and cost effective
ways to exchange information or data between two computers.

The floppy is actually enclosed in a plastic jacket that protects it from heat, dust
and electric shocks. When the floppy is exposed to any of the above, either of
these two things can happen;
 The floppy can be physically damaged, which can lead to the loss
of data present inside it.
 The floppy may remain intact, but there may still be a data loss

Notch

25
 Fig. 1.10: Floppy disks

Floppies have a very good feature known as write protect. Look at the
notch shown above, it can be pushed down to close the hole there. When
the notch closes, only then data writing can be done to the floppy, else it
can be only read from. Hence, the notch can be pushed up to keep it the
hole uncovered, so that nobody can accidentally change the data stored in
the floppy.

Floppies are commonly found in two sizes namely; 5 ¾” and 3.5”. This
refers to the diameter of the disk, which actually holds the data and is
present within the plastic jacket. A typical storage capability of floppies
ranges from 250KB to 1.44MB

The summary of Computer Memory is being represented in the diagram below;

COMPUTER MEMORY

PRIMARY SECONDARY
MEMORY MEMORY

HARD MEMORY FLOPY FLASH

ROM RAM CD ROM
DISK CARD DISK DRIVE

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 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a collective name for the programs that control the hardware. A program is set
of command or an instruction that is given to a computer to affect some specific tasks.
Hardware is the visible part of a computer system; software is invisible. Software however
determines what tasks the computer system performs. The relationship between the three
concepts of command, program and software could be diagrammatically represented as:

Software

Program 1 Program 2

Commands
Commands Commands Commands
Fig. 1.10: Relationship between Commands, Program and Software

There are two main types of software;

(1) Application software

(2) System Software

I. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is a program that enable user to solve a specific problem or
perform a useful task, based on need. It is designed to handle wide variety of tasks
that call for the same general capabilities. For example you can use a word processor
to write a term paper, a letter, a book, and a projection for a huge company.
Application software may be;
i. Packaged Application
ii. Custom programs

a. Packaged Application
These are software pre-written by professional programmers for general purpose
use. E.g.
i. Word Processing Package: Word processing software enables automated
manipulation of words in terms of entering, storage/ retrieval and printing of
text in various forms such as letters, reports, book and so on.

27
 ii. Spreadsheet: Spreadsheets are software used in the presentation and
analysis of data. It allows users to create tables and financial schedules by
entering data and formulas into rows and columns arranged as grid on a
display screen. Example of spreadsheets are Lotus1-2-3, Microsoft Excel,
Apple works spreadsheets etc.

iii. Data Management Software: Data base software creates and maintains a
data base and extract information from it. It is a collection of interrelated
files. A database management system (DBMS) is a suite of programs that
controls the organization, storage and retrieval of data (fields, records and
files) in a database. Examples of database Microsoft Access, Oracle, Sybase,
Filmmaker etc.

iv. Graphics Software: Graphics software provides facilities that allow the user
to use various kinds of computer graphics. Prior to the introduction of
graphics software, it takes quite some time to manually produce graphics
display forms of tabulated data. But today, it is possible to use graphic
packages to produce perfectly proportioned, accurate and visually appealing
to our sense of sight.
These are these types of graphics software, these are;
 Presentation graphics
 Art and illustration graphics
 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
v. Desktop Publishing Packages
Desktop Publishing (DPP) is an extension of word processing. Desktop
publishing refers to the use of desktop microcomputers, other hardware, such
as LaserJet printer and page composition software to produce documents for
printing purposes. Examples of these softwares are Adobe PageMaker,
CorelDraw, and Microsoft Publisher.

vi. Integrated Packages

Integrated packages are single programs that combine several application
program into one software, different from software suites which are merely
groups of programs that work together. It includes Word processor,
Spreadsheets, Database manager, Graphics and Communications, Microsoft
Works, Microsoft Office, Corel Suite, Lotus Smart Suites, Lotus Works. Others
are Personal information packages, project management, Games package,
Statistical Packages, Multimedia programs and Artificial intelligence etc.

b. Custom programs
These are programs tailored to the specific needs of particular kind of business or
professions. For example, doctors might find medical billing, accounting and patient-
tracking system more useful than a general-purpose spreadsheet and database.

