Grade 10 Book (Maths Quest 10+10A)

MATHS QUEST
10 + 10A
for the Australian
Curriculum
KYLIE BOUCHER DEBBIE KEMPFF LYN ELMS RUTH BAKOGIANIS
DOUGLAS SCOTT CORAL CONNOR TOBIAS COOPER
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
CAROL PATTERSON | ROBERT CAHN | ANITA CANN | JACINTA DEYLAN
BRENDAN OWEN | IRENE KIROFF | ROSETTA BATSAKIS | ELENA IAMPOLSKY
JO BRADLEY | PAUL NUGENT
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_prelims.indd 1 15/05/12 2:16 PM

First published 2012 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT
© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2012
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Title: Maths quest 10+10A for the Australian curriculum/

Kylie Boucher [et al.]
ISBN: 978 0 7303 4178 9 (student ed. : pbk)
978 0 7303 4179 6 (student ed. : ebook)
978 1 118 39565 3 (student ed. : flexisaver)
978 0 7303 4181 9 (teacher ed. : pbk)
978 0 7303 4182 6 (teacher ed. : ebook)
Series: Maths quest series.
Notes: Includes index
Target Audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: Mathematics—Textbooks.
Mathematics—Study and teaching (Secondary)
Other Authors/
Contributors: Boucher, Kylie.
Dewey Number: 510
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Internal design images: © Shutterstock/Nikolai Bird, 2010

Illustrated by Aptara and the Wiley Art Studio
Typeset in India by Aptara
Printed in China by
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10 9 8 7
Contents
Introduction viii 3B Determining linear equations 64
About eBookPLUS x Exercise 3B 67
Acknowledgements xi 3C The distance between two points on a
straight line 68
Exercise 3C 70
CHAPTER 1 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
3D The midpoint of a line segment 71
PATTERNS AND ALGEBRA
Exercise 3D 73
Indices 1
3E Parallel and perpendicular lines 74
Are you ready? 2 Exercise 3E 79
1A Review of index laws 3 Summary 83
Exercise 1A 5 Chapter review 85
1B Negative indices 7 eBookPLUS activities 88
Exercise 1B 10
1C Fractional indices 12
Exercise 1C 14
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
1D Combining index laws 17
Exercise 1D 20 Simultaneous linear equations and
Summary 23 inequations 89
Chapter review 24 Are you ready? 90
eBookPLUS activities 26 4A Graphical solution of simultaneous linear
equations 91
CHAPTER 2 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Exercise 4A 94
PATTERNS AND ALGEBRA 4B Solving simultaneous linear equations using
Linear algebra 27 substitution 96
Exercise 4B 98
Are you ready? 28
4C Solving simultaneous linear equations using
2A Substitution 29
elimination 99
Exercise 2A 31
Exercise 4C 101
2B Adding and subtracting algebraic
4D Problem solving using simultaneous linear
fractions 33
equations 103
Exercise 2B 36
Exercise 4D 105
2C Multiplying and dividing algebraic
4E Solving linear inequations 106
fractions 37
Exercise 4E 108
Exercise 2C 39
4F Sketching linear inequations 110
2D Solving linear equations 40
Exercise 4F 113
Exercise 2D 43
4G Solving simultaneous linear
2E Solving equations with algebraic fractions
inequations 116
and multiple brackets 45
Exercise 4G 118
Exercise 2E 48
Summary 123
Summary 50
Chapter review 125
Chapter review 52
eBookPLUS activities 130
CHAPTER 3 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA CHAPTER 5 MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY

LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS PYTHAGORAS AND TRIGONOMETRY
Coordinate geometry 55 Trigonometry I 131

Are you ready? 56 Are you ready? 132
3A Sketching linear graphs 57 5A Pythagoras’ theorem 133
Exercise 3A 62 Exercise 5A 137

5B Pythagoras’ theorem in three 7E Mixed factorisation 240
dimensions 140 Exercise 7E 240
Exercise 5B 143 Summary 242
5C Trigonometric ratios 145 Chapter review 244
Exercise 5C 149 eBookPLUS activities 246
5D Using trigonometry to calculate side
lengths 151 CHAPTER 8 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
Exercise 5D 154 LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
5E Using trigonometry to calculate angle Quadratic equations 247
size 156
Are you ready? 248
Exercise 5E 158
8A Solving quadratic equations 249
5F Angles of elevation and depression 161
Exercise 8A 253
Exercise 5F 163
8B The quadratic formula 255
5G Bearings and compass directions 165
Exercise 8B 257
Exercise 5G 169
8C Solving quadratic equations by inspecting
5H Applications 172
graphs 258
Exercise 5H 173 Exercise 8C 261
Summary 177 8D Finding solutions to quadratic equations by
Chapter review 179 interpolation and using the discriminant 263
eBookPLUS activities 182 Exercise 8D 267
8E Solving a quadratic equation and a linear
CHAPTER 6 MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY equation simultaneously 269
USING UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Exercise 8E 272
Surface area and volume 183 Summary 274
Chapter review 276
Are you ready? 184
6A Area 185
Exercise 6A 189 CHAPTER 9 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
6B Total surface area 193 LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
Exercise 6B 199
Functions 279
6C Volume 203
Exercise 6C 208 Are you ready? 280
Summary 213 9A Plotting parabolas 281

Chapter review 214 Exercise 9A 284
eBookPLUS activities 218 9B Sketching parabolas using the basic graph of
y = x2 287
CHAPTER 7 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Exercise 9B 291
PATTERNS AND ALGEBRA 9C Sketching parabolas in turning point
form 292
Quadratic expressions 219 Exercise 9C 296
Are you ready? 220 9D Sketching parabolas of the form
7A Expanding algebraic expressions 221 y = ax2 + bx + c 298
Exercise 7A 225 Exercise 9D 302
7B Factorising expressions with three 9E Exponential functions and their graphs 306
terms 227 Exercise 9E 309
Exercise 7B 229 9F The hyperbola 312
7C Factorising expressions with two or four Exercise 9F 314
terms 231 9G The circle 315
Exercise 7C 234 Exercise 9G 317
7D Factorising by completing the Summary 319
square 236 Chapter review 321
Exercise 7D 239 eBookPLUS activities 324
iv Contents

CHAPTER 10 MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY CHAPTER 13 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
GEOMETRIC REASONING DATA REPRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
Deductive geometry 325 Univariate data 429

10A Congruence review 327 13A Measures of central tendency 431
10B Similarity review 332 13B Measures of spread 439
Exercise 10B 335 Exercise 13B 442
10C Congruence and proof 336 13C Box-and-whisker plots 444
Exercise 10C 338 Exercise 13C 447
10D Quadrilaterals: definitions and 13D The standard deviation 449
properties 340 Exercise 13D 451
Exercise 10D 341 13E Comparing data sets 454
10E Quadrilaterals and proof 344 Exercise 13E 455
Exercise 10E 345 13F Skewness 459
Summary 347 Exercise 13F 461
Chapter review 349 Summary 464
eBookPLUS activities 351 Chapter review 466
PROJECTS PLUS ICT ACTIVITY
pro-0099 Backyard flood 352 CHAPTER 14 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

DATA REPRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
CHAPTER 11 PROBLEM SOLVING

Bivariate data 471
Are you ready? 472
Problem solving I 355 14A Identifying related pairs of
variables 474
CHAPTER 12 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Exercise 14A 476
CHANCE 14B Graphing bivariate data 477
Exercise 14B 481
Probability 379
14C Scatterplots 483
Are you ready? 380 Exercise 14C 488
12A Review of probability 381
Summary 491
Exercise 12A 392 Chapter review 492
12B Complementary and mutually exclusive eBookPLUS activities 496
events 396
Exercise 12B 400
12C Two-way tables and tree diagrams 403 CHAPTER 15 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Exercise 12C 410
12D Independent and dependent Statistics in the media 497
events 413 Are you ready? 498
Exercise 12D 415 15A Populations and samples 499
12E Conditional probability 417 Exercise 15A 502
Exercise 12E 419 15B Primary and secondary
12F Subjective probability 420 data 503
Exercise 12F 421 Exercise 15B 508
Summary 423 15C Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical
Chapter review 425 reports 511
eBookPLUS activities 428 Exercise 15C 518
Contents v

15D Statistical investigations 521 18F Logarithms 617
Exercise 15D 525 Exercise 18F 618
Summary 527 18G Logarithm laws 619
Chapter review 529 Exercise 18G 622
eBookPLUS activities 533 18H Solving equations 624
Exercise 18H 628
PROJECTS PLUS ICT ACTIVITY
Summary 630
pro-0100 Climate change 534 Chapter review 632
MONEY AND FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS
Financial maths 537 PATTERNS AND ALGEBRA
Are you ready? 538 Polynomials 635

16A Purchasing goods 539
Are you ready? 636
Exercise 16A 540
19A Polynomials 637
16B Buying on terms 542
Exercise 19A 638
Exercise 16B 543
19B Adding, subtracting and multiplying
16C Successive discounts 546
polynomials 639
Exercise 16C 547
Exercise 19B 640
16D Compound interest 549
19C Long division of polynomials 641
Exercise 16D 551
Exercise 19C 646
16E Depreciation 553
19D Polynomial values 647
Exercise 16E 554
Exercise 19D 648
16F Loan repayments 556
19E The remainder and factor
Exercise 16F 558
theorems 649
Summary 560
Exercise 19E 650
Chapter review 562
19F Factorising polynomials 651
Exercise 19F 654
19G Solving polynomial equations 655
CHAPTER 17 PROBLEM SOLVING Exercise 19G 657
Problem solving II 565 Summary 659
Chapter review 661
10A
CHAPTER 18 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA CHAPTER 20 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
REAL NUMBERS
Real numbers 589 Functions and relations 663

18A Number classification review 591 20A Functions and relations 665
18B Surds 595 20B Exponential functions 671
Exercise 18B 597 Exercise 20B 675
18C Operations with surds 599 20C Cubic functions 679
Exercise 18C 607 Exercise 20C 682
18D Fractional indices 609 20D Quartic functions 683
Exercise 18D 612 Exercise 20D 685
18E Negative indices 614 20E Transformations 686
Exercise 18E 616 Exercise 20E 692
vi Contents

Summary 694 22C Area of triangles 745
Chapter review 696 Exercise 22C 747
eBookPLUS activities 698 22D The unit circle 749
Exercise 22D 752
CHAPTER 21 MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY 22E Trigonometric functions 755
GEOMETRIC REASONING Exercise 22E 757
22F Solving trigonometric equations 759
Circle geometry 699
Exercise 22F 761
Are you ready? 700
Summary 762
21A Angles in a circle 701 Chapter review 764
Exercise 21A 706 eBookPLUS activities 766
21B Intersecting chords, secants and
tangents 708
Exercise 21B 713 CHAPTER 23 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
21C Cyclic quadrilaterals 715
Exercise 21C 717 Interpreting data 767
21D Tangents, secants and chords 718 Are you ready? 768
Exercise 21D 720 23A Bivariate data 769
Summary 724 Exercise 23A 773
Chapter review 726 23B Lines of best fit 776
eBookPLUS activities 730 Exercise 23B 784
23C Time series 786
CHAPTER 22 MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY Exercise 23C 790
PYTHAGORAS & TRIGONOMETRY Summary 794
Trigonometry II 731 Chapter review 795
Are you ready? 732
22A The sine rule 733
Exercise 22A 739 Answers 799
22B The cosine rule 741 Glossary 889
Exercise 22B 744 Index 901
Contents vii

Introduction
Australian Mathematics education is entering a historic phase. A new curriculum offers new
opportunities to engage future generations of students in the exciting and challenging world of
Mathematics.
The Australian Mathematics Curriculum provides students with essential mathematical skills
and knowledge through the content strands of Number and algebra, Measurement and geometry
and Statistics and probability. The Curriculum focuses on students becoming proficient in
mathematical understanding, fluency, reasoning and problem solving.
Maths Quest 10 + 10A for the Australian Curriculum is specifically written and designed to
meet the requirements and aspirations of the Australian Mathematics Curriculum.
This resource contains:
■■ a student textbook with accompanying eBookPLUS
■■ a teacher edition with accompanying eGuidePLUS
■■ a TI-Nspire CAS Calculator companion
■■ a Casio ClassPad CAS Calculator companion.
Student textbook
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Are you ready? sections at the start of each chapter provide introductory questions to establish
students’ current levels of understanding. Each question is supported by a SkillSHEET that
explains the concept involved and provides extra practice if needed.
Clear, concise theory sections contain worked examples and highlighted important text and
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Exercises contain many carefully graded skills and application problems, including multiple-
choice questions. Cross-references to relevant worked examples appear with the first ‘matching’
question throughout the exercises.
Each chapter concludes with a summary and chapter review exercise containing examination-
style questions (multiple-choice, short-answer and extended-response), which help consolidate
students’ learning of new concepts.
A glossary is provided to enhance students’ mathematical literacy.
There are two problem-solving chapters designed to encourage students to apply their
mathematical skills in non-routine situations.
Student website — eBookPLUS

The accompanying eBookPLUS contains the entire student textbook in HTML plus additional
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viii Introduction

WorkSHEET icons link to editable Word documents, and may be completed on-screen, or
printed and completed by hand.
Individual pathway activity icons link to online activity sheets below, at and above the level
presented in the text, for each exercise. These activities allow students to work at their own pace
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SkillSHEET icons link to printable pages designed to help students revise required concepts, and
contain additional examples and problems.
Interactivity icons link to dynamic animations, which help students to understand difficult
concepts.
eLesson icons link to videos or animations designed to elucidate concepts in ways that are more
than what the teacher can achieve in the classroom.
Hungry brain activities provide engaging, whole-class activities to introduce each chapter.
Test yourself tests are also available. Answers are provided for students to receive instant
feedback.
Word searches and crosswords are available for each chapter.
Two ProjectsPLUS activities provide students with the opportunity to work collaboratively and
creatively, online, on a mathematics project.
Teacher website — eGuidePLUS

The accompanying eGuidePLUS contains everything in the eBookPLUS and more. Two tests
per chapter, fully worked solutions to WorkSHEETs, the work program and other curriculum
advice in editable Word format are provided. Maths Quest is a rich collection of teaching and
learning resources within one package.
Maths Quest 10 + 10A for the Australian Curriculum provides ample material, such as exercises,
problem-solving questions, projects, worksheets and technology files, from which teachers can
assess their students.
Introduction ix

190 mm x 255 mm CMYK
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Acknowledgements
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and
individuals for their assistance and for permission to reproduce copyright material in this book.
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Acknowledgements xi

toxic’, The Sunday Mail, 5 September 2010, p. 36; 523/‘Word limit’, by Professor Emeritus
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xii Acknowledgements

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA • PATTERNS AND ALGEBRA
1
1A Review of index laws
1B Negative indices
1C Fractional indices
1D Combining index laws
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?

1 List what you know about indices. Create
a concept map to show your list.
2 Share what you know with a partner and
then with a small group.
3 As a class, create a large concept map
Indices
that shows your class’s knowledge of
indices.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Hungry brain activity
Chapter 1
doc-5167
OPENING QUESTION
If you open a new social networking

account with a single friend and double
the number of friends each day, how
long would it take for you to have
1000 friends?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 1 15/05/12 11:55 AM

Are you ready?

Try the questions below. If you have difficulty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by
completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either search for the SkillSHEET in your eBookPLUS or
ask your teacher for a copy.
eBook plus
Index form
1 State the base and power for each of the following.
Digital doc
a 34 b 25 c 157
SkillSHEET 1.1
doc-5168
eBook plus
Using a calculator to evaluate numbers given in index form
2 Calculate each of the following.
Digital doc
a 24 b 53 c 46
SkillSHEET 1.2
doc-5169
eBook plus
Linking between squares and square roots
3 Complete the following statements.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 1.3 a If 32 = 9, then 9 =. . . b If 112 = 121, then 121 = . . .
doc-5170
c If 172 = 289, then 289 = . . .
eBook plus Calculating square roots

4 Find each of the following.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 1.4 a 64 b 100 c 25
doc-5171
eBook plus
Linking between cubes and cube roots
5 Complete the following statements.
Digital doc 3 3
SkillSHEET 1.5 a If 23 = 8, then 8 =. . . b If 53 = 125, then 125 = . . .
doc-5172 3
c If 93 = 729, then 729 = . . .
eBook plus Calculating cube roots

Digital doc 3 3 3
SkillSHEET 1.6 a 64 b 216 c 1
doc-5173
eBook plus
Estimating square roots and cube roots
7 Estimate, to the nearest whole number, the value of each of the following. (Do not use a
Digital doc
calculator.)
SkillSHEET 1.7
doc-5174 a 23 b 102 c 40
3 3 3
d 60 e 11 f 120
eBook plus Using a calculator to evaluate square roots and cube roots
8 Use a calculator to find the value, correct to 4 decimal places, of each square root or cube root
Digital doc
in question 7.
SkillSHEET 1.8
doc-5175
2 Maths Quest 10 for the Australian Curriculum
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 2 15/05/12 11:55 AM


■■ Index laws are the basis for exponential functions, which we will cover in a later chapter.
A number in index form has two parts; the base and the index, and is written as:
base ax index
(power or
exponent)
■■ Another name for an index is an exponent or a power.
■■ The first two index laws relate to multiplication and division of index expressions.
First Index Law: When terms with the same base are multiplied, the indices are added.
am ì an = am + n
Second Index Law: When terms with the same base are divided, the indices are subtracted.
am ó an = am - n
■■ Note: Constants or normal numbers should be treated normally when solving equations. Only
apply the index laws to the indices themselves. This will become clearer in the following
worked examples.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Simplify each of the following.

a m4n3p ì m2n5p3
b 2 a2b3 ì 3 a b4
2 x 5 y4
c
10 x 2 y3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a m4n3p ì m2n5p3
2 Multiply the terms with the same base by = m4 + 2 n3 + 5 p1 + 3

adding the indices. Note: p = p1. = m6n8p4
b 1 Write the expression. b 2a2b3 ì 3ab4
2 Simplify by multiplying the coefficients, = 2 ì 3 ì a2 + 1 ì b3 + 4

then multiply the terms with the same base = 6a3b7
by adding the indices.
2x5 y4
c 1 Write the expression. c
10 x 2 y 3
1x 5 − 2 y 4 − 3
2 Simplify by dividing both of the coefficients =
by the same factor, then divide terms with 5
the same base by subtracting the indices. x3 y
=
5
■■ The Third Index Law is used in calculations when a zero index is involved.
Third Index Law: Any term (excluding 0) with an index of 0, is equal to 1.
a0 = 1
Chapter 1 Indices 3
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 3 15/05/12 11:55 AM

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

a (2 b3)0 b -4(a2b5)0
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (2b3)0

2 Apply the Third Index Law, which states =1
that any term (excluding 0) with an index of
0, is equal to 1.
b 1 Write the expression. b -4(a2b5)0
2 The term inside the brackets has an index = -4 ì 1
of 0 so the bracket is equal to 1.
3 Simplify. = -4
■■ The Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Index Laws involve removing brackets from an index expression.
Fourth Index Law: To remove brackets, multiply the indices inside the brackets by the index
outside the brackets. Where no index is shown, assume that it is 1.
(am)n = amn
Fifth Index Law: To remove brackets containing a product, raise every part of the product to
the index outside the brackets.
(ab)m = ambm
Sixth Index Law: To remove brackets containing a fraction, multiply the indices of both the
numerator and denominator by the index outside the brackets.
m
 a am
 b  = m
b
■■ Note: Do not forget to raise constants to the correct power as well.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Simplify each of the following. 4

 2 x3 
a (2n4)3 b (3 a2b7)3 c  
d (-4)3
 y4 
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (2n4)3

2 Apply the Fourth Index Law by multiplying = 21 ì 3n4 ì 3
the indices inside the brackets by the index = 23n12
outside the brackets. Simplify any constants = 8n12
raised to a power. Note: 2 = 21.
b 1 Write the expression. b (3a2b7)3
2 Apply the Fifth Index Law by multiplying = 31 ì 3 ì a2 ì 3 ì b7 ì 3
the indices inside the brackets by the index = 33a6b21
outside the brackets. Note: 3 = 31.
3 Simplify. = 27a6b21
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 4 15/05/12 11:55 AM

4
 2x3 
c 1 Write the expression. c  
 y4 
2 Apply the Sixth Index Law by multiplying 21 × 4 × x 3 × 4
the indices of both the numerator and =
y4 × 4
denominator by the index outside the
brackets.
3 Simplify. 16 x12
=
y16
d 1 Write the expression. d (-4)3
2 Expand the brackets. = -4 ì -4 ì -4
3 Simplify, taking careful note of the sign. = -64
Hint: A negative number raised to an odd power will
always remain negative; a negative number raised to
an even power will always become positive. Why?
REMEMBER
To simplify expressions with constants and/or pronumerals in index form, the following
index laws are used.
1. am ì an = am + n
2. am ó an = am - n
3. a0 = 1 (when a ≠ 0)
4. (am)n = amn
5. (ab)m = ambm
m
 a am
6.   =
 b bm
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 1a, b Simplify each of the following.
eBook plus a a3 ì a4 b a2 ì a3 ì a c b ì b5 ì b2
d ab ì a b
2 3 5 e m2n6 ì m3n7 f a2b5c ì a3b2c2
Activity 1-A-1
Reviewing index
g mnp ì m5n3p4 h 2a ì 3ab i 4a2b3 ì 5a2b ì 12b5
operations j 3m3 ì 2mn2 ì 6m4n5 1
k 4x2 ì xy3 ì 6x3y3 l 2x3y2 ì 4x ì 12 x4y4
doc-4948 2
Activity 1-A-2 2 WE 1c Simplify each of the following.
Practising the a a4 ó a3 b a7 ó a2 c b6 ó b3
index laws
4a 7
21b 6
48m8
doc-4949 d e f
Activity 1-A-3 3a3 7b 2 12m3
Applying the
m 7 n3 2x 4 y3
index laws g h i 6x7y ó 8x4
doc-4950 m 4 n2 4x4 y
20 m 5 n3 p4 14 x 3 y 4 z 2
j 7ab5c4 ó ab2c4 k l
16m3 n3 p2 28 x 2 y 2 z 2
Chapter 1 Indices 5
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 5 15/05/12 11:55 AM

3 WE2 Simplify each of the following.

a a0 b (2b)0 c (3m2)0
d 3x0 e 4b0 f -3 ì (2n)0
0
 a
g 4a0 -   h 5y0 - 12 i 5x0 - (5xy2)0
  4
4 WE3 Simplify each of the following.
4
 m2 
a (a2)3 b (2a5)4 c  
 3 
2
 2 n4 
d   e (a2b)3 f (3a3b2)2
 3 
3 2
 3m 2 n   a2 
g (2m3n5)4 h   i  3
 4  b 
4 3 4
 5m3   7x  l
 3a 
j   k  5   3 
 n2   2y  5b
m (-3)5 n (-7)2 o (-2)5
5 MC a 2m10n5 is the simplified form of:

6m10 n4
A m5n3 ì 2m4n2 B C (2m5n2)2
3n
2
 2m 5 
D 2n(m5)2 ì n4 E  
 n3 
b The value of 4 - (5a)0 is:
A -1 B 9 C 1
D 3 E 5
6 MC a 4 a3b ì b4 ì 5a2b3 simplifies to:
A 9a5b8 B 20a5b7 C 20a5b8
5 7
D 9a b E 21a5b8
15 x 9 × 3 x 6
b simplifies to:
9 x10 × x 4
A 5x9 B 9x C 5x29
D 9x9 E 5x
3 p7 × 8q 9
c simplifies to:
12 p3 × 4 q 4
p4 q 4 q4
A 2q4 B C
2 2
p4 q 4 q4
D E
24 24
7a 5 b 3 7b 3 a 2
d ÷ simplifies to:
5a6 b 2 5b 5a 4
49a3 b 25a3 b
A B C a3b
25 49
25ab3
D ab3 E
49
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 6 15/05/12 11:55 AM

UNDERSTANDING
7 Evaluate each of the following.
a 23 ì 22 ì 2 b 2 ì 32 ì 22 c (52)2
3
35 × 4 6  3
d e (23 ì 5)2 f  
34 × 4 4  5
4 4 × 56
g 3 5
h (33 ì 24)0 i 4(52 ì 35)0
4 ×5
8 Simplify each of the following.
a (xy)3z b ab ì (pq)0 c ma ì nb ì (mn)0
x
a 2
n3 m 2
d  e f (am + n) p
3 p q
b  n m
REASONING
9 Find algebraically the exact value of x if 4x + 1 = 2x . Justify your answer.
2
10 Binary numbers (base 2 numbers) are used in computer operations. As the name implies,
binary uses only two types of numbers, 0 and 1, to express all numbers. A binary
number such as 101 (read one, zero, one) means
(1 ì 22) + (0 ì 21) + (1 ì 20) = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5
(in base 10, the base we are most familiar with).
The number 1010 (read one, zero, one, zero)
means (1 ì 23) + (0 ì 22) + (1 ì 21) + (0 ì 20) = 8
+ 0 + 2 + 0 = 10.
If reading the binary number from right to
left, the index of 2 increases by one each time,
beginning with a power of zero.
Using this information, write out the numbers
1 to 10 in binary (base 2) form.
REFLECTION  
Why are these laws called index

laws?
1B Negative indices
■■ So far we have dealt only with indices that are positive whole numbers or zero. To extend this,
eBook plus
we need to consider the meaning of an index that is a negative whole number. Consider the
Interactivity a3 a3
Colour code expression 5 . Using the Second Index Law, 5 = a3 - 5
breaker a a
int-2777 = a-2
a3 a×a×a
Writing terms in the expanded notation we have: 5 =
a a×a×a×a×a
1
=
a×a
1
= 2
a
1
By equating the results of simplification, using the two methods, we have: a-2 = 2 .
a
Chapter 1 Indices 7
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 7 15/05/12 11:55 AM

1 a0
■■ In general terms, (1 = a0)
=
n
a an
= a0 - n (using the Second Index Law)
= a-n
1
Seventh Index Law: a-n = n
a
■■ The convention is that an expression should be written using positive indices and so we use
the Seventh Index Law to do this.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Express each of the following with positive indices.

4
a x-3 b 2m-4n2 c
a−3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x-3

1
2 Apply the Seventh Index Law. =
x3
b 1 Write the expression. b 2m-4n2
2 n2
2 Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the =
expression with positive indices. m4
4
c 1 Copy the expression and rewrite the fraction, c −3
= 4 ó a-3
using a division sign. a
2 1
Apply the Seventh Index Law to write the =4ó
expression with positive indices. a3
a3
3 To divide the fraction, use the ‘multiply and =4ì
flip’ method. 1
= 4a3
1
■■ Part c from Worked example 4 demonstrates the converse of the Seventh Index Law = an.
a −n
■■ All laws discussed in the previous section are applicable to the terms with negative indices.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Simplify each of the following, expressing the answers with positive indices.
−2
2 x 4 y2  2 m3 
-3 -5
a a b ì a b
2 b c  −2 
3 xy5  n 
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a a2 b-3 ì a-5b

2 Apply the First Index Law. Multiply terms = a2 + -5b-3 + 1
with the same base by adding the indices. = a-3b-2
1
3 Express the answer with positive indices. = 3 2
a b
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 8 15/05/12 11:55 AM

4 2
b 1 Write the expression. b 2x y
3 xy 5
2x 4 − 1y 2 − 5
2 Apply the Second Index Law. Divide terms =
with the same base by subtracting the 3
indices.
2 x 3 y −3
=
3
2x3
3 Express the answer with positive indices. =
3y3
−2
 2m3 
c 1 Write the expression. c  
 n−2 
2 −2 m−6
2 Apply the Sixth Index Law. Multiply =
the indices of both the numerator and n4
denominator by the index outside the
brackets. Remember that 2 = 21.
1
3 Express all terms with positive indices. =
2 m6 n 4
2
1
4 Simplify. =
4 m6 n 4
■■ Numbers in index form can be easily evaluated if they are expressed with positive indices
first. Consider the following example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Evaluate 6 ì 3-3 without using a calculator.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the multiplication. 6 ì 3-3

1
2 Express 3-3 with a positive index. =6ì
33
6
3 Multiply the numerator of the fraction by the =
whole number. 33
6
4 Evaluate the denominator. =
27
2
5 Cancel by dividing both the numerator and =
denominator by the same number. 9
Chapter 1 Indices 9
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 9 15/05/12 11:55 AM

REMEMBER
1. A term with a negative index can be expressed with a positive index using the Seventh
Index Law.
1
(a) a-n = n
a
1
(b) −n = an
a
2. All index laws apply to terms with negative indices.
3. Always express answers with positive indices unless otherwise instructed.
4. Numbers and pronumerals without an index are understood to have an index of 1.
EXERCISE
1B Negative indices
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE4 Express each of the following with positive indices.
eBook plus a x-5 b y-4 c 2a-9
4 -3
d a e 3x2y-3 f 2-2m-3n-4
Activity 1-B-1 5
1 2
Negative indices g 6a3b-1c-5 h i
−6
doc-4951 a 3a −4
Activity 1-B-2
6a 7a −4 2m3 n −5
Harder negative j k l
indices 3b −2 2b −3 3a−2b 4
doc-4952
Activity 1-B-3 2 WE5 Simplify each of the following, expressing the answers with positive indices.
Tricky negative a a3b-2 ì a-5b-1 b 2x-2y ì 3x-4y-2 c 3m2n-5 ì m-2n-3
indices d 4a3b2 ó a5b7 e 2xy6 ó 3x2y5 f 5x-2y3 ó 6xy2
doc-4953
6m 4 n 4x2 y9 2m 2 n− 4
g h i
2 n3 m 6 x 7 y −3 6m 5 n−1
j (2a3m4)-5 k 4(p7q-4)-2 l 3(a-2b-3)4
−3 2 −3
 2 p2   a− 4   6a 2 
m   n   o  
 3q3   2b −3   3b −2 
3 WE6 Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

a 2-3 b 6-2 c 3-4
d 3-2 ì 23 e 4-3 ì 22 f 5 ì 6-2
−3
6 4×3 1
g h i × 5−2 × 34
2 −3 2−3 3
160 × 24 53 × 250 34 × 4 2
j k l
82 × 2− 4 252 × 5− 4 123 × 150
4 Evaluate each of the following, using a calculator.
a 3-6 b 12-4 c 7-5
 1  −8 −7
 3
d  2 
e f (0.045)-5
 4 
5 MC a x-5 is the same as:

1 1
A -x5 B -5x C 5x D E
x5 x −5
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 10 15/05/12 11:55 AM

1
b is the same as:
a−4
A 4a B -4a C a4
1
D E -a4
a4
1
c
8
is the same as:
A 23 B 2-3 C 32
1
D 3-2 E
2−3
3m 4
6 MC a Which of the following, when simplified, gives ?
4 n2
3m − 4n−2 −2 4 −2
3n−2
A B 3 × 2 × m × n C
4 2−2 m − 4
22 n−2
D E 3m 4 × 22 n−2
3−1 m − 4
3 -4 6
b When simplified, 3a-2b-7 ó a b is equal to:
4
4 9b 9a 2
A B C
a6 b13 4 a6 4b
4a2 4a2
D E
b13 b
c When (2x6y-4)-3 is simplified, it is equal to:
2 x18 x18 y12
A B C
y12 8 y12 8 x18
8 y12 x18
D E
x18 6 y12
3
 2a x  8b 9
d If   is equal to , then x and y (in that order) are:
 by  a6
A -3 and -6 B -6 and -3 C -3 and 2
D -3 and -2 E -2 and -3
UNDERSTANDING
7 Simplify, expressing your answer with positive indices.
m−3 n−2 (m3 n−2 )−7
a b
m−5 n6 (m −5 n3 )4
5(a3 b −3 )2 (5a −2 b)−1
c ÷
(ab− 4)−1 (a − 4b)3
8 Simplify, expanding any expressions in brackets.

a (r3 + s3) (r3 - s3) b (m5 + n5)2
−4
( x a + 1 )b × x a + b  px + 1  p8( x + 1) p2
c d   × ×
x a ( b + 1) × x 2 b  px − 1  2x 4
(p ) 12 x 0
(p )
Chapter 1 Indices 11
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 11 15/05/12 11:55 AM

 2r × 8r  ar + b.
9 Write   in the form 2
 22r × 16 
10 Write 2-m ì 3-m ì 62m ì 32m ì 22m as a power of 6.
11 Solve for x if 4x - 4x - 1 = 48.
REASONING
12 Look at the following pattern:
22 = 4
21 = 2
20 = 1
a What is changing on the left hand side of the
equation each time? REFLECTION  
b What is the pattern shown on the right hand side of
Do any of the index laws
the equation?
from exercise 1A not apply to
c How can this pattern be used to help display the negative indices?
1
rule a-n = ?
an
■■ Terms with fractional indices can be written as surds, using the following laws:
1
1. a n = n a
m
n
2. a n = am
( a)
m
n
= .
■■ To understand how these laws are formed, consider the following numerical examples. Using
1 1
the First Index Law 4 2 × 4 2 = 41
and we also know that 4 × 4 = 16
=4
1
If these two identities are true, then 42 = 4.
Similarly:
1 1 1
Using the First Index Law 8 3 × 8 3 × 8 3 = 81
and we also know that 3
8 × 3 8 × 3 8 = 3 512
=8
1
If these two identities are true, then 83 = 3 8.
1
This can be generalised to an = n a.
m 1 m 1
m× ×m
■■ Now consider: a n = a n or a n = an
m
1  1
= (a m ) n = a 
n
 
n
= a m = ( n a )m
m
n
Eighth Index Law: a n = a m = ( n a )m .
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 12 15/05/12 11:55 AM

■■ As can be seen from the above identities, the denominator of a fraction (n) indicates the
power or type of root. That is, n = 3 implies cube root, n = 4 implies fourth root, and so on.
Note that when n = 2 (square root), it is the convention not to write 2 at the square root sign.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

1 3
a 9 2 b 16 2
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Rewrite the number using the Eighth Index Law. a 92 = 9
2 Evaluate. =3
m 3
3
b 1 Rewrite the number using a = ( n a )m.
n b 16 2 = ( 16 )
2 Evaluate the square root. = 43
3 Evaluate the result. = 64
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
1
1 2 1  2 2
a m 5 × m 5 b
2 3 6
(a b ) c
 x3 
 3
 y 4 
THINK WRITE
1 2
a 1 Write the expression. a m5 × m5
3
2 Apply the First Index Law to multiply terms with the same = m5
base by adding the indices.
1
b 1 Write the expression. b (a 2 b 3 ) 6
2 3
2 Use the Fourth Index Law to multiply each index inside the = a6 b6
brackets by the index outside the brackets.
1 1
3 Simplify the fractions. = a3b2
1
 22
3
c 1 Write the expression. c x 
 3
 y 4 
2 Use the Sixth Index Law to multiply the index in both the x3
= 3
numerator and denominator by the index outside the brackets.
y8
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 13 15/05/12 11:55 AM

REMEMBER
1. Fractional indices are those which are expressed as fractions.

2. Terms with fractional indices can be written as surds, using the following identities:
1
an = n a
m
a n = n a m = ( n a )m .
3. All index laws are applicable to fractional indices.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE7 Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.
eBook plus
1 1 1 1 1 1
Activity 1-C-1 a 16 2 b 25 2 c 812 d 8 3 e 64 3 f 814

Fractional indices 1 3 3 7 3 2
doc-4954 g 16 4 h 25 2
36 2 i j 100 2 k 16 4 l 27 3
Activity 1-C-2
Harder fractional
2 Using a calculator, evaluate each of the following. Give the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
1 1 1
indices
doc-4955 a 3 3 b 5 2 c 7 5
Activity 1-C-3 1 3 4
Tricky fractional d 8 9 e 12 8 f (0.6) 5
indices 3 3 2
doc-4956  2 2  3 4  4 3
g   h   i  
3 4 5
eBook plus 3 WE8a Simplify each of the following.