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 II. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
The system software is special software meant for computer system. It is written by
computer manufacturers to facilitate the optimal use of the hardware systems. It
enables the application software to interact with the computer. The system software
consists of the following;
 Operating system
 Program language processor
 Utility programs

a) Operating System(OS)
Operating system software is software that controls the operation and manages the
resources of a computer system. The operating system performs the following
functions;
× It conducts the process called booting (cold and warm booting)
× It loads user programs and data into the memory
× Interprets the program instruction one at a time
× It controls the computer hardware
× It allows the user to interact with the hardware to obtain results.

Based on the number of users, an OS can act as an interface for two types of computer
systems as identified below;

 Single User Operating System

When an operating system acts as an interface for only one user, it is called single
user system
 Multi User Operating System
On the other hand, when an OS acts as an interface for more than one user, it
becomes a Multi-User system

Operating system changes as computer becomes more and outgrows the older operating
systems. The following are the most popular operating systems;

a. DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System): the Microsoft Disk Operating System
(DOS) is the processor to Microsoft Windows and is still widely used. Depending on
how your computer is configured, it may run DOS when it is turned on and then run
windows.

b. Windows: this is an operating environment that lays a graphical user interface

(GUI) shell around the DOS operating system and extends DOS capabilities. The
features of window are the use of mouse, pull down menus and icons.

c. Windows ’95: This operating system supports multi processing similar to multi-
tasking except that applications can run independently at the same time.

d. Windows 98/2000: These operating systems are web integrated. It allows users
to access data on the internet easily.

29
e. Windows NT (Windows for New Technology): This is a network operating
system with graphical user interface that multi-tasking, multi-user and multi-
processing. It is designed for powerful microcomputers and workgroup.

f. Windows XP (Windows Experience): This operating system was introduced in

1991. It comes in two versions; Home and Professional. Where the Professional
Edition focuses on reliability and security, the Home Edition includes extensive digital
photography, digital music, digital video, home networking and communications.

g. Windows 7: This operating systems is always capable of installing devices plug in

automatically. Devices like Printer and scanner can be installed automatically without
the installation CD. We have versions like Windows 7 Ultimate, Professional Edition
and Home Premium.

h. Windows 8: This is the latest released version of the windows. It is absolutely good
in every task you need to perform.

The following are the different versions of all windows software:

Windows (16-bit and 32-bit preemptive and cooperative multitasking)

o Windows 1.0 (Windows 1)

o Windows 2.0 (Windows 2 - separate version for i386 processor)
o Windows 3.0 (Windows 3)
o Windows 3.1x (Windows 3.1)
o Windows for Workgroups 3.1 (Codename Snowball)
o Windows 3.2 (Chinese-only release)
o Windows for Workgroups 3.11
o Windows 95 (Codename Chicago - Windows 4.0)
o Windows 98 (Codename Memphis - Windows 4.1)
o Windows Millennium Edition (Windows Me - Windows 4.9)
 Windows NT (Full 32-bit or 64-bit kernel, not dependent on MS-DOS)
o Windows NT 3.1
o Windows NT 3.5
o Windows NT 3.51
o Windows NT 4.0
o Windows 2000 (Windows NT 5.0)
o Windows XP (Windows NT 5.1)
o Windows Server 2003 (Windows NT 5.2)
o Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs (based on Windows XP)
o Windows Vista (Windows NT 6.0)
o Windows Azure (Cloud OS Platform) 2009
o Windows Home Server (based on Windows Server 2003)
o Windows Server 2008 (based on Windows Vista)
o Windows 7 (Windows NT 6.1)
o Windows Server 2008 R2 (based on Windows 7)
o Windows Home Server 2011 (based on Windows Server 2008 R2)
o Windows Server 2012 (based on Windows 8)
o Windows 8 (Windows NT 6.2)

30
 o Windows Phone 8
o Windows 8.1 (based on Windows 8)
o Windows Server 2012 R2 (based on Windows 8.1)
 Windows CE (OS for handhelds, embedded devices, and real-time applications
that is similar to other versions of Windows)
o Windows CE 3.0
o Windows CE 5.0
o Windows CE 6.0
o Windows Mobile (based on Windows CE, but for a smaller form factor)
o Windows Phone 7

g. UNIX: UNIX is a multi-tasking operating system for multi –users. It was developed
at AT & T Bell Laboratories in 1969 for use on microcomputers. UNIX is extensively
used for website management.

h. Linux: This operating system is Unix-like created by Linus Torvalds. It is an

operating system, that is freely distributed over the internet and copying is
encourage. It provides easy-to manage database that offers high
performance, complementing the stability and reliability for e-business
success.