3 1 1 3 1 1
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 1.9
a 4 5 × 4 5 b 2 8 × 2 8 c a 2 × a 3
3 2 1 1 3 2
doc-5176 1 7
d x 4 × x5 e 5m 3 × 2m 5 f 2
b × 4b 7
2 3 3 1
g −
4y × 2
y9 h 2 8
5
a × 0.05a 4 i 5x3 × x 2

2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 4
a a 3 b 4 × a 3 b 4 b x 5 y 9 × x 5 y 3 c 2ab 3 × 3a 5 b 5
3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 3
1 4 5 3
d 6m 7 × m n e x y 2 z 3 × x 6 y 3 z 2 f 2a 5 b 8 c 4 × 4 b 4 c 4
3
eBook plus 5 Simplify each of the following.
1 1 2 1 3
Digital doc 2
SkillSHEET 1.10
a 3 2 ÷ 3 3 b 5 3 ÷ 5 4 c 12 ÷ 12 2
4
doc-5177 6 3 3 1
m5
d a7 ÷ a7 e x2 ÷ x4 f 5
m9
3 3
2x 4 7 n2 25b 5
g 3
h i
4 1
4x 5 21n 3 20 b 4
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 14 15/05/12 11:55 AM


4 3 5 2 2 2 3 4 3
3 2
a x y ÷ x 3 y 5 b a 9 b 3 ÷ a 5 b 5 c m 8 n 7 ÷ 3n 8
3 3 7 1
4 2 1
5a 4 b 5 p8 q 4
d 10 x 5 y ÷ 5x 3 y 4 e
1 1
f
2 1
20 a 5 b 4 7 p3 q6

3 1
6
Digital doc  35  24  1
SkillSHEET 1.11 a  2 4  b  5 3  c  7 5 
doc-5178
     
3 1
1  48  13
d (a3 )10 e  m 9  f  2b 2 
   
14 n b
 3  15  m p  a c
g 4  p 7  h  x n  i  3m b 
     
8 WE8b, c Simplify each of the following.
1 2
 1 12
3  3 7
4
a  a 2 b 3  b (a b) 4 c  x 5 y 8 
   
2
1
1
 33
 1 3 33  1 2 22  a4 
d  3a 3 b 5 c 4  e 5 x2y3z5
  f
 b
     
2 1
 4 
2  33  72
m5  b5   4x 
g   h  4  i
 7   3
 n 8   c 9   2 y 4 
2
9 MC a y 5 is equal to:
5 2
 1 1  1
2 5
E  y 
5 2
A  y 2  B y × C (y ) D 2 5 y
  5  
2
b k 3 is not equal to:
2 3
 1  1 1
( k)
2
3 2 3 2
A  k 3  B k C  k 2  D E (k ) 3
   
1
c is equal to:
2
5 g
2 2 5 5 1
− −
5
A g B g 5
C g 2 D g 2
E 2 g 5
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 15 15/05/12 11:55 AM

m
 3 n 1
10 MC a If  a 4  is equal to a 4 , then m and n could not be:
 
A 1 and 3 B 2 and 6
C 3 and 8 D 4 and 9
E both C and D
p
 mm
an 
b When simplified,  is equal to:
 n
 p 
b
m p mp
ap an a n
A B C
n n n
bm bm bm
m2
p np
a a
D m E nm
b 2
bp
3 4
Digital doc a a8 b b9 c m16
SkillSHEET 1.12
doc-5179 d 16 x 4 e 3
8y 9 f 4
16 x8 y12
3 3
g 27m 9 n15 h 5
32 p5 q10 i 216a6 b18
UNDERSTANDING
12 The relationship between the length of a pendulum (L) in a grandfather
clock and the time it takes to complete one swing (T) in seconds is
given by the following rule. Note that g is the acceleration due to
gravity and will be taken as 9.8.
1
 L 2
T = 2π  
 g
a Calculate the time it takes a 1m long pendulum to complete one swing.

b Calculate the time it takes the pendulum to complete 10 swings.
c How many swings will be completed after 10 seconds?
REASONING
13 Consider the term a . ( 7 )7 REFLECTION  

eBook plus
a Use the Eighth Index Law combined with the
Why is it easier to perform
First Index Law to show that ( 7 a ) = a.
7
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 1.1 operations with fractional
doc-5180 b Use the Eighth Index Law combined with the indices than with expressions
Fourth Index Law to show that ( 7 a )7 = a. using surds?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 16 15/05/12 11:55 AM


■■ In most practical situations, more than one index law is needed to simplify the expression.
■■ The following examples show simplification of expressions with indices, using several index
laws.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Simplify.
( 2 a ) 4 b4
a
6 a 3 b2
3n − 2 × 9 n + 1
b
81n − 1
THINK WRITE
4 4
a 1 Write the expression. a (2a) b
6a 3 b 2
2 16a 4 b 4
Apply the Fourth Index Law to remove the =
bracket. 6a 3 b 2
8ab 2
3 Apply the Second Index Law for each =
number and pronumeral to simplify. 3
4 Write the answer. 8ab 2

3
n −2
b 1 Write the expression. b 3 × 9 n +1
81n −1
2 Rewrite each term in the expression so that 3n −2 × (32 ) n +1

=
it has a base of 3. (34 ) n −1
3 Apply the Fourth Index Law to expand the 3n −2 × 32 n + 2

=
brackets. 34 n − 4
4 Apply the First and Second Index Laws to 33 n

=
simplify. 34 n − 4
1
=
3n − 4
5 1
Write your answer.
n−4
3
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 17 15/05/12 11:55 AM

WORKED EXAMPLE 10

7 xy3 2 m 5 n × 3 m 7 n4
a (2a3b)4 ì 4a2b3 b c
( 3 x 3 y2 ) 2 7 m3 n3 × mn2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (2a3b)4 ì 4a2b3
2 Apply the Fourth Index Law. Multiply = 24a12b4 ì 4a2b3

each index inside the brackets by the
index outside the brackets.
3 Evaluate the number. = 16a12b4 ì 4a2b3
4 Multiply coefficients and multiply = 16 ì 4 ì a12 + 2b4 + 3
pronumerals. Apply the First Index = 64a14b7
Law to multiply terms with the
same base by adding the indices.
7 xy 3
b 1 Write the expression. b
(3 x 3 y 2 )2
2 Apply the Fourth Index Law in the 7 xy 3

=
denominator. Multiply each index 9x6 y 4
inside the brackets by the index
outside the brackets.
3 Apply the Second Index Law. 7 x −5y −1

=
Divide terms with the same base by 9
subtracting the indices.
−m 1 7
4 Use a = m
to express the answer =
a 9x5 y
with positive indices.
5 7 4
c 1 Write the expression. c 2m n × 3m n
7m3 n3 × mn2
6m12 n5
2 Simplify each numerator and =
denominator by multiplying 7m 4 n 5
coefficients and then terms with the
same base.
3 Apply the Second Index Law. 6m8 n0

=
Divide terms with the same base by 7
subtracting the indices.
6m8 × 1
4 Simplify the numerator using a0 = 1. =
7
6m8
=
7
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 18 15/05/12 11:55 AM

■■ When more than one index law is used to simplify an expression, the following steps can be
taken.
Step 1: If an expression contains brackets, expand them first.
Step 2: If an expression is a fraction, simplify each numerator and denominator, then divide
(simplify across then down).
Step 3: Express the final answer with positive indices.
■■ The following example illustrates the use of index laws for multiplication and division of
fractions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11

( 5 a 2 b3 ) 2 a 2 b5 8 m3 n−4 4 m−2 n− 4
a × b ÷
a10 ( a 3 b)7
2 3
( 6 mn ) 6 m−5 n
THINK WRITE
a a
(5a 2 b3 )2 a2b5
1 Write the expression. ×
a10 (a 3 b) 7
2 Remove the brackets in the numerator of the first 25a 4 b6 a2b5

= ×
fraction and in the denominator of the second a10 a 21b 7
fraction.
3 Multiply the numerators and then multiply the 25a6 b11

=
denominators of the fractions. (Simplify across.) a31b 7
4 Divide terms with the same base by subtracting = 25a-25b4

the indices. (Simplify down.)
5 25b 4
Express the answer with positive indices. =
a 25
b 1 Write the expression. b 8m3 n −4 4 m −2n −4

÷
(6mn2 )3 6m −5 n
2 8m3 n− 4 4 m −2n− 4
Remove the brackets. = ÷
216m3 n6 6m −5n
8m3 n− 4 6m −5n
3 Change the division sign to multiplication and = ×
flip the second fraction (multiply and flip). 216m3 n6 4 m−2n − 4
48m −2n−3
4 Multiply the numerators and then multiply the =
denominators. (Simplify across.) 864 mn2
5 Cancel common factors and divide pronumerals m −3n−5

=
with the same base. (Simplify down.) 18
6 Simplify and express the answer with positive 1

=
indices. 18m3 n5
Note that the whole numbers in part b of Worked example 11 could be cancelled in step 3.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 19 15/05/12 11:55 AM

REMEMBER
1. Simplification of expressions with indices often involves application of more than one
index law.
2. If an expression contains brackets, they should be removed first.
3. If the expression contains fractions, simplify across then down.
4. When dividing fractions, change ó to ì and flip the second fraction (multiply
and flip).
5. Express the final answer with positive indices.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 10a Simplify each of the following.
2 2 3 4 3 5 2 3 6
eBook plus a (3a b ) × 2a b b (4 ab ) × 3a b
Activity 1-D-1 c 2m3 n−5 × (m 2 n−3) −6 3 2 2 4 3
d (2 pq ) × (5 p q )
Review of indices 7 2 2 3 3 2 2 −2 3 5 −4
e (2a b ) × (3a b ) f 5(b c ) × 3(bc )
doc-4957
1
Activity 1-D-2 3
1 1  3 42 3  1 1
Indices practice g 6x 2 y 3 ×  4x 4 y 5  h ( )
16m3 n4 4 ×  m2 n4 
doc-4958
   
Activity 1-D-3
Tricky indices 3 1 1 2
− − −
doc-4959  2 1 4  1 −3  3  1 2 3  1 33
i 2  p 3 q 3  × 3 p4 q 4  j 8p5q3  ×  64 p 3 q 4 
       
2 WE 10b Simplify each of the following.
5a 2 b3 4 x 5 y6 (3m 2 n3 )3
a b c
3 3 3 4
(2a b) (2 xy ) (2m 5 n 5 ) 7
6 3
 4 x 3 y10  3a3 b −5  3g 2 h 5 
d   e f  
 2x7 y4  (2a 7 b 4 )−3  2g4 h 
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1 1
−4
5 p6 q 3  3b c 
2 3
x3 y4 z2
g h   i
 5b −3c − 4 
( ) ( )
2 3
−
1 1 3 2 1 1 2
−
25 p2 q4 x3 y 4z3
3 WE10c Simplify each of the following.

2 3 4 6 3 5
a 2a b × 3a b b 4 m n × 12mn 10 m6 n5 × 2m 2 n3
c
4 a3 b 5 6 m 7 n6 12m 4 n × 5m 2 n3
d
6x3 y 2 × 4 x6 y (6 x 3 y 2 )4 5 x 2 y 3 × 2 xy 5
e f
5 3 6 5 2 7
9 xy × 2 x y 9 x y × 4 xy 10 x 3 y 4 × x 4 y 2
a3 b 2 × 2(ab 5 )3 ( p6 q 2 )−3 × 3 pq 3 1 4 3
g h 6x 2 y 2 × x 5 y 5
6(a 2 b3 )3 × a 4 b 2 p− 4q −2 × (5 pq 4 )−2 i
( )
1
1 5 1 1
2 x2y × 3x 2 y 5
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 20 15/05/12 11:56 AM

4 WE 11a Simplify each of the following.

a3 b 2 2a 6 b (2a 6 ) 2 4 ab6 ( m 4 n3 ) 2 ( m 3 n3 )3
a × b × c ×
5a 4 b 7 a 9 b3 10 a 7 b3 6a 3 (m6 n)4 (2mn)2
3 4 2
 2m3 n 2  6m 2 n 4  2 xy 2   x3 y 9  4 x −5y−3 3x 5 y6
d   × e  3 5  ×  10  f ×
 3mn5  4 m3 n10  3x y   2y  ( x 2 y 2 )−2 2−2 x −7y
( )
1
−2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1
5p q  5p q
6 −5 6 4
2a 2 b 3 4a 4 b 3x 3 y 5 4x 2
g −4 ×   h × i ×
3q  3 p5  1 1 1 1 1 3
6a 3 b 2 b4a 9x 3 y 4 x4 y
5 WE 11b Simplify each of the following.
3
5a 2 b3 a9b4 7a 2 b 4
 3ab 
a ÷ b ÷ 6 4
6a 7 b 5 3ab6 6 7
3a b  2a b 
(4x y)
3 4 3
 4a9   3a 7  5x 2 y6
6
c  6  ÷  5  d ÷
 b   2b 
(2x y )
2
4 5 10 xy 3
−4 −2
 x 5 y −3  4 x 6 y −10 3m3 n4  2 m 4 n6 
e   ÷ f ÷  −1 
 2 xy 5  (3 x −2y 2 )−3 2m−6 n−5  m n 
1
1 1 3
1 3  12
1 −2
6m 3 n 4 4 b 3 3
c 
g 4m 2 n 4 ÷ h   −
3 5
3 1  1  ÷  2b c 
8m 4 n 2  6c 5 b   
UNDERSTANDING
2 0 −3 0 5 6 −1 −3
a (5 × 2) × (5 × 2 ) ÷ (5 × 2 )
3 3 −2 ( 2 6 × 39 ) 0
b (2 × 3 ) ÷
26 × (3−2)−3
7 Evaluate the following for x = 8. (Hint: Simplify first.)
2
 x 2x
(2 x )−3 ×   ÷ 3 4
 2 (2 )
8 a Simplify the following fraction.
a 2 y × 9b y × (5ab) y

(a y )3 × 5(3b y )2
b Find the value of y if the fraction is equal to 125.
3
9 MC Which of the following is not the same as (4 xy ) 2 ?
3 3
3
A 8 x 2 y 2 B ( 4 xy ) C 64 x 3 y 3
1
1 1
(2 x 3 y 3 ) 2 2
D E 4 xy 2 × (2 xy ) 2
( 32 )−1
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 21 15/05/12 11:56 AM

x2 y xy
10 The expression ÷ is equal to:
2 3
(2 xy ) 16 x 0
2 2x2
A B C 2x2y6
x 2 y6 b6
2 1
D E
6
xy 128 xy 5
11 Simplify the following.
1 1
( ) 1 2
3
3 2 3 −2
g h ×  −3  45 3
a m n ÷ mn b n  c
3 3
9 4 × 15 2
−2 2
3
−
1
−
3  a3 b −2   3−3 a −2 b  3 1
d 22 ×4 4 × 16 4 e  −3 −3  ÷  4 −2  52 5
f ( d ) 2 × ( d ) 5
3
3 b   a b 
REASONING
12 In a controlled breeding program at the Melbourne Zoo,
the population (P) of koalas at t years is modelled by
P = P0 ì 10kt. The initial number of koalas is 20 and the
population of koalas after 1 year is 40.
a Determine the value of P0 and k.
b Calculate the number of koalas after 2 years.
c When will the population be equal to 1000?
eBook plus 13 The decay of uranium is modeled by D = D0 ì 2-kt. If it takes

6 years for the mass of uranium to halve, find the percentage
Digital doc remaining after:
WorkSHEET 1.2
doc-5181
a 2 years
b 5 years
c 10 years.
REFLECTION  
Do index laws need to be

performed in a certain order?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 22 15/05/12 11:56 AM

Summary
Review of index laws
To simplify expressions with constants and/or pronumerals in index form, the following index
laws are used.
■■ am ì an = am + n
■■ am ó an = am - n
■■ a0 = 1 (when a ò 0)
■■ (am)n = amn
■■ (ab)m = ambm
m
 a am
■■
 b  =
bm
Negative indices
■■ A term with a negative index can be expressed with a positive index using the Seventh Index
Law.
1 1
(a) a-n = n (b) −n = an
a a
■■ All index laws apply to terms with negative indices.
■■ Always express answers with positive indices unless otherwise instructed.
■■ Numbers and pronumerals without an index are understood to have an index of 1.
Fractional indices
■■ Fractional indices are those which are expressed as fractions.
■■ Terms with fractional indices can be written as surds, using the following identities:
1
an = n a
m
a = n am = ( n a ) .
n m
■■ All index laws are applicable to fractional indices.

Combining index laws
■■ Simplification of expressions with indices often involves application of more than one
index law.
■■ If an expression contains brackets, they should be removed first.
■■ If the expression contains fractions, simplify across then down.
■■ When dividing fractions, change ó to ì and flip the second fraction (multiply and flip).
■■ Express the final answer with positive indices.
MAPPING YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Using terms from the summary, and other terms if you wish, construct a concept map that
illustrates your understanding of the key concepts covered in this chapter. Compare your
concept map with the one that you created in What do you know? on page 1.
Have you completed the two Homework sheets, the Rich task and two Code puzzles in
Homework
Book your Maths Quest 10 Homework Book?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 23 15/05/12 11:56 AM

number AND algebra • patterns and algebra
Chapter review
Fluency −3
 2 
1 3d10e4 is the simplified form of:
 2l 9 m −1 
 
8 can be simplified to:
A d 6e2 ì 3d 4e3  1 
2
8  lm −2
6d 10 e 5  16 
B
2e 2 8m 7 2m 7 4m7
C (3d 5e 2)2 A B C
11 7 8
D 3e (d 5)2 ì e3 l3 l3 l3
 d5 
2 16m 7 m7
D E
E 3  2  5 7
e  l3 2l 3
10 5
2 8m3n ì n4 ì 2m2n3 simplifies to: 5
9 32i 7 j 11 k 2 can be simplified to:
A 10m5n8 B 16m5n7 10 5
2 1 2
5 8
C 16m n D 10m5n7 2 1 2
32i 7 j 11 k 2
32i 7 j 11 k 5 2i 7 j 11 k 5
5
E 17m n 8 A B C
5 2 1 2
5
3 8x3 ó 4x-3 is equal to: 50 25
2i 7 j 11 k 5
A 2 B 2x0 C 2x6 D 2i 7 j 11 k10
E
2 5
D 2x-1 E
x9 10 Simplify each of the following.
3
12 x8 × 2 x 7 a 5x3 ì 3x5y4 ì x2y6
5
4 simplifies to:
6x9 × x5 26a 4 b6 c 5
b
A 4x5 B 8x C 4x 12a3 b3 c3
3
D 8x5 E 4x29  20 m 5 n2 
c 
2 3 5  6 
5 The expression (a b ) is equal to: 4
(2a 2 b) 2  14 p7 
d  
a6 b13 a3 b6  21q3 
A B 2a6b13 C
4 2 11 Evaluate each of the following.
a6 b13 a3 b6  2a 
0
D E a 5a0 -   + 12
2 4  3
( p 2 q) 4 ( p5 q 2 )2 can be simplified to: (4 b) 0
6 ÷ b -(3b)0 -
( 2 p 5 q 2 )3 2 pq 5 2
1 22 1 12 Simplify each of the following and express your

A B C
4p q 16 16
p q 4 p8 answer with positive indices.
a 2a-5b2 ì 4a-6b-4
1
D E 22p16q b 4x-5y-3 ó 20x12y-5
2 p16q c (2m-3n2)-4
3 3
13 Evaluate each of the following without using a
−
7 16 4 ÷ 92 can be simplified to: calculator.
−3 2
 1 −3  9
A 2 B
1
C
8
a   b 2 × (3) ×  
216 27 2 2
1 −3 5
D 3 3 E c 4 × −5
8 2 8− 2

14 Simplify each of the following. 18 Simplify each of the following and then evaluate.
4 1 1 3 3 2 0
1 3  − 
1
a 2a 5 b 2 × 3a 2 b 4 × 5a 4 b 5 a (3 × 56 ) 2 × 32 ×5 −2
+  36 × 5 2 
3 1
43 x 4 y 9 6
b  1 1
4 1
16 x 5 y 3  32 × 63 
b (6 × 3−2 )−1 ÷
1 −62 × (3−3 )0
 12
4a 3  PROBLEM SOLVING
c 
 b3 
1 If m = 2, determine the value of:
15 Evaluate each of the following without using a 6a3m × 2b 2 m × (3ab)− m
1
calculator. Show all working.
1 (4 b) m × (9a 4 m ) 2
3 1
 2 22 2 Answer the following and explain your reasoning
16 4 × 814 3
a b  125 3 − 27 3  a What is the ten’s digit of 33 ?
1
b What is the one’s digit of 6309?
6 × 16 2
c What is the one’s digit of 81007?
16 Simplify.
a 9 + 4 16a8 b 2 − 3 ( 5 a )
15
3 eBook plus
a
Interactivities
b
5
32 x 5 y10 + 3
64 x 3 y 6 Test yourself Chapter 1
int-2828
17 Simplify each of the following. Word search Chapter 1
(5a −2b) −3 × 4 a6 b −2 int-2826
a
2a 2 b3 × 5−2 a −3 b − 6 Crossword Chapter 1
int-2827
−3
2 x 4 y −5  4 xy −2 
b ×  −6 3 
3 y 6 x −2  3x y 
1 1
−
 3 43  1
3 n −2
 2
2 m n  4 m 
c   ÷
 2 
 1 
−
 5m 2 n   5 3 
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 25 15/05/12 11:56 AM

eBook plus ACTIVITIES
Chapter opener 1C Fractional indices
Digital doc Digital docs
• Hungry brain activity Chapter 1 (doc-5167) • Activity 1-C-1 (doc-4954): Fractional indices
(page 1) (page 14)
• Activity 1-C-2 (doc-4955): Harder fractional indices
Are you ready? (page 14)
Digital docs (page 2) • Activity 1-C-3 (doc-4956): Tricky fractional indices
• SkillSHEET 1.1 (doc-5168): Index form (page 14)
• SkillSHEET 1.2 (doc-5169): Using a calculator to • SkillSHEET 1.9 (doc-5176): Addition of fractions
evaluate numbers given in index form (page 14)
• SkillSHEET 1.3 (doc-5170): Linking between • SkillSHEET 1.10 (doc-5177): Subtraction of
squares and square roots fractions (page 14)
• SkillSHEET 1.4 (doc-5171): Calculating square • SkillSHEET 1.11 (doc-5178): Multiplication of
roots fractions (page 15)
• SkillSHEET 1.5 (doc-5172): Linking between cubes • SkillSHEET 1.12 (doc-5179): Writing roots as
and cube roots fractional indices (page 16)
• SkillSHEET 1.6 (doc-5173): Calculating cube • WorkSHEET 1.1 (doc-5180): Fractional indices
roots (page 16)
• SkillSHEET 1.7 (doc-5174): Estimating square roots 1D Combining index laws
and cube roots
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 1.8 (doc-5175): Using a calculator to
evaluate square roots and cube roots • Activity 1-D-1 (doc-4957): Review of indices
(page 20)
1A Review of index laws • Activity 1-D-2 (doc-4958): Indices practice (page 20)
• Activity 1-D-3 (doc-4959): Tricky indices (page 20)
Digital docs (page 5) • WorkSHEET 1.2 (doc-5181): Combining index laws
• Activity 1-A-1 (doc-4948): Reviewing index (page 22)
operations
• Activity 1-A-2 (doc-4949): Practising the index Chapter review
laws Interactivities(page 25)
• Activity 1-A-3 (doc-4950): Applying the index • Test Yourself Chapter 1 (int-2828): Take the end-of-
laws chapter test to test your progress
• Word search Chapter 1 (int-2826): an interactive word
1B Negative indices search involving words associated with this chapter
Digital docs (page 10) • Crossword Chapter 1 (int-2827): an interactive
• Activity 1-B-1 (doc-4951): Negative indices crossword using the definitions associated with the
• Activity 1-B-2 (doc-4952): Harder negative indices chapter
• Activity 1-B-3 (doc-4953): Tricky negative indices
Interactivity
To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
• Colour code breaker (int-2777) (page 7) www.jacplus.com.au
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_01.indd 26 15/05/12 11:56 AM

2
2A Substitution
fractions
fractions
2D Solving linear equations
2E Solving equations with algebraic
fractions and multiple brackets
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?

1 List what you know about linear
equations. Create a concept map to
Linear algebra
show your list.
linear equations.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 2
doc-5182
OPENING QUESTION
Tod thinks of a number. If 5 is added to

this number and then quadrupled, Tod’s
answer is 224. What number did Tod
start with?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 27 15/05/12 11:58 AM

Are you ready?

eBook plus
Like terms
1 Select the like terms from each of the following lists.
Digital doc 1
SkillSHEET 2.1 a abc, 3acb, ab, 2 bc
doc-5183 1
b x2y, -3y, 4 yx2, xy
c pq, -2q2p, 2pq2, p2q2
eBook plus Collecting like terms

2 Simplify each of the following expressions.
Digital doc
a 2x - 5 + 7 - 5x
SkillSHEET 2.2
doc-5184 b -3a - 4 - 2a - 5
c 4p - 2q + 8 - 6p
eBook plus
Finding the highest common factor
3 Find the highest common factor for each of the following pairs of terms.
Digital doc
a 6x and 24y
SkillSHEET 2.3
doc-5185 b 6ab and 9abc
c -12pq and -20pqr
eBook plus Addition and subtraction of fractions

Digital doc
2 3 7 5 4 3
SkillSHEET 2.4 a
3
+ 4
b
8
− 12
c
15
+ 20
doc-5186
eBook plus Multiplication of fractions

5 Perform the following multiplications.
Digital doc
3 1 5 4 1 1
SkillSHEET 2.5 a
4
× 3
b
12
× 15
c 2 × 1
2 15
doc-5187
eBook plus Division of fractions

Digital doc
5 3 14 21
SkillSHEET 2.6 a ÷ b ÷ c 2 1 ÷ 3 3
8 4 15 25 4 8
doc-5188
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 28 15/05/12 11:58 AM

2A Substitution
When the numerical values of pronumerals are known, they can be substituted into an algebraic
expression and the expression can then be evaluated. It can be useful to place any substituted
values in brackets when evaluating an expression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
If a = 4, b = 2 and c = -7, evaluate the following expressions.

a a - b b a3 + 9b - c
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a a-b

2 Substitute a = 4 and b = 2 into the =4-2
expression.
3 Simplify. =2
b 1 Write the expression. b a3 + 9b - c
2 Substitute a = 4, b = 2 and c = -7 into = (4)3 + 9(2) - (-7)
the expression.
3 Simplify. = 64 + 18 + 7
= 89
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
If c = a2 + b2 , calculate c if a = 12 and b = -5.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. c= a2 + b2
2 Substitute a = 12 and b = -5 into the = (12)2 + ( −5)2

expression.
3 Simplify. = 144 + 25
= 169
= 13
Number laws
■■ Recall from previous studies that when dealing with numbers and pronumerals, particular
rules must be obeyed. Before progressing further, let us briefly review the Commutative,
Associative, Identity and Inverse Laws.
■■ Consider any three pronumerals x, y and z, where x, y and z are elements of the set of Real
numbers.
Commutative Law
1. x + y = y + x (example: 3 + 2 = 5 and 2 + 3 = 5)
2. x - y ò y - x (example: 3 - 2 = 1 but 2 - 3 = -1)
Chapter 2 Linear algebra 29
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 29 15/05/12 11:58 AM

3. x ì y = y ì x (example: 3 ì 2 = 6 and 2 ì 3 = 6)
3 2
4. x ó y ò y ó x (example: 3 ó 2 = 2 , but 2 ó 3 = 3 )
Therefore, the Commutative Law holds true for addition and multiplication, since the order in
which two numbers or pronumerals are added or multiplied does not affect the result. However,
the Commutative Law does not hold true for subtraction or division.
Associative Law
1. x + ( y + z) = (x + y) + z [example: 2 + (3 + 4) = 2 + 7 = 9 and (2 + 3) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9]
2. x - ( y - z) ò (x - y) - z [example: 2 - (3 - 4) = 2 - -1 = 3 and (2 - 3) - 4 = -1 - 4 = -5]
3. x ì ( y ì z) = (x ì y) ì z [example: 2 ì (3 ì 4) = 2 ì 12 = 24 and (2 ì 3) ì 4 = 6 ì 4 = 24]
4. x ó ( y ó z) ò (x ó y) ó z
3 4 8 2 2 1 2 1
[example: 2 ó (3 ó 4) = 2 ó 4 = 2 ì 3 = 3 but (2 ó 3) ó 4 = 3 ó 4 = 3 ì 4 = 12 = 6 ]
The Associative Law holds true for addition and multiplication since grouping two or more
numbers or pronumerals and calculating them in a different order does not affect the result.
However, the Associative Law does not hold true for subtraction or division.
Identity Law
The Identity Law states that in general: x+0=0+x=x
xì1=1ìx=x
In both of the examples above, x has not been changed (that is, it has kept its identity) when zero
is added to it or it is multiplied by 1.
Inverse Law
The Inverse Law states that in general: x + -x = -x + x = 0
1 1
xì = ìx=1
x x
That is, when the additive inverse of a number or pronumeral is added to itself, it equals 0.
When the multiplicative inverse of a number or pronumeral is multiplied by itself, it equals 1.
Closure Law
A law that you may not yet have encountered is the Closure Law. The Closure Law states that,
when an operation is performed on an element (or elements) of a set, the result produced must
also be an element of that set. For example, addition is closed on natural numbers (that is,
positive integers: 1, 2, 3, . . .) since adding a pair of natural numbers produces a natural number.
Subtraction is not closed on natural numbers. For example, 5 and 7 are natural numbers and the
result of adding them is 12, a natural number. However, the result of subtracting 7 from 5 is -2,
which is not a natural number.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find the value of the following expressions, given the integer values x = 4 and y = -12. Comment
on whether the Closure Law for integers holds for each of the expressions when these values are
substituted.
a x + y b x - y c x ì y d x ó y
THINK WRITE
a 1 Substitute each pronumeral into the a x + y = 4 + -12

expression.
2 Evaluate and write the answer. = -8
3 Determine whether the Closure Law The Closure Law holds for these substituted values.
holds; that is, is the result an integer?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 30 15/05/12 11:58 AM

b Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. b x - y = 4 - -12

= 16
The Closure Law holds for these substituted values.
c Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. c x ì y = 4 ì -12
= -48
The Closure Law holds for these substituted values.
d Repeat steps 1–3 of part a. d x ó y = 4 ó -12
1
= - 3
The Closure Law does not hold for these substituted
values since the answer obtained is a fraction, not an
integer.
■■ It is important to note that, although a particular set of numbers may be closed under a given
operation, for example multiplication, another set of numbers may not be closed under that
same operation. For example, in part c of Worked example 3, integers were closed under
multiplication. However, in some cases, the set of irrational numbers is not closed under
multiplication, since 3 ì 3 = 9 = 3. In this example, two irrational numbers produced a
rational number under multiplication.
REMEMBER
1. When the numerical values of pronumerals are known, they can be substituted them
into an algebraic expression and the expression can then be evaluated.
2. It is sometimes useful to place any substituted values in brackets when evaluating
an expression.
3. When dealing with numbers and pronumerals, particular rules must be obeyed.
(a) The Commutative Law holds true for addition and multiplication.
(b) The Associative Law holds true for addition and multiplication.
(c) The Identity Law states that, in general: x + 0 = x and x ì 1 = x.
1
(d) The Inverse Law states that, in general: x + -x = 0 and x ì = 1.
x
(e) The Closure Law states that, when an operation is performed on an element (or
elements) of a set, the result produced must also be an element of that set.
EXERCISE
2A Substitution
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE 1 If a = 2, b = 3 and c = 5, evaluate the following expressions.
eBook plus a a + b b c - b c c - a - b
a b c
Activity 2-A-1 d c - (a - b) e 7a + 8b - 11c f + +
Substitution 2 3 5
doc-4960 g abc h ab(c - b) i a2 + b2 - c2
Activity 2-A-2 j c2 + a k -a ì b ì -c l 2.3a - 3.2b
Harder substitution
doc-4961 2 If d = -6 and k = -5, evaluate the following.
Activity 2-A-3 a d + k b d - k c k - d
Tricky substitution d kd e -d(k + 1) f d 2
doc-4962 k −1
g k3 h i 3k - 5d
d
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 31 15/05/12 11:58 AM

1 1
eBook plus 3 If x = 3 and y = 4 , evaluate the following.
Digital doc a x + y b y - x
SkillSHEET 2.7 x
doc-5189 c xy d
y
9x
e x2y3 f
y2
4 WE 2 Calculate the unknown variable in the following real-life mathematical formulas.
a If c = a 2 + b 2 , calculate c if a = 8 and b = 15.
1
b If A = 2 bh, determine the value of A if b = 12 and h = 5.
c The perimeter, P, of a rectangle is given by P = 2L + 2W. Calculate the perimeter, P, of a
rectangle, given L = 1.6 and W = 2.4.
C
d If T = , determine the value of T if C = 20.4 and L = 5.1.
L
n +1
e If K = , determine the value of K if n = 5.
n −1
9C
f Given F = + 32, calculate F if C = 20.
5
g If v = u + at, evaluate v if u = 16, a = 5, t = 6.
h The area, A, of a circle is given by the formula A = p r2. Calculate the area of a circle,
correct to 1 decimal place, if r = 6.
1
i If E = 2 mv2, calculate m if E = 40, v = 4.
A
j Given r = , evaluate A to 1 decimal place if r = 14.1.
π
5 MC a If p = -5 and q = 4, then pq is equal to:
A 20 B 1 C -1
5
D -20 E - 4
b If c2 = a2 + b2, and a = 6 and b = 8, then c is equal to:
A 28 B 100 C 10
D 14 E 44
c Given h = 6 and k = 7, then kh2 is equal to:
A 294 B 252 C 1764
D 5776 E 85
UNDERSTANDING
6 Knowing the length of two sides of a right-angled triangle, the third side can be calculated
using Pythagoras’ theorem. If the two shorter sides have lengths of 1.5 cm and 3.6 cm, calculate
the length of the hypotenuse.
4
7 The volume of a sphere can be calculated using the formula 3 p r3.
What is the volume of a sphere with a radius of 2.5 cm? Give your
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
2.5 cm
8 A rectangular park is 200 m by 300 m. If Blake runs along the diagonal of the park, how far
will he run? Give your answer to the nearest metre.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 32 15/05/12 11:58 AM

REASONING
9 WE 3 Determine the value of the following expressions, given the integer values x = 1, y = -2
and z = -1. Comment on whether the Closure Law for integers holds true for each of the
expressions when these values are substituted.
a x + y b y - z c y ì z
d x ó z e z - x f x ó y
10 Find the value of the following expressions, given the natural number values x = 8, y = 2 and
z = 6. Comment on whether the Closure Law for natural numbers holds true for each of the
expressions.
a x + y b y - z c y ì z
d x ó z e z - x f x ó y
11 For each of the following, complete the relationship to illustrate the stated law. Justify your
answer.
a (a + 2b) + 4c = _______________ Associative Law
b (x ì 3y) ì 5c = _______________ Associative Law
c 2p ó q ò _______________ Commutative Law
d 5d + q = _______________ Commutative Law
e 3z + 0 = _______________ Identity Law REFLECTION  
f 2x ì _______ = _______________ Inverse Law Why is knowledge of the
g (4x ó 3y) ó 5z ò _______________ Associative Law Commulative Law useful?
h 3d - 4y ò _______________ Commutative Law

fractions
■■ To add or subtract algebraic fractions, we perform the following steps.
1. Find the lowest common denominator (LCD) by finding the lowest common multiple
(LCM) of the denominators.
2. Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction with this common denominator.
3. Express as a single fraction.
4. Simplify the numerator.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Simplify the following expressions.

2x x x+1 x+ 4
a - b +
3 2 6 4
THINK WRITE
a a
2x x
1 Write the expression. −
3 2
2x 2 x 3
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent = × − ×
fraction using the LCD. The LCM of 3 and 3 2 2 3
2 is 6. 4 x 3x
= −
6 6
4 x − 3x
3 Express as a single fraction. =
6
x
4 Simplify the numerator. =
6
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 33 15/05/12 11:58 AM

x +1 x + 4
b 1 Write the expression. b +
6 4
x +1 2 x + 4 3
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent = × + ×
fraction using the LCD. The LCM of 6 and 6 2 4 3
4 is 12, not 24. Note that 24 is a common 2( x + 1) 3( x + 4)
= +
multiple but not the lowest common 12 12
multiple. If 24 is used as the common
denominator, then additional calculations
will need to be performed to arrive at the
final simplified answer.
2( x + 1) + 3( x + 4)
12
2 x + 2 + 3 x + 12
4 Simplify the numerator by expanding =
brackets and collecting like terms. 12
5 x + 14
=
12
■■ If pronumerals appear in the denominator, we can treat these separately from their
coefficients. This is demonstrated in the following worked example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
2 1
Simplify − .
3x 4x
THINK WRITE
2 1
1 Write the expression. −
3x 4 x
2 4 1 3
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction = × − ×
using the LCD. The LCM of 3 and 4 is 12. The 3x 4 4 x 3
LCM of x and x is x. So the LCD is 12x, not 12x2. 8 3
= −
If you take care to ensure that you have found the 12 x 12 x
LCM at this step, then the subsequent mathematics
will be simpler.
8−3
12 x
5
4 Simplify the numerator. =
12x
■■ When there is an algebraic expression in the denominator of each fraction, we can obtain
a common denominator by writing the product of the denominators. For example, if x + 3
and 2x - 5 are in the denominator of each fraction, then a common denominator of the two
fractions will be (x + 3)(2x - 5).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 34 15/05/12 11:58 AM

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
x + 1 2x − 1
Simplify + by writing it first as a single fraction.
x+3 x+2
THINK WRITE
x + 1 2x − 1
1 Write the expression. +
x+3 x+2
( x + 1) ( x + 2) (2 x − 1) ( x + 3)
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction = × + ×
using the LCD. The LCM of x + 3 and x + 2 is the ( x + 3) ( x + 2) ( x + 2) ( x + 3))
product (x + 3)(x + 2). ( x + 1)( x + 2) (2 x − 1)( x + 3)
= +
( x + 3)( x + 2) ( x + 3)( x + 2)
( x + 1)( x + 2) + (2 x − 1)( x + 3)
( x + 3)( x + 2)
4 Simplify the numerator by expanding brackets and ( x 2 + 2 x + x + 2) + (2 x 2 + 6 x − x − 3)

=
collecting like terms. ( x + 3)( x + 2)
Note: The denominator is generally kept in
x 2 + 3x + 2 + 2 x 2 + 5x − 3
factorised form. That is, it is not expanded. =
( x + 3)( x + 2)
3x 2 + 8x − 1
=
( x + 3)( x + 2)
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
x+2 x−1
Simplify + by writing it first as a single fraction.
x − 3 ( x − 3)2
THINK WRITE
x+2 x −1
1 Write the expression. +
x − 3 ( x − 3)2
x+2 x−3 x −1
2 Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction = × +
using the LCD. The LCM of x - 3 and (x - 3)2 is x − 3 x − 3 ( x − 3)2
(x - 3)2 not (x - 3)3. ( x + 2)( x − 3) x −1
= 2
+
( x − 3) ( x − 3)2
x2 − x − 6 x −1
= 2
+
( x − 3) ( x − 3)2
3 Express as a single fraction. x2 − x − 6 + x − 1

=
( x − 3)2
4 Simplify the numerator. x2 − 7

=
( x − 3)2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 35 15/05/12 11:58 AM

REMEMBER
1. Algebraic fractions contain pronumerals that may represent particular numbers or

changing values.
2. To add or subtract algebraic fractions we perform the following steps.
(a) Find the lowest common denominator (LCD) by finding the lowest common
multiple (LCM) of the denominators.
(b) Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction with this common denominator.
(c) Express as a single fraction.
(d) Simplify the numerator.
EXERCISE
2B Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
eBook plus 4 2 1 5 3 6
a + b + c +
Activity 2-B-1 7 3 8 9 5 15
Introducing algebraic 4 3 3 2 1 x
fractions d − e − f −
9 11 7 5 5 6
doc-4963
5x 4 3 2x 5 2
Activity 2-B-2 g − h − i −
Working with 9 27 8 5 x 3
algebraic fractions
2 WE 4 Simplify the following expressions.
doc-4964
2y y y y 4x x
Activity 2-B-3 a − b − c −
Advanced algebraic 3 4 8 5 3 4
fractions
8x 2 x 2w w y y
doc-4965 d + e − f −
9 3 14 28 20 4
12 y y 10 x 2 x x +1 x + 3
eBook plus g + h + i +
5 7 5 15 5 2
Digital doc
x+2 x+6 2x − 1 2x + 1 3x + 1 5x + 2
SkillSHEET 2.4 j + k − l +
doc-5186 4 3 5 6 2 3
3 WE 5 Simplify the following.
eBook plus 2 1 3 1 5 1
a + b − c +
4x 8x 4 x 3x 3x 7 x
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 2.8 12 4 1 1 9 9
doc-5190
d + e + f −
5x 15 x 6 x 8x 4 x 5x
2 7 1 5 4 3
g + h + i −
100 x 20 x 10 x x 3x 2 x
4 WE 6, 7 Simplify the following by writing as single fractions.
2 3x 2x 5
a + b +
( x + 4) ( x − 2) ( x + 5) ( x − 1)
5 x 2x 3
c + d −
(2 x + 1) ( x − 2) ( x + 1) (2 x − 7)
4x 3x x+2 x −1
e + f +
( x + 7) ( x − 5) x +1 x + 4
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 36 15/05/12 11:58 AM

x + 8 2x + 1 x+5 x −1
g − h − REFLECTION  
x +1 x+2 x+3 x−2
Why can't we just add
x + 1 2x − 5 2 3
i − j − the numerators and the
x + 2 3x − 1 x −1 1− x denominators of fractions:
4 3 3 1 a c a +c
k + l − + = ?
( x + 1)2 x +1 x − 1 ( x − 1)2 b d b +d

fractions
■■ When multiplying algebraic fractions, first cancel any common factors if possible, then
multiply the numerators together and finally multiply the denominators together. Simplify the
expression further if necessary.
2 x 4 xy 2 x × 4 xy
For example, × =
3y 7 3y × 7
8x 2
= (Cancel y from the numerator and denominator.)
21
■■ When dividing algebraic fractions, change the division sign to a multiplication sign and write
the following fraction as its reciprocal (swap the numerator and the denominator).
8x 4 x 8x 5
For example, ÷ = × (The process then follows that for multiplication.)
3 5 3 4x
10
= 3
(Cancel 4x from the numerator and denominator.)
WORKED EXAMPLE 8

5 y 6z
a ×
3x 7 y
2x x+1
b ×
( x + 1)(2 x − 3) x
THINK WRITE
5y 6z
a 1 Write the expression. a ×
3x 7 y
5 2z
2 Examine the fractions and see if you = ×
x 7
can cancel any common factors in the
numerator and denominator. The y can
be cancelled in the denominator and the
numerator. Also the 3 in the denominator
can divide into the 6 in the numerator.
10 z
3 Multiply the numerators, then multiply =
the denominators. 7x
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 37 15/05/12 11:58 AM

2x x +1
b 1 Write the expression. b ×
( x + 1)(2 x − 3) x
2 1
2 Check for common factors in the numerator = ×
and the denominator. (x + 1) and the x (2 x − 3) 1
are common in the numerator and the
denominator and can therefore be cancelled.
2
the denominators. 2x − 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Simplify the following expressions.

3 xy 4 x 4 x−7
a ÷ b ÷
2 9y ( x + 1)(3 x − 5) x + 1
THINK WRITE
3 xy 4 x
a 1 Write the expression. a ÷
2 9y
3 xy 9 y
2 Change the division sign to a = ×
multiplication sign and write the 2 4x
second fraction as its reciprocal.
3y 9 y
3 Check for common factors in = ×
the numerator and denominator 2 4
and cancel. The pronumeral x is
common to both the numerator and
denominator and can therefore be
cancelled.
27 y 2
the denominators. 8
4 x−7
b 1 Write the expression. b ÷
( x + 1)(3 x − 5) x + 1
4 x +1
2 Change the division sign to a = ×
multiplication sign and write the second ( x + 1)(3 x − 5) x − 7
fraction as its reciprocal.
4 1
3 Check for common factors in the = ×
numerator and denominator and cancel. 3x − 5 x − 7
(x + 1) is common to both the numerator
and denominator and can therefore be
cancelled.
4
the denominators. (3 x − 5)( x − 7)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 38 15/05/12 11:58 AM

REMEMBER
1. When multiplying algebraic fractions, first cancel any common factors if possible,
then multiply the numerators together and finally multiply the denominators together.
Simplify the expression further if necessary.
2. When dividing algebraic fractions, change the division sign to a multiplication sign and
write the following fraction as its reciprocal (swap the numerator and the denominator).
The process then follows that for multiplication.
EXERCISE
2C Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE 8a Simplify each of the following.
eBook plus
x 20 x 12 y 16
a × b × c ×
Activity 2-C-1 5 y 4 y 4 x
Learning operations x 9 x −25 3w −7
with algebraic d × e × f ×
fractions 2 2y 10 2y −14 x
doc-4966
3 y 8z −y 6z x −9 z
Activity 2-C-2 g × h × i ×
Operations with 4 x 7y 3 x −7 y 3z 2y
algebraic fractions 5y x −20 y −21z y x
doc-4967 j × k × l ×
Activity 2-C-3
3x 8y 7x 5y −3w 2 y
Advanced operations
with algebraic 2 WE 8b Simplify the following expressions.
fractions
2x x −1 5x 4x + 7
doc-4968 a × b ×
( x − 1)(3 x − 2) x ( x − 3)(4 x + 7) x
eBook plus 9x 5x + 1 ( x + 4) x +1
c × d ×
(5 x + 1)( x − 6) 2x ( x + 1)( x + 3) x + 4
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 2.5 2x x −1 2 x ( x + 1)
doc-5187 e × f ×
x + 1 ( x + 1)( x − 1) x (2 x − 3) 4
2x 3a 15c 21d
eBook plus g × h ×
4(a + 3) 15 x 12(d − 3) 6c
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 2.9 6x2 15( x − 2) 7 x 2 ( x − 3) 3( x − 3)( x + 1)
doc-5191 i × j ×
20( x − 2)2 16 x 4 5 x ( x + 1) 14( x − 3)2 ( x − 1)
3 WE 9a Simplify the following expressions.

eBook plus
3 5 2 9 4 12
Digital doc a ÷ b ÷ c ÷
SkillSHEET 2.10
x x x x x x
doc-5192 7 3
20 20 1 5
d ÷ e ÷ f ÷
y 3y 5w w 2 x 5x
3 xy 3 x 2 xy 5 x 6 y 3x
g ÷ h ÷ i ÷
7 4y 5 y 9 4 xy
8wx 3w 2 xy 3 xy 10 xy 20 x
j ÷ k ÷ l ÷
5 4y 5 5 7 14 y
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 39 15/05/12 11:58 AM

4 WE 9b Simplify the following expressions.

9 x+3
a ÷
( x − 1)(3 x − 7) x − 1
1 x−9
b ÷
( x + 2)(2 x − 5) 2 x − 5
REFLECTION  
eBook plus 12( x − 3)2 4( x − 3)
c ÷ 3 1 1 1
( x + 5)( x − 9) 7( x − 9) Is the same as + + ?
Digital doc x +2 x +2 x +2 x +2
WorkSHEET 2.1 13 3( x + 1) Explain.
doc-5193
d ÷
6( x − 4) ( x − 1) 2( x − 4)( x − 1)
2

■■ Equations are algebraic sentences that can be solved to give a numerical solution.
■■ An equation consists of two algebraic expressions joined by an equals sign.
■■ Remember, to solve any equation we need to isolate the pronumeral we wish to find; that is,
we must undo all the operations that have been performed on the pronumeral.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Solve the following equations.

d 1
a a + 27 = 71 b = 3 4
16
4
c e = 0.87 d f 2 = 25
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a a + 27 = 71

2 27 has been added to a to result in a + 27 - 27 = 71 - 27
71. The addition of 27 has to be a = 44
undone. Therefore, subtract 27 from
both sides of the equation to obtain
the solution.
d 1
b 1 Write the equation. b = 34
16
d 13
2 Express 3 14 as an improper fraction. =
16 4
d 13
3 The pronumeral d has been divided ì 16 = ì 16
16 4
by 16 to result in 13 . Therefore
4 d = 52
the division has to be undone
by multiplying both sides of the
equation by 16 to obtain d.
c 1 Write the equation. c e = 0.87
( )
2
2 The square root of e has been taken e = 0.872
to result in 0.87. Therefore, the e = 0.7569
square root has to be undone by
squaring both sides of the equation
to obtain e.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 40 15/05/12 11:58 AM

4
d 1 Write the equation. d f2= 25
4
2 The pronumeral f has been squared f=± 25
4
to result in 25 . Therefore the 2
f = ê 5
squaring has to be undone by taking
the square root of both sides of
the equation to obtain f. Note that
there are two possible solutions,
one positive and one negative, since
two negative numbers can also be
multiplied together to produce a
positive one.
■■ Each of the equations in Worked example 10 was a one-step equation.

■■ Remember that in two-step equations, the reverse order of operations must be applied; that
is, address addition and subtraction first, then multiplication and division, then exponents and
roots and, lastly, any bracketed numbers.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Solve the following.

4x
a 5y - 6 = 79 b =5
9
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 5y - 6 = 79

2 Add 6 to both sides of the equation. 5y - 6 + 6 = 79 + 6
5y = 85
5 y 85
3 Divide both sides of the equation =
by 5 to obtain y. 5 5
y = 17
4x
b 1 Write the equation. b =5
9
4x
2 Multiply both sides of the equation ì9=5ì9
by 9. 9
4x = 45
4 x 45
3 Divide both sides of the equation =
by 4 to obtain x. 4 4
45
x=
4
1
4 Express the improper fraction as a x = 11 4
mixed number fraction.
Equations where the pronumeral appears on both sides

■■ In solving equations where the pronumeral appears on both sides add or subtract one of the
pronumeral terms so that it is eliminated from one side of the equation.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 41 15/05/12 11:58 AM

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Solve the following equations.

a 5h + 13 = 2h - 2 b 14 - 4 d = 27 - d
c 2(x - 3) = 5(2x + 4)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 5h + 13 = 2h - 2

2 Eliminate the pronumeral from the 3h + 13 = -2
right-hand side by subtracting 2h
from both sides of the equation.
Note that it is also possible to
instead subtract 5h from both sides,
leaving -3h on the right-hand side.
However, it simpler to work with
positive pronumerals.
3 Subtract 13 from both sides of the 3h = -15
equation.
4 Divide both sides of the equation h = -5
by 3 and write your answer.
b 1 Write the equation. b 14 - 4d = 27 - d
2 Create a single pronumeral term 14 = 27 + 3d
by adding 4d to both sides of the
equation.
3 Subtract 27 from both sides of the -13 = 3d
equation.
13
4 Divide both sides of the equation − =d
by 3. 3
5 Express the improper fraction as a 1
-4 3 = d
mixed number fraction.
6 Write your answer so that d is on d = -4 3
1
the left-hand side.

c 1 Write the equation. c 2(x - 3) = 5(2x + 4)
2 Expand the brackets on both sides 2x - 6 = 10x + 20
of the equation.
3 Isolate the pronumeral on the right- 2x - 2x - 6 = 10x - 2x + 20
hand side by subtracting 2x from
both sides of the equation.
4 Subtract 20 from both sides of the -6 - 20 = 8x + 20 - 20
equation. -26 = 8x
26
5 Divide both sides of the equation − =x
8
by 8.
13
6 Simplify and write your answer x=−
4
with the pronumeral on the left.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 42 15/05/12 11:58 AM

REMEMBER
1. Equations are algebraic sentences that can be solved to give a numerical solution.
2. Equations are solved by undoing any operation that has been performed on the
pronumeral.
3. When solving two-step equations, the reverse order of operations must be applied.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE 10a Solve the following equations.
eBook plus a a + 61 = 85 b k - 75 = 46 c g + 9.3 = 12.2
d r - 2.3 = 0.7 e h + 0.84 = 1.1 f i + 5 = 3
Activity 2-D-1 1 1
Simple puzzling g t - 12 = -7 h q + 3
= 2
i x - 2 = -2
equations
doc-4969 2 WE 10b Solve the following equations.
Activity 2-D-2 f i
Puzzling equations a =3 b = -6 c 6z = -42
4 10
doc-4970
k 5
Activity 2-D-3 d 9v = 63 e 6w = -32 f =
Advanced puzzling 12 6
equations m 7 y 3
doc-4971 g 4a = 1.7 h = i =58
19 8 4
3 WE 10c, d Solve the following equations.
a t = 10 b y2 = 289 c q = 2.5
4 9
d f2 = 1.44 e h= 7
f p2 = 64
15 196 7
g g= 22
h j2 = 961
i a2 = 2 9
4 WE 11a Solve the following.
a 5a + 6 = 26 b 6b + 8 = 44 c 8i - 9 = 15
d 7f - 18 = 45 e 8q + 17 = 26 f 10r - 21 = 33
g 6s + 46 = 75 h 5t - 28 = 21 i 8a + 88 = 28
5 Solve the following.
f g
a + 6 = 16 b +4=9
4 6
r m
c +6=5 d - 12 = -10
10 9
n p
e + 5 = 8.5 f - 1.8 = 3.4
8 12
6 Solve the following.
a 6(x + 8) = 56 b 7( y - 4) = 35
c 5(m - 3) = 7 d 3(2k + 5) = 24
e 5(3n - 1) = 80 f 6(2c + 7) = 58
7 WE 11b Solve the following.
3k 9m 7p
a = 15 b = 18 c = -8
5 8 10
8u 11x 4v
d = -3 e =2 f = 0.8
11 4 15
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 43 15/05/12 11:59 AM

p
8 MC a The solution to the equation + 2 = 7 is:
5
A p = 5 B p = 25 C p = 45
D p = 10 E p = 1
b If 5h + 8 = 53, then h is equal to:
1
A 5 B 12.2 C 225
D 10 E 9
c The exact solution to the equation 14x = 75 is:
5
A x = 5.357 142 857 B x = 5.357 (to 3 decimal places) C x = 514
D x = 5.4 E x = 5.5
9 Solve the following equations.
a -x = 5 b 2 - d = 3 c 5 - p = -2
d -7 - x = 4 e -5h = 10 f -6t = -30
v r 1
g − =4 h − = i -4g = 3.2
5 12 4
10 Solve the following equations.
a 6 - 2x = 8 b 10 - 3v = 7 c 9 - 6l = -3
3e
d -3 - 2g = 1 e -5 - 4t = -17 f − = 14
5
8j k 4f
g − =9 h − - 3 = 6 i − +1=8
3 4 7
11 WE 12a Solve the following equations.
a 6x + 5 = 5x + 7 b 7b + 9 = 6b + 14 c 11w + 17 = 6w + 27
d 8f - 2 = 7f + 5 e 10t - 11 = 5t + 4 f 12r - 16 = 3r + 5
g 12g - 19 = 3g - 31 h 7h + 5 = 2h - 6 i 5a - 2 = 3a - 2
12 WE 12b Solve the following equations.
a 5 - 2x = 6 - x b 10 - 3c = 8 - 2c c 3r + 13 = 9r - 3
d k - 5 = 2k - 6 e 5y + 8 = 13y + 17 f 17 - 3g = 3 - g
g 14 - 5w = w + 8 h 4m + 7 = 8 - m i 14 - 5p = 9 - 2p
13 WE 12c Solve the following equations.
a 3(x + 5) = 2x b 8( y + 3) = 3y
c 6(t - 5) = 4(t + 3) d 10(u + 1) = 3(u - 3)
e 12( f - 10) = 4( f - 5) f 2(4r + 3) = 3(2r + 7)
g 5(2d + 9) = 3(3d + 13) h 5(h - 3) = 3(2h - 1)
i 2(4x + 1) = 5(3 - x)
14 MC a The solution to 8 - 4k = -2 is:
1 1 1
A k = 2 2 B k = -2 2 C k = 1 2
1 2
D k = -1 2 E k = 5
6n
b The solution to − + 3 = -7 is:
5
1 1 1
A n = 3 3 B n = -3 3 C n = 3
1 1
D n = 8 3 E n = -8 3
c The solution to p - 6 = 8 - 4p is:
2 4
A p = 5
B p = 2 5
REFLECTION  
2 2
C p = 4 3 D p = 3 Describe in one sentence what it
E p =
4 means to solve linear equations.
5
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 44 15/05/12 11:59 AM

2E Solving equations with algebraic

fractions and multiple brackets
eBook plus Equations with multiple brackets
Interactivity
Many equations need to be simplified by expanding brackets and collecting like terms before
Solving they are solved. Doing this reduces the equation to one of the basic types covered in the previous
equations exercise.
int-2778
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Solve each of the following linear equations.

a 6(x + 1) - 4(x - 2) = 0
b 7(5 - x) = 3(x + 1) - 10
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 6(x + 1) - 4(x - 2) = 0
2 Expand all the brackets. (Be careful with the -4.) 6x + 6 - 4x + 8 = 0

3 Collect like terms. 2x + 14 = 0
4 Subtract 14 from both sides of the equation. 2x = -14
5 Divide both sides of the equation by 2 to find the x = -7
value of x.
b 1 Write the equation. b 7(5 - x) = 3(x + 1) - 10
2 Expand all the brackets. 35 - 7x = 3x + 3 - 10

3 Collect like terms. 35 - 7x = 3x - 7
4 Create a single pronumeral term by adding 7x to 35 = 10x - 7
both sides of the equation.
5 Add 7 to both sides of the equation. 42 = 10x
42
6 Divide both sides of the equation by 10 to solve 10
=x
for x and simplify. 21
5
=x
1
7 Express the improper fraction as a mixed number 45 = x
fraction.
1
8 Rewrite the equation so that x is on the left-hand x = 45
side.
Equations involving algebraic fractions

■■ To solve equations involving algebraic fractions, write every term in the equation as a fraction
with the same lowest common denominator.
■■ Every term can then be multiplied by this common denominator. This has the effect of
eliminating the fraction from the equation.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 45 15/05/12 11:59 AM

WORKED EXAMPLE 14

x 3x 1
a − =
2 5 4
3 4
b =1−
2x x
THINK WRITE
x 3x 1
a 1 Write the equation. a − =
2 5 4
x 10 3 x 4 1 5
2 The lowest common denominator of × − × = ×
2 10 5 4 4 5
2, 5, and 4 is 20. Write each term as an
equivalent fraction with a denominator 10 x 12 x 5
− =
of 20. 20 20 20
 10 x 12 x  5
3 Multiply both sides of the equation by 20.  20 − 20  ì 20 = 20 ì 20
This is the same as multiplying each term
by 20, which cancels out the 20 in the 10 x 12 x 5
denominator and effectively removes it. ì 20 - ì 20 = ì 20
20 20 20
10x - 12x = 5
4 Simplify the left-hand side of the equation -2x = 5
by collecting like terms.
5 Divide both sides of the equation by -2 to x = - 5
2
solve for x.
6 Express the improper fraction as a mixed x = -2 12
number fraction.
b 3 4
b 1 Write the equation. =1-
2x x
3 1 2x 4 2
2 The lowest common denominator of 2x and = × − ×
2x 1 2 x x 2
x is 2x. Write each term as an equivalent
fraction with a denominator of 2x. 3 2x 8
= −
2x 2 x 2 x
3 Multiply each term by 2x. This effectively 3 = 2x - 8
removes the denominator.
4 Add 8 to both sides of the equation. 11 = 2x
11
5 Divide both sides of the equation by 2 to 2
=x
solve for x.
1
6 Express the improper fraction as a mixed 52 = x
number.
1
7 Rewrite the equation so that x is on the left- x = 52
hand side.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 46 15/05/12 11:59 AM

WORKED EXAMPLE 15

5( x + 3) 3( x − 1) 4 1
a =4+ b =
6 5 3( x − 1) x + 1
THINK WRITE
5( x + 3) 3( x − 1)
a 1 Write the equation. a =4+
6 5
25( x + 3) 120 18( x − 1)
2 The lowest common denominator of 5 and 6 is = +
30. Write each term as an equivalent fraction 30 30 30
with a common denominator of 30.
3 Multiply each term by 30. This effectively 25(x + 3) = 120 + 18(x - 1)
removes the denominator.
4 Expand the brackets and collect like terms. 25x + 75 = 120 + 18x - 18
25x + 75 = 102 + 18x
5 Subtract 18x from both sides of the equation. 7x + 75 = 102
6 Subtract 75 from both sides of the equation. 7x = 27
27
7 Divide both sides of the equation by 7 to solve for x. x= 7
6
8 Express the improper fraction as a mixed number. x= 37
4 1
b 1 Write the equation. b =
3( x − 1) x + 1
4( x + 1) 3( x − 1)
2 The lowest common denominator of 3, x + 1 and =
x - 1 is 3(x - 1)(x + 1). Write each term as an 3( x − 1)( x + 1) 3( x − 1)( x + 1)
equivalent fraction with a common denominator
of 3(x - 1)(x + 1).
3 Multiply each term by the common denominator. 4(x + 1) = 3(x - 1)
4 Expand the brackets. 4x + 4 = 3x - 3
5 Subtract 3x from both sides of the equation. x + 4 = -3
6 Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation to x + 4 - 4 = -3 - 4
solve for x. x = -7
REMEMBER
1. For equations involving brackets, expand the brackets and collect like terms. This will
reduce the equation to a more basic type.
2. For complicated algebraic fraction equations, the following steps may be used.
(a) Write each term in the equation as an equivalent fraction with the lowest common
denominator.
(b) Multiply each term by the common denominator. This has the effect of removing the
fraction from the equation.
(c) Continue to solve the equation using the same methods as for a basic algebraic equation.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 47 15/05/12 11:59 AM

EXERCISE
2E Solving equations with algebraic fractions and
INDIVIDUAL
multiple brackets
PATHWAYS
FLUENCY
eBook plus
1 WE 13 Solve each of the following linear equations.
Activity 2-E-1 a 6(4x - 3) + 7(x + 1) = 9
Algebraic equations
b 9(3 - 2x) + 2(5x + 1) = 0
with fractions
doc-4972 c 8(5 - 3x) - 4(2 + 3x) = 3
Activity 2-E-2 d 9(1 + x) - 8(x + 2) = 2x
Harder algebraic e 6(4 + 3x) = 7(x - 1) + 1
equations with
fractions f 10(4x + 2) = 3(8 - x) + 6
doc-4973 g 8(x + 4) + 2(x - 3) = 6(x + 1)
Activity 2-E-3 h 7.2(3x - 1) + 2.3(5 - x) = -34.3
Tridy algebraic
equations with i 6(2x - 3) - 2(6 - 3x) = 7(2x - 1)
fractions j 9(2x - 5) + 5(6x + 1) = 100
doc-4974 k 5(2x - 1) - 3(6x + 1) = 8
l 7(2x + 7) - 5(2x + 1) = 2(4 - x)
2 Solve each of the following linear equations.
7x + 5 12 − 5 x
a = 11 b = -13
3 6
3x − 2 8x + 3
c = 5x d = 2x
4 5
2x − 1 x − 3 4x + 1 x + 2
e = f =
5 4 3 4
6 − x 2x − 1 8 − x 2x + 1
g = h =
3 5 9 3
5x − 3 1
i - =0
2 8
x 4x 1 x x 3
a + = b − =
3 5 3 4 5 4
x 4x −3 x x 1
c − =2 d + =
4 7 5 8 4
2 x x −3 5x 2x
e - = f -8=
3 6 4 8 3
2 x 3x 4 1 2
g − = h − =
7 8 8 x 6 x
15 2 1 4 5
i -4= j + =
x x 3 x x
2x − 4 x 4 x − 1 2x + 5
k +6= l - =0
5 2 2 3
3( x + 1) 5( x + 1) 2( x + 1) 3(2 x − 5)
a + =4 b + =0
2 3 7 8
2(4 x + 3) 6( x − 2) 1 8( x + 3) 3( x + 2)
c - = d =
5 2 2 5 4
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 48 15/05/12 11:59 AM

5(7 − x ) 2(2 x − 1) 2(6 − x ) 9( x + 5) 1

e = +1 f = +
2 7 3 6 3
−5( x − 2) 6(2 x − 1) 1 9(2 x − 1) 4( x − 5)
g - = h =
3 5 3 7 3
1 3 8 3 5 5
eBook plus i + = j + =
x −1 x +1 x +1 x +1 x − 4 x +1
Digital doc
1 3 −1 4 5 −1
WorkSHEET 2.2 k - = l - =
doc-5194 x − 1 x x −1 2x − 1 x x
REFLECTION  
Do the rules for the order of

operations apply to algebraic
functions? Explain.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 49 15/05/12 11:59 AM

Summary
Substitution
■■ When the numerical values of pronumerals are known, they can be substituted them into an
algebraic expression and evaluated.
■■ It is sometimes useful to place any substituted values in brackets when evaluating an
expression.
■■ When dealing with numbers and pronumerals, particular rules must be obeyed.
(a) The Commutative Law holds true for addition and multiplication.
(b) The Associative Law holds true for addition and multiplication.
(c) The Identity Law states that, in general: x + 0 = x and x ì 1 = x.
1
(d) The Inverse Law states that, in general: x + -x = 0 and x ì = 1.
x
(e) The Closure Law states that, when an operation is performed on an element (or elements)
of a set, the result produced must also be an element of that set.
Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions

■■ Algebraic fractions contain pronumerals that may represent particular numbers or changing
values.
■■ To add or subtract algebraic fractions we perform the following steps.
(a) Find the lowest common denominator (LCD) by finding the lowest common multiple
(LCM) of the denominators.
(b) Rewrite each fraction as an equivalent fraction with this common denominator.
(c) Express as a single fraction.
(d) Simplify the numerator.
Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions

■■ When multiplying algebraic fractions, first cancel any common factors if possible, then
multiply the numerators together and finally multiply the denominators together. Simplify the
expression further if necessary.
■■ When dividing algebraic fractions, change the division sign to a multiplication sign and
write the following fraction as its reciprocal (swap the numerator and the denominator). The
process then follows that for multiplication.
Solving linear equations

■■ Equations are algebraic sentences that can be solved to give a numerical solution.
■■ Equations are solved by undoing any operation that has been performed on the pronumeral.
■■ When solving two-step equations, the reverse order of operations must be applied.
Solving equations with algebraic fractions and multiple brackets

■■ For more complicated equations involving brackets, expand the brackets and collect like
terms. This will reduce the equation to a more basic type.
■■ For complicated algebraic fraction equations, the following steps may be used.
(a) Write each term in the equation as an equivalent fraction with the lowest common
denominator.
(b) Multiply each term by the common denominator. This has the effect of removing the
fraction from the equation.
(c) Continue to solve the equation using the same methods as for a basic algebraic
equation.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 50 15/05/12 11:59 AM


Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 51 15/05/12 11:59 AM

Chapter review
FLUENCY 10 Simplify the following.
1 5y y x+4 x+2
1 Given E = 2 mv2 where m = 0.2 and v = 0.5, the a − b +
3 2 5 2
value of E is:
A 0.000 625 B 0.1 5 1 x − 1 2x − 5
c − d +
C 0.005 D 0.025 3x 5x x+3 x+2
E 0.0025 11 Simplify the following.
2 The expression -6d + 3r - 4d - r simplifies to: y 32
a ×
A 2d + 2r B -10d + 2r 4 x
C -10d - 4r D 2d + 4r 20 y 35z
b ×
E -8dr 7 x 16 y
3 The expression 5(2f + 3) + 6(4f - 7) simplifies to: x+6 5( x + 1)
c ×
A 34f + 2 B 34f - 4 ( x + 1)( x + 3) x+6
C 34f - 27 D 34f + 14
25 30
E 116f -14 d ÷
x x
4 The expression 7(b - 1) - (8 - b) simplifies to:
xy 10 x
A 8b - 9 B 8b - 15 e ÷
5 y
C 6b - 9 D 6b - 15
E 8b + 1 2x 9x +1
f ÷
5 If 14p - 23 = 6p - 7 then p equals: ( x + 8)( x − 1) x + 8
A -3 B -1 12 Solve the following equations.
C 1 D 2 a p - 20 = 68 b s - 0.56 = 2.45
E 4 r
c 3b = 48 d = -5
6 Simplify the following by collecting like terms. 7
a 3c - 5 + 4c - 8 e x = 12 f 2(x + 5) = -3
b -3k + 12m - 4k - 9m y
g - 3 = 12 h a2 = 36
c -d + 3c - 8c - 4d 4
d 6y2 + 2y + y2 - 7y i 5 - k = -7
1
7 If A = 2 bh, determine the value of A if b = 10 and 13 Solve the following.
h = 7. a 42 - 7b = 14
8 For each of the following, complete the relationship b 12t - 11 = 4t + 5
to illustrate the stated law. c 2(4p - 3) = 2(3p - 5)
a (a + 3b) + 6c = _______ Associative Law 14 Solve each of the following linear equations.
b 12a - 3b ò _______ Commutative Law a 5(x - 2) + 3(x + 2) = 0
c 7p ì _______ = _______ Inverse Law b 7(5 - 2x) - 3(1 - 3x) = 1
d (x ì 5y) ì 7z = _______ Associative Law c 5(x + 1) - 6(2x - 1) = 7(x + 2)
d 8(3x - 2) + (4x - 5) = 7x
e 12p + 0 = _______ Identity Law
e 7(2x - 5) - 4(x + 20) = x - 5
f (3p ó 5q) ó 7r ò _______ Associative Law
f 3(x + 1) + 6(x + 5) = 3x + 40
g 9d + 11e = _______ Commutative Law
15 Solve each of the following equations.
h 4a ó b ò _______ Commutative Law
x x 3 x x
9 Find the value of the following expressions given a + = b − =3
2 5 5 3 5
the natural number values x = 12, y = 8 and z = 4.
1 x x 3 2 5
Comment on whether the Closure Law holds c − = − d + =
for each of the expressions when the values are 21 7 6 x 5 x
substituted. 2x − 3 3 x + 3
e − =
a x ì y 2 5 5
b z ó x 2( x + 2) 3 5( x + 1)
f = +
c y - x 3 7 3
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 52 15/05/12 11:59 AM

PROBLEM SOLVING 2 You are investigating prices for having business

cards printed for your new games store. A local
1 A production is in town and many parents are
printing company charges a flat rate of $250 for the
taking their children. An adult ticket costs $15
materials used and $40 per hour for labour.
and a child’s ticket costs $8. Every child must be
a If h is the number of hours of labour required
accompanied by an adult and each adult can have
to print the cards, construct an equation for the
no more than 4 children with them. It costs the
cost of the cards, C.
company $12 per adult and $3 per child to run the
b You have budgeted $1000 for the printing job.
production. There is a seating limit of 300 people
How many hours of labour can you afford?
and all tickets are sold.
Give your answer to the nearest minute.
a Determine how much profit the company
c The printer estimates that it can print 1000
makes on each adult ticket and on each child’s
cards per hour of labour. How many cards will
ticket.
be printed with your current budget?
b To maximise profit, the company should sell
d An alternative to printing is photocopying. The
as many children’s tickets as possible. Of
company charges 15 cents per side for the first
the 300 available seats, determine how many
10 000 cards and then 10 cents per side for the
should be allocated to children if there is a
remaining cards. Which is the cheaper option
maximum of 4 children per adult.
for 18 750 single-sided cards and by how
c Using your answer to part b, determine how
much?
many adults would make up the remaining
seats. eBook plus
d Construct an equation to represent the profit
that the company can make depending on the Interactivities
Test yourself Chapter 2
number of children and adults attending the
int-2831
production. Word search Chapter 2
e Substitute your values to calculate the int-2829
maximum profit the company can make. Crossword Chapter 2
int-2830
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 53 15/05/12 11:59 AM

Chapter opener • Activity 2-C-3 (doc-4968): Advanced operations
Digital doc with algebraic fractions (page 39)
• Hungry brain activity Chapter 2 (doc-5182) (page 27) • SkillSHEET 2.5 (doc-5187): Multiplication of
fractions
Are you ready? • SkillSHEET 2.9 (doc-5191): Simplification of
Digital docs (page 28) algebraic fractions (page 39)
• SkillSHEET 2.1 (doc-5183): Like terms • SkillSHEET 2.10 (doc-5192): Division of fractions
• SkillSHEET 2.2 (doc-5184): Collecting like terms (page 39)
• SkillSHEET 2.3 (doc-5185): Finding the highest • WorkSHEET 2.1 (doc-5193): Algebraic fractions
common denominator (page 40)
• SkillSHEET 2.4 (doc-5186): Addition and
subtraction of fractions
• SkillSHEET 2.5 (doc-5187): Multiplication of Digital docs (page 43)
fractions • Activity 2-D-1 (doc-4969): Simple puzzling
• SkillSHEET 2.6 (doc-5188): Division of fractions equations
• Activity 2-D-2 (doc-4970): Puzzling equations
2A Substitution • Activity 2-D-3 (doc-4971): Advanced puzzling
Digital docs equations
• Activity 2-A-1 (doc-4960): Substitution (page 31) 2E Solving equations with algebraic fractions
• Activity 2-A-2 (doc-4961): Harder substitution and multiple brackets
(page 31)
• Activity 2-A-3 (doc-4962): Tricky substitution Digital docs
(page 31) • Activity 2-E-1 (doc-4972): Algebraic equations with
• SkillSHEET 2.7 (doc-5189): Order of operations fractions (page 48)
(page 32) • Activity 2-E-2 (doc-4973): Harder algebraic
equations with fractions (page 48)
2B Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions • Activity 2-E-3 (doc-4974): Tricky algebraic
Digital docs (page 36) equations with fractions (page 48)
• Activity 2-B-1 (doc-4963): Introducing algebraic • WorkSHEET 2.2 (doc-5194): Solving equations with
fractions fractions (page 49)
• Activity 2-B-2 (doc-4964): Working with algebraic Interactivity
fractions • Solving equations (int-2778) (page 45)
• Activity 2-B-3 (doc-4965): Advanced algebraic Chapter review
fractions
• SkillSHEET 2.4 (doc-5186): Addition and Interactivities(page 53)
subtraction of fractions • Test Yourself Chapter 2 (int-2831): Take the end-of-
• SkillSHEET 2.8 (doc-5190): Writing equivalent chapter test to test your progress.
algebraic fractions with the lowest common • Word search Chapter 2 (int-2829): an interactive
denominator word search involving words associated with this
chapter
2C Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions • Crossword Chapter 2 (int-2830): an interactive
Digital docs crossword using the definitions associated with the
• Activity 2-C-1 (doc-4966): Learning operations chapter
with algebraic fractions (page 39) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
• Activity 2-C-2 (doc-4967): Operations with
algebraic fractions (page 39) www.jacplus.com.au
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_02.indd 54 15/05/12 11:59 AM

number AnD AlgebrA • lineAr AnD non-lineAr relAtionships
3
3a Sketching linear graphs
3B Determining linear equations
3C The distance between two points on a
straight line
3d The midpoint of a line segment
3E Parallel and perpendicular lines
WhAt Do you knoW ?