Some popular mainstream Linux distributions (flavours) include Debian (and

its derivatives such as Ubuntu and Linux Mint), Fedora (and its derivatives
such as the commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux and its open equivalent
CentOS), Mandriva/Mageia, openSUSE (and its commercial derivative
SUSE Linux Enterprise Server), Arch Linux and Google's Android.

i. Macintosh Operating System: The most important thing about the Apple
Corporation’s Macintosh computer is that, it sets the standard for icon oriented
graphical user interfaces, which makes it easy to use. This is why Macintosh is
popular for desktop publishing.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Programming Language is a coded language used by programmers to write
instructions that a computer can understand to do what the programmer (or the
computer user) wants.

Programming languages are grouped into generations and levels of operations.

(a) Languages are grouped into generations based on when they were first
developed. It is generally accepted that there are five such generations to
computer professionals.

31
(b) Languages are grouped by levels based on how much they are like or unlike
the language the computer itself understands, called the Machine Language.
The lower the level of the language, the closer it is, to the language the
computer systems hardware understands.

Generally, as programming language advanced from one generation to the next,

they open new opportunities and become easier to use. The trend has been to make
them more English like, more readable to even non-professional users because,
older programming languages were a series of 1s and 0s and alphanumeric which are
more difficult to understand.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

1. First Generation Languages (1GL): 1GL represent the very early,
primitive computer language that consisted entirely of 1’s and 0’s. the actual
language that computer understand (Machine Language).

2. Second Generation Languages (2GL): 2GL represents a step up from the

first generation languages. Allows for the use of symbolic names instead of
just numbers. Second generation languages are known as Assembly
Languages. Code written in an assembly language is converted into machine
language (1GL).

3. Third Generation Languages (3GL): With the languages introduced by

the third generation of computer programming, words and commands
(instead of just symbols and numbers) were being used. These languages
therefore had syntax that was much easier to understand. Third Generation
languages are known as “High Level Language” and include; C, C++, Java
and JavaScript, etc.

4. Fourth Generation Languages (4GL): The syntax used in 4GL is very

close to human language, an improvement from the previous generation
languages. 4GL languages are typically used to access database and include
SQL and ColdFusion, etc.

5. Fifth Generation Languages (5GL): 5GLs are currently being used for
neural network. A neural network is a form of artificial intelligence that
attempts to imitate how the human mind works.

LEVELS OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

There are three (3) basic types of computer programming languages. They are
machine, assembly and high level. Each of these types of programming language is
described below;

32
1. MACHINE LANGUAGE “LOW LEVEL LANGUAGE” (LLL): Machine
language is the only language that the computer understands. Each
statement language program is a sequence of bits. Each bit may be set to 0
or 1. Series of bits represent instructions that a computer can understand. It
is easily understood by computers but difficult to read by people. This is why
people use higher level programming languages. Programs written in high
level languages are compiled and/or interpreted into machine language so
that computers can execute them.

2. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE OR MID LEVEL LANGUAGE (MLL): Assembly

Language implements a symbolic representation of codes called (Mnemonics)
that help the programmer remember individual instructions, registers, etc. in
other words, each assembly language instructions translates to a machine
language instruction. The advantage of assembly language is that its
instructions are readable. The disadvantage of assembly language is that it is
not portable. In other words, assembly language programs are specific to a
particular hardware.

3. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE (HLL): High Level Languages are what most
programmers use. They are very readable, portable and the statement in
these languages are English-like. Examples HLL include; Ada, BASIC, C, C++,
FORTRAN, LISP, PASCAL, Prolog, etc.

LANGUAGE CLASSIFICATION
S/N LANGUAGE GENERATION LEVEL
1. Machine Language First Generation Low Level
1GL
2. Assembly Language Second Generation Low Level
(Mnemonics) 2GL
3. Procedural Language Third Generation High Level
(FORTRAN, COBOL, JAVA) 3GL
4. Query Language (Prolog, SQL, Fourth Generation Very High Level
Focus) 4GL

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 TRANSLATORS
Regardless of what language used in programming, every other programming
language needs to be converted into machine language so that the computer can
understand it.

Therefore, translators convert the computer programming languages into machine

languages. There are three (3) types of translators; Assembler, Compiler and
Interpreter. The types use depends on two basic conditions:
 The programming language, the source program was created with.
 The type processor, the program is being translated for processing or
execution.

(a) Source code Translator Object code

High Level Language Compiler or interpreter

(b) Programming Assembly High Level BASIC

Language Language Language Language

Translator An A An
Assembler Compiler Interpreter

Translator to MACHINE LANGUAGE (CODE)

Machine Language
UTILITY SOFTWARE (PROGRAMS)
Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize
or maintain a computer.

Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the
computer hardware, operating system, application software and data storage)
operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and targeted at people
with an advanced level of computer knowledge - in contrast to application software,
which allows users to do things like creating text documents, playing video games,
listening to music or viewing websites.

34
 Utility software categories

 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses

 Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of
files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or
encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive
utility for the reverse operation.
 Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore
either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an
event of accidental deletion).
 Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system .
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
 Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided
with a stream or file.
 Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to
target data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility:
o File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources.
They may be used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used
to help users carry their digital music, photos and video in their mobile
devices.
o Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more
than one user attempts to simultaneously modify the same file.
 Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.
 Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete
when their hard disk is full.
 Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of
a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
 Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across
several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to
increase efficiency.
 Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with
its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
 Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size
for each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the
distribution of the used space.
 Disk storage utilities
 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data
management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving,
copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
 Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an
actual program.
 Memory testers check for memory failures.
 Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network
settings, check data transfer or log events.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old
registry keys that are no longer in use.
 Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma
computer monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns
when the computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for
entertainment or security.

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  System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system.
 System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and
hardware attached to the computer.

HUMAN ISSUES

The human issue is one of the basic components of the computer system also
known as the computer triangle. It is a very important component because without it
(humanware or peopleware or user), the computer cannot operate itself.

COMPUTER SPECIALISTS/PROFESSIONALS
Very many different people are involved in the aspect of computer designing,
operations and use. Most of these career fields in computer system can be divided
into four official positions;
(a) System Analyst
(b) Programmer or Computer Programmer
(c) Computer Engineer/Technician
(d) Computer Operator

SYSTEM ANALYST
A system analyst is a person who analyzes, designs and implements computer-based
information system.
FUNCTIONS
Systems Analysts look after the details of existing system in order to design
computer systems resources that meet user’s data processing need.

Education and Experience Requirement: Systems Analysts are highly trained

computer scientists with a minimum of a Bachelor’s degree in computer science and
relatively long years of experience in programming and systems development.

COMPUTER PROGRAMMERS
A programmer translates system design specifications produced by systems analysts
into instructions that can be read and interpreted by computers (programs). Develop
programs.

Education and Experience Requirement: A System Programmer must have a

degree in computer science or computer Engineering.

COMPUTER ENGINEERS/TECHNICIANS
A Computer Engineer/Technician is concerned with the architectural design of
computer components, installations, maintenance and general repairs of the
computer systems.

Architectural design is the work of computer engineers sometimes with the help of
technicians. We have computer hardware engineers who design, install, maintain

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and repair computer hardware components and the computer software engineers
who ensure that they design software or program that meets the requirements of
the users and other stakeholders.

Education and Experience Requirement: A computer engineer will need a

Bachelor’s degree or a higher National Diploma in Computer science/Engineering or
Information Technology.

A technician will need a technical school Diploma in a computer related field.

COMPUTER OPERATORS
The computer operators are the people who have constant communication with the
computer systems. A computer operator performs hardware-based activities that are
needed to keep the computer system running/operating smoothly.

If the computer system fails, the operator initiates checks/procedures to “bring the
system up”. Examples of computer operators include;
 Data Entry operators
 Control operators
 Librarians, etc.

Operators except for data entry operators will need Technical School Diploma;
National Board on Technical Education (NBTE), Certificate and other Professional
Computer Certifications.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD COMPUTER PROFESSIONAL

1. A good computer professional must have good communication skills; i.e must
be able to read and write.
2. A good computer professional must have appropriate qualification
3. A good computer professional must be trustworthy and have integrity as he
or she will be entrusted with sensitive and confidential information
4. He/she must be dynamic and ready to learn new things as the computer
industry is equally dynamic
5. He/she must know his/her job very well.

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 COMPUTER PROFESSIONAL BODIES IN NIGERIA
Computer Professional Bodies are computer professional organization that computer
professionals/specialists can join or belong.