1 List what you know about linear graphs
Coordinate and their equations. Create a concept

map to show your list.
geometry then with a small group.

linear graphs and their equations.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 3
doc-5195
opening Question
How can a knowledge of coordinate

geometry help us design structures like
this one?
Are you ready?

Try■the■questions■below.■If■you■have■diffi■culty■with■any■of■them,■extra■help■can■be■obtained■by■
completing■the■matching■SkillSHEET.■Either■click■on■the■SkillSHEET■icon■next■to■the■question■
on■your■eBookPLUS■or■ask■your■teacher■for■a■copy.
eBook plus Measuring the rise and run

1 State■the■rise■and■the■run■for■each■of■the■following■straight■line■graphs.
Digital doc y y
a b
SkillSHEET 3.1
doc-5196 4
2 2
0 x 0 x
2 5
-2
eBook plus
Describing the gradient of a line
2 State■whether■each■line■in■question■1■has■a■positive,■zero,■negative■or■undefi■ned■gradient.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 3.2
doc-5197
eBook plus
Plotting a line using a table of values
3 Draw■up■a■table■of■values■and■plot■the■graph■for■each■of■the■following■rules.
Digital doc
a y■=■x■+■3 b y■=■x■-■2 c y■=■2x
SkillSHEET 3.3
doc-5198
eBook plus
Stating the y-intercept from a graph
4 State■the■y-intercept■for■each■graph■shown■in■question■1.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 3.4
doc-5199
eBook plus
Solving linear equations that arise when finding x- and y-intercepts
5 Consider■the■equation■3y■+■4x■=■12.
Digital doc
a Substitute■x■=■0■and■solve■to■fi■nd■the■value■of■y.
SkillSHEET 3.5
doc-5200 b Substitute■y■=■0■and■solve■to■fi■nd■the■value■of■x.
eBook plus
Using Pythagoras’ theorem
6 Find■the■length■of■side■AB.
Digital doc
a B b B
SkillSHEET 3.6
doc-5201 13 cm
8m
A 12 cm C
A C
6m
56 maths Quest 10 for the Australian Curriculum

number AND algebra • Linear and non-linear relationships
3A Sketching linear graphs

■■ A linear graph has an equation that can be written in the standard form y = mx + c, where m
is the gradient of the line, and c is the y-intercept.
■■ An alternative form of the linear equation is ax + by = k, where a, b and k are constants.
■■ The gradient (or slope) is a measure of the steepness of a graph.
■■ If the gradient, m, of the line is positive, the graph will have an upward slope to the right.
■■ If the gradient, m, of the line is negative, the graph will have a downward slope to the right.
■■ The greater the magnitude of the gradient, the steeper the linear graph will be.
■■ A linear graph is drawn on a Cartesian plane, with two axes (x and y) meeting at the
origin (0, 0).
■■ The axes divide the plane into four regions, or quadrants.
■■ A point is specified by its x- and y-coordinates.
■■ A graph of the line y = 2x + 5 is shown in the figure at right. y y = 2x + 5
■■ One method which can be used to draw a graph of an equation 10
is to simply plot the points on graph paper. Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
■■ The points can be plotted manually, or a graphing calculator 5
can be used to plot the points.
-10 -5 0 5 10 x
-5
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
-10
Worked Example 1
Plot the linear graph defined by the rule y = 2 x - 5 for the x-values -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
Think Write
1 Create a table of values using the given x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

x-values.
y
2 Find the corresponding y-values by x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
substituting each x-value into the rule.
y -11 -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 1
3 Plot the points on a Cartesian plane and rule a y

2
straight line through them. Since the x-values (3, 1)
1
have been specified, the line should only be
drawn between the x-values of -3 and 3. -3 -2 -1
-1
0 1 2 3x
(2, -1)
-2
-3 (1, -3)
-4
-5 (0, -5)
-6
(-1, -7) -7
-8
(-2, -9) -9
-10
(-3, -11) y = 2x - 5
-11
-12
4 Label the graph.
Chapter 3 Coordinate geometry 57

■■ A minimum of two points are necessary to plot a straight line.

■■ Two methods can be used to plot a straight line:
•• Method 1: The x- and y-intercept method.
•• Method 2: The gradient–intercept method.
Sketching a straight line using the x- and y-intercept

method
■■ As the name implies, this method involves finding the x- and y-intercepts, then joining them
to sketch the straight line.
■■ If the equation is in the form y = mx + c, the value of c gives the y-intercept.
Worked Example 2
Sketch graphs of the following linear equations by finding the x- and y-intercepts.
a 2x + y = 6
b y = -3x - 12
Think Write/draw
a 1 Write the equation. a 2x + y = 6
2 Find the x-intercept by substituting y = 0. x-intercept: when y = 0,

2x + 0 = 6
2x = 6
x=3
x-intercept is (3, 0).
3 Find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0. y-intercept: when x = 0,
2(0) + y = 6
y=6
y-intercept is (0, 6).
4 Rule a straight line passing through both y
points that have been plotted.
2x + y = 6
(0, 6)
0 (3, 0) x
5 Label the graph.

b 1 Write the equation. b y = -3x - 12
2 Find the x-intercept by substituting y = 0. x-intercept: when y = 0,

i Add 12 to both sides of the equation. -3x - 12 = 0
ii Divide both sides of the equation by -3. -3x = 12
x = -4
x-intercept is (-4, 0).
3 Find the y-intercept. The equation is in the c = -12
form y = mx + c, so compare this with our y-intercept is (0, -12).
equation to find the y-intercept, c.

4 Rule a straight line passing through both y

points that have been plotted.
(-4, 0)
0 x
(0, -12) y = -3x - 12
5 Label the graph.
The gradient–intercept method

■■ This method is often used if the equation is in the form y = mx + c, where m represents the
gradient (slope) of the straight line, and c represents the y-intercept.
■■ The steps below outline how to use the gradient–intercept method to sketch a linear graph.
Step 1: Plot a point at the y-intercept.
rise
Step 2: Write the gradient in the form m = . (To write a whole number as a fraction, place
run
it over a denominator of 1.)
Step 3: Starting from the y-intercept, move up the number of units suggested by the rise
(move down if the gradient is negative).
Step 4: Move to the right the number of units suggested by the run and plot the ■
second point.
Step 5: Rule a straight line through the two points.
Worked Example 3
2
Plot the graph of y = 5 x - 3 using the gradient-intercept method.
Think Write/DRAW
2
1 Write the equation of the line. y = 5x - 3
2 Identify the value of c (that is, the y-intercept) and c = -3, so y-intercept: (0, -3).
plot this point.
2
3 Write the gradient, m, as a fraction. (In this case, it m= 5
is a fraction already.)
rise
4 Since m = , interpret the numerator of the So, rise = 2; run = 5.
run
fraction as the rise and the denominator as ■
the run.
5 Starting from the y-intercept at -3, move 2 units up y

and 5 units to the right to find the second point. We 0 x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
have still not found the x-intercept. -2 (5, -1)
-3 (0, -3)
-4

2
6 To find the x-intercept, let y = 0. y = 5x - 3
2
0 = 5x - 3
2
3 = 5x
5
3ì2 =x
15
x= 2
15
( 2 , 0) is the x-intercept.
7 Label the graph and draw a line through all the y (152 , 0)
points found. 0 x
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-2 (5, -1)
-3 (0, -3) y = 25 x - 3
-4
Sketching linear graphs of the form y = mx

■■ These graphs have the value of c = 0.
■■ They pass through the origin (0, 0), providing only one point to plot.
■■ This means that a second point must be determined by either:
•• choosing any x-value, then calculating the corresponding y-value
•• using the gradient–intercept method.
Worked Example 4
Sketch the graph of y = 3x.

Think Write/draw
1 Write the equation. y = 3x

2 Find the x- and y-intercepts. x-intercept: when y = 0,
Note: By recognising the form of this linear 0 = 3x
equation, y = mx you can simply state that the line x=0
passes through the origin, (0, 0). y-intercept: when x = 0, y = 0
Both the x- and y-intercepts are at (0, 0).
3 Find another point to plot by finding the y-value When x = 1, y = 3 ì 1
when x = 1. = 3
Another point on the line is (1, 3).
4 Plot the two points (0, 0) and (1, 3) and rule a y
y = 3x
straight line through them.
3 (1, 3)
(0, 0) x
1
5 Label the graph.

Sketching linear graphs of the form y = c and x = a

■■ It is possible to have an equation for a straight line that contains only an x-term or only a
y-term.
■■ These equations can be written in the form y = c or x = a, where c and a are both constants.
■■ Lines of the form y = c are parallel to the x-axis, having a gradient of zero and a y-intercept
of c.
■■ Lines of the form x = a are parallel to the y-axis, having an undefined (infinite) gradient and
no y-intercept (since they do not cross the y-axis).
Worked Example 5
Sketch graphs of the following linear equations.

a y = -3 b x = 4
Think Write/draw
a 1 Write the equation. a y = -3

2 The y-intercept is -3. As x does not appear y-intercept = -3
in the equation, the line is parallel to the
x-axis, such that all points on the line have
a y-coordinate equal to -3. That is, this
line is the set of points (x, -3) where x is
an element of the set of real numbers.
3 Sketch a horizontal line through (0, -3). y
0 x
(0, -3) y = -3
4 Label the graph.

b 1 Write the equation. b x=4
2 The x-intercept is 4. As y does not appear x-intercept = 4
in the equation, the line is parallel to the
y-axis, such that all points on the line have
an x-coordinate equal to 4. That is, this
line is the set of points (4, y) where y is an
element of the set of real numbers.
3 Sketch a vertical line through (4, 0). y x=4
0 (4, 0) x
4 Label the graph.

remember
1.■ The■Cartesian■plane■is■a■grid,■consisting■of■two■axes■(x■and■y),■meeting■at■the■origin■
(0,■0).
2.■ A■location■(point)■is■specifi■ed■by■its■x-■and■y-coordinates.
3.■ A■linear■graph■consists■of■an■infi■nite■set■of■points■that■can■be■joined■to■form■a■straight■
line,■but■to■sketch■a■linear■graph,■the■coordinates■of■only■two■points■are■needed.
4.■ A■linear■rule■or■equation■can■be■used■to■obtain■the■coordinates■of■points■that■belong■to■
its■graph.
5.■ Linear■equations■may■be■written■in■several■different■forms.■The■two■most■common■
forms■are■y■=■mx■+■c■and■ax■+■by■=■k.
6.■ When■a■linear■equation■is■expressed■in■the■form■y■=■mx■+■c,■then■m■represents■the■
gradient■(slope)■of■the■straight■line■and■c■represents■the■y-intercept.
7.■ A■straight■line■with■a■positive■gradient■slopes■upward■to■the■right■and■a■straight■line■
with■a■negative■gradient■slopes■downward■to■the■right.
8.■ The■x-■and■y-intercept■method■allows■us■to■sketch■the■graph■of■any■linear■equation■by■
fi■nding■two■specifi■c■points:■the■x-intercept■and■y-intercept.■An■exception■is■the■case■of■
lines■passing■through■the■origin.
9.■ Graphs■of■equations■in■the■form■y■=■mx■pass■through■the■origin.■To■fi■nd■the■second■
point,■substitute■a■chosen■x-value■into■the■equation■to■fi■nd■the■corresponding■y-value.
10.■ Graphs■of■equations■in■the■form■y■=■c■have■a■gradient■of■zero■and■are■parallel■to■the■
x-axis.
11.■ Graphs■of■equations■in■the■form■x■=■a■have■an■undefi■ned■(infi■nite)■gradient■and■are■
parallel■to■the■y-axis.
exerCise
3A sketching linear graphs
inDiviDuAl FluenCy
pAthWAys 1 We 1 ■Using■a■graphing■calculator,■generate■a■table■of■values■and■then■plot■the■linear■graphs■
eBook plus defi■ned■by■the■following■rules■for■the■given■range■of x-values.
Activity 3-A-1
Rule x-values
Sketching linear a y■=■10x■+■25 -5,■-4,■-3,■-2,■-1,■0,■1
graphs b y■=■5x■-■12 -1,■0,■1,■2,■3,■4
doc-4975
c y■=■-0.5x■+■10 -6,■-4,■-2,■0,■2,■4
Activity 3-A-2
Graphs of linear
d y■=■100x■-■240 ■ 0,■1,■2,■3,■4,■5
equations e y■=■-5x■+■3 -3,■-2,■-1,■0,■1,■2
doc-4976 f y■=■7■-■4x -3,■-2,■-1,■0,■1,■2
Activity 3-A-3
2 Plot■the■linear■graphs■defi■ned■by■the■following■rules■for■the■given■range■of x-values.
More graphs of
linear equations Rule x-values
doc-4977 a y =■-3x■+■2 x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
y
b y■=■-x■+■3 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
eBook plus y
Digital doc c y■=■-2x■+■3 x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
SkillSHEET 3.7
doc-5202 y

eBook plus
3 We2 ■Sketch■graphs■of■the■following■linear■equations■by■fi■nding■the■x-■and■y-intercepts.
a 5x■-■3y■=■10
Digital doc b 5x■+■3y■=■10
SkillSHEET 3.5
c -5x■+■3y■=■10
doc-5200
d -5x■-■3y■=■10
e 2x■-■8y■=■20
f 4x■+■4y■=■40
g -x■+■6y■=■120
h -2x■+■8y■=■-20
i 10x +■30y■=■-150
j 5x■+■30y■=■-150
k -9x■+■4y■=■36
l 6x■-■4y■=■-24
m y■=■2x■-■10
n y■=■-5x■+■20
1
o y■=■− 2 x■-■4
4 We3 ■Sketch■graphs■of■the■following■linear■equations■using■the■gradient-intercept■method.
a y =■4x■+■1 b y =■3x■-■7 c y =■-2x■+■3
1
d y =■-5x■-■4 e y =■ x■-■2 f y =■- 27 x■+■3
2
g y =■0.6x■+■0.5 h y =■8x i y = x -■7
5 We4 ■Sketch■the■graphs■of■the■following■linear■equations.
a y =■2x b y =■5x
1
c y =■-3x d y =■ 2 x
2 5
e y =■ 3 x f y =■− 2 x
6 We5 ■Sketch■the■graphs■of■the■following■linear■equations.
a y =■10 b y =■-10
c x =■10 d x =■-10
e y =■100 f y =■0
g x =■0 h x =■-100
i y■=■-12
7 Transpose■each■of■the■equations■to■standard■form■(that■is,■y■=■mx■+■c). State■the■x-■and■
eBook plus
y-intercept■for■each.
Digital doc a 5(y■+■2)■=■4(x■+■3)
SkillSHEET 3.8 b 5(y■-■2)■=■4(x■-■3)
doc-5203
c 2(y■+■3)■=■3(x■+■2)
d 10(y■-■20)■=■40(x■-■2)
e 4(y■+■2)■=■-4(x■+■2)
f 2(y■-■2)■=■-(x■+■5)
g -5(y■+■1)■=■4(x■-■4)
h 8(y■-■5)■=■-4(x■+■3)
i 5(y■+■2.5)■=■2(x■-■3.5)
j 2.5(y■-■2)■=■-6.5(x■-■1)
unDerstAnDing
8 Find■the■x-■and■y-intercepts■of■the■following■lines.
a -y■=■8■-■4x reFleCtion
b 6x■-■y■+■3■=■0
What types of straight lines have
c 2y■-■10x■=■50
an x- and y-intercept of the same
value?

3B Determining linear equations

■■ The equation of a straight line can be determined if given:
•• two points through which the line passes
•• the gradient of the line and one other point through which the line passes.
■■ The gradient of a straight line can be calculated from the coordinates of two points (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) which lie on the line.
rise y2 − y1 y
•• Gradient = m = = B
run x2 − x1 (x2, y2)
■■ The equation of the straight line can then be ■
rise = y2 - y1
found in the form y = mx + c, where c is the
y-intercept. A
■■ Once the gradient has been found, substitute ■ (x1, y1) run = x2 - x1
one pair of known x- and y-values into the standard x-intercept x
linear equation y = mx + c to determine the value
of c. y-intercept
■■ If the y-intercept has already been given, then this
is the value of c and no further calculation is
required.
Worked Example 6
Find the equation of the straight line shown in the graph.

y
0 3 x
Think Write
1 There are two points given on the straight line: c=6

the x-intercept (3, 0) and the y-intercept (0, 6).
Therefore, c is 6.
rise
2 We can now find the gradient of the line by using the m=
run
rise y2 − y1 y −y
formula m = = , where (x1, y1) = (3, 0) = 2 1
run x2 − x1
x2 − x1
and (x2, y2) = (0, 6).
6−0
=
0−3
6
=
−3
= -2
The gradient m = -2.
3 Substitute m = -2, and c = 6 into y = mx + c to find y = mx + c
the equation. y = -2x + 6

Worked Example 7
Find the equation of the straight line shown in the graph. y
1 (2, 1)
0 2 x
Think Write
1 There are two points given on the straight line: the c=0
x- and y-intercept (0, 0) and another point (2, 1). The
y-intercept, c, is 0.
rise
2 We can now find the gradient of the line by using the m=
run
rise y2 − y1
formula m = = , where (x1, y1) = (0, 0) and y −y
run x2 − x1 = 2 1
x2 − x1
(x2, y2) = (2, 1).
1− 0
=
2−0
1
=
2
1
The gradient m = 2 .
3 Substitute m = 12 and c = 0 into y = mx + c to determine y = mx + c

the equation. 1
y = 2x + 0
y = 12 x
Worked Example 8
Find the equation of the straight line passing through (-2, 5) and (1, -1).
Think Write
1 Write the general equation of a straight line. y = mx + c

y −y
2 Write the formula for calculating the gradient of a line m= 2 1
x2 − x1
between two points.
−1 − 5
3 Let (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) be the two points (-2, 5) and m=
(1, -1) respectively. Substitute the values of the 1 − −2
pronumerals into the formula to calculate the gradient. −6
=
3
= -2
4 Substitute the value of the gradient into the general rule. y = -2x + c
5 Select either of the two points, say (1, -1), and substitute Point (1, -1):
its coordinates into y = -2x + c. -1 = -2 ì 1 + c
6 Solve for c; that is, add 2 to both sides of the equation. -1 = -2 + c
1=c
7 State the equation by substituting the value of c into The equation of the line is y = -2x + 1.
y = -2x + c.

Finding the equation of a straight line using the gradient

and another point (point–gradient method)
Worked Example 9
Find the equation of the straight line with gradient of 2 and y-intercept of -5.
Think Write
1 Write the known information. In this instance, the Gradient = 2,

other point is the y-intercept, which makes the y-intercept = -5
calculation of c straightforward.
2 State the values of m and c. m = 2, c = -5
3 Substitute these values into y = mx + c to find the y = mx + c
equation. y = 2x - 5
■■ Sometimes the gradient and another point which is not the y-intercept is given.
■■ The value of c can then be found by substituting the coordinates of this point into
y = mx + c.
Worked Example 10
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point (5, -1) with a gradient of 3.
Think Write
1 Write the known information. Gradient = 3, point (5, -1).

2 State the values of m, x and y. m = 3, (x, y) = (5, -1)
3 Substitute these values into y = mx + c and solve to y = mx + c
find c. -1 = 3(5) + c
-1 = 15 + c
-16 = c
4 Substitute m = 3 and c = -16 into y = mx + c to The equation of the line is y = 3x - 16.
determine the equation.
remember
rise y2 − y1
1. The gradient of a straight line is equal to m = or m = x − x .
run 2 1
2. An equation of a straight line can be found if you are given either:■
(i) two points that lie on the line or■
(ii) the gradient of the line and another point (the point–gradient method).■
Note that alternative (i) can reduce to alternative (ii) since the gradient can be
calculated using the two given points.
3. The equation of a straight line can be found by substituting the values of the
gradient, m, into y = mx + c. The value of c can then be found by substituting the x- and
y-values of a given point into y = mx + c. If one of the points given is the y-intercept
then it is simply a matter of letting c = y-intercept.

exerCise
3b Determining linear equations
inDiviDuAl FluenCy
pAthWAys 1 We 6 ■Determine■the■equation■for■each■of■the■straight■lines■shown.
eBook plus a y b y c y
Activity 3-B-1 4 12 5
Determining linear
equations
doc-4978
Activity 3-B-2 -2 0 x 0 x
5
Linear equations 0 4 x
doc-4979
Activity 3-B-3
More complex
linear equations d y e y f y
doc-4980
3
eBook plus -16 0 x

0 4 x 0 x
-6
Digital doc
-4
SkillSHEET 3.1 -8
doc-5196
g y h y
-5 0 x
0 –5 x
7
-5 -15
2 We 7 ■Determine■the■equation■of■each■of■the■straight■lines■shown.
a y b y
(-4, 12) 12
6 (3, 6)
0 3 x
x
-4 0
c y d y
6
(-8, 6)
-4 0 x
(-4, -2) -2 0 x
-8
eBook plus 3 We 8 ■Find■the■equation■of■the■straight■line■that■passes■through■each■pair■of■points.

Digital doc
a (1,■4)■and■(3,■6) b (0,■-1)■and■(3,■5)
SkillSHEET 3.9 c (-1,■4)■and■(3,■2) d (3,■2)■and■(-1,■0)
doc-5204 e (-4,■6)■and■(2,■-6) f (-3,■-5)■and■(-1,■-7)

4 We 9 ■Find■the■linear■equation■given■the■information■in■each■case■below.
a Gradient■=■3,■y-intercept■=■3 b Gradient■=■-3,■y-intercept■=■4
c Gradient■=■-4,■y-intercept■=■2 d Gradient■=■4,■y-intercept■=■2
e Gradient■=■-1,■y-intercept■=■-4 f Gradient■=■0.5,■y-intercept■=■-4
g Gradient■=■5,■y-intercept■=■2.5 h Gradient■=■-6,■y-intercept■=■3
i Gradient■=■-2.5,■y-intercept■=■1.5 j Gradient■=■3.5,■y-intercept■=■6.5
5 We 10 ■For■each■of■the■following,■fi■nd■the■equation■of■the■straight■line■with■the■given■gradient■
and■passing■through■the■given■point.
a Gradient■=■5,■point■=■(5,■6)
b Gradient■=■-5,■point■=■(5,■6)
c Gradient■=■-4,■point■=■(-2,■7)
d Gradient■=■4,■point■=■(8,■-2)
e Gradient■=■3,■point■=■(10,■-5) reFleCtion
f Gradient■=■-3,■point■=■(3,■-3) What problems might you encounter
eBook plus g Gradient■=■-2,■point■=■(20,■-10) when calculating the equation of a
Digital doc h Gradient■=■2,■point■=■(2,■-0.5) line whose graph is actually parallel
WorkSHEET 3.1 i Gradient■=■0.5,■point■=■(6,■-16) to one of the axes?
doc-5205 j Gradient■=■- 0.5,■point■=■(5,■3)
3C the distance between two points on

a straight line
Distance between two points
■■ The■distance■between■two■points■can■be■calculated■using■Pythagoras’■theorem.
■■ Consider■two■points■A(x1,■y1)■and■B(x2,■y2)■on■the■Cartesian■plane■as■shown.
AC■=■x2■-■x1
y
BC■=■y2■-■y1
y2 B(x2, y2)
By■Pythagoras’■theorem:
AB2■=■AC2■+■BC2 y1 A C
=■(x2■-■x1)2■+■(y2■-■y1)2 (x1, y1)
Hence■ AB = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 )2 x1 x2 x
The■distance■between■two■points■A(x1,■y1)■and■B(x2,■y2)■is:
AB = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 )2
■■ This■distance■formula■can■be■used■to■calculate■the■distance■between■any■two■points■on■the■
Cartesian■plane.
WorkeD exAmple 11
Find the distance between the points A and B in the figure at right. y
4 B
A
1
think Write -3 3 x
1 From■the■graph■fi■nd■points■A■and■B. A(-3,■1)■and■B(3,■4)
2 Let■A■have■coordinates■(x1,■y1). Let■(x1,■y1)■=■(-3,■1)

3 Let B have coordinates (x2, y2). Let (x2, y2) = (3, 4)

4 Find the length AB by applying the formula AB = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
for the distance between two points.
= [3 − (−3)]2 + (4 − 1)2
= (6)2 + (3)2
= 36 + 9
= 45
=3 5
= 6.71 (correct to 2 decimal places)
Worked Example 12
Find the distance between the points P(-1, 5) and Q(3, -2).
Think Write
1 Let P have coordinates (x1, y1). Let (x1, y1) = (-1, 5)

2 Let Q have coordinates (x2, y2). Let (x2, y2) = (3, -2)
3 Find the length PQ by applying the formula PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2

for the distance between two points.
= [3 − (−1)]2 + (−2 − 5)2
= (4)2 + (−7)2
= 16 + 49
= 65
= 8.06 (correct to 2 decimal places)
■■ The distance formula is useful in proving geometric properties of polygons.
Worked Example 13
Prove that the points A(1, 1), B(3, -1) and C(-1, -3) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
Think Write/draw
1 Plot the points. y From the diagram, AC

1 A
Note: For triangle ABC to be isosceles, appears to have the same
two sides must have the same magnitude. x length as BC.
-1 1 3
B
C
-3
2 Find the length AC. AC = [1 − (−1)]2 + [1 − (−3)]2

A(1, 1) = (x2, y2)
= (2)2 + (4)2
C(-1, -3) = (x1, y1)
= 20

3 Find■the■length■BC. BC = [3 − (−1)]2 + [−1 − (−3)]2

B(3,■-1)■=■(x2,■y2)
= (4)2 + (2)2
C(-1,■-3)■=■(x1,■y1)
= 20
4 Find■the■length■AB. AB = [3 − (1)]2 + [−1 − (1)]2

A(1,■1)■=■(x1,■y1)
= (2)2 + (−2)2
B(3,■-1)■=■(x2,■y2)
= 4+4
= 8
=2 2
5 State■your■proof. Since■AC■=■BC,■triangle■ABC■is■an■isosceles■triangle.
remember
The■distance■between■two■points■A(x1,■y1)■and■B(x2,■y2)■is:
AB = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
exerCise
3C the distance between two points
on a straight line
inDiviDuAl
pAthWAys FluenCy
eBook plus 1 We11 ■Find■the■distance■between■each■pair■of■points■ G y O
6
K B
5
Activity 3-C-1
shown at■right. 4 P
Finding the distance 3
2 We12 ■Find■the■distance■between■the■following■pairs■of■ 2A C
between two points E H N
on a straight line points. L 1
-6 -5 -4-3-2-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
doc-4981 a (2,■5),■(6,■8) -1
F -2
Activity 3-C-2 b (-1,■2),■(4,■14)
Calculations of M -3
c (-1,■3),■(-7,■-5) I -4 J D
distance between -5
two points d (5,■-1),■(10,■4) -6
doc-4982 e (4,■-5),■(1,■1)
Activity 3-C-3 f (-3,■1),■(5,■13)
Applications of
distance between g (5,■0),■(-8,■0)
two points h (1,■7),■(1,■-6)
doc-4983 i (a,■b),■(2a,■-b)
j (-a,■2b),■(2a,■-b)
3 We13 ■Prove■that■the■points■A(0,■-3),■B(-2,■-1)■and■C(4,■3)■are■the■vertices■of■an
isosceles■triangle.
unDerstAnDing
eBook plus
4 The■points■P(2,■-1),■Q(-4,■-1)■and■R(-1,■3 3 − 1)■are■joined■to■form■a■triangle.■
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 021 Prove■that■triangle■PQR■is■equilateral.
doc-5206 5 Prove■that■the■triangle■with■vertices■D(5,■6),■E(9,■3)■and■F(5,■3)■is■a■right-angled■triangle.

6 The vertices of a quadrilateral are A(1, 4), B(-1, 8), C(1, 9) and D(3, 5).
a Find the lengths of the sides. b Find the lengths of the diagonals.
c What type of quadrilateral is it?
Reasoning
7 MC If the distance between the points (3, b) and (-5, 2) is 10 units, then the value of b is:
a -8 B -4 C 4
d 0 E 2
8 MC A rhombus has vertices A(1, 6), B(6, 6), C(-2, 2) and D(x, y). The coordinates of D are:
a (2, -3) B (2, 3) C (-2, 3)
d (3, 2) E (3, -2)
9 A rectangle has vertices A(1, 5), B(10.6, z), C(7.6, -6.2) and D(-2, 1). Find:
a the length of CD
b the length of AD reflection  
c the length of the diagonal AC How could you use the distance
d the value of z. formula to show that a series of
10 Show that the triangle ABC with coordinates points lay on the circumference of
a circle with centre C ?
A(a, a), B(m, -a) and C(-a, m) is isosceles.
3D The midpoint of a line segment

Midpoint of a line segment
■■ The midpoint of a line segment is the half-way point.
■■ The x- and y-coordinates of the midpoint are half-way between those of the coordinates of the
end points.
Midpoint formula
Consider the line segment connecting the points y
B(x2, y2)
A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2).
Let P(x, y) be the midpoint of AB. (y2 - y)
AC is parallel to PD. P(x, y)
PC is parallel to BD. (x2 - x) D
AP is parallel to PB (collinear). (y - y1)
A
Hence triangle APC is similar to triangle PBD. (x1, y1) (x - x1) C
But AP = PB (since P is the midpoint of AB). x
Hence, triangle APC is congruent to triangle PBD.
Therefore x - x1 = x2 - x
2x = x1 + x2
x + x2
x= 1
2
y +y
Similarly it can be shown that y = 1 2 .
2
In general, the coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment joining y
(x2, y2)
the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be found by averaging the x- and
y-coordinates of the end points, respectively. M
The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (
1 + x2 _____
x_____,
2
y1 + y2
2 )
x +x y +y  (x1, y1)
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are:  1 2 , 1 2  x
 2 2 

Worked Example 14
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining (-2, 5) and (7, 1).
Think Write
1 Label the given points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). Let (x1, y1) = (-2, 5) and (x2, y2) = (7, 1)
x +x
2 Find the x-coordinate of the midpoint. x= 1 2
2
−2 + 7
=
2
5
=2
1
=22
y +y
3 Find the y-coordinate of the midpoint. y= 1 2
2
5+1
=
2
6
=2
=3
1
4 Give the coordinates of the midpoint. Hence, the coordinates of the midpoint are (2 2 , 3).
Worked Example 15
The coordinates of the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB are (7, 2). If the coordinates of A are
(1, -4), find the coordinates of B.
Think Write/DRAW
1 Label the start of the line segment (x1, y1) Let (x1, y1) = (1, -4) and (x, y) = (7, 2)
and the midpoint (x, y).
x1 + x2
2 Find the x-coordinate of the end point. x=
2
1 + x2
7=
2
14 = 1 + x2
x2 = 13
y +y
3 Find the y-coordinate of the end point. y= 1 2
2
− 4 + y2
2=
2
4 = -4 + y2
y2 = 8
4 Give the coordinates of the end point. Hence, the coordinates of the point B are (13, 8).
5 Check that the coordinates are feasible. y B (13, 8)
8
M (7, 2)
2
1 7 13 x
-4
A (1, -4)

remember
The■coordinates■of■the■midpoint■of■the■line■segment■ y
joining■(x1,■y1)■and■(x2,■y2)■are: (x2, y2)
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2  M
■ ■  2 , 2 
(x_____,
1
2
2
2 )
+ x _____
y +y 1 2
(x1, y1)
x
exerCise
3D the midpoint of a line segment
inDiviDuAl FluenCy
pAthWAys
1 We14 ■Use■the■formula■method■to■fi■nd■the■coordinates■of■the■midpoint■of■the■line
eBook plus
segment joining■the■following■pairs■of■points.
Activity 3-D-1 a (-5,■1),■(-1,■-8) b (4,■2),■(11,■-2)
Finding the midpoint
of a line segment
c (0,■4),■(-2,■-2) d (3,■4),■(-3,■-1)
doc-4984 e (a,■2b),■(3a,■-b) f (a■+■3b,■b),■(a■-■b,■a■-■b)
Activity 3-D-2 2 We15 ■The■coordinates■of■the■midpoint,■M,■of■the■line■segment■AB■are■(2,■-3).■If■the■
Calculations —
midpoint of a
coordinates■of■A■are■(7,■4),■fi■nd■the■coordinates■of■B.
segment
doc-4985 unDerstAnDing
Activity 3-D-3
Applications — 3 Find:
midpoint of a
segment a the■coordinates■of■the■centre■of■a■square■with■vertices■A(0,■0),■B(2,■4),■C(6,■2)■and■
doc-4986 D(4,■-2)
b the■side■length
c the■length■of■the■diagonals.
4 mC ■The■midpoint■of■the■line■segment■joining■the■points■(-2,■1)■and■(8,■-3)■is:
eBook plus
a (6,■-2) B (5,■2) C (6,■2)
Digital doc d (3,■-1) E (5,■-2)
Spreadsheet 075
doc-5207 5 mC ■If■the■midpoint■of■AB■is■(-1,■5)■and■the■coordinates■of■B■are■(3,■8),■then■A■has■
coordinates:
a (1,■6.5) B (2,■13) C (-5,■2)
d (4,■3) E (7,■11)
6 a■ The■vertices■of■a■triangle■are■A(2,■5),■B(1,■-3)■and■C(-4,■3).■Find:
i the■coordinates■of■P,■the■midpoint■of■AC
ii the■coordinates■of■Q,■the■midpoint■of■AB
iii the■length■of■PQ
iv the■length■of■BC.
b Hence■show■that■BC■=■2PQ.
7 a■ ■A■quadrilateral■has■vertices■A(6,■2),■B(4,■-3),■C(-4,■-3)■and■D(-2,■2).■Find:
i the■midpoint■of■the■diagonal■AC
ii the■midpoint■of■the■diagonal■BD.
b Comment■on■your■fi■nding.