Come professional bodies that computer professionals in Nigeria can join include;
1. The Nigeria Computer Society (NCS)
2. Computer Professional Registration Council of Nigeria (CPRN)
3. Information Technology Association of Nigeria (ITAN)
4. Institute for Management Information System (IMIS)

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 SUMMARY ON COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
i. HAREWARE
ii. SOFTWARE
iii. USER OR HUMANWARE

HAREWARE SOFTWARE USER

PHYSICAL/TANGIBLE PARTS PROGAMS IN THE COMPUTER PEOPLE THAT USE
COMPUTER
INPUT DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES STORAGE DEVICES PROCESSING SYSTEM APPLICATION
DEVICE SOFTWARE SOFTWARE  System analyst
Devices Used To Devices Used To Used to store data Transforms data Software that Software applied to  Programmer
Send Data Into Send Out /information into information controls and solve problems based  Engineer/Technician
The Computer Information From manages the on the need of the user  Educator
 MOUSE The Computer  CD ROM  CENTRAL resources of  WORD PROCESSOR  Operator
 KEYBOARD  DISKETTE OR PROCESSING the computer E.g. MS Word, word  etc
 JOYSTICK  MONITOR FLOPPY DISK UNIT (CPU) system. Perfect, Note Pad,
 LIGHTPEN  PRINTER  HARD DISK WordPad etc.
 SCANNER  PROJECTOR  FLASH DRIVE OR OR  OPERATING  SPREADSHEET
 MICROPHONE  SPEAKER LIGHT PEN SYSTEM E.g. MS Excel, Lotus
 MEMORY CARD  PROCESSOR 1-2-3, Quattro Pro,
 PUNCH CARD  UTILITY Work Calc, super Calc
 MAGNETIC TAPE PROGRAM etc.
 GRAPHIC PACKAGE
 PROGRAM E.g. CorelDraw,
LANGUAGE Instant Artist, Adobe
PROCESSOR Photo Shop, etc.
 Etc.

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 WINDOWS
Windows, which was the first release in April 1990, allows the display of text and
graphics on the monitor screen. When running windows, all activities take place on
the desktop, (the screen of the monitor).

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES (GUI): This is the pictorial representation of

commands and programs on the Visual Display Unit (VDU) via the use of graphics
and images called icons.

STARTING WINDOWS

1. Switch on the Computer (booting)

2. Allow to boot to the windows Desktop

 WINDOWS DESKTOP
The first screen that displays when you start windows is called windows
desktop. Your desktop will have the same basic features but may not look
exactly the same.

icon
s

Taskbar

Fig a.1: Windows 7 Desktop

On a typical window desktop is found the icons and the taskbar:

ICONS: icons are small graphical symbols on the desktop. After an application is started
(usually by double-clicking the mouse on its icon), it runs in an application window on the
desktop. One can reduce or minimize (temporarily closed) any open application icon. (See
fig A.2)

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TASKBAR: The taskbar is a bar at the bottom of the desktop. It holds the start button. In
addition it holds the shortcuts Icons and the buttons for all the open windows.

Windows 98 comes with date and time icon on the task bar. If you have sound installed, the
speaker icon is displayed. The task bar stays visible always. You can use it to jump from one
program to another just by clicking on the desired program.

Fig : Task Bar

START BUTTON: Click on the start button to reveal all that you need to start using
windows as shown below;

In the Start menu, you will see options like:

 All program
 Documents
 Control Panel
 Search
 Help and support
 My computer
 Run
 Shut down
 Etc.

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 BASIC CONCEPT OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
DESKTOP: This is the area on the screen which displays the various components of the
system. It is always the starting screen to the operating system environment (see below)

Start button Application icon

Icon Task Bar Time

FIG : THE DESKTOP

COMPUTER VIRUS
A computer virus is a malicious computer program designed or written by obsessive
computer users or programmers in order to corrupt files or to perform tasks that are
detrimental to computer operations.
• It also destroys programs, files and disks
• If not checked, it may lead to total damage of the computer.
• Computer virus may corrupt files and negatively affect the memory of the
computer

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 CLASSES OF COMPUTER VIRUS

• Stealth virus: This class of virus performs a cautious and secretive action on
the computer system.
• Polymorphic virus: These are group of viruses are transitional in nature.
This simply means that it changes from one form to another.
• File virus –Direct Action File Virus (DAFV)
- Indirect Action File Virus (IAFV)
The file virus generally affects files, folders and briefcases.
• Boot sector virus: Since the operating system controls the process of
booting, the boot sector virus indirectly affects the operating system through
the boot sector/section of the computer system.
• Partition record virus: This class of virus affects the partitions of the Hard
Disk which is considered to be the workhorse of the computer system.