8 a■ ■■The■points■A(-5,■3.5),■B(1,■0.5)■and■C(-6,■-6)■are■the■vertices■of■a■triangle.■Find:
i the■midpoint,■P,■of■AB
ii the■length■of■PC
iii the■length■of■AC
iv the■length■of■BC.
b Describe■the■triangle.■What■could■PC■represent?
reAsoning
9 Find■the■equation■of■the■straight■line■that■passes■through■the■midpoint■of■A(-2,■5)■and■
eBook plus B(-2,■3),■and■has■a■gradient■of■-3.
Digital doc 10 Find■the■equation■of■the■straight■line■that■ reFleCtion
WorkSHEET 3.2 passes■through■the■midpoint■of■A(-1,■-3)■and■ If the midpoint of a line segment
2
doc-5208 B(3,■-5),■and■has■a■gradient■of■ 3. is the origin, what are the possible
values of the x- and y-coordinates
of the end points?
3e parallel and perpendicular eBook plus
lines Interactivity
Parallel and
parallel lines perpendicular

lines
■■ Lines■which■have■the■same■gradient■are■parallel■lines. int-2779
WorkeD exAmple 16
Show that AB is parallel to CD given that A has coordinates (-1, -5), B has coordinates (5, 7), C has
coordinates (-3, 1) and D has coordinates (4, 15).
think Write
1 Find■the■gradient■of■AB. Let■A(-1,■-5)■=■(x1,■y1)■and■B(5,■7)■=■(x2,■y2)
y −y
Since■ ■ m = 2 1
x2 − x1
7 − (−5)
mAB =
5 − (−1)
12
= 6
=■2
2 Find■the■gradient■of■CD. Let■C(-3,■1)■=■(x1,■y1)■and■D(4,■15)■=■(x2,■y2)
15 − 1
mCD =
4 − (−3)
14
= 7
=■2
3 Compare■the■gradients■to■determine■ Since■parallel■lines■have■the■same■gradient■and■
if■they■are■parallel.■(Note:■||■means■ mAB■=■mCD■=■2,■then■AB||CD.
‘is■parallel■to’.)
■■ Collinear■points■are■points■which■all■lie■on■the■same■straight■line.

Worked Example 17
Show that the points A(2, 0), B(4, 1) and C(10, 4) are collinear.
Think Write
1 Find the gradient of AB. Let A(2, 0) = (x1, y1)

and B(4, 1) = (x2, y2)
y −y
Since m= 2 1
x2 − x1
1− 0
mAB =
4−2
1
= 2
2 Find the gradient of BC. Let B(4, 1) = (x1, y1)

and C(10, 4) = (x2, y2)
mBC = 4 − 1
10 − 4
3
= 6
1
= 2
1
3 Show that A, B and C are collinear. Since mAB = mBC = 2
then AB||BC
Since B is common to both line segments, A, B and C
must lie on the same straight line. That is, A, B and C
are collinear.
Perpendicular lines
■■ There is a special relationship between the gradients of two perpendicular lines.
■■ Consider the diagram shown below where the line segment AB is perpendicular to the line
segment BC, AC is parallel to the x-axis, and BD is the perpendicular height of the resulting
triangle ABC.
Let mAB = m1
y B
a
=
b a q
= tan (q ) a
Let mBC = m2
A q a C
a b c
=− D
c x
= -tan (a )
b
=−
a
−1
=
m1
1
Hence m2 = −
m1
or m1m2 = -1

Hence, if two lines are perpendicular to each other, then the product of their gradients is -1.
Two lines are perpendicular if and only if:
m1m2 = -1
−1
or m2 =
m1
Worked Example 18
Show that the lines y = -5x + 2 and 5y - x + 15 = 0 are perpendicular to one another.
Think Write
1 Find the gradient of equation 1. y = -5x + 2

Hence m1 = -5
2 Find the gradient of equation 2. 5y - x + 15 = 0
Rewrite in the form y = mx + c
5y = x - 15
x
y= -3
5
1
Hence m2 = 5
1
3 Test for perpendicularity. (The two lines m1m2 = -5 ì 5
are perpendicular if the product of their = -1
gradients is -1.) Hence, the two lines are perpendicular to each other.
Determining the equation of a straight line parallel or

perpendicular to another straight line
■■ The gradient properties of parallel and perpendicular straight lines can be used to determine
the equations of other lines with particular attributes.
Worked Example 19
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the point (3, -1) and is parallel to the
straight line with equation y = 2x + 1.
Think Write
1 Write the general equation. y = mx + c

2 Find the gradient of the given line. y = 2x + 1 has a gradient of 2
Hence m = 2
3 Substitute for m in the general equation. so y = 2x + c
4 Substitute the given point to find c. (x, y) = (3, -1)
\ -1 = 2(3) + c
=6+c
c = -7
5 Substitute for c in the general equation. y = 2x - 7
or
2x - y - 7 = 0

Worked Example 20
Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (0, 3) and is perpendicular to a straight
line with a gradient of 5.
Think Write
1 Find the gradient of the perpendicular line. Given m=5

1
m1 = − 5
2 Substitute for m and (x1, y1) in the general equation. Since y - y1 = m(x - x1)
and (x1, y1) = (0, 3)
1
then y - 3 = − 5 (x - 0)
x
=−
5
5(y - 3) = -x
5y - 15 = -x
x + 5y - 15 = 0
Horizontal and vertical lines

■■ Recall the following.
•• Horizontal lines are parallel to the x-axis, have a gradient of zero, are expressed in the form
y = c and have no x-intercept.
•• Vertical lines are parallel to the y-axis, have an undefined (infinite) gradient, are expressed
in the form x = a and have no y-intercept.
Worked Example 21
Find the equation of:
a the vertical line that passes through the point (2, -3)
b the horizontal line that passes through the point (-2, 6).
Think Write
a For a vertical line, there is no y-intercept so y does not a x=2

appear in the equation. The x-coordinate of the point is 2.
b For a horizontal line, there is no x-intercept so x does not b y=6
appear in the equation. The y-coordinate of the point is 6.
Worked Example 22
Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (0, -4) and (6, 5).
Think Write/draw
1 Find the gradient of the line joining the given points Let (0, -4) = (x1, y1)
using the general equation. Let (6, 5) = (x2, y2)
y − y1
m= 2
x2 − x1
5 − (−4)
m=
6−0
9
=6
3
= 2

1
2 Find the gradient of the perpendicular line. For lines to be perpendicular, m2 = −
m1
2
m1 = − 3
x1 + x2
3 Find the midpoint of the line joining the given x=
points. 2
0+6
=
2
=3
y + y2
y= 1
2
−4 + 5
=
2
1
= 2
1
Hence (3, 2 ) are the coordinates of the midpoint.
4 Substitute for m and (x1, y1) in the general Since y - y1 = m(x - x1)
equation. 1 2
and (x1, y1) = (3, 2 ) and m1 = − 3
5 Simplify by removing the fractions. then y -
1 2
= − 3 (x - 3)
2
1
(a) Multiply both sides by 3. 3(y - 2 ) = -2(x - 3)
3
3y - 2
= -2x + 6
(b) Multiply both sides by 2. 6y - 3 = -4x + 12
4x + 6y - 15 = 0
Note: The diagram at right shows the geometric situation. y
5 (6, 5)
1
2 –2
1–
2
-4 3 6 x
-4
remember
1. The equation of a straight line may be expressed in the form:

y = mx + c
where m is the gradient of the line and c is the y-intercept, or
y - y1 = m(x - x1)
where m is the gradient and (x1, y1) is a point on the line.
2. The gradient can be calculated if two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), are given by using
y −y
m= 2 1
x2 − x1
3. Parallel lines have the same gradient.
4. Collinear points lie on the same straight line.
Two lines are perpendicular if and only if:
m1m2 = -1
1
or m2 = − .
m1
The equation of a straight line can be determined by two methods:

5.■ The■y■=■mx■+■c■method.
This■requires■the■gradient,■m,■and■a■given■point■to■be■known,■in■order■to■establish■the■
value■of■c.
If■the■y-intercept■is■known,■then■this■can■be■directly■substituted■for■c.
6.■ Alternative■method:■y■-■y1■=■m(x■-■x1)
This■requires■the■gradient,■m,■and■a■given■point■(x1,■y1)■to■be■known.
7.■ The■general■equation■for■a■vertical■line■is■given■by■x■=■a■and■a■horizontal■line■is■given■
by■y■=■c.
exerCise
3e parallel and perpendicular lines
inDiviDuAl FluenCy
pAthWAys
1 We 16 ■Find■if■AB■is■parallel■to■CD■given■the■following■coordinates.
eBook plus
a A(4,■13),■B(2,■9),■C(0,■-10),■D(15,■0).
Activity 3-E-1 b A(2,■4),■B(8,■1),■C(-6,■-2),■D(2,■-6).
Parallel and
c A(-3,■-10),■B(1,■2),■C(1,■10),■D(8,■16).
perpendicular lines
doc-4987 d A(1,■-1),■B(4,■11),■C(2,■10),■D(-1,■-5).
Activity 3-E-2 e A(1,■0),■B(2,■5),■C(3,■15),■D(7,■35).
More difficult f A(1,■-6),■B(-5,■0),■C(0,■0),■D(5,■-4).
parallel and
perpendicular lines 2 Which■pairs■of■the■following■straight■lines■are■parallel?
doc-4988
a 2x■+■y■+■1■=■0■ b■ y■=■3x■-■1
Activity 3-E-3
Complex parallel and c 2y■-■x■=■3■ d■ y■=■4x■+■3
perpendicular lines x
e y = −1 ■ ■ f■ 6x■-■2y■=■0
doc-4989 2
g 3y■=■x■+■4■ h■ 2y■=■5■-■x
3 We 17 ■Show■that■the■points■A(0,■-2),■B(5,■1)■and■C(-5,■-5)■are■collinear.
4 Show■that■the■line■that■passes■through■the■points■(-4,■9)■and■(0,■3)■also■passes■through■
the■point■(6,■-6).
5 We 18 ■Show■that■the■lines■y■=■6x■-■3■and■x■+■6y■-■6■=■0■are■perpendicular■to■one■another.
6 Determine■if■AB■is■perpendicular■to■CD,■given■the■following■coordinates.
eBook plus
a A(1,■6),■B(3,■8),■C(4,■-6),■D(-3,■1)■ b■ A(2,■12),■B(-1,■-9),■C(0,■2),■D(7,■1)
Digital doc
c A(1,■3),■B(4,■18),■C(-5,■4),■D(5,■0)■ d■ A(1,■-5),■B(0,■0),■C(5,■11),■D(-10,■8)
Spreadsheet 085
doc-5209 e A(-4,■9),■B(2,■-6),■C(-5,■8),■D(10,■14)■ f■ A(4,■4),■B(-8,■5),■C(-6,■2),■D(3,■11)
7 We 19 ■Find■the■equation■of■the■straight■line■that■passes■through■the■point■(4,■-1)■and■is■
parallel■to■the■straight■line■with■equation■y■=■2x■-■5.
8 We 20 ■Find■the■equation■of■the■line■that■passes■through■the■point■(-2,■7)■and■is■perpendicular
eBook plus
2
to■a■line■with■a■gradient■of■ 3.
Digital doc
Spreadsheet 029 9 Find■the■equations■of■the■following■straight■lines.
doc-5210 a Gradient■3■and■passing■through■the■point■(1,■5).
b Gradient■-4■and■passing■through■the■point■(2,■1).
c Passing■through■the■points■(2,■-1)■and■(4,■2).
d Passing■through■the■points■(1,■-3)■and■(6,■-5).
e Passing■through■the■point■(5,■-2)■and■parallel■to■x■+■5y■+■5■=■0.
f Passing■through■the■point■(1,■6)■and■parallel■to■x■-■3y■-■2■=■0.
g Passing■through■the■point■(-1,■-5)■and■perpendicular■to■3x■+■y■+■2■=■0.

10 Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (-2, 1) and is:
a parallel to the straight line with equation 2x - y - 3 = 0
b perpendicular to the straight line with equation 2x - y - 3 = 0.
11 Find the equation of the line that contains the point (1, 1) and is:
a parallel to the straight line with equation 3x - 5y = 0
b perpendicular to the straight line with equation 3x - 5y = 0.
12 WE 21 Find the equation of:
a the vertical line that passes through the point (1, -8)
b the horizontal line that passes through the point (-5, -7).
13 MC a The vertical line passing through the point (3, -4) is given by:
A y = -4 B x = 3
C y = 3x - 4 D y = -4x + 3
E x = -4
b Which of the following points does the horizontal line given by the equation y = -5 pass
through?
A (-5, 4) B (4, 5)
C (3, -5) D (5, -4)
E (5, 5)
c Which of the following statements is true?
A Vertical lines have a gradient of zero.
B The y-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
C Horizontal lines have an undefined gradient.
D The x-coordinates of all points on a vertical line are the same.
E A horizontal line has the general equation x = a.
d Which of the following statements is false?
A Horizontal lines have a gradient of zero.
B The straight line joining the points (1, -1) and (-7, -1) is vertical.
C Vertical lines have an undefined gradient.
D The straight line joining the points (1, 1) and (-7, 1) is horizontal.
E A horizontal line has the general equation y = c.
14 The triangle ABC has vertices A(9, -2), B(3, 6) and C(1, 4).
a Find the midpoint, M, of BC.
b Find the gradient of BC.
c Show that AM is the perpendicular bisector of BC.
d Describe triangle ABC.
15 WE 22 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (1, 2)
and (-5, -4).
16 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points (-2, 9)
and (4, 0).
17 ABCD is a parallelogram. The coordinates of A, B and C are (4, 1), (1, -2) and (-2, 1)
respectively. Find:
a the equation of AD
b the equation of DC
c the coordinates of D.
understanding
18 In each of the following, show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
a A(2, 0), B(4, -3), C(2, -4), D(0, -1)
b A(2, 2), B(0, -2), C(-2, -3), D(0, 1)
c A(2.5, 3.5), B(10, -4), C(2.5, -2.5), D(-5, 5)

19 In each of the following, show that ABCD is a trapezium.

a A(0, 6), B(2, 2), C(0, -4), D(-5, -9)
b A(26, 32), B(18, 16), C(1, -1), D(-3, 3)
c A(2, 7), B(1, -1), C(-0.6, -2.6), D(-2, 3)
20 MC The line that passes through the points (0, -6) and (7, 8) also passes through:
A (4, 3) B (5, 4) C (-2, 10)
D (1, -8) E (1, 4)
21 MC The point (-1, 5) lies on a line parallel to 4x + y + 5 = 0. Another point on the same line
as (-1, 5) is:
A (2, 9) B (4, 2) C (4, 0)
D (-2, 3) E (3, -11)
22 Find the equation of the straight line given the following conditions:
a passes through the point (-1, 3) and parallel to y = -2x + 5
b passes through the point (4, -3) and parallel to 3y + 2x = -3.
23 Determine which pairs of the following straight lines are perpendicular.
a x + 3y - 5 = 0 b y = 4x - 7 c y = x
d 2y = x + 1 e y = 3x + 2 f x + 4y - 9 = 0
g 2x + y = 6 h x + y = 0
24 Find the equation of the straight line that cuts the x-axis at 3 and is perpendicular to the line
with equation 3y - 6x = 12.
25 Calculate the value of m for which lines with the following pairs of equations are perpendicular
to each other.
a 2y - 5x = 7 and 4y + 12 = mx b 5x - 6y = -27 and 15 + mx = -3y
26 MC The gradient of the line perpendicular to the line with equation 3x - 6y = 2 is:
A 3 B -6 C 2
1
D 2
E -2
27 MC Triangle ABC has a right angle at B. The vertices are A(-2, 9), B(2, 8) and C(1, z). The
value of z is:
1
A 8 4 B 4 C 12
3
D 7 4 E -4
Reasoning
28 The map shows the proposed course for a yacht race. y Scale: 1 unit «1 km N
Buoys have been positioned at A(1, 5), B(8, 8) and 11
C(12, 6), but the last buoy’s placement, D(10, w), is yet 10
9
to be finalised. Buoy B
8
a How far is the first stage of the race, that is, from the 7
Buoy
start, O, to buoy A? 6 A
M Buoy C
5
b The race marshall boat, M, is situated halfway
4
between buoys A and C. What are the coordinates of 3 E
the boat? 2 H Buoy D
1
c Stage 4 of the race (from C to D) is perpendicular to O
stage 3 (from B to C). What is the gradient of CD? (Start) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
d Find the linear equation that describes stage 4.

e Hence determine the exact position of buoy D.
2
f An emergency boat is to be placed at point E, 3 of the way from buoy A to buoy D. The
coordinates of E are (7, 3). How far is the emergency boat from the hospital, located at H,
2 km North of the start?

29 Show that the following sets of points form the vertices of a right-angled triangle.
a A(1, -4), B(2, -3), C(4, -7)
b A(3, 13), B(1, 3), C(-4, 4)
c A(0, 5), B(9, 12), C(3, 14)
30 Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rectangle when A is (2, 5), B(6, 1), C(3, -2) and
D(-1, 2).
31 Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a rhombus, given A(2, 3), B(3, 5), C(5, 6) and D(4, 4).
Hint: The diagonals of a rhombus intersect at right angles.
reflection  
How could you use coordinate

geometry to design a logo for an
organisation?

Summary
Sketching linear graphs
■■ The Cartesian plane is a grid, consisting of two axes (x and y), meeting at the origin (0, 0).
■■ A location (point) is specified by its x- and y-coordinates.
■■ A linear graph consists of an infinite set of points that can be joined to form a straight line,
but to sketch a linear graph, the coordinates of only two points are needed.
■■ A linear rule or equation can be used to obtain the coordinates of points that belong to ■
its graph.
■■ Linear equations may be written in several different forms. The two most common forms are
y = mx + c and ax + by = k.
■■ When a linear equation is expressed in the form y = mx + c, then m represents the gradient
(slope) of the straight line and c represents the y-intercept.
■■ A straight line with a positive gradient slopes upward to the right and a straight line with a
negative gradient slopes downward to the right.
■■ The x- and y-intercept method allows us to sketch the graph of any linear equation by finding
two specific points: the x-intercept and y-intercept. An exception is the case of lines passing
through the origin.
■■ Graphs of equations in the form y = mx pass through the origin. To find the second point,
substitute a chosen x-value into the equation to find the corresponding y-value.
■■ Graphs of equations in the form y = c have a gradient of zero and are parallel to the
x-axis.
■■ Graphs of equations in the form x = a have an undefined (infinite) gradient and are parallel to
the y-axis.
Determining linear equations

rise y2 − y1
■■ The gradient of a straight line is equal to m = or m = x − x .
run 2 1
■■ An equation of a straight line can be found if you are given either:■
(i) two points that lie on the line or■
(ii) the gradient of the line and another point (the point–gradient method).■
Note that alternative (i) can reduce to alternative (ii) since the gradient can be calculated using
the two given points.
■■ The equation of a straight line can be found by substituting the values of the gradient, m, into
y = mx + c. The value of c can then be found by substituting the x- and y-values of a given
point into y = mx + c. If one of the points given is the y-intercept then it is simply a matter of
letting c = y-intercept.
The distance between two points on a straight line

The distance between two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is:
AB = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
The midpoint of a line segment

The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment y
joining (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are: (x2, y2)
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2  M
 2 , 2  (x_____,
1
2
2
2 )
+ x _____
y +y 1 2
(x1, y1)
x

Parallel and perpendicular lines
■■ The■equation■of■a■straight■line■may■be■expressed■in■the■form:
y■=■mx■+■c
where■m■is■the■gradient■of■the■line■and■c■is■the■y-intercept,■or■
y■-■y1■=■m(x■-■x1)■
where■m■is■the■gradient■and■(x1,■y1)■is■a■point■on■the■line.
■■ The■gradient■can■be■calculated■if■two■points,■(x1,■y1)■and■(x2,■y2),■are■given■by■using
y −y
m= 2 1
x2 − x1
■■ Parallel■lines■have■the■same■gradient.
■■ Collinear■points■lie■on■the■same■straight■line.
Two■lines■are■perpendicular■if■and■only■if:
m1m2■=■-1
1
or m2■=■− .
m1
■■ The■equation■of■a■straight■line■can■be■determined■by■two■methods:
•■ The■y■=■mx■+■c■method.
This■requires■the■gradient,■m,■and■a■given■point■to■be■known,■in■order■to■establish■the■value■
of■c.
If■the■y-intercept■is■known,■then■this■can■be■directly■substituted■for■c.
•■ Alternative■method:■y■-■y1■=■m(x■-■x1)
This■requires■the■gradient,■m,■and■a■given■point■(x1,■y1)■to■be■known.
■■ The■general■equation■for■a■vertical■line■is■given■by■x■=■a■and■a■horizontal■line■is■given■
by■y■=■c.
MaPPING YOUR UNdERSTaNdING
Using■terms■from■the■summary,■and■other■terms■if■you■wish,■construct■a■concept■map■that■
illustrates■your■understanding■of■the■key■concepts■covered■in■this■chapter.■Compare■your■
concept■map■with■the■one■that■you■created■in■What do you know?■on■page■55.
Have■you■completed■the■two■Homework sheets,■the■Rich task■and■two■Code puzzles■in■
Homework
Book your■Maths Quest 10 Homework Book?

Chapter review
Fluency 9 The equation of the line perpendicular to
2x + y - 1 = 0 and passing through the point
1 The equation of the line drawn below is:
(1, 4) is:
y
A 2x + y - 6 = 0
3 B 2x + y - 2 = 0
C x - 2y + 7 = 0
D x + 2y + 9 = 0
0 2 x E x - 2y = 0
10 Produce a table of values, and sketch the graph of
A 3x + 2y = 6 B 3x - 2y = 6 the equation y = -5x + 15 for values of x between
C 2x + 3y = 6 D 2x - 3y = 6 -10 and +10.
E 2x - 3y = -6
11 Sketch the graph of the following linear equations,
2 The equation of a linear graph with gradient -3 and
labelling the x- and y-intercepts.
x-intercept of 4 is: a y = 3x - 2
A y = -3x - 12 B y = -3x + 4
b y = -5x + 15
C y = -3x - 4 D y = -3x + 12 2
c y = − 3 x + 1
E y = 4x - 3
7
3 The equation of a linear graph which passes d y = x - 3
5
through (2, -7) and (-2, -2) is: 12 Find the x- and y-intercepts of the following
A 4x - 5y + 18 = 0 B 5x + 4y + 18 = 0 straight lines.
c 5x + 4y - 18 = 0 d 5x - 4y - 18 = 0 a y = -7x + 6
e 4x + 5y + 18 = 0 3
b y = x - 5
8
4 The distance between the points (1, 5) and 4
(6, - 7) is: c y =
7
x - 43
A 53 B 29 C 13 d y = 0.5x + 2.8
193 13 Sketch graphs of the following linear equations by

D E 12
finding the x- and y-intercepts.
5 The midpoint of the line segment joining the points
a 2x - 3y = 6
(-4, 3) and (2, 7) is:
b 3x + y = 0
A (-1, 5) B (-2, 10) C (-6, 4)
c 5x + y = -3
D (-2, 4) E (-1, 2)
d x + y + 3 = 0
6 If the midpoint of the line segment joining the
points A(3, 7) and B(x, y) has coordinates (6, 2), 14 Sketch the graph of each of the following.
1
then the coordinates of B are: a y = x b y = -4x
2
A (15, 3) B (0, -6) C (9, -3) c x = -2 d y = 7
D (4.5, 4.5) E (-9, 3)
15 Sketch the graph of the equation
7 If the points (-6, -11), (2, 1) and (x, 4) are
collinear, then the value of x is: 3(y - 5) = 6(x + 1).
A 4 B 3.2 16 Find the equations of the straight lines in the
1 5 following graphs.
C 4
D 16
a y b y
E 3
8 The gradient of the line perpendicular to
3x - 4y + 7 = 0 is: -4 0 x
3 4 0 1 x
A 4
B 3
-4
C − 3
4 D 3 -2
E -4

c y d y 28 Find the equation of the straight line joining the point

• (2, 8)
(-2, 5) and the point of intersection of the straight
lines with equations y = 3x - 1 and y = 2x + 5.
2
x x 29 Using the information given in the diagram.
0 6 0
a Find:
y
i the gradient of AD
B(4, 9)
ii the gradient of AB 9
iii the equation of BC C
e y f y 4 A
iv the equation of DC
v the coordinates of C. O D
0 x x
b Describe quadrilateral 45 9
- –43 0 5 x ABCD.
30 In triangle ABC, A is (1, 5), B is (-2, -3) and C is
(8, -2).
a Find:
17 Find the linear equation given the information in i the gradient of BC
each case below. ii the midpoint, P, of AB
a gradient = 3, y-intercept = -4 iii the midpoint, Q, of AC.
b gradient = -2, y-intercept = -5 b Hence show that:
1
c gradient = , y-intercept = 5 i PQ is parallel to BC
2
d gradient = 0, y-intercept = 6 ii PQ is half the length of BC.
18 For each of the following, find the equation of the
problem solving
straight line with the given gradient and passing
through the given point. 1 John has a part-time job working as a gardener and
a gradient = 7, point (2, 1) is paid $13.50 per hour.
b gradient = -3, point (1, 1) a Complete the following table of values relating
1 the amount of money received to the number of
c gradient = , point (-2, 5)
2
3 hours worked.
d gradient = , point (1, -3)
5
Number 0 2 4 6 8 10
19 Find the distance between the points (1, 3) and
of hours
(7, -2).
Pay ($)
20 Prove that triangle ABC is isosceles given A(3, 1),
B(-3, 7) and C(-1, 3). b Find a linear equation relating the amount of
21 Show that the points A(1, 1), B(2, 3) and C(8, 0) money received to the number of hours worked.
are the vertices of a right-angled triangle. c Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane
over a suitable domain.
22 The midpoint of the line segment AB is (6, -4). d Using algebra, calculate the pay that John will
If B has coordinates (12, 10), find the coordinates 3
receive if he works for 6 4 hours.
of A.
2 A fun park charges a $12.50 entry fee and an
23 Show that the points A(3, 1), B(5, 2) and C(11, 5) additional $2.50 per ride.
are collinear. a Complete the following table of values relating
24 Show that the lines y = 2x - 4 and x + 2y - 10 = 0 the total cost to the number of rides.
are perpendicular to one another. Number 0 2 4 6 8 10
25 Find the equation of the straight line passing of rides
through the point (6, -2) and parallel to the line Cost ($)
x + 2y - 1 = 0.
b Find a linear equation relating total cost to the
26 Find the equation of the line perpendicular to number of rides.
3x - 2y + 6 = 0 and having the same y-intercept. c Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane
27 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of over a suitable domain.
the line joining the points (-2, 7) and (4, 11). d Using algebra, calculate the cost for 7 rides.

3 The■cost■of■hiring■a■boat■is■$160■plus■ so■that■it■travels■in■a■straight■line■in■order■to■
$22.50■per■hour. displace■an■opponents■‘guard■balls’.■In■a■particular■
a Sketch■a■graph■showing■the■total■cost■for■ game,■player■X■has■2■guard■balls■close■to■the■
between■0■and■12■hours. jack.■The■coordinates■of■the■jack■are■(0,■0)■and■the■
b State■the■equation■relating■cost■to■time■rented. 4
coordinates■of■the■guard■balls■are■A(-1,■ 5 )■and■
c Predict■the■cost■of■hiring■a■boat■for■12■hours■ 1 57
B(- 2 ,■ 40 ).■Player■Y■bowls■a■ball■so■that■it■travels
and■15■minutes.
in■a■straight■line■toward■the■jack.■The■ball■is■
4 ABCD■is■a■quadrilateral■with■vertices■A(4,■9),■
bowled■from■the■position■S,■with■the■coordinates■
B(7,■4),■C(1,■2)■and■D(a,■10).■
(-30,■24).
Given■that■the■diagonals■are■perpendicular■to■each■
other,■fi■nd: y
a the■equation■of■the■diagonal■AC S(-30, 24) 24
b the■equation■of■the■diagonal■BD
c the■value■of■a.
5 An■architect■decides■to■design■a■building■with■a■
14-metre-square■base■such■that■the■external■walls■ B(- 1–2 , 57
—)
40
57–
40
are■initially■vertical■to■a■height■of■50■metres,■but■
taper■so■that■their■separation■is■8■metres■at■its■peak■
height■of■90■metres.■A■profi■le■of■the■building■is■ A(-1, 4–5 ) 4–
5
shown■with■the■point■(0,■0)■marked■as■a■reference■at■ -30 -1 -–2
1 x
the■centre■of■the■base.
y (Not to scale)
8m a Will■player■Y■displace■one■of■the■guard■balls?■
C
If■so,■which■one?
b Due■to■bias,■the■displaced■guard■ball■is■
knocked■so■that■it■begins■to■travel■in■a■straight■
B line■(at■right■angles■to■the■path■found■in■part■a).■
90 m Find■the■equation■of■the■line■of■the■guard■ball.
c Show■that■guard■ball■A■is■initially■heading■
50 m directly■toward■guard■ball■B.
d Given■its■initial■velocity,■guard■ball■A■can■
0 travel■in■a■straight■line■for■1■metre■before■
A 14 m x its■bias■affects■it■path.■Calculate■and■explain■
whether■guard■ball■A■will■collide■with■guard■
a Write■the■equation■of■the■vertical■line■ ball■B.
connecting■A■and■B. eBook plus
b Write■the■coordinates■of■B■and■C.
c Find■the■length■of■the■tapered■section■of■wall■ Interactivities
from■B■to■C. int-2834
6 In■a■game■of■lawn■bowls,■the■object■is■to■bowl■a■ Word search Chapter 3
biased■ball■so■that■it■gets■as■close■as■possible■to■ int-2832
a■smaller■white■ball■called■a■jack.■During■a■game,■ Crossword Chapter 3
int-2833
a■player■will■sometimes■bowl■a■ball■quite■quickly■

eBook plus ACtivities
Chapter opener •■ Activity■3-C-2■(doc-4982):■Calculation■of■distance■
between■two■points
Digital doc
•■ Activity■3-C-3■(doc-4983):■Applications■of■distance■
•■ Hungry■brain■activity■Chapter■3■(doc-5195)■(page 55)
between■two■points
are you ready? •■ Spreadsheet■021■(doc-5206):■Distance■between■two■
Digital docs (page 56)
points
•■ SkillSHEET■3.1■(doc-5196):■Measuring■the■rise■and■
3d The midpoint of a line segment
the■run
•■ SkillSHEET■3.2■(doc-5197):■Describing■the■gradient■ Digital docs
of■a■line •■ Activity■3-D-1■(doc-4984):■Finding■the■midpoint■of■
•■ SkillSHEET■3.3■(doc-5198):■Plotting■a■line■using■a■ a■line■segment■(page 73)
table■of■values •■ Activity■3-D-2■(doc-4985):■Calculations■—■
•■ SkillSHEET■3.4■(doc-5199):■Stating■the■y-intercept■ midpoint■of■a■segment■(page 73)
from■a■graph •■ Activity■3-D-3■(doc-4986):■Applications■—■
•■ SkillSHEET■3.5■(doc-5200):■Solving■linear■ midpoint■of■a■segment■(page 73)
equations■that■arise■when■fi■nding■x-■and■y-intercepts •■ Spreadsheet■075■(doc-5207):■Midpoint■of■a■segment■
•■ SkillSHEET■3.6■(doc-5201):■Using■Pythagoras’■ (page 73)
theorem •■ WorkSHEET■3.2■(doc-5208):■Midpoint■of■a■line■
segment■(page 74)
3a Sketching linear graphs
Digital docs 3E Parallel and perpendicular lines
•■ Activity■3-A-1■(doc-4975):■Sketching■linear■graphs■ Digital docs (page 79)
(page 62) •■ Activity■3-E-1■(doc-4987):■Parallel■and■
•■ Activity■3-A-2■(doc-4976):■Graphs■of■linear■ perpendicular■lines
equations■(page 62) •■ Activity■3-E-2■(doc-4988):■More■diffi■cult■parallel■
•■ Activity■3-A-3■(doc-4977):■More■graphs■of■linear■ and■perpendicular■lines
equations■(page 62) •■ Activity■3-E-3■(doc-4989):■Complex■parallel■and■
•■ SkillSHEET■3.7■(doc-5202):■Substitution■into■a■ perpendicular■lines■
linear■rule■(page 62) •■ Spreadsheet■085■(doc-5209):■Perpendicular■
•■ SkillSHEET■3.5■(doc-5200):■Solving■linear■ checker
equations■that■arise■when■fi■nding■x-■and■y-intercepts■ •■ Spreadsheet■029■(doc-5210):■Equation■of■a■straight■
(page 63) line
•■ SkillSHEET■3.8■(doc-5203):■Transposing■linear■
Interactivity
equations■to■standard■form■(page 63)
•■ Parallel■and■perpendicular■lines■(int-2779)■
3B determining linear equations (page 74)
Digital docs
•■ Activity■3-B-1■(doc-4978):■Determining■linear■ Chapter review
equations■(page 67) Interactivities(page 87)
•■ Activity■3-B-2■(doc-4979):■Linear■equations■(page 67) •■ Test■Yourself■Chapter■3■(int-2834):■Take■the■end-of-
•■ Activity■3-B-3■(doc-4980):■More■complex■linear■ chapter■test■to■test■your■progress
equations■(page 67) •■ Word■search■Chapter■3■(int-2832):■an■interactive■
•■ SkillSHEET■3.1■(doc-5196):■Measuring■the■rise■and■ word■search■involving■words■associated■with■this■
the■run■(page 67) chapter
•■ SkillSHEET■3.9■(doc-5204):■Finding■the■gradient■ •■ Crossword■Chapter■3■(int-2833):■an■interactive■
given■two■points■(page 67) crossword■using■the■defi■nitions■associated■with■the■
•■ WorkSHEET■3.1■(doc-5205):■Gradient■(page 68) chapter
3C The distance between two points on a To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
straight line
www.jacplus.com.au
•■ Activity■3-C-1■(doc-4981):■Finding■the■distance■
between■two■points■on■a■straight■line

4
4a Graphical solution of simultaneous
linear equations
4b Solving simultaneous linear equations
using substitution
4c Solving simultaneous linear equations
using elimination
4d Problem solving using simultaneous
simultaneous linear equations

4e Solving linear inequations
4F Sketching linear inequations
linear equations 4G Solving simultaneous linear

inequations
and inequations WhAt Do you knoW ?

1 List what you know about linear
equations and linear inequations.
Create a concept map to show your list.
linear equations and linear inequations.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 4
doc-5211
opening Question
How could John decide which of the two

concreting companies he should use —
Angelico’s Concrete ($700 plus $20 per m2
of concrete) and Baux Cementing ($1200
plus $15 per m2 of concrete)?
Are you ready?

completing■the■matching■SkillSHEET.■Either■search■for■the■SkillSHEET■in■your■eBookPLUS■or■
ask■your■teacher■for■a■copy.
eBook plus Substitution into a linear rule

1 Substitute■-1■for■x■in■each■of■the■following■equations■to■calculate■the■value■of■y.
Digital doc
a y■=■4x■-■2 b y■=■3■-■x c y■=■-2■-■5x
SkillSHEET 4.1
doc-5212
eBook plus Solving linear equations that arise when finding x- and y-intercepts
2 For■each■of■the■following■equations,■substitute:
Digital doc
i x■=■0■to■fi■nd■the■corresponding■value■of■y
SkillSHEET 4.2
doc-5213 ii y■=■0■to■fi■nd■the■corresponding■value■of■x
a 2x■+■3y■=■6 b x■-■3y■=■9 c 4y■=■3x■-■6
eBook plus
Transposing linear equations to standard form
3 Write■the■following■equations■in■the■form■y■=■mx■+■c.
Digital doc
a 2y■+■4x■=■8 b 8x■-■2y■=■10 c 2x■+■3y■+■5■=■0
SkillSHEET 4.3
doc-5214
eBook plus
Measuring the rise and the run
4 Find■the■gradient■for■each■of■the■following■straight■lines.
Digital doc a b c
SkillSHEET 4.4
y y y
doc-5215
10 20 10
5 10 5
-10 -5 0 5 10 x -10 -5 0 5 10 x -10 -5 0 5 10 x

-5 -10 -5
-10 -20 -10
eBook plus Finding the gradient given two points

5 Find■the■gradient■of■the■line■passing■through■each■of■the■following■pairs■of■points.
Digital doc
a (1,■2)■and■(3,■7) b (-1,■-4)■and■(2,■3) c (6,■-1)■and■(-2,■1)
SkillSHEET 4.5
doc-5216
eBook plus
Graphing linear equations using the x- and y-intercept method
6 Graph■each■line■with■the■following■equations■using■the■x-■and■y-intercept■method.
Digital doc a 5y■-■4x■=■20 b 4y■- 2x■=■5 c 3y■+■4x■=■-12
SkillSHEET 4.6
doc-5217
eBook plus Checking whether a given point makes the inequation a true statement
7 For■each■of■the■following,■use■substitution■to■check■if■the■given■point■makes■the■inequality■a■
Digital doc
true■statement.
SkillSHEET 4.7
doc-5218 a 3x■-■2y■<■12■(5,■1) b y■Ç■5x■+■1■(-2,■1) c x■-■y■> -8■(2,■-12)

4A Graphical solution of simultaneous

linear equations
Simultaneous linear equations
■■ Any two linear graphs will meet at a point, unless they are parallel.
■■ At this point, the two equations simultaneously share the same x- and y-coordinates.
■■ This point is referred to as the solution to the two simultaneous linear equations.
■■ Simultaneous equations can be solved graphically or algebraically.
Graphical solution
■■ This method involves drawing the graph of each equation on the same set of axes.
■■ The intersection point is the simultaneous solution to the two equations.
■■ An accurate solution depends on drawing an accurate graph.
■■ Graph paper or graphing software can be used.
Worked Example 1
Use the graph of the given simultaneous equations below to y

determine the point of intersection and, hence, the solution 3 y = 2x - 3
of the simultaneous equations.
2
x + 2y = 4
y = 2x - 3 1 x + 2y = 4
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
Think Write
1 Write the equations and number them. x + 2y = 4 [1]

y = 2x - 3 [2]
2 Locate the point of intersection of the two lines. This Point of intersection (2, 1)
gives the solution. Solution: x = 2 and y = 1
3 Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and y = 1 Check equation [1]:
into the given equations. Comment on the results LHS = x + 2y RHS = 4
obtained. = 2 + 2(1)
=4
LHS = RHS
Check equation [2]:
LHS = y RHS = 2x - 3
= 1 = 2(2) - 3
=4-3
=1
LHS = RHS
In both cases LHS = RHS, therefore the
solution set (2, 1) is correct.
Chapter 4 Simultaneous linear equations and inequations 91

■■ It is always important to check the solution.
Worked Example 2
For the following simultaneous equations, use substitution to check if the given pair of coordinates,
(5, -2), is a solution.
3x - 2y = 19 [1]
4y + x = -3 [2]
Think Write
1 Write the equations and number them. 3x - 2y = 19 [1]

4y + x = -3 [2]
2 Check by substituting x = 5 and y = -2 into Check equation [1]:
equation [1]. LHS = 3x - 2y RHS = 19
= 3(5) - 2(-2)
= 15 + 4
= 19
LHS = RHS
3 Check by substituting x = 5 and y = -2 into Check equation [2]:
equation [2]. LHS = 4y + x RHS = -3
= 4(-2) + 5
= -8 + 5
= -3
LHS = RHS
In both cases, LHS = RHS. Therefore, the
solution set (5, -2) is correct.
■■ In order to obtain an accurate solution to a pair of simultaneous equations it is important to

draw an accurate graph. This is demonstrated in the example below.
Worked Example 3
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using a graphical method.

x + y = 6
2x + 4y = 20
Think Write/draw
1 Write the equations, one under the other and ■ x + y = 6 [1]

number them. 2x + 4y = 20 [2]
2 Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for equation [1]. Equation [1]
For the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into equation [1]. x-intercept: when y = 0,
x+0=6
x=6
The x-intercept is at (6, 0).
For the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into equation [1]. y-intercept: when x = 0,
0+y=6
y=6
The y-intercept is at (0, 6).

3 Calculate the x- and y-intercepts for equation [2]. Equation [2]

For the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into equation [2]. x-intercept: when y = 0,
Divide both sides by 2. 2x + 0 = 20
2x = 20
x = 10
For the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into equation [2]. y-intercept: when x = 0,
0 + 4y = 20
4y = 20
Divide both sides by 4. y=5
4 Use graph paper to rule up a set of axes and label the y
x-axis from 0 to 10 and the y-axis from 0 to 6. 6
5 (2, 4)
5 Plot the x- and y-intercepts for each equation. 4
3 2x + 4y = 20
6 Produce a graph of each equation by ruling a straight 2
1 x
line through its intercepts. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
-3-2-1
-1
7 Label each graph. -2 x+y=6
-3
8 Locate the point of intersection of the lines. The point of intersection is (2, 4).
9 Check the solution by substituting x = 2 and y = 4 Check [1]: LHS = x + y RHS = 6
into each equation. =2+4
=6
LHS = RHS
Check [2]: LHS = 2x + 4y RHS = 20
= 2(2) + 4(4)
= 4 + 16
= 20
LHS = RHS
10 State the solution. In both cases, LHS = RHS. Therefore, the

solution set (2, 4) is correct.
The solution is x = 2, y = 4.
■■ A CAS calculator can be used to obtain a graphical (as well as an algebraic) solution to
simultaneous linear equations.
Parallel lines y
6
■■ It is possible for two simultaneous linear equations to have no 5
solution. 4 4x - 2y = 6
3
■■ This occurs when the graphs of the two equations do not 2
cross because they have the same gradient. 1 x
■■ In other words, the two graphs are parallel. -1 -10 1 2 3 4 5
■■ Consider the following pair of simultaneous equations. -2
-3
2x - y = 5 [1] -4 2x - y = 5
4x - 2y = 6 [2] -5
-6
They can be graphed to show two parallel lines.

■■ We■can■confi■rm■that■the■two■lines■are■in■fact■parallel■by■rearranging■each■equation■into■the■
form■y■=■mx■+■c■and■checking■the■gradient■of■each.
■ 2x■-y■=■5■ [1]
-y■=■5■-■2x■
-y=■-2x■+■5■
y=■2x■-■5■
gradient■m■=■2■
■ 4x■-■2y=■6■■ [2]
■ -2y=■6■-■4x
■ -2y=■-4x■+■6
■ y=■2x■-■3
■gradient■m■=■2
■■ It■is■also■possible■for■two■simultaneous■linear■equations■to■have■many■solutions.■This■occurs■
when■the■two■linear■equations■are,■in■fact■the■same■equation,■simply■expressed■in■a■different■
form.■For■example,
y■=■2x■-■5■ ■ [1]
6x■-■3y■=■15■ ■ [2]
Simplifying■equation■[2]■by■dividing■by■3■gives■2x■-■y■=■5.
Rearranging■it■in■the■same■form■as■equation■[1]■gives■y■=■2x■-■5.
A■word■of■caution■here:■Make■sure■that■the■signs■are■exactly■the■same■in■both■equations.■They■
will■not■represent■the■same■equation■if■this■is■not■the■case.
remember
1.■ When■solving■simultaneous■equations■graphically,■obtaining■an■accurate■solution■
depends■on■drawing■accurate■graphs.
2.■ The■solution■to■linear■simultaneous■equations■is■the■point■where■their■graphs■
intersect.
3.■ Lines■that■have■the■same■gradient■are■parallel.
4.■ If■the■graphs■of■the■two■simultaneous■equations■are■parallel■lines,■then■the■simultaneous■
equations■have■no■solution,■as■they■have■no■point■of■intersection.
exerCise
4A graphical solution of simultaneous linear
equations
inDiviDuAl fluenCy
pAthWAys
1 We1 ■Use■the■graphs■below■of■the■given■simultaneous■equations■to■write■the■point■of■
eBook plus intersection■and,■hence,■the■solution■of■the■simultaneous■equations.
a x■+y=■3 b x■+y=■2
Activity 4-A-1
Investigating graphs x■-y=■1 3x■-y=■2
of simultaneous y
y
equations x-y=1 6
3x - y = 2
doc-4990 5 5
4 4
Activity 4-A-2 3 3
Graphing 2 2
simultaneous 1 1 x
equations x -0.5 -10
-3 -2-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
doc-4991 -1
-2 y+x=2
-2
-3
-3 x+y=3 -4


c y■-x■=■4 d y■+■2x■=■3
inDiviDuAl
pAthWAys 3x■+■2y■=■8 2y■+x■=■0
eBook plus y y
6 3
3x + 2y = 8 y-x=4 y + 2x = 3
Activity 4-A-3 4 2
Further graphing
of simultaneous 2 1
equations x x
doc-4992 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-2 -1
-4 -2
-6 -3 2y + x = 0
■
e y■-■3x■=■2 f 2y■-■4x■=■5
x■-y=■2 4y■+■2x■=■5
y y
6
y - 3x = 2 6
4
4
2y - 4x = 5
2 x-y=2
x 2
4y + 2x = 5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-2 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 x
-2
-4
-4
-6
-6
■
2 We2 ■For■the■following■simultaneous■equations,■use■substitution■to■check■if■the■given■pair■of■
coordinates■is■a■solution.
a (7,■5)■ 3x■+■2y■=■31 b (3,■7)■ y■-x■=■4
■ ■ 2x■+■3y■=■28 ■ ■ 2y■+x■=■17
c (9,■1)■ x■+■3y■=■12 d (2,■5)■ x■+y=■7
■ ■ 5x■-■2y■=■43 ■ ■ 2x■+■3y■=■18
e (4,■-3)■ y■=■3x■-■15 f (6,■-2)■ x■-■2y■=■2
■ ■ 4x■+■7y■=■-5 ■ ■ 3x■+y=■16
g (4,■-2)■ 2x■+y=■6 h (5,■1)■ y■-■5x■=■-24
■ ■ x■-■3y■=■8 ■ ■ 3y■+■4x■=■23
i (-2,■-5)■ 3x■-■2y■=■-4 j (-3,■-1)■ y■-x■=■2
■ ■ 2x■-■3y■=■11 ■ ■ 2y■-■3x■=■7
eBook plus
3 We3 ■Solve■each■of■the■following■pairs■of■simultaneous■equations■using■a■graphical■method.
a x■+y=■5 b x■+■2y■=■10
Digital doc 2x■+y=■8 3x■+y=■15
SkillSHEET 4.6
doc-5217
c 2x■+■3y■=■6 d x■-■3y■=■-8
2x■-y=■-10 2x■+y=■-2
e 6x■+■5y■=■12 f y+■2x■=■6
5x■+■3y■=■10 2y■+■3x■=■9
g y=■3x■+■10 h y=■8
y=■2x■+■8 3x■+y=■17
i 4x■-■2y■=■-5 j 3x■+y=■11
x■+■3y■=■4 4x■-y=■3
k 3x■+■4y■=■27 l 3y■+■3x■=■8
x■+■2y■=■11 3y■+■2x■=■6
Chapter 4 simultaneous linear equations and inequations 95

4 Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations.

a y = 8 - x b y = 3x + 10 c y = 2x - 3
y=x+2 y = 2x + 8 x=5
d y = 3 + 4x e y = 16 - 3x f 3y + x = 0
y = 1 + 3x y = 11 - 2x 2y = 3x - 22
2x
g y = 7 h y = +2
y = 2x + 15 3
y = 2x - 2
Understanding
5 Using technology, determine which of the following pairs of simultaneous equations have no
solutions. Confirm by finding the gradient of each line.
a y = 2x - 4 b 5x - 3y = 13 c x + 2y = 8
3y - 6x = 10 4x - 2y = 10 5x + 10y = 45
d y = 4x + 5 e 3y + 2x = 9 f y = 5 - 3x
2y - 10x = 8 6x + 4y = 22 3y = -9x + 18
g 4y + 3x = 7 h 2y - x = 0
12y + 9x = 22 14y - 6x = 2
Reasoning
6 Two straight lines intersect at the point (3, -4). One of the lines has a y-intercept of 8. The
second line is a mirror image of the first in the line x = 3. Determine the equation of the second
line. (Hint: Draw a graph of both lines)
7 At a well-known beach resort it is possible to hire a jet-ski by the hour in two different
locations. On the Northern beach the cost is $20 plus $12 per hour, while on the Southern
beach the cost is $8 plus $18 per hour. The jet-skis can be rented for up to 5 hours.
a Write the rules relating cost to the length of rental.
b On the same set of axes sketch a graph of
cost (y-axis) against length of rental (x-axis)
for 0–5 hours. reflection  
c For what rental times, if any, is the Northern beach
What do you think is the major
rental cheaper than the Southern beach rental? Use error made when solving
your graph to justify your answer. simultaneous equations
d For what length of rental time are the two rental graphically?
schemes identical? Use the graph and your rules ■
to justify your answer.
4b Solving simultaneous linear

equations using substitution
■■ There are two algebraic methods which can be used to solve simultaneous equations.
■■ They are the substitution method and the elimination method.
Substitution method
■■ This method is particularly useful when one (or both) of the equations is in a form where ■
one of the two variables is the subject.
■■ This variable is then substituted into the other equation, producing a third equation with only
one variable.
■■ This third equation can then be used to determine the value of the variable.

Worked Example 4
Solve the following simultaneous equations using the substitution method.

y = 2x - 1 and 3x + 4y = 29
Think Write
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number y = 2x - 1 [1]
them. 3x + 4y = 29 [2]
2 Substitute the expression (2x - 1) for y from Substituting (2x - 1) into [2]:
equation [1] into equation [2]. 3x + 4(2x - 1) = 29
3 Solve for x. 3x + 8x - 4 = 29 [3]
(i) Expand the brackets on the LHS of the
equation. 11x - 4 = 29
(ii) Collect like terms. 11x = 33
(iii) Add 4 to both sides of the equation. x=3
(iv) Divide both sides by 11.
4 Substitute the value of x into any of the equations, Substituting x = 3 into [1]:
say [1], to find the value of y. y = 2(3) - 1
=6-1
=5
5 Write your answer. Solution: x = 3, y = 5 or (3, 5)
6 Check the answer by substituting the point of Check: Substitute into 3x + 4y = 29.
intersection into equation [2]. LHS = 3(3) + 4(5) RHS = 29
= 9 + 20
= 29
As LHS = RHS, the solution is correct.
■■ In some cases, both equations may be written with the same variable as the subject.
■■ They can then be made equal to each other.
■■ This produces a third equation with only one variable.
Worked Example 5
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using the substitution method.
y = 5x - 8 and y = -3x + 16
Think Write
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number y = 5x - 8 [1]
them. y = -3x + 16 [2]
2 Both equations are written with y as the subject, so 5x - 8 = -3x + 16
equate them.
3 Solve for x.
(i) Add 3x to both sides of the equation. 8x - 8 = 16
(ii) Add 8 to both sides of the equation. 8x = 24
(iii) Divide both sides of the equation by 8. x=3
4 Substitute the value of x into either of the original Substituting x = 3 into [1]:
equations, say [1], and solve for y. y = 5(3) - 8
= 15 - 8
=7

5 Write■your■answer. Solution:■x■=■3,■y■=■7■or■(3,■7)
6 Check■the■answer■by■substituting■the■point■of■ Check:■Substitute■into■y■=■-3x■+■16.
intersection■into■equation■[2]. LHS■=■y
■ =■7■
RHS■=■-3x■+■16
■ =■-3(3)■+■16
■ =■-9■+■16
■ =■7
As■LHS■=■RHS,■the■solution■is■correct.
remember
When■using■the■substitution■method■to■solve■simultaneous■equations:
1.■ choose■the■equation■in■which■one■of■the■variables■is■the■subject
2.■ substitute■this■expression■for■the■variable■into■the■other■equation■and■solve
3.■ substitute■the■value■you■have■found■into■the■rearranged■equation■to■solve■for■the■
other■variable
4.■ check■your■solution.
exerCise
4b solving simultaneous linear equations using
substitution
inDiviDuAl fluenCy
pAthWAys 1 We4 ■Solve■the■following■simultaneous■equations■using■the■substitution■method.■Check■your■
eBook plus solutions■using■technology.
a x■=■-10■+■4y b 3x■+■4y■=■2
Activity 4-B-1
3x■+■5y■=■21 x■=■7■+■5y
Learning substitution
doc-4993 c 3x■+y=■7 d 3x■+■2y■=■33
Activity 4-B-2 x■=■-3■-■3y y=■41■-■5x
Practising e y=■3x■-■3 f 4x■+y=■9
substitution -5x■+■3y■=■3 y=■11■-■5x
doc-4994
g x■=■-5■-■2y h x=■-4■-■3y
Activity 4-B-3
Tricky substitution
5y■+■x=■-11 -3x-■4y=■12
doc-4995 i x■=7■+■4y j x■=■14■+■4y
2x■+■y■=-4 -2x■+■3y■=■-18
k 3x+■2y■=■12 l y■=2x■+■1
x■=■9■-■4y -5x■-■4y■=■35
2 We5 ■Solve■the■following■pairs■of■simultaneous■equations■using■the■substitution■method.■
Check■your■solutions■using■technology.
a y■=■2x■-■11■and■y■=■4x■+■1
b y■=■3x■+■8■and■y■=■7x■- 12
c y■=■2x■-■10■and■y■=■-3x
d y■=■x■-■9■and■y■=■-5x
e y■=■-4x■-■3■and■y■=■x■-■8
f y■=■-2x■-■5■and■y■=■10x■+■1
g y■=■-x■-■2■and■y■=■x■+■1
h y■=■6x■+■2■and■y■=■-4x
i y■=■0.5x■and■y■=■0.8x■+■0.9

j y■=■0.3x■and■y■=■0.2x■+■0.1
2 4
k y■=■-x■and■y■=■- x■+
7 7
3 1
l y■=■-x■and■y■=■- 4 x■- 4
unDerstAnDing
3 A■small■farm■has■sheep■and■chickens.■There■are■twice■
as■many■chicken■as■sheep,■and■there■are■104■legs■ refleCtion
between■the■sheep■and■the■chickens.■How■many■ When would you choose the

chickens■are■there? substitution method in solving
simultaneous equations?
4C solving simultaneous linear

eBook plus
equations using elimination
Interactivity
■■ Elimination■is■best■used■when■the■two■equations■are■given■in■the■form■ax■+■by■=■k.
Simultaneous ■■ The■method■involves■combining■the■two■equations■so■that■one■of■the■variables■is■eliminated.
equations ■■ Addition■or■subtraction■can■be■used■to■reduce■the■two■equations■with■two■variables■into■
int-2780
one■equation■with■only■one■variable.
WorkeD exAmple 6
Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations using the elimination method.
-2x - 3y = -9 2x + y = 7
think Write
1 Write■the■equations,■one■under■the■other■and■number■ -2x■-■3y■=■-9■ [1]

them. 2x■+y=■7■ [2]
2 Look■for■an■addition■or■subtraction■that■will■eliminate■ [1]■+■[2]:
eitherx■or■y. -2x■-■3y■+■(2x■+■y)■=■-9■+■7
Note:■Adding■equations■[1]■and■[2]■in■order■will■ -2x■-■3y■+■2x■+■y■=■-2
eliminatex. -2y■=■-2
3 Solve■foryby■dividing■both■sides■of■the■equation■by■-2. y=■1
4 Substitute■the■value■ofyinto■equation■[2].■ Substitutingy=■1■into■[2]:
Note:y=■1■may■be■substituted■into■either■equation. 2x■+■1■=■7
5 Solve■forx. 2x■=■6
■(i)■ Subtract■1■from■both■sides■of■the■equation. x■=■3
(ii)■ Divide■both■sides■of■the■equation■by■2.
6 Answer■the■question. Solution:x■=■3,y=■1■or■(3,■1)
7 Check■the■answer■by■substituting■the■point■of■ Check:■Substitute■into■-2x■-■3y■=■-9.
intersection■into■equation■[1]■since■equation■[2]■was■ LHS■=■-2(3)■-■3(1)
used■to■fi■nd■the■value■ofx. =■-6■-■3
=■-9
RHS■=■-9
LHS■=■RHS,■so■the■solution■is■correct.
■■ When■the■like■terms■do■not■have■the■same■coeffi■cient,■multiply■one■or■both■equations■by■a■
constant■so■as■to■create■the■same■coeffi■cient.

Worked Example 7
x - 5y = -17 2 x + 3y = 5
Think Write
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number x - 5y = -17 [1]
them. 2x + 3y = 5 [2]
2 Look for a single multiplication that will create the [1] ì 2: 2x - 10y = -34 [3]
same coefficient of either x or y. Multiply equation [1]
by 2 and call the new equation [3].
3 Subtract equation [2] from [3] in order to eliminate x. [3] - [2]:
2x - 10y - (2x + 3y) = ‑34 - 5
2x - 10y - 2x - 3y = ‑39
-13y = -39
4 Solve for y by dividing both sides of the equation y=3
by -13.
5 Substitute the value of y into equation [2]. Substituting y = 3 into [2]:
2x + 3(3) = 5
2x + 9 = 5
6 Solve for x.
(i) Subtract 9 from both sides of the equation. 2x = -4
(ii) Divide both sides of the equation by 2.
x = -2
7 Write your answer. Solution: x = -2, y = 3 or (-2, 3)
8 Check the answer by substituting into equation [1]. Check: Substitute into x - 5y = -17.
LHS = (-2) - 5(3)
= -2 - 15
= -17
RHS = -17
LHS = RHS, so the solution is correct.
Note: In this example, equation [1] could have been multiplied by -2 (instead of by 2), then the
two equations added (instead of subtracted) to eliminate x.
■■ Sometimes it is necessary to multiply both equations by a constant in order to achieve the
same coefficient for one of the variables.
Worked Example 8
6x + 5y = 3 5x + 4y = 2
Think Write
1 Write the equations, one under the other and number 6x + 5y = 3 [1]
them. 5x + 4y = 2 [2]
2 Decide which variable to eliminate, say y. Eliminate y.
Multiply equation [1] by 4 and call the new equation [3]. [1] ì 4: 24x + 20y = 12 [3]
Multiply equation [2] by 5 and call the new equation [4]. [2] ì 5: 25x + 20y = 10 [4]

3 Subtract■equation■[3]■from■[4]■in■order■to■eliminate■y.■ [4]■-■[3]:
25x■+■20y■-■(24x■+■20y)■=■10■-■12
25x■+■20y■-■24x■-■20y■=■-2
x■=■-2
4 Substitute■the■value■ofx■into■equation■[1]. Substitutingx■=■-2■into■[1]:
6(-2)■+■5y■=■3
-12■+■5y■=■3
5 Solve■for■y.
■(i)■ Add■12■to■both■sides■of■the■equation 5y■=■15
(ii)■ Divide■both■sides■of■the■equation■by■5. y■=■3
6 Write■your■answer. Solution:x■=■-2,y=■3■or■(-2,■3)
7 Check■the■answer■by■substituting■the■solution■into■ Check:■Substitute■into■5x■+■4y■=■2.
equation■[2]. LHS■=■5(-2)■+■4(3)
=■-10■+■12
=■2
RHS■=■2
LHS■=■RHS,■so■the■solution■is■correct.
Note:■Equation■[1]■could■have■been■multiplied■by■-4■(instead■of■by■4),■then■the■two■equations■
added■(instead■of■subtracted)■to■eliminate■y.
remember
1.■ Simultaneous■equations■of■the■form■ax■+■by■=■k■can■be■solved■by■the■elimination■
method■by■looking■for■an■addition■or■subtraction■of■the■equations■that■will■eliminate■
one■of■the■variables.
2.■ For■like■terms■with■the■same■coeffi■cient■but■opposite■signs,■add■the■equations.■For■like■
terms■with■the■same■coeffi■cient■and■the■same■sign,■subtract■the■equations.
3.■ If■the■terms■do■not■have■the■same■coeffi■cient,■multiply■one■or■both■equations■by■
a■constant■to■create■the■same■coeffi■cient.■Remember■to■multiply■both■sides■of■the■
equation■to■keep■it■balanced.
4.■ Once■one■variable■has■been■eliminated,■solve■the■single■variable■equation■formed.■
Substitute■the■solution■back■into■one■of■the■original■equations■to■fi■nd■the■value■of■the■
variable■that■was■originally■eliminated.
5.■ Check■your■solution■by■substitution.
exerCise
4C solving simultaneous linear equations using
elimination
inDiviDuAl fluenCy
pAthWAys 1 We 6 ■Solve■the■following■pairs■of■simultaneous■equations■by■adding■equations■to■eliminate■
eBook plus eitherx■or■y.
a x■+■2y■=■5 b 5x■+■4y■=■2 c -2x■+y=■10
Activity 4-C-1
-x■+■4y■=■1 5x■-■4y■=■-22 2x■+■3y■=■14
Elimination practice
doc-4996 2 Solve■the■following■pairs■of■equations■by■subtracting■equations■to■eliminate■eitherx■or■y.
a 3x■+■2y■=■13 b 2x■-■5y■=■-11 c -3x■-y=■8
5x■+■2y■=■23 2x■+y=■7 -3x■+■4y■=■13

3 Solve■each■of■the■following■equations■using■the■elimination■method.
inDiviDuAl
pAthWAys a x■+■2y■=■12 b 3x■+■2y■=■-23
3x■-■2y■=■12 5x■+■2y■=■-29
eBook plus
c 6x■+■5y■=■-13 d 6x■-■5y■=■-43
Activity 4-C-2 -2x■+■5y■=■-29 6x■-y=■-23
Let’s eliminate
e x■-■4y■=■27 f -4x■+y=■-10
doc-4997
Activity 4-C-3
3x■-■4y■=■17 4x■-■3y■=■14
More elimination g -5x■+■3y■=■3 h 5x■-■5y■=■1
doc-4998 -5x■+y=■-4 2x■-■5y■=■-5
i 4x■-■3y■-■1■=■0
4x■+■7y■-■11■=■0
4 We7 ■Solve■the■following■pairs■of■simultaneous■equations.
a x■+■2y■=■4 b 3x■+■2y■=■19
3x■-■4y■=■2■ 6x■-■5y■=■-7
c -2x■+■3y■=■3 d 6x■+y=■9
5x■-■6y■=■-3 -3x■+■2y■=■3
e x■+■3y■=■14 f 5x■+y=■27
3x■+y=■10■ 4x■+■3y■=■26
g -6x■+■5y■=■-14 h 2x■+■5y■=■14
-2x■+y=■-6 3x■+y=■-5
i -3x■+■2y■=■6 j 3x■-■5y■=■7
x■+■4y■=■-9 x■+y=■-11
k 2x■+■3y■=■9 l -x■+■5y■=■7
4x■+y=■-7 5x■+■5y■=■19
5 We8 ■Solve■the■following■pairs■of■simultaneous■equations.
a 2x■+■3y■=■16 b 5x■-■3y■=■6
3x■+■2y■=■19 3x■-■2y■=■3■
c 3x■+■2y■=■6 d 2x■+■7y■=■3
4x■+■3y■=■10 3x■+■2y■=■13
e 2x■-■3y■=■14 f -3x■+■7y■=■-2
3x■-■5y■=■21 4x■+■2y■=■14
g -4x■+■5y■=■-9 h 2x■+■5y■=■-6
2x■+■3y■=■21■ 3x■+■2y■=■2■
i 2x■-■2y■=■-4 j 2x■-■3y■=■6
5x■+■4y■=■17 4x■-■5y■=■9
x y x y 3
k + =2 l + =
2 3 3 2 2
x y x y 1
+ =4 + =−
4 3 2 5 2
6 Solve■the■following■simultaneous■equations■using■an■appropriate■method.■Check■your■answer■
using■technology.
a 7x■+■3y■=■16 b 2x■+■y■=■8
y■=■4x■-■1 4x■+■3y■=■16
c -3x■+■2y■=■19 d -3x■+■7y■=■9
4x■+■5y■=■13 4x■-■3y■=■7
e -4x■+■5y■=■-7 f y■=■-x
2 1
x■=■23■-■3y y■= - 5 x - 5

reAsoning
7 Ann,■Beth■and■Celine■wanted■to■weigh■themselves■on■a■coin■weighing■machine.■The■problem■
was■they■only■had■enough■money■for■one■weighing.■They■decided■to■weigh■themselves■in■
pairs,■one■stepping■off■as■another■stepped■on.
• Ann■and■Beth■weighed■119■kg refleCtion
eBook plus
• Beth■and■Celine■weighed■112■kg
How does eliminating
Digital doc • Celine■and■Ann■weighed■115■kg
WorkSHEET 4.1
one variable help to solve
How■much■did■each■of■the■girls■weigh? simultaneous equations?
doc-5220
4D problem solving using simultaneous

linear equations
■■ Many■word■problems■can■be■solved■using■simultaneous■linear■equations.
■■ Follow■these■steps.
•■ Defi■ne■the■unknown■quantities■using■appropriate■pronumerals.
•■ Use■the■information■given■in■the■problem■to■form■two■equations■in■terms■of■these■
pronumerals.
•■ Solve■these■equations■using■an■appropriate■method.
•■ Write■the■solution■in■words.
•■ Check■the■solution.
WorkeD exAmple 9
Ashley received better results for his Maths test than for his English test. If the sum of the two
marks is 164 and the difference is 22, calculate the mark he received for each subject.
think Write
1 Defi■ne■the■two■variables. Letx■=■the■maths■mark.
Lety=■the■English■mark.
2 Formulate■two■equations■from■the■information■given■and■ x■+y=■164 [1]
number■them. x■-y=■22 [2]
Note:■Sum■means■to■add■and■difference■means■to■subtract.
3 Use■the■elimination■method■by■adding■equations■[1]■and■ [1]■+■[2]:■ ■ 2x■=■186
[2]■to■eliminate■y.■
4 Solve■forx■by■dividing■both■sides■of■the■equation■by■2. x■=■93
5 Substitute■the■value■ofx■into■equation■[1]. Substitutingx■=■93■into■[1]:
x■+y=■164
93■+y=■164
6 Solve■foryby■subtracting■93■from■both■sides■of■the■ y=■71
equation.
7 Answer■the■question. Solution:
Maths■mark■(x)■=■93
English■mark■(y)■=■71
8 Check■the■answer■by■substituting■x■=■93■andy=■71■into■ Check:■Substitute■intox■+y=■164.
equation■[1]. LHS■=■93■+■71■ RHS■=■164
=■164
As■LHS■=■RHS,■the■solution■is■correct.

Worked Example 10
To finish a project, Genevieve buys a total of 25 nuts and bolts from a hardware store. If each nut
costs 12 cents, each bolt costs 25 cents and the total purchase price is $4.30, how many nuts and how
many bolts does Genevieve buy?
Think Write
1 Define the two variables. Let x = the number of nuts.

Let y = the number of bolts.
2 Formulate two equations from the information given and x + y = 25 [1]
number them. 12x + 25y = 430 [2]
Note: The total number of nuts and bolts is 25. Each nut
cost 12 cents, each bolt cost 25 cents and the total cost is
430 cents ($4.30).
3 Solve simultaneously using the substitution method
since equation [1] is easy to rearrange.
4 Rearrange equation [1] to make x the subject by Rearrange equation [1]:
subtracting y from both sides of equation [1]. x + y = 25
x = 25 - y
5 Substitute the expression (25 - y) for x into Substituting (25 - y) into [2]:
equation [2]. 12(25 - y) + 25y = 430
6 Solve for y. 300 - 12y + 25y = 430
300 + 13y = 430
13y + 300 = 430
13y = 130
y = 10
7 Substitute the value of y into the rearranged equation Substituting y = 10 into x = 25 - y:
x = 25 - y from step 4. x = 25 - 10
x = 15
8 Answer the question. Solution:
The number of nuts (x) = 15.
The number of bolts (y) = 10.
9 Check the answer by substituting x = 15 and y = 10 into Check: Substitute into x + y = 25.
equation [1]. LHS = 15 + 10 RHS = 25
= 25
As LHS = RHS, the solution is correct.
remember
1. To solve worded problems, read the question carefully and define the two variables
using appropriate pronumerals.
2. Formulate two equations from the information given and number them.
3. Use either the elimination method or the substitution method to solve the two equations
simultaneously.
4. Check your answer by substituting the values obtained for each variable into the
original equations.

exerCise
4D problem solving using simultaneous linear
equations
inDiviDuAl fluenCy
pAthWAys
1 We 9 ■Rick■received■better■results■for■his■Maths■test■than■for■his■English■test.■If■the■sum■of■his■
eBook plus two■marks■is■163■and■the■difference■is■31,■fi■nd■the■mark■for■each■subject.
Activity 4-D-1
2 We 10 ■Rachael■buys■some■nuts■and■bolts■to■fi■nish■a■project.■She■does■not■buy■the■same■number■
Problem solving of■nuts■and■bolts,■but■buys■30■items■in■total.■If■each■nut■costs■10■cents,■each■bolt■costs■20■cents■
doc-4999 and■the■total■purchase■price■is■$4.20,■how■many■nuts■and■how■many■bolts■does■she■buy?
Activity 4-D-2
Harder problem
solving
unDerstAnDing
doc-5000 3 Find■two■numbers■whose■difference■is■5■and■whose■sum■is■11.
Activity 4-D-3
Tricky problem
4 The■difference■between■two■numbers■is■2.■If■three■times■the■larger■number■minus■double■the■
solving smaller■number■is■13,■fi■nd■the■two■numbers.
doc-5001 5 One■number■is■9■less■than■three■times■a■second■number.■If■the■fi■rst■number■plus■twice■the■
second■number■is■16,■fi■nd■the■two■numbers.
6 A■rectangular■house■has■a■perimeter■of■40■metres■and■the■length■is■4■metres■more■than■the■
width.■What■are■the■dimensions■of■the■house?
7 Mike■has■5■lemons■and■3■oranges■in■his■shopping■basket.■The■cost■of■the■fruit■is■$3.50.■Voula,■
with■2■lemons■and■4■oranges,■pays■$2.10■for■her■fruit.■How■much■does■each■type■of■fruit■cost?
■
8 A■surveyor■measuring■the■dimensions■of■a■block■of■land■fi■nds■that■the■length■of■the■block■is■
three■times■the■width.■If■the■perimeter■is■160■metres,■what■are■the■dimensions■of■the■block?
9 Julie■has■$3.10■in■change■in■her■pocket.■If■she■has■only■50■cent■and■20centpieces■and■the■total■
number■of■coins■is■11,■how■many■coins■of■each■type■does■she■have?
10 Mr■Yang’s■son■has■a■total■of■twenty-one■$1■and■$2■coins■in■his■moneybox.■When■he■counts■his■
money,■he■fi■nds■that■its■total■value■is■$30.■How■many■coins■of■each■type■does■he■have?
11 If■three■Magnums■and■two■Paddlepops■cost■$8.70■and■the■difference■in■price■between■a■
Magnum■and■a■Paddlepop■is■90■cents,■how■much■does■each■type■of■ice-cream■cost?
12 If■one■Redskin■and■4■Golden■roughs■cost■$1.65,■whereas■2■Redskins■and■3■Golden■roughs■cost■
$1.55,■how■much■does■each■type■of■sweet■cost?
reAsoning
13 A■catering■fi■rm■works■out■its■pricing■based■on■a■fi■xed■cost■
for■overheads■and■a■charge■per■person.■It■is■known■that■a■party■
for■20■people■costs■$557,■whereas■a■party■for■35■people■costs■
$909.50.■Use■this■information■to■work■out■the■fi■xed■cost■and■the■
cost■per■person■charged■by■the■company.
14 The■difference■between■Sally’s■PE■mark■and■Science■mark■is■
12,■and■the■sum■of■the■marks■is■154.■If■the■PE■mark■is■the■higher■
mark,■what■did■Sally■get■for■each■subject?