EXAMPLES/TYPES OF COMPUTER VIRUS

The following are the types or examples of Computer Virus:
• Disk avenger
• Valentine virus
• Oppey virus
• Trojan horse
• Dark avenger
• Disk killer
• Chrismas virus
• Quit 1992
• Jeff
• Kenney
• Past 3
• Ambulance
• Anthrax
• Back time
• Best wishes
• Chameleon
• Jerusalem virus
• Etc.
•

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 MODE OF VIRUS OPERATION

• Computer virus consist of computer codes, which may be hidden or present

itself as one of the program codes and when such programs are run, the virus
attaches itself to other programs or files and cause such program to
malfunction
• In some cases, viruses are programmed to remain ineffective for sometime
and later manifest on the course of system life span.
• Once a system is infected, the virus finds its way to its appropriate residence
in the memory where it starts to cause its havoc.

WARNING SIGNS OR SYMPTOMS OF VIRUS IN A COMPUTER

• Difficulty in system booting

• Slowing down of response time
• Wandering across the screen
• Saving files without heading and without complete information
• Corruption of system set up instructions
• Appearance of strange characters
• Destruction of files

HOW TO CONTROL OR PREVENT COMPUTER VIRUS

• Ensure that there is an anti-virus program in your computer
• Do not use any diskette or any other secondary storage device without
scanning for virus
• make sure there are back-up diskettes
• Avoid the use of flash drives/ other storage devices from other computers
without scanning for virus
• Computer should be covered with system cover at the end of each day’s
work.

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• As a new anti-virus is introduced, a computer system should be updated with
the new version.
• computer systems should be automatically scanned on regular basis
(automatically or manually)
• Scan any e-mail before opening
• Users and staff in general should be educated on the existence of virus and
how to avoid it.

VIRUS DETECTION PROGRAM

(ANTI-VIRUS)
Some anti-virus are;
• E-port
• Norton anti-virus
• MacAfee virus scan
• Dr. Solomon tool kit
• Penicillin
• Kappersky
• Avast
• Avira
• Eset,
• eScan, etc

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 LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are switching devices that control the flow of information. The
form the “building block” for other devices used

TYPE OF LOGIC GATES

There are five types of logic gates
1. OR gate
2. AND gate
3. NOR gate
4. NAND gate
5. NOT (inverter)
Each of those gates is made up of electronic components such as diodes,
resistors and transistors.
TRUTH TABLE
Truth table is a table showing the different input combinations and the
corresponding output of a logic gate.

OR gate
OR gate is responding with a plus sign but called OR sign A + B
Distinctive shape of an OR gate
A A+B
B
Rectangle shape of an OR gate
A >I 1 A+B
B

Truth Table of an OR gate

A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

AND gate
AND gate is represented with or without dot
Example: A B or A B
Distinctive shape of an AND gate
A
B A B
Rectangle shape of an AND gate

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 A AB
B
Truth Table of an AND gate

A B AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NOT gate
NOT gate is commonly called INVERTER

Distinctive shape

A A
Rectangular symbol

B B

Truth table of a NOT gate

A A
0 1
1 0

NOR gate
NOR gate is the inverse of an OR gate A+B
Distinctive shape of a NOR gate
A A+B
B

Rectangular shape of a NOR gate

A A+B
B
Truth table for NOR gate
A B A+B A+B

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0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0

NAND gate
NAND gate is the inverse of an AND gate A B
Distinctive symbol of a NAND gate
A A B
B

Rectangular symbol of a NAND gate

A AB AB
&
B

Truth table and NAND gate

A B AB AB
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

NOR GATES AND NAND GATES

Two other types of logic gates, NOR gate and NAND gate are widely used in
digital circuit.
These gate actually combine the basic AND, OR and NOT operations, so it is a
relatively simple matter to write their Boolean expressions
NOR GATE
The NOR gate operate like an OR gate followed by an INVERTER.
A
B X=A+B

It is the same as the OR gate symbol except that it has a small circle on the
output. The small circle represents the inversion operation
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The NOR gate can also be represent as;

A
X=A+B
B
INVERSION
Truth Table
A B A+B A+B
0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0

Example
A X=A+B+C X=A+B+C
B
C =A+B+C

NAND gate
The NANO gate operate like an AND gate followed by an INVERTER
AB AB
A

B
It can also be represented as the AND gate symbol except that it has a small
circle on the out.
A
B AB

Truth table

A B AB AB
0 0 0 1 C+D
1 0 0 1 C
0 1 0 1 D X=AB(C+D)
1 1 1 0 B

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