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA • LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
15 Mozza’s cheese supplies sells six Mozzarella cheeses and eight Swiss cheeses to Munga’s deli
for $83.60, and four Mozzarella cheeses and four Swiss cheeses to Mina’s deli for $48. How
much does each type of cheese cost?
16 If the perimeter of the triangle in the diagram is 12 cm and the length of the rectangle is 1 cm
more than the width, find the value of x and y.
x cm
2x cm
y cm
m
5c
(y + 3) cm
17 Mr and Mrs Waugh want to use a caterer for a birthday party for their twin sons. The manager
says the cost for a family of four would be $160. However, the sons want to invite 8 friends,
making 12 people in all. The cost for this would be $360. If the total cost in each case is made up
of the same cost per person and the same fixed cost, find the cost per person and the fixed cost.
18 Joel needs to buy some blank DVDs and zip disks to
back up a large amount of data that has been generated REFLECTION  
eBook plus
by an accounting firm. He buys 6 DVDs and 3 zip disks
How do you decide which
for $96. He later realises these are not sufficient and so
method to use when solving
Digital doc buys another 5 DVDs and 4 zip disks for $116. How word problems using
WorkSHEET 4.2
doc-5221
much did each DVD and each zip disk cost? (Assume simultaneous linear equations?
the same rate per item was charged for each visit.)
4E Solving linear inequations

■■ An equation is a statement of equality such as x = 2; an inequation is a statement of
inequality such as x < 2 (x is less than 2).
■■ The solution to a linear equation is a single point on a number line, but the solution to an
inequation is a portion of the number line. That is, the solution to the inequation has many
values.
■■ The following table shows four types of simple inequations and their corresponding
representation on a number line.
■■ Note that an open circle placed over the 2 indicates that 2 is not included; that is, 2 does not
satisfy the inequality statement. A closed or solid circle indicates that 2 is included; that is, it
does satisfy the inequality statement.
Mathematical English Number line

statement statement diagram
x>2 x is greater than 2

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
xí2 x is greater than or equal to 2 x

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x<2 x is less than 2 x

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
xÇ2 x is less than or equal to 2 x

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

■■ The basic technique for solving inequations is to:

1. imagine that in place of the inequality sign, there is an equals sign
2. solve the inequation as if it were a linear equation, except that in place of the equals sign
keep the original inequality sign unless the special case outlined below applies.
Worked Example 11
Solve each of the following linear inequations.

a x + 3 Ç 4
b 4x - 1 < -2
c 6x - 7 í 3x + 5
Think Write
a 1 Write the inequation. a x+3Ç4

2 Obtain x by subtracting 3 from both sides of x+3-3Ç4-3
the inequation. Keep the inequality sign the xÇ1
same throughout.
b 1 Write the inequation. b 4x - 1 < -2
2 Add 1 to both sides of the inequation. 4x - 1 + 1 < -2 + 1
4x < -1
3 4x 1
Obtain x by dividing both sides of the <−
inequation by 4. 4 4
1
x<−
4
c 1 Write the inequation. c 6x - 7 í 3x + 5
2 Combine the pronumeral terms by subtracting 6x - 7 - 3x í 3x + 5 - 3x
3x from both sides of the inequation. 3x - 7 í 5
3 Add 7 to both sides of the inequation. 3x - 7 + 7 í 5 + 7
3x í 12
4 Obtain x by dividing both sides of the 3 x 12
í
inequation by 3. 3 3
xí4
The special case — multiplying or dividing both sides

of the inequation by a negative number
■■ Consider the inequation 6 > 5 (6 is greater than 5).
■■ If we multiply both sides of the inequation by -1 we get:
-6 > -5, which is not correct.
In fact -6 < -5. Applying this to inequations generally, when we multiply or divide an
inequation by a negative number, the direction of the inequality sign must change.
■■ When multiplying or dividing by a negative number, change the direction of the inequality
sign; that is, change: < to >
> to <
Ç to í
í to Ç

WorkeD exAmple 12
Solve each of the following linear inequations.

a -3m + 5 < -7 b 5(x - 2) í 7(x + 3)
think Write
a 1 Write■the■inequation. a -3m■+■5■<■-7
2 Subtract■5■from■both■sides■of■the■inequation.■ -3m■+■5■-■5■<■-7■-■5
(No■change■to■the■inequality■sign.) -3m■<■-12
3 Obtain■m■by■dividing■both■sides■of■the■ −3m −12
■>■
inequation■by■-3.■Reverse■the■inequality■sign,■ −3 −3
since■you■are■dividing■by■a■negative■number. m■>■4
b 1 Write■the■inequation. b 5(x■-■2)■í■7(x■+■3)
2 Expand■both■brackets. 5x■-■10■í■7x■+■21
3 Combine■the■pronumeral■terms■by■subtracting■ 5x■-■10■-■7x■í■7x■+■21■-■7x
7x■from■both■sides■of■the■inequation. -2x■-■10■í■21
4 Add■10■to■both■sides■of■the■inequation. -2x■-■10■+■10■í■21■+■10
-2x■í■31
5 Obtain■x■by■dividing■both■sides■of■the■ −2 x 31
■Ç■
inequation■by■-2.■Since■we■need■to■divide■by■ −2 −2
a■negative■number,■reverse■the■direction■of■the■ −31
inequality■sign. x■Ç■
2
1
x■Ç■-15 2
remember
1.■ The■solution■to■an■inequation■is■a■portion■of■the■number■line.■(That■is,■there■are■an■
infi■nite■number■of■solutions■to■any■given■inequation.)
2.■ When■solving■an■inequation,■imagine■an■equals■sign■in■place■of■the■inequality■sign■and■
solve■as■if■it■was■a■linear■equation.■Remember■to■keep■writing■the■original■inequality■
sign■between■the■two■sides■of■each■step.
3.■ Special■case:■if■in■the■process■of■the■solution■you■need■to■multiply■or■divide■both■sides■
of■the■inequation■by■a■negative■number,■reverse■the■inequality■sign.■That■is,■change■
<■to■>,■>■to■<,■Ç■to■í■and■í■to■Ç.
exerCise
4e solving linear inequations
inDiviDuAl fluenCy
pAthWAys 1 We11a ■Solve■each■of■the■following■inequations.
eBook plus a x■+■1■>■3■ b■ a■+■2■>■1■ c■
y■-■3■í■4
d m■-■1■í■3■ e■ p■+■4■<■5■ f■
x■+■2■<■9
Activity 4-E-1
g m■-■5■Ç■4■ h■ a■-■2■Ç■5■ i■
x■-■4■>■-1
Puzzling inequations 1
doc-5002 j 5■+■m■í■7■ k■ 6■+■q■í■2■ l■
5■+■a■>■-3
Activity 4-E-2 2 Solve■each■of■the■following■inequations.■Check■your■solutions■by■substitution.
Puzzling inequations 2 a 3m■>■9■ b■ 5p■Ç■10■ c■ 2a■<■8
doc-5003
d 4x■í■20■ e■ 5p■>■-25■ f■ 3x■Ç■-21

m
inDiviDuAl g 2m■í■-1■ h■ 4b■>■-2■ i■ ■>■6
pAthWAys 3
x a m
eBook plus j ■<■4■ k■ Ç■-2■ l■ ■í■5
2 7 5
Activity 4-E-3 3 We11b ■Solve■each■of■the■following■inequations.
Puzzling inequations 3 a 2m■+■3■<■12■ b■ 3x■+■4■í■13■ c■ 5p■-■9■>■11
doc-5004
d 4n■-■1■Ç■7■ e■ 2b■-■6■<■4■ f■ 8y■-■2■>■14
g 10m■+■4■Ç■-6■ h■ 2a■+■5■í■-5■ i■ 3b■+■2■<■-11
j 6c■+■7■Ç■1■ k■ 4p■-■2■>■-10■ l■ 3a■-■7■í■-28
4 We11c ■Solve■each■of■the■following■inequations.
a 2m■+■1■>■m■+■4■ b■ 2a■-■3■í■a■-1■ c■ 5a■-■3■<■a■-■7
d 3a■+■4■Ç■a■- 2■ e■ 5x■-■2■>■40■-■2x■ f■ 7x■-■5■Ç■11■-■x
g 7b■+■5■<■2b■+■25■ h■ 2(a■+■4)■>■a■+■13■ i■ 3(m■-■1)■<■m■+■1
j 5(2m■-■3)■Ç■3m■+■6■ k■ 3(5b■+■2)■Ç■-10■+■4b■ l■ 5(3m■+■1)■í■2(m■+■9)■
eBook plus
5 Solve■each■of■the■following■inequations.
x +1 x−2 x+7
Digital doc a ■Ç■4■ b■ ■í■-4■ c■ ■<■-1
SkillSHEET 4.7
2 5 3
doc-5218 2x + 3 3x − 1 5x + 9
d ■>■6■ e■ ■í■2■ f■ ■<■0
4 7 6
6 We12 ■Solve■each■of■the■following■inequations.
a -2m■>■4■ b■ -5p■Ç■15■ c■ -2a■í■-10
d -p■-■3■Ç■2■ e■ 10■-■y■í■13■ f■ 14■-■x■<■7
g 1■-■6p■>■1■ h■ 2■-■10a■Ç■0■ i■ 2(3■-■x)■<■12
j -4(a■+■9)■í■8■■ k■ -15■Ç■-3(2■+■b)■■ l■ 2x■-■3■>■5x■+■6
m k■+■5■<■2k■-■3■ n■ 3(x■-■4)■<■5(x■+■5)■ o■ 7(a■+■4)■í■4(2a■-■3)
7 mC ■When■solving■the■inequation■-2x■>■-7■we■need■to:
a change■the■sign■to■í■ b■ change■the■sign■to■<■ c■ change■the■sign■to■=
d change■the■sign■to■Ç e■ keep■the■sign■unchanged
2− x 5− m −3 − x
a ■>■1■ b■ ■í■2■ c■ ■<■-4
3 4 5
3 − 8a 4 − 3m −2m + 6
d ■<■-1■ e■ ■Ç■0■ f■ ■Ç■3
2 2 10
a 3k■>■6■ b■ -a■-■7■<■-2■ c■ 5■-■3m■í■0
d x■+■4■>■9■ e■ 10■-■y■Ç■3■ f■ 5■+■3d■<■-1
7p 1− x − 4 − 2m
g ■í -2■ h■ ■Ç■2■ i■ ■>■0
3 3 5
j 5a■-■2■<■4a■+■7■ k■ 6p■+■2■Ç■7p■-■1■ l■ 2(3x■+■1)■>■2x■-■16
unDerstAnDing
10 Write■linear■inequations■for■the■following■statements,■using■x■to■represent■the■unknown.■
eBook plus
(Do■not■attempt■to■solve■the■equations.)
Digital doc a The■product■of■5■and■a■certain■number■is■greater■than■10.
SkillSHEET 4.8
b When■three■is■subtracted■from■a■certain■number■the■result■is■less■than■or■equal■to■5.
doc-5219
c The■sum■of■seven■and■three■times■a■certain■number■is■less■than■42.
11 Given■the■positive■numbers■a,■b,■c■and■d■and■the■variable■x,■there■is■the■following■relationship:■
-c■<■ax■+■b■<■-d.
a Find■the■possible■range■of■values■of■x■if■a■=■2,■b■=■3,■c■=■10■and■d■=■1
b Rewrite■this■relationship■in■terms■of■x■only■(x■by■itself■between■the■<■signs).

REASONING
12 Two speed boats are racing along a section of Lake Quikalong. The speed limit along this
section of the lake is 50 km/h. Ross is travelling 6 km/h faster than Steven and together they
are travelling at a speed greater than 100 km/h.
a Write an inequation and solve it to describe all possible speeds that Steven could be
travelling at.
b At Steve’s lowest possible speed, is he over the speed limit?
c The water police issue a warning to Ross for exceeding the speed limit on the lake. Show
that the police were justified in issuing a warning to Ross.
13 At the beginning of this chapter we looked at the decision about which of two companies John
should use when pouring different volumes of concrete. Angelico’s Concrete charges $700 plus
$20 per cubic metre of concrete. Baux Cementing charges $1200 plus $15 per cubic metre of
concrete.
a Write an algebraic equation for the cost of using Angelico’s Concrete.
b Write an algebraic equation for the cost of using Baux Cementing.
c Write an inequation that, when solved, will tell
you the volume of concrete for which it is cheaper
to use Angelico’s Concrete. reflection  
d For what volume of concrete will it be cheaper to What is similar and different
use Baux Cementing? when solving linear inequations
e For what volume of concrete will the cost be the to linear equations?
same (if any)?
4f Sketching linear inequations

■■ Linear inequations replace the equality sign with an inequality sign, namely, >, í, < and Ç.
■■ The graph of linear inequations is a half plane and it is related to the graph of the
corresponding linear equation in that the line forms the boundary between the two half ■
planes.
■■ Consider the linear inequation y í x + 2. There are many points (x, y) that satisfy this
inequation.
All the points that lie on the line y = x + 2 satisfy this
inequation, as well as many other points on the Cartesian y (2, 5)
plane for which the y-coordinate is greater than two more
than the x-coordinate.
For example, (2, 5), (2, 6), (-4, 0) are some points that (0, 2)
(-4, 0)
satisfy this inequation.
x
The graph of an inequation is a half plane; in this (-2, 0)
example, it is the region of the Cartesian plane above
the line.
The region that is required has been shaded, but
sometimes it is helpful to shade the region that isn’t ■
required.
■■ Now consider the inequation y < x + 2. All the coordinates y
that have a y-coordinate less than 2 more than their (2, 5)
x-coordinate will satisfy this inequation.
Some solution points would be (2, 1), (3, 2) and (4, 2).
To sketch the graph of this inequation we need to shade (0, 2)
a region of the Cartesian plane that is below the line. (-4, 0)
x
In this example the points that lie on the line are not (-2, 0)
part of the solution to the inequation, so the line is dotted,
indicating that it is not included in the solution.

Summary
1 If the inequation is of the form of y > mx + c, then the region above the line is shaded
and the line is dotted, indicating that the points that lie on the line are not part of the ■
solution.
y y
x x
m>0 Required region m<0 Required region
2 If the inequation is of the form of y í mx + c, then the region above the line is shaded
and the line is solid, indicating that the points that lie on the line are part of the ■
solution.
y y
x x
3 If the inequation is of the form of y < mx + c, then the region below the line is shaded
and the line is dotted, indicating that the points that lie on the line are not part of the ■
solution.
y y
x x

4 If the inequation is of the form of y Ç mx + c, then the region below the line is shaded and the
line is solid, indicating that the points that lie on the line are part of the solution.
y y
x x
Worked Example 13
Sketch the half plane given by each of the following inequations.

a y í x + 2
b y < 3x - 1
Think Write
a 1 Write the inequation. a yíx+2

2 Sketch the linear equation, showing y=x+2
the x- and y-intercepts. Let y = 0, x = -2.
3 To find the x-intercepts, let y = 0. Therefore (-2, 0) is the x-intercept.
4 To find the y-intercept, let x = 0. The y-intercept can be read from the equation,
y-intercept is (0, 2).
5 Sketch the line labelling the x- and y
y-intercepts.
(0, 2)
(-2, 0)
x
6 Since the inequation is of the form ■ y

y í mx + c, then the region above the
line is shaded and the line is solid.
(0, 2)
The region of the plane where the
points always have the y-coordinate (-2, 0)
greater than or equal to the x
x-coordinate plus two will be above
the line. Therefore the region that is
required is above the line. Shade this
region.
Required region

b 1 Write■the■inequation. b y■<■3x■-■1
2 Sketch■the■linear■equation,■showing■ y■=■3x■-■1■
the■x-■and■y-intercepts.
1
3 To■fi■nd■the■x-intercepts,■let■y■=■0. Let■y■=■0,■x■= 3 .
4 To■fi■nd■the■y-intercept,■let■x■=■0. Therefore■( 1,■0)■is■the■x-intercept.

3
The■y-intercept■can■be■read■from■the■equation.
The■y-intercept■is■(0,■-1).
5 Sketch■the■line■labelling■the■x-■and■ y
y-intercepts.■Since■the■inequality■is■of■
y = 3x -1
the■form■<■then■this■line■should■be■a■
broken■line. (1–3, 0)
(0, -1) x
6 Since■the■inequation■is■of■the■form y
y■< mx+ c,■then■the■region■below■the■ y < 3x - 1
line■is■shaded■and■the■line■is■dotted.
(1–3, 0)
x
(0, -1)
Required region
remember
1.■ Inequations■involve■the■inequality■sign■> (greater■than),■í (greater■than■and■equal■to),■

< (less■than)■and■Ç■(less■than■and■equal■to).
2.■ The■graph■of■a■linear■inequation■is■a■half■plane.
3.■ A■broken■line■is■used■for■>■or■<■signs,■and■a■solid■line■is■used■for■í■and■Ç■signs.
4.■ If■the■inequation■is■of■the■form■y■í■mx■+■c■or■y■>■mx■+■c,■then■the■region■above■the■line■
is■the■required■region.
5.■ If■the■inequation■is■of■the■form■y■Ç■mx■+■c■or■y■<■mx■+■c,then■the■region■below■the■line■
is■the■required■region.
exerCise
4f sketching linear inequations
inDiviDuAl fluenCy
pAthWAys 1 We13 ■Sketch■the■half■plane■given■by■each■of■the■following■inequations.
eBook plus a y■í■x■+■1 b y■<■x■-■6
c y■>■-x■-■2 d y■<■3■-■x
Activity 4-F-1
Understanding linear e y■>■x■-■2 f y■<■4
inequations g x■í -5 h y■Ç■x■-■7
doc-5005 i y■í -2 j y■<■x■+■7
k x■<■6 l y■Ç■3x

2 Verify■your■solutions■to■question■1■using■technology.
inDiviDuAl
pAthWAys 3 mC ■a■ ■The■shaded■region■satisfying■the■inequation■y■>■2x■-■1■is:
a y b y c y
eBook plus
Activity 4-F-2 (1–2, 0) (1–2, 0) (1–2, 0)

Graphing linear x x x
inequations (0, -1) (0, -1) (0, -1)
doc-5006
Activity 4-F-3
Interpreting linear
inequation graphs d y e y
doc-5007
(1–2, 0) (- –21 , 0)
x x
(0, -1) (0, -1)
b The■shaded■region■satisfying■the■inequation■y■Ç■x■+■4■is:
a y b y
(0, 4) (0, 4)
(-4, 0) x (-4, 0) x
c y d y
(0, 4) (0, 4)
(-4, 0) x (-4, 0) x
e y
(0, 4)
(4, 0)
x
c The■region■satisfying■the■inequation■y■<■-3x■is:
a y b y
(1, 3)
(0, 0)
x (0, 0) x
(1, -3)

c y d y
(-1, 3) (0, 3)
(0, 0) x (-1, 0) x
e y
(-1, 0) (0, 1)
x
understanding
4 y a Find the equation of the line l shown in the
10
diagram at left.
9
l b Write down three inequations which define the
8
7 region R.
6 R
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 Happy Yaps Dog Kennels charges $35 per day for large dogs (dogs over 20 kg) and $20 per
day for small dogs (less than 20 kg). On any day, Happy Yaps Kennels can only accommodate
a maximum of 30 dogs.
a If l represent the number of large dogs and s represents the number of small dogs. Write
down an inequation, in terms of l and s, that represents the total number of dogs at Happy
Yaps.
b Another inequation can be written as s í 12. In the context of this problem, write down
what this inequation represents.
c The inequation l Ç 15 represents the number of large dogs that Happy Yaps can
accommodate on any day. This inequation is shown as a bold line on the graph below,
clearly shade in the area that is not within the region for this inequation.
l
30
15
0 s
12 30
d Explore the maximum number of small and large dogs Happy Yaps Kennels can
accommodate to receive the maximum amount in fees.

Reasoning
6 a Given the following graph, state the inequation it describes. y
4
b Prove, by choosing a point on the graph, that the inequation
is correct. 2
0 x
reflection   -4 -2 2 4
How are the graphs for linear -2
equations and inequations
similar and different? -4
Region required
4G Solving simultaneous linear

inequations
■■ The graph of a linear inequation represents a region of the Cartesian plane and not simply a line.
■■ This means that two linear inequations will have two regions as graphs.
■■ If these regions intersect, they have an infinite number of points in common.
■■ It is easier to solve simultaneous inequations graphically rather than algebraically.
■■ The process involves drawing each half plane on a Cartesian plane, shading the regions that
are required for each inequation.
■■ The region that is shaded by both inequations is the solution to the simultaneous inequations.
Worked Example 14
Use a graphical technique to solve the following simultaneous inequations.

y í x + 1 2 x - y > 4
Think Write/draw
1 Write the inequations, one under the other and number y í x + 1 [1]
them. 2x - y > 4 [2]
2 Find the x- and y-intercepts for the boundary equation of For [1], the boundary is y = x + 1.
inequation [1]. x-intercept: when y = 0,
0=x+1
x+1=0
x = -1
The x-intercept is at (-1, 0).
y-intercept: when x = 0,
y=0+1
y=1
3 Rule a pair of coordinate axes and choose a suitable
scale to allow all the intercepts to be marked.
4 For inequation [1] (í), sketch a solid line through both
intercepts.
5 Label the inequation.
6 For inequation [1] test the point (0, 0) to see if a TRUE Test point: (0, 0)
or FALSE statement is generated. Is 0 í 0 + 1?
Is 0 í 1? FALSE

7 As the statement is FALSE, the opposite side of the line y

14
is required. Shade the region required. 12
Note: Since the equation is in the form y í x + 1, we 10
8
would expect the required region to be above the line. 6
4
y≥x+ 12
−8 −6 −4 −2−20 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
−4
−6
−8
Region
required −10
8 Find the x- and y-intercepts for the boundary equation to For [2], the boundary is 2x - y = 4.
inequation [2]. x-intercept: when y = 0,
2x - 0 = 4
2x = 4
x=2
y-intercept: when x = 0,
2(0) - y = 4
-y = 4
y = -4
The y-intercept is at (0, -4).
9 For inequation [2] (>), sketch a broken line through both
intercepts.
10 Label the inequation.
11 For inequation [2] test the point (0, 0) to see if a TRUE Test point: (0, 0)
or FALSE statement is generated. Is 2(0) - 0 > 4? FALSE
12 As the statement is FALSE, the opposite side of the line is
required. Shade the region required (below the dotted line).
13 Indicate the solution region on the graph. y
io
n
14 ut
This is the overlapping of the two shaded regions. 12 So
l
10
8
6
4
y-x+ 12
-8 -6 -4 -2-20 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
-4 2x - y > 4
-6
Region
-8 required
-10
14 Check your solution by substituting a point from the Check: Substituting (7, 9) into [1]:
solution region, say (7, 9), into each of the original yíx+1
inequations. 9í7+1
9 í 8 is true.
Substituting (7, 9) into [2]:
2x - y > 4
2(7) - 9 > 4
14 - 9 > 4
5 > 4 is true.
The solution region is correct.

remember
1.■ The■graph■of■a■linear■inequation■represents■a■region■of■the■Cartesian■plane.
2.■ A■graphical■technique■can■be■used■to■solve■simultaneous■inequations.
3.■ The■graph■of■two■simultaneous■inequations■consists■of■the■intersection■of■two■regions■
and■therefore■has■an■infi■nite■number■of■solutions.
4.■ It■is■usual■to■shade■the■wanted■region■on■the■graph■of■an■inequation.
exerCise
4g solving simultaneous linear inequations
fluenCy
inDiviDuAl
pAthWAys Note:■Questions■1■and■2■revise■the■skills■used■when■working■with■inequations.
eBook plus 1 For■each■of■the■following,■use■substitution■to■check■if■the■given■pair■of■coordinates■makes■the■
inequation■true■or■false.
Activity 4-G-1
a (2,■4)■ x■+■3y■>■13 b (-3,■2)■ y■-■2x■<■7 c (0,■5)■ y■Ç■5x■+■4
Introducing
simultaneous linear d (1,■-4)■ 5x■+y<■6 e (7,■1)■ 2x■+■5y■Ç■19 f (2,■3)■ 2x■-y>■6
inequations g (-2,■-3)■ 2x■-■3y■>■3 h (-5,■-4)■ y■>■7■+■2x i (3,■0)■ y■Ç■-3x
doc-5008 j (0,■4)■ y■+■2x■>■4
Activity 4-G-2
2 Use■the■graphs■of■the■equations■given■below■to■sketch■the■graph■of■the■given■inequations.■
Practising
simultaneous linear (Remember■to■shade■the■region■required.)
inequations a x■+y>■3 b x■+■2y■Ç■6■
doc-5009 y y
Activity 4-G-3
3 3
Further simultaneous 2 2
linear inequations x+y=3 x + 2y = 6
doc-5010 1 1
x x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3

c 3x■-■2y■>■12 d 4x■+yí■-8■
y y
6 12
10
4 8
6
2 4
x 2 x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-2
0 1 2 3
-2 -4
-6
-4 3x - 2y = 12 -8
-10
-6 -12 4x + y = -8

e y■íx■+■4■ f y■<■3■-■3x
y y
6 3
4 2
y=x+4 2 y = 3 - 3x
1
x x
-6 -4 -2 0
-3 -2 -1 0
2 4 6
1 2 3
-2 -1

-4


g y - 3x < 9 h 2x + y í 8
y y
9 12
10
6 8
y - 3x = 9 3 6
2x + y = 8
4
x 2 x
-9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 -6 -4 -2 -20 2 4 6
-3 -4
-6
–6
3 MC For each of the following pairs of simultaneous inequations, choose the graph which
gives the correct solution. (Remember the required region is shaded.)
a y > x + 3
x+yÇ4
a y b y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 x 1 x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 2
1 3 4 5
-2 -2
Region required Region required
c y d y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 x 1 x
0 -1 0 2
-1 1 2 3 4 5 1 3 4 5
-2 -2
Region required Region required
–4 –4
E y
6
5
4 Region required
3
2
1 x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-2
–4
b x Ç 5
2y + x > 2
a y b y
3 Region required 3 Region required
2 2
1 1
x x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3

c y d y
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 Region required
-3 Region required
E y
3 Region required
2
1
x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
c y í 3 - x
2x + 3y Ç 6
a y b y
3 3 Region required
2 2
1 1
x x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 Region required
-3
c y d y
3 Region required 3 Region required
2 2
1 1
x x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
E y
3 Region required
2
1
x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3

d x - y < 3
x - 2y í 4
a y b y Region required
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 Region required -3
c y Region required d y
3 3 Region required
2 2
1 1
-1 0 3 x –1 0 2 3 5 x
1 2 4 5 1 4
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
E y Region required
3
2
1
-1 0 2 3 5 x
1 4
-1
-2
-3
understanding
4 WE 14 Use a graphical technique to solve the following simultaneous inequations.
a x + y < 3 b 3x + 2y > 12 c 2y > x - 2
2x - y í 4 x + 5y Ç 10 y<3-x
d y > 2x + 4 e y - 2x Ç 5 f y < 8
y < 4 - 2x x+y>4 3x + y > 17
g x + 2y í 10 h y > 2x - 3 i 3y - 2x < 6
3x + y > 15 x<5 y í 2x - 2
j y - x > 4 k y + 2x > 3 l y - 2x í 9
2x + 3y Ç 6 y < 2x x+yÇ4
m x + y > 7 n y > 4
2x - 3y í 18 y í 2x
5 a Sketch the half plane represented by the region:
i y Ç x + 2
i i y í 4 - 2x.
b Show the region where both the inequations y Ç x + 2 and y í 4 - 2x hold true.
6 Show the region where the inequations 2x + y < 0 and x - 2y > 0 simultaneously hold true.

7 Natsuko■is■starting■to■plan■a■monthly■budget■by■classifying■expenditures■such■as■rent■and■other■
expenses■(r)■and■savings■(x).■Her■total■net■income■is■$2000■per■month.■She■can■spend■no■more■
than■30■per■cent■of■her■income■on■rent.
a Write■an■inequation■to■express■the■constraint■that■Natsuko■can■spend■no■more■than■
$2000■per■month.
b Write■an■inequation■to■express■the■30■per■cent■rent■and■other■expenses■limitation.
c Do■any■other■inequations■apply■to■this■situation?■Explain.
d Sketch■a■graph■of■the■region■that■applies■for■all■your■inequations.
e State■three■possible■solutions■of■allocating■rent■and■other■expenses/savings.
8 Monica■wants■to■take■a■minimum■of■450■units■of■vitamin■C■and■300■units■of■vitamin■E■per■
day.■Each■brand■A■tablet■provides■100■units■of■vitamin■C■and■50■units■of■vitamin■E,■while■each■
brand■B■tablet■provides■75■units■of■vitamin■C■and■75■units■of■vitamin■E.
a Write■an■inequation■which■indicates■the■combination■needed■of■each■brand■of■vitamin■
tablet■to■meet■the■daily■requirement■of■vitamin■C.
(Hint:■Let■a■=■the■number■of■brand■A■tablets■and■b=■the■number■of■brandBtablets.)
b Write■an■inequation■which■indicates■the■combination■needed■of■each■brand■of■vitamin■
tablet■to■meet■the■daily■requirement■of■vitamin■E.
c Graph■the■two■inequations■and■indicate■the■region■which■provides■a■solution■to■both■the■
vitamin■C■and■vitamin■E■requirements.
d Recommend■to■Monica■two■different■vitamin■plans■that■fi■t■the■restrictions.
9 Maria■is■making■some■high-energy■sweets■using■peanuts■and■chocolate■chips.■She■wanted■
to■make■a■maximum■of■400■g■of■the■sweets,■but■wanted■them■to■contain■at■least■180■g■of■
carbohydrates.
a Let■the■mass■of■peanuts■be■p■and■the■mass■of■chocolate■chips■be■c.■Write■an■inequation■to■
represent■the■constraint■that■the■total■mass■must■be■at■most■400■■g.
b On■a■Cartesian■plane,■sketch■the■region■defi■ned■by■the■inequation■obtained■in■part■a.
(Hint:■Consider■only■the■positive■axes■as■the■values■of■both■p■and■c■must■be■positive.)
c The■peanuts■provide■30%■of■their■mass■in■carbohydrates■and■the■chocolate■chips■provide■
60%■of■their■mass■in■carbohydrates.■Write■an■inequation■that■represents■the■constraint■that■
the■mass■of■carbohydrates■must■be■at■least■180■■g.
d On■a■Cartesian■plane,■sketch■the■region■defi■ned■by■the■inequation■obtained■in■part■c .
e On■a■Cartesian■plane,■show■the■region■where■the■inequations■sketched■in■parts■b■and■d■
eBook plus
both■hold■true.
f The■region■obtained■in■part■e■shows■all■possible■
Digital doc masses■of■peanuts■and■chocolate■chips■that■meet■ refleCtion
WorkSHEET 4.3
doc-5222
Maria’s■requirements.■List■fi■ve■sets■of■possible■ How do the solutions from a
masses■of■peanuts■and■chocolate■chips■that■would■ system of equations differ from
meet■her■requirements. a system of inequations?

Summary
Graphical solution of simultaneous linear equations
■■ When solving simultaneous equations graphically, obtaining an accurate solution depends on
drawing accurate graphs.
■■ The solution to linear simultaneous equations is the point where their graphs intersect.
■■ Lines that have the same gradient are parallel.
■■ If the graphs of the two simultaneous equations are parallel lines, then the simultaneous
equations have no solution, as they have no point of intersection.
Solving simultaneous linear equations using substitution

When using the substitution method to solve simultaneous equations:
■■ choose the equation in which one of the variables is the subject
■■ substitute this expression for the variable into the other equation and solve
■■ substitute the value you have found into the rearranged equation to solve for the other ■
variable
■■ check your solution.
Solving simultaneous linear equations using elimination

■■ Simultaneous equations of the form ax + by = k can be solved by the elimination method
by looking for an addition or subtraction of the equations that will eliminate one of the
variables.
■■ For like terms with the same coefficient but opposite signs, add the equations. For like terms
with the same coefficient and the same sign, subtract the equations.
■■ If the terms do not have the same coefficient, multiply one or both equations by a constant
to create the same coefficient. Remember to multiply both sides of the equation to keep it
balanced.
■■ Once one variable has been eliminated, solve the single variable equation formed. Substitute
the solution back into one of the original equations to find the value of the variable that was
originally eliminated.
■■ Check your solution by substitution.
Problem solving using simultaneous linear equations

■■ To solve worded problems, read the question carefully and define the two variables using
appropriate pronumerals.
■■ Formulate two equations from the information given and number them.
■■ Use either the elimination method or the substitution method to solve the two equations
simultaneously.
■■ Check your answer by substituting the values obtained for each variable into the original
equations.
Solving linear inequations

■■ The solution to an inequation is a portion of the number line. (That is, there are an infinite
number of solutions to any given inequation.)
■■ When solving an inequation, imagine an equals sign in place of the inequality sign and solve
as if it was a linear equation. Remember to keep writing the original inequality sign between
the two sides of each step unless the special case applies.
■■ Special case: if in the process of the solution you need to multiply or divide both sides of the
inequation by a negative number, reverse the inequality sign. That is, change < to >, > to <,
Ç to í and í to Ç.

Sketching linear inequations

■■ Inequations■involve■the■inequality■sign■>■(greater■than),■í■(greater■than■and■equal■to),■
<■(less■than)■and■Ç■(less■than■and■equal■to).
■■ The■graph■of■a■linear■inequation■is■a■half■plane.
■■ A■broken■line■is■used■for■>■or■<■signs,■and■a■solid■line■is■used■for■í■and■Ç■signs.
■■ If■the■inequation■is■of■the■form■y■í■mx■+■c■or■y■>■mx■+■c,■then■the■region■above■the■line■is■the■
required■region.
■■ If■the■inequation■is■of■the■form■y■Ç■mx■+■c■or■y■<■mx■+■c,■then■the■region■below■the■line■is■the■
required■region.
Solving simultaneous linear inequations

■■ The■graph■of■a■linear■inequation■represents■a■region■of■the■Cartesian■plane.
■■ A■graphical■technique■can■be■used■to■solve■simultaneous■inequations.
■■ The■graph■of■two■simultaneous■inequations■consists■of■the■intersection■of■two■regions■and■
therefore■has■an■infi■nite■number■of■solutions.
■■ It■is■usual■to■shade■the■wanted■region■on■the■graph■of■an■inequation.
MaPPING YOUR UNdeRSTaNdING

concept■map■with■the■one■that■you■created■in■Whatdoyouknow?■on■page■89.
Have■you■completed■the■two■Homeworksheets,■the■Richtask■and■two■Codepuzzles■in■
Homework
book your■MathsQuest10HomeworkBook?

Chapter review
Fluency 7 During a walk-a-thon, Sarah receives $4 plus
$3 per kilometre. The graph which best represents
1 The equation of the line drawn below is:
Sarah walking up to 5 kilometres is:
y A $
3 18 (5, 18)
15
12
9
0 2 x 6
3
A 3x + 2y = 6 B 3x - 2y = 6 0 d (km)
1 2 3 4 5
C 2x + 3y = 6 D 2x - 3y = 6 B $
E 2x - 3y = -6 24 (5, 24)
2 The equation of a linear graph with gradient -3 and 20
x-intercept of 4 is: 16
A y = -3x - 12 B y = -3x + 4 12
8
C y = -3x - 4 D y = -3x + 12
4
E y = 4x - 3
0 d (km)
3 The equation of a linear graph which passes through 1 2 3 4 5
(2, -7) and (-2, -2) is: C $
A 4x - 5y + 18 = 0 24
(5, 19)
B 5x + 4y + 18 = 0 20
c 5x + 4y - 18 = 0 16
d 5x - 4y - 18 = 0 12
8
e 4x + 5y + 18 = 0
4
4 The inequation that is represented by the region
0 d (km)
shown below is: 1 2 3 4 5
D $
y (5, 19)
18
2 15
12
0 2 x 9
6
Region required 3
0 d (km)
A y í 2 - x b y í x - 2 1 2 3 4 5
C y Ç 2 - x D y Ç x - 2 E $
E y í 2x 24
20
5 The equation of a linear graph which passes (5, 18)
16
through the origin with gradient -3 is:
12
A y = -3 B x = -3 8
C y = -3x D y = 3 - 3x 4
E y = 3x - 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 d (km)
6 An online music shop charges $5 postage for
2 CDs and $11 for 5 CDs. The equation that best 8 Which of the following pairs of coordinates is the
represents this, if C is the cost and n is the number solution to the given simultaneous equations?
of CDs, is: 2x + 3y = 18
A C = 5n + 11 B C = 6n + 5 5x - y = 11
C C = n + 2 D C = 5n + 1 A (6, 2) B (3, -4) C (3, 9)
E C = 2n + 1 D (3, 4) E (5, 11)

9 The graphical solution to the following pair of 10 Produce a table of values, and sketch the graph of
simultaneous equations is: the equation y = -5x + 15 for values of x between
y = 5 - 2x -10 and +10.
y = 3x - 10 11 Sketch the graph of the following linear equations,
A y labelling the x- and y-intercepts.
10
a y = 3x - 2
8
b y = -5x + 15
6 5
1 2
4 1
22 33 c y = - 3 x + 1
2
7
d y = 5 x - 3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5x
-4 (3, -1) 12 Find the x- and y-intercepts of the following
-6 straight lines.
-8 a y = -7x + 6
3
b y = x - 5
-10 8
4 3
c y = 7 x - 4
d y = 0.5x + 2.8
B y 13 Sketch graphs of the following linear equations by
10
8
finding the x- and y-intercepts.
6 a 2x - 3y = 6
1
-3 3 2 1 4
5 b 3x + y = 0
2
2 c 5x + y = -3
d x + y + 3 = 0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5x
(-3, -1) 14 Sketch the graph of each of the following.
-4
1
-6 a y = 2 x b y = -4x
-8
c x = -2 d y = 7
-10
15 Sketch the graph of the equation
y 3(y - 5) = 6(x + 1).
C
10 16 Find the equations of the straight lines having the
8 following graphs.
6 a y
4
2 (3, 1)
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 x
-2 1 2 3 4 5 0 x
1 1
-4 2 33
1
-6 -5 2
-2
-8
-10
b y
D y
10
8 -4 0 x
6
4
2 -4
(-3, -1)
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5x
c y
1
1
-3 3 -2 2 -4 -5
-6
-8
2
-10
0 6 x
E none of the above

d y 21 Use the graphs below, showing the given

• (2, 8) simultaneous equations, to write the point of
intersection of the graphs and, hence, the solution
of the simultaneous equations.
0 x a x + 3y = 6 y
3
y = 2x - 5 2
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 7 x
e -2
y
-4
-6
0 x
- –43
b 3x + 2y = 12 y
f y 2y = 3x 6
5
4
3
2
1
-2 -10 2 4 6 8 x
0 5 x -2
-3
-4
-5
17 Find the linear equation given the information in 22 Use substitution to check if the given pair of
each case below. coordinates is a solution to the given simultaneous
a gradient = 3, y-intercept = -4 equations.
b gradient = -2, y-intercept = -5 a (7, 1) x - 2y = 5
1
c gradient = 2 , y-intercept = 5 5y + 2x = 18
b (4, 3) y=7-x
d gradient = 0, y-intercept = 6
5y - 2x = 7
18 For each of the following, find the equation of the
23 Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous
straight line with the given gradient and passing
equations using a graphical method.
through the given point.
a gradient = 7, point (2, 1) a 4y - 2x = 8 b y = 2x - 2
b gradient = -3, point (1, 1) x + 2y = 0 x - 4y = 8
1 c 2x + 5y = 20
c gradient = 2 , point (-2, 5) y=2
3
d gradient = 5, point (1, -3) 24 Solve the following simultaneous equations using
the substitution method.
19 Find the equation of the straight line that passes a y = 3x + 1 b y = 2x + 7
through each pair of points. x + 2y = 16 3y - 4x = 11
a (1, 7) and (3, 5) b (8, 0) and (6, 3)
c 2x + 5y = 6 d y = -x
c (-1, 5) and (4, 7) 3
y = 2x + 5 y = 8x + 21
20 Sketch the half plane given by each of the
following inequations. e y = 3x - 11 f y = 4x - 17
a y Ç x + 1 y = 5x + 17 y = 6x - 22
b y í 2x + 10 25 Solve the following simultaneous equations using
c y > 3x - 12 the elimination method.
d y < 5x a 3x + y = 17 b 4x + 3y = 1
e x í 7 7x - y = 33 -4x + y = 11
1
f y Ç 2 x + 1 c 3x - 7y = -2 d 4y - 3x = 9
g 2x + y í 9 -2x - 7y = 13 y + 3x = 6
h 4x - 3y í 48 e 5x + 2y = 6 f x - 4y = -4
i y > -12 4x + 3y = 2 4x - 2y = 12

26 Solve the following simultaneous equations using 4 Write the following as a pair of simultaneous
an appropriate method. equations and solve.
a 3x + 2y = 6 b 6x - 4y = -6 a Find two numbers whose difference is
3y + 5x = 9 7x + 3y = -30 5 and whose sum is 23.
c 6x + 2y = 14 b A rectangular house has a total perimeter of
x = -3 + 5y 34 metres and the width is 5 metres less than
27 Solve the following simultaneous inequations. the length. What are the dimensions of the
a y Ç x + 4 b 2y - 3x í 12 house?
yí3 y + 3x > 0 c If two Chupa Chups and three Wizz Fizzes cost
c 5x + y < 10 $2.55, but five Chupa Chups and seven Wizz
x + 2y < 11 Fizzes cost $6.10, find the price of each type of
lolly.
problem solving 5 Laurie buys milk and bread for his family on the
way home from school each day, paying with a
1 John has a part-time job working as a gardener and
$10 note. If he buys three cartons of milk and two
is paid $13.50 per hour.
loaves of bread, he receives 5 cents in change. If
a Complete the following table of values relating
he buys two cartons of milk and one loaf of bread,
the amount of money received to the number of
he receives $4.15 in change. How much does each
hours worked.
item cost?
Number 6 A paddock contains some cockatoos (2-legged)
0 2 4 6 8 10
of hours and kangaroos (4-legged). The total number of
Pay ($) animals is 21 and they have 68 legs in total. Using
simultaneous equations, determine how many
b Find a linear equation relating the amount cockatoos and kangaroos there are in the paddock.
of money received to the number of hours
7 At a fun park, the cost of a rollercoaster ride and
worked.
a Ferris wheel ride is $10. The cost of a Gravitron
c Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane
ride and a Ferris wheel ride is $12. The cost of a
over a suitable domain.
Rollercoaster ride and a Gravitron ride is $14. What
d Using algebra, calculate the pay that John will
3 is the cost of each ride?
receive if he works for 6 4 hours.
8 There are two sections to a concert hall. Seats in the
2 A fun park charges a $12.50 entry fee and an ‘Dress circle’ are arranged in rows of 40 and cost
additional $2.50 per ride. $140 each. Seats in the ‘Bleachers’ are arranged in
a Complete the following table of values relating rows of 70 and cost $60 each. There are 10 more
the total cost to the number of rides. rows in the ‘Dress circle’ than in the ‘Bleachers’
and the capacity of the hall is 7000.
Number a If d represent the number of rows in the ‘Dress
0 2 4 6 8 10
of rides circle’ and b represents the number of rows in
Cost ($) the ‘Bleachers’ then write an equation in terms
of these two variables based on the fact that
b Find a linear equation relating total cost to the there are 10 more rows in the ‘Dress circle’
number of rides. than in the ‘Bleachers’.
c Sketch the linear equation on a Cartesian plane b Write an equation in terms of these two
over a suitable domain. variables based on the fact that the capacity of
d Using algebra, calculate the cost of entry and the hall is 7000 seats.
7 rides. c Solve the two equations from a and b
3 The cost of hiring a boat is $160 plus simultaneously using the method of your choice
$22.50 per hour. to find the number of rows in each section.
a Sketch a graph showing the total cost for 0 to d Now that you have the number of rows in each
12 hours. section, calculate the number of seats in each
b State the equation relating cost to time rented. section.
c Predict the cost of hiring a boat for 12 hours e Hence, calculate the total receipts for a concert
and 15 minutes. where all tickets are sold.

9 John■is■comparing■two■car■rental■companies,■ 10 Frederika■has■$24■■000■saved■for■a■holiday■and■a■
Golden■Ace■Rental■Company■and■Silver■Diamond■ new■stereo.■Her■travel■expenses■are■$5400■and■her■
Rental■Company.■Golden■Ace■Rental■Company■ daily■expenses■are■$260.
charges■a■fl■at■rate■of■$38■per■day■and■$0.20■per■ a Write■down■an■equation■for■the■cost■of■her■
kilometre.■The■Silver■Diamond■Rental■Company■ holiday■if■she■stays■for■d■days.
charges■a■fl■at■rate■of■$30■per■day■plus■$0.32■per■ ■■ Upon■her■return■from■holidays■Frederika■wants■
kilometre. to■purchase■a■new■stereo■system■that■will■cost■
a Write■an■algebraic■equation■for■the■cost■of■ her■$2500.
renting■a■car■for■three■days■from■the■Golden■ b How■many■days■can■she■spend■on■her■holiday■
Ace■Rental■Company■in■terms■of■the■number■of■ if■she■wishes■to■purchase■a■new■stereo■upon■her■
kilometres■travelled,■k. return?
b Write■an■algebraic■equation■for■the■cost■of■ 11 Mick■the■painter■has■fi■xed■costs■(e.g.■insurance,■
renting■a■car■for■three■days■from■the■Silver■ equipment,■etc)■of■$3400■per■year.■His■running■cost■
Diamond■Rental■Company■in■terms■of■the■ to■travel■to■jobs■is■based■on■$0.75■per■kilometre.■
number■of■kilometres■travelled,■k. Last■year■Mick■had■costs■that■were■less■than■
c How■many■kilometres■would■John■have■to■ $16■■000.
travel■so■that■the■cost■of■hiring■from■each■ a Write■an■inequality■to■show■this■information■
company■for■three■days■is■the■same? and■solve■it■to■fi■nd■how■many■kilometres■Mick■
d Write■an■inequation■that,■when■solved,■will■tell■ travelled■for■the■year.■
you■the■number■of■kilometres■for■which■it■is■ b Explain■the■information■you■have■found.
cheaper■to■use■Golden■Ace■Rental■Company■
when■renting■for■three■days. eBook plus
e For■what■number■of■kilometres■will■it■be■
Interactivities
cheaper■to■use■Silver■Diamond■Rental■
Company■for■three■days’■hire? int-2837
Word search Chapter 4
int-2835
Crossword Chapter 4
int-2836

eBook plus ACtivities
chapter opener •■ Activity■4-D-2■(doc-5000):■Harder■problem■solving■
(page105)
Digital doc
•■ Hungry■brain■activity■Chapter■4■(doc-5211)■(page89) •■ Activity■4-D-3■(doc-5001):■Tricky■problem■solving■
(page105)
are you ready? •■ WorkSHEET■4.2■(doc-5221):■Simultaneous■
Digital docs (page90) equations■II■(page106)
•■ SkillSHEET■4.1■(doc-5212):■Substitution■into■a■linear■rule
•■ SkillSHEET■4.2■(doc-5213):■Solving■linear■equations■ 4e Solving linear inequations
that■arise■when■fi■nding■x-■and■ Digital docs
y-intercepts •■ Activity■4-E-1■(doc-5002):■Puzzling■inequations■1■
•■ SkillSHEET■4.3■(doc-5214):■Transposing■linear■ (page108)
equations■to■standard■form •■ Activity■4-E-2■(doc-5003):■Puzzling■inequations■2■
•■ SkillSHEET■4.4■(doc-5215):■Measuring■the■rise■and■ (page108)
the■run •■ Activity■4-E-3■(doc-5004):■Puzzling■inequations■3■
•■ SkillSHEET■4.5■(doc-5216):■Finding■the■gradient■given■ (page109)
two■points •■ SkillSHEET■4.7■(doc-5218):■Checking■whether■a■
•■ SkillSHEET■4.6■(doc-5217):■Graphing■linear■equations■ given■point■makes■the■inequation■a■true■statement■
using■the■x-■and■y-intercept■method (page109)
•■ SkillSHEET■4.7■(doc-5218):■Checking■whether■
•■ SkillSHEET■4.8■(doc-5219):■Writing■equations■from■
a■given■point■makes■the■inequation■a■true■statement
worded■statements■(page109)
4a Graphical solution of simultaneous linear
equations 4F Sketching linear inequations
Digital docs Digital docs
•■ Activity■4-A-1■(doc-4990):■Investigating■graphs■of■ •■ Activity■4-F-1■(doc-5005):■Understanding■linear■
simultaneous■equations■(page94) inequations■(page113)
•■ Activity■4-A-2■(doc-4991):■Graphing■simultaneous■ •■ Activity■4-F-2■(doc-5006):■Graphing■linear■
equations■(page94) inequations■(page114)
•■ Activity■4-A-3■(doc-4992):■Further■graphing■of■ •■ Activity■4-F-3■(doc-5007):■Interpreting■linear■
simultaneous■equations■(page95) inequation■graphs■(page114)
•■ SkillSHEET■4.6■(doc-5217):■Graphing■linear■equations■
using■the■x-■and■y-intercept■method■(page95) 4G Solving simultaneous linear inequations
4b Solving simultaneous linear equations Digital docs
using substitution •■ Activity■4-G-1■(doc-5008):■Introducing■
simultaneous■linear■inequations■(page118)
Digital docs (page98) •■ Activity■4-G-2■(doc-5009):■Practising■simultaneous■
•■ Activity■4-B-1■(doc-4993):■Learning■substitution■
•■ Activity■4-B-2■(doc-4994):■Practising■substitution■
linear■inequations■(page118)
•■ Activity■4-B-3■(doc-4995):■Tricky■substitution■ •■ Activity■4-G-3■(doc-5010):■Further■simultaneous■
linear■inequations■(page118)
4c Solving simultaneous linear equations •■ WorkSHEET■4.3■(doc-5222):■Simultaneous■
using elimination equations■III■(page122)
Digital docs
•■ Activity■4-C-1■(doc-4996):■Elimination■practice■ chapter review
(page101) Interactivities(page129)
•■ Activity■4-C-2■(doc-4997):■Let’s■eliminate■(page102) •■ Test■Yourself■Chapter■4■(int-2837):■Take■the■end-of-
•■ Activity■4-C-3■(doc-4998):■More■elimination■(page102) chapter■test■to■test■your■progress
•■ WorkSHEET■4.1■(doc-5220):■Simultaneous■equations■ •■ Word■search■Chapter■4■(int-2835):■an■interactive■
I■(page103) word■search■involving■words■associated■with■this■
Interactivity chapter
•■ Simultaneous■linear■equations■(int-2780)■(page99) •■ Crossword■Chapter■4■(int-2836):■an■interactive■
4d Problem solving using simultaneous linear
crossword■using■the■defi■nitions■associated■with■the■
equations
chapter
Digital docs To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
•■ Activity■4-D-1■(doc-4999):■Problem■solving■
www.jacplus.com.au
(page105)

MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY • PYTHAGORAS AND TRIGONOMETRY
5
5A Pythagoras’ theorem
5B Pythagoras’ theorem in three
dimensions
5C Trigonometric ratios
5D Using trigonometry to calculate side
lengths
5E Using trigonometry to calculate angle
size
5F Angles of elevation and depression
5G Bearings and compass directions
5H Applications
Trigonometry I
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?
1 List what you know about trigonometry.
trigonometry.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 5
doc-5223
OPENING QUESTION
How can Raylene find her way to the

finish line of the orienteering course?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 131 15/05/12 12:07 PM

Are you ready?

eBook plus
Rounding to a given number of decimal places
1 Round the following numbers to 3 decimal places.
Digital doc a 0.6845 b 1.3996 c 0.7487
SkillSHEET 5.1
doc-5224
eBook plus
Rounding the size of an angle to the nearest minute and second
2 Round the following angles:
Digital doc
i to the nearest minute
SkillSHEET 5.2
doc-5225 ii to the nearest second.
a 15è32Å40.5ë b 63è15Å32.4ë c 27è10Å15.8ë
eBook plus
Labelling the sides of a right-angled triangle
3 Label the sides of the following right-angled triangles using the letters H (for hypotenuse),
Digital doc
O (for opposite) and A (for adjacent) with respect to angle q.
SkillSHEET 5.3
doc-5226 a b c
q
eBook plus
Rearranging formulas
4 Rearrange each of the following formulas to make x the subject.
Digital doc 4.2
x x
SkillSHEET 5.5 a tan 15è = b tan 28è = c = 5.3
doc-5227 30 x tan 64°
eBook plus
Drawing a diagram from given directions
5 Draw a diagram for each of the following situations.
Digital doc
a Kate’s bushwalking route took her from A to B, a distance of 5 km at a bearing of 25èT
SkillSHEET 5.6
doc-5228 then to C, a further distance of 7.5 km at a bearing of 120èT.
b A ship steamed S20èE for a distance of 180 km, then the ship travelled N60èW for a
further 70 km.
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Similar right-angled triangles
In the two similar right-angled triangles shown below, the angles are the same and the
corresponding sides are in the same ratio.
D
A 6 cm 10 cm
3 cm 5 cm
B 4 cm C E 8 cm F
The corresponding sides are in the same ratio.

AB AC BC
= = .
DE DF EF
To write this using the side lengths of the triangles gives:
AB 3 1
= =
DE 6 2
AC 5 1
= =
DF 10 2
BC 4 1
= =
EF 8 2
This means that for right-angled triangles, when the angles are fixed, the ratios of the sides in
the triangle are constant.
We can examine this idea further by completing the following activity.
Using a protractor and ruler, draw an angle of 70è, measuring horizontal distances of 3 cm,
7 cm and 10 cm as demonstrated in the diagram below.
c
b
a
70è
3 cm
7 cm
10 cm
Note: Diagram not drawn to scale.
Measure the perpendicular heights a, b and c.

a ö 8.24 cm b ö 19.23 cm c ö 27.47 cm
Chapter 5 Trigonometry I 133
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To test if the theory that for right-angled triangles, when the angles are fixed, the ratios of the
sides in the triangle are constant is correct, calculate the ratios of the side lengths.
a 8.24
≈ ≈ 2.75
3 3
b 19.23
≈ ≈ 2.75
7 7
c 27.47
≈ ≈ 2.75
10 10
The ratios are the same because the triangles are similar.
This important concept forms the basis of trigonometry.
Review of Pythagoras’ theorem

■■ Pythagoras’ theorem states that in any right-angled triangle, the c
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the a
other two sides. The rule is written as c2 = a2 + b2 where a and b
are the two shorter sides and c is the hypotenuse. b
■■ The hypotenuse is the longest side of a right-angled triangle and is
always the side that is opposite the right angle. x
■■ Pythagoras’ theorem gives us a way of finding the length of 4
the third side in a triangle, if we know the lengths of the two other
sides.
7
Finding the hypotenuse

■■ To calculate the length of the hypotenuse when given the length of the two shorter sides,
substitute the known values into the formula c2 = a2 + b2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
For the triangle at right, calculate the length of the hypotenuse, x,

correct to 1 decimal place. x
4
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Copy the diagram and label the sides a, b and c.

Remember to label the hypotenuse as c.
c=x
a=4
b=7
2 Write Pythagoras’ theorem. c2 = a2 + b2
3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule x2= + 72 42
and simplify. = 16 + 49
= 65
4 Calculate x by taking the square root of 65. x = 65
Round the answer correct to 1 decimal place. x = 8.1
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 134 15/05/12 12:07 PM

Finding a shorter side

■■Sometimes a question will give you the length of the hypotenuse and ask you to find one of
the shorter sides. In such examples, we need to rearrange Pythagoras’ formula. Given that
c2 = a2 + b2, we can rewrite this as:
a2 = c2 - b2
or b2 = c2 - a2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the length, correct to 1 decimal place, of the unmarked side of

the triangle at right.
14 cm
8 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW

Remember to label the hypotenuse as c; it does a
not matter which side is a and which side is b.
c = 14
b=8

3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule 142 = a2 + 82
and simplify. 196 = a2 + 64
a2 = 196 - 64
= 132
4 Find a by taking the square root of 132. Round to a = 132
1 decimal place. = 11.5 cm
■■ In many cases we are able to use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve practical problems.
First model the problem by drawing a diagram, then use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve the
right-angled triangle. Use the result to give a worded answer.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
A ladder that is 4.5 m long leans up against a vertical wall. The foot of the ladder is 1.2 m from the
wall. How far up the wall does the ladder reach? Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a diagram and label the sides a, b and c.

Remember to label the hypotenuse as c.
c = 4.5 m
a
b = 1.2 m
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 135 15/05/12 12:07 PM


3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule 4.52 = a2 + 1.22
and simplify. 20.25 = a2 + 1.44
a2 = 20.25 - 1.44
= 18.81
4 Find a by taking the square root of 18.81. a = 18.81

Round to 1 decimal place and include the unit of = 4.3 m
measurement (m).
5 Answer the question in a sentence. The ladder will reach a height of 4.3 m up
the wall.
■■ Sometimes the unknown length involves more than one side.

In these cases, substitute into Pythagoras’ theorem, then solve the following equation for
the unknown.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places,

in the triangle at right. 3x
78
2x
THINK WRITE/DRAW

b = 3x
c = 78
a = 2x

3 Substitute the values of a, b and c into this rule and simplify. 782 = (3x)2 + (2x)2
6084 = 9x2 + 4x2
6084 = 13x2
4 Rearrange the equation so that the pronumeral is on the 13x2 = 6084
left-hand side of the equation.
13 x 2 6084
5 Divide both sides of the equation by 13. =
13 13
x2 = 468
6 Find x by taking the square root. Round the answer correct to x = 468
2 decimal places. = 21.63
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 136 15/05/12 12:07 PM

REMEMBER
1. The hypotenuse is the longest side of the triangle and is opposite the right angle.
2. On your diagram, check whether you are finding the length of the hypotenuse or one of
the shorter sides.
3. The length of a side can be found if we are given the length of the other sides by using
the formula c2 = a2 + b2.
4. When using Pythagoras’ theorem, always check the units given for each measurement.
5. If necessary, convert all measurements to the same units before using the rule.
6. Worded problems can be solved by drawing a diagram and using Pythagoras’ theorem
to solve the problem.
7. Worded problems should be answered in a sentence.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 1 For each of the following triangles, calculate the length of the hypotenuse, giving
eBook plus answers correct to 2 decimal places.
a 4.7 b 19.3 c
Activity 5-A-1
Review of
Pythagoras’ theorem
804
doc-5011
6.3
Activity 5-A-2 27.1
Practising
562
doc-5012
Activity 5-A-3 0.9 152
d e f
More of Pythagoras’
theorem 7.4
doc-5013
87
10.3
eBook plus 2.7
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.1
doc-5224
2 WE2 Find the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places.
a s b c
u
1.98 8.4
30.1
47.2 2.56 17.52
d 0.28 e 2870 f
v 468
1920
w x
0.67
114
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 137 15/05/12 12:07 PM

3 WE3 The diagonal of the rectangular sign at right is

34 cm. If the height of this sign is 25 cm, find the width.
4 A right-angled triangle has a base of 4 cm and a height
of 12 cm. Calculate the length of the hypotenuse to
2 decimal places.
5 Calculate the lengths of the diagonals (to 2 decimal
places) of squares that have side lengths of:
a 10 cm b 17 cm c 3.2 cm.
6 The diagonal of a rectangle is 120 cm. One side has a
length of 70 cm. Determine:
a the length of the other side b the perimeter of the rectangle
c the area of the rectangle.
7 WE4 Find the value of the pronumeral, correct to 2 decimal places for each of the following.
a b c 2x
25 3x 3x
4x
6x
18 30
x
UNDERSTANDING
8 An isosceles triangle has a base of 30 cm and a height of 10 cm. Calculate the length of the two
equal sides.
9 An equilateral triangle has sides of length 20 cm. Find the height of the triangle.
10 A right-angled triangle has a height of 17.2 cm, and a base that is half the height. Calculate the
length of the hypotenuse, correct to 2 decimal places.
11 The road sign shown below is in the form of an equilateral triangle. Find the height of the sign
and, hence, find its area.
76 cm
12 A flagpole, 12 m high, is supported by three wires, attached from the top of the pole to the
ground. Each wire is pegged into the ground 5 m from the pole. How much wire is needed to
support the pole?
13 Ben’s dog ‘Macca’ has wandered onto a frozen pond, and is too frightened to walk back. Ben
estimates that the dog is 3.5 m from the edge of the pond. He finds a plank, 4 m long, and
thinks he can use it to rescue Macca. The pond is surrounded by a bank that is 1 m high. Ben
uses the plank to make a ramp for Macca to walk up. Will he be able to rescue his dog?
14 Sarah goes canoeing in a large lake. She paddles 2.1 km to the 3.8 km
north, then 3.8 km to the west. Use the triangle at right to find out
how far she must then paddle to get back to her starting point in
the shortest possible way. 2.1 km
Starting point
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 138 15/05/12 12:07 PM

15 A baseball diamond is a square of side length 27 m. When a runner on first base tries to steal
second base, the catcher has to throw the ball from home base to second base. How far is that
throw?
Second base
27 m
First
base
Home base
Catcher
16 Penny, a carpenter, is building a roof for a new house. The roof has
a gable end in the form of an isosceles triangle, with a base of 6 m
and sloping sides of 7.5 m. She decides to put 5 evenly spaced vertical 7.5 m 7.5 m
strips of wood as decoration on the gable as shown at right. How many
metres of this decorative wood does she need?
17 Calculate the length, in mm, of the hypotenuse of a right-angled 6m
triangle, if the two shorter sides are 5 cm and 12 cm.
18 The hypotenuse and one other side of a right-angled triangle are given for each case below.
Find the length of the third side in the units specified. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal
places.
a Sides 46 cm and 25 cm, third side in mm
b Sides 843 mm and 1047 mm, third side in cm
c Sides 4500 m and 3850 m, third side in km
d Sides 20.3 cm and 123 mm, third side in cm
e Sides 6420 mm and 8.4 m, third side in cm
f Sides 0.358 km and 2640 m, third side in m
g Sides 491 mm and 10.8 cm, third side in mm
h Sides 379 000 m and 82 700 m, third side in km
19 A rectangle measures 35 mm by 4.2 cm. Calculate the length of its diagonal in millimetres to
2 decimal places.
20 A rectangular envelope has a length of 21 cm and a diagonal measuring 35 cm. Calculate:
a the width of the envelope
b the area of the envelope.
21 A sheet of A4 paper measures 210 mm by 297 mm. Calculate the length of the diagonal in
centimetres to 2 decimal places.
22 A right-angled triangle has a hypotenuse of 47.3 cm and one other side of 30.8 cm. Calculate
the area of the triangle.
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23 A swimming pool is 50 m by 25 m. Peter is bored by his usual training routine, and decides
to swim the diagonal of the pool. How many diagonals must he swim to complete his normal
distance of 1200 m? Give your answer to 2 decimal places.
24 Sarah is making a gate that has to be 1200 mm wide. It must be braced with a diagonal strut
made of a different type of timber. She has only 2 m of this kind of timber available. What is
the maximum height of the gate that she can make?
25 A hiker walks 4.5 km west, then 3.8 km south. How far in metres is she from her starting point?
Give your answer to 2 decimal places.
26 A square has a diagonal of 10 cm. What is the length of each side?
27 Wally is installing a watering system in his garden. The
pipe is to go all around the edge of the rectangular garden,
and have a branch diagonally across the garden. The
garden measures 5 m by 7.2 m. If the pipe costs $2.40 per
metre (or part thereof), what will be the total cost of the
pipe?
28 The size of a rectangular television screen is given by
the length of its diagonal. What is the size of the screen at
right to the nearest centimetre if its dimensions are 158 cm
wide and 96 cm deep?
REASONING
29 During a recent earthquake, Helen’s large
bookshelf fell over. The bookshelf is x metres wide REFLECTION  
and 2.5 metres high. The ceiling is 3 metres high. The square root of a number
Show that if the bookshelf is lying on its side next usually gives us both a positive
to the wall and is able to be stood up directly, then x and negative answer. Why do we
is less than 1.658 metres only take the positive answer when
using Pythagoras’ theorem?
5B Pythagoras’ theorem in three

dimensions
■■ Many real-life situations involve 3-dimensional (3-D) shapes: shapes with length, width and
height. Some common 3-D shapes used in this section include boxes, pyramids and right-
angled wedges.
Box Pyramid Right-angled wedge
■■ The important thing about 3-D shapes is that in a diagram, right angles may not look like right
angles, so it is important to redraw sections of the diagram in two dimensions, where the right
angles can be seen accurately.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 140 15/05/12 12:07 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Determine the length AG in this box. A B
6 cm
C
D
E F
5 cm
H 10 cm G
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw the diagram in three dimensions. A B
6 cm
C
D
F
E
5 cm
H 10 cm G
2 Draw in two dimensions, a right-angled triangle A

that contains AG and label the sides. Only 1 side
is known, so we need to find another right-angled
triangle to use. 6
E G
3 Draw EFGH in two dimensions and show the E F
diagonal EG. Label the side EG as x. We have
two of the three side lengths so we can calculate 5 x 5
the unknown.
H 10 G
4 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate EG. c2 = a2 + b2

x2 = 52 + 102
= 25 + 100
= 125
x = 125
= 11.18 cm
5 Place this information on triangle AEG. Label the A
side AG as y. Now we have two of the three side
y
lengths. 6
E 11.18 G
6 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find AG. c2 = a2 + b2

y2 = 62 + ( 125 )2
= 36 + 125
= 161
y = 161
= 12.69
7 Answer the question in a sentence. The length of AG is 12.69 cm.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 141 15/05/12 12:07 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
A piece of cheese in the shape of a right-angled wedge sits on a table. It has a rectangular base
measuring 14 cm by 8 cm, and is 4 cm high at the thickest point. An ant crawls diagonally across the
sloping face. How far, to the nearest millimetre, does the ant walk?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a diagram in three dimensions and label the B C

vertices. Mark BD, the path taken by the ant, with E 4 cm
F
a dotted line. 8 cm
A 14 cm D
x
2 Draw in two dimensions a right-angled triangle B

that contains BD, and label the sides. Only one
side is known, so we need to find another right- 4
angled triangle to use.
D
E
3 Draw EFDA in two dimensions, and show the E F
diagonal ED. Label the side ED as x.
8 x 8
A 14 D
4 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate ED. c2 = a2 + b2

x2 = 82 + 142
= 64 + 196
= 260
x = 260
= 16.12 cm
5 Place this information on triangle BED. B
Label the side BD as y.
y
4
D
E 16.12
6 Solve this triangle for BD. c2 = a2 + b2

2
y2 = 42 + ( 260 )
= 16 + 260
= 276
y = 276
= 16.61 cm
7 Check the answer’s units. We need to convert cm = 166.1 mm
to mm, so multiply by 10.
8 Answer the question in a sentence. The ant walks 166 mm, correct to the nearest
millimetre.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 142 15/05/12 12:07 PM

REMEMBER
1. Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to solve problems in three dimensions.

2. Some common 3-D shapes include boxes, pyramids and right-angled wedges.
3. To solve problems in three dimensions it is helpful to draw sections of the original
shape in two dimensions.
EXERCISE
5B Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
Where appropriate in this exercise, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS FLUENCY
eBook plus 1 WE5 Calculate the length, AG.
Activity 5-B-1
a A B b A B c A B
Pythagoras in
3-dimensions
C 10 C C
doc-5014 D D D 10.4
Activity 5-B-2
Pythagoras in E 10 E
3-D figures F F
doc-5015
10 7.3
Activity 5-B-3
Investigating H 10 G H 8.2 G
triangles in E F
3-D figures 5
doc-5016
H 5 G
eBook plus 2 Calculate the length of CE in the wedge at right and, hence, A B
obtain AC. E 4
Digital doc
F
SkillSHEET 5.4
D 10 C 7
doc-5229
3 If DC = 3.2 m, AC = 5.8 m, and CF = 4.5 m in the figure at right, A B

calculate the length of AD and BF.
F
D C
4 Calculate the length of BD and, hence, the height of the pyramid V

at right.
8
A B
8
D
8 C
5 The pyramid ABCDE has a square base. The pyramid is 20 cm high. E
Each sloping edge measures 30 cm. Calculate the length of the EM = 20 cm
sides of the base.
A
B
M
D C
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 143 15/05/12 12:07 PM

6 The sloping side of a cone is 10 cm and the height is 8 cm.

What is the length of the radius of the base?
8 cm 10 cm
7 An ice-cream cone has a diameter across the top of 6 cm, and
sloping side of 13 cm. How deep is the cone? r
8 WE6 A piece of cheese in the shape of a right-angled wedge B C

sits on a table. It has a base measuring 20 mm by 10 mm, and is 4 mm
E
4 mm high at the thickest point, as shown in the figure. A fly F
crawls diagonally across the sloping face. How far, to the A 20 mm D 10 mm
nearest millimetre, does the fly walk?
UNDERSTANDING
9 Jodie travels to Bolivia, taking with her a suitcase as shown in the photo. She buys a carved
walking stick 1.2 m long. Will she be able to fit it in her suitcase for the flight home?
30
cm
65 cm
90 cm
10 A desk tidy is shaped like a cylinder, height 18 cm and diameter
10 cm. Pencils that are 24 cm long rest inside. What lengths of the
pencils are above the top of the cylinder?
11 A 10-m high flagpole is in the corner of a rectangular park

that measures 240 m by 150 m. 10 m
240 m A
a Calculate:
i the length of the diagonal of the park 150 m
ii the distance from A to the top of the pole B
iii the distance from B to the top of the pole.
b A bird flies from the top of the pole to the centre of the park. How far does it fly?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 144 15/05/12 12:07 PM

12 A candlestick is in the shape of two cones, joined at the vertices

as shown. The smaller cone has a diameter and sloping side of 7 cm,
and the larger one has a diameter and sloping side of 10 cm. How tall
is the candlestick?
13 The total height of the shape below is 15 cm. Calculate the length of the sloping
side of the pyramid.
15 cm
6 cm
14 cm
14 cm
14 A sandcastle is in the shape of a truncated cone as shown. Calculate the length of the diameter
of the base.
20 cm
30 cm 32 cm
15 A tent is in the shape of a triangular prism, with a height of 120 cm

eBook plus
120 cm as shown at right. The width across the base of the door is
Digital doc 1 m and the tent is 2.3 m long.
WorkSHEET 5.1 Calculate the length of each sloping side, in metres. Then
doc-5230 2.3 m
calculate the area of fabric used in the construction of the sloping
1m
rectangles which form the sides.
REASONING
16 Stephano is renovating his apartment, which is at the end of two corridors. The corridors of the
apartment building are 2 m wide with 2 m high ceilings, and the first corridor is at right angles
to the second. Show that he can carry lengths of timber up to 6 m long to his apartment.
REFLECTION  
The diagonal distance across a rectangle of

2 2
dimensions x by y is x + y . What would be
the rule to find the length of a diagonal across
a cuboid of dimensions x by y by z ? Use your
rule to check your answers to question 1.
Angles and the calculator
■■ Last year you were shown that each angle has specific values for its sine, cosine and tangent.
■■ These values are needed for practically every trigonometry problem and can be obtained with
the aid of a calculator.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 145 15/05/12 12:07 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places, using a calculator.
a cos 65è57Å
b tan 56è45Å30ë
THINK WRITE
a Write your answer to the correct number a cos 65è57Å = 0.4075

of decimal places.
b Write your answer to the correct number b tan 56è45Å30ë = 1.5257
of decimal places.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Calculate the size of angle q, correct to the nearest degree, given sin q = 0.6583.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the given information. sin q = 0.6583

2 To find the size of the angle, we need to undo q = sin-1 (0.6583)
sine with its inverse, sin-1.
Ensure your calculator is in degrees mode.
3 Write your answer to the nearest degree. q = 41è
■■ Sometimes, we need to be able to find an angle correct to either the nearest minute or nearest
second.
■■ When we use an inverse trigonometric function, the angle is expressed in degrees as a
decimal. It should be converted to degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS).
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Calculate the value of q :

a correct to the nearest minute, given that cos q = 0.2547
b correct to the nearest second, given that tan q = 2.364.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a cos q = 0.2547

2 Write your answer, rounding to the cos-1 0.2547 = 75è15Å
nearest minute. Remember there
are 60 minutes in 1 degree and
60 seconds in 1 minute. Hence, for
the nearest minute, we round up at
30ë or higher.
b 1 Write the equation. b tan q = 2.364
2 Write your answer, rounding to the tan-1 2.364 = 67è4Å16ë
nearest second.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 146 15/05/12 12:07 PM

Review of SOH CAH TOA
■■ We are able to find a side length in a right-angled triangle if we are given one other side
length and the size of one of the acute angles. These sides and angle are related using one of
the three trigonometric ratios.
■■ The sine ratio
The sine ratio is defined as the ratio of the length of the side
opposite angle q (O) to the length of the hypotenuse (H). This is
e
us
O
Opposite
en
written as sin q = .
ot
H
yp
H
The sine of an angle is not dependent on the size of the right-angled
triangle as all these triangles are similar in shape. q
■■ The cosine ratio

The cosine ratio is defined as the ratio of the length of the adjacent
side (A) to the length of the hypotenuse (H) and is written as
e
us
A
en
cos q = .
ot
H
yp
H
The cosine of an angle also does not depend on the size of the
right-angled triangle. q
Adjacent
■■ The tangent ratio
O
The tangent ratio is defined as tan q = , where O is the length of
A
the side opposite angle q and A is the length of the side adjacent to it.
Opposite
Again, the tangent ratio does not depend on the size of the
right-angled triangle.
q
Adjacent
■■ Having defined the three trigonometric ratios, we need to decide in each case which of the
three to use. We do this by labelling the sides relative to the angle we have been given. We
then select the ratio that contains both the side we are finding and the side we have been
given.
■■ The three ratios can be remembered easily by using the mnemonic or abbreviation
SOH CAH TOA:
• SOH stands for ‘Sine, Opposite, Hypotenuse’.
• CAH stands for ‘Cosine, Adjacent, Hypotenuse’.
• TOA stands for ‘Tangent, Opposite, Adjacent’.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
For the triangle shown, write the expressions for the sine, cosine and tangent ratios of the given
angle.
c
a
q
b
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 147 15/05/12 12:07 PM

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Label the diagram using the symbols O, A, H

with respect to the given angle (angle q ).
c=H
a=O
q
b=A
2 From the diagram, identify the values of O O = a, A = b, H = c
(opposite side), A (adjacent side) and H (the
hypotenuse).
O A O
3 Write the formula for each of the sine, cosine and sin q = , cos q = , tan q =
tangent ratios. H H A
a b a
4 Substitute the values of A, O and H into each sin q = , cos q = , tan q =
formula. c c b
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Write the trigonometric ratio which must be used in order to find the value of the pronumeral in
each of the following triangles. Set up a suitable equation.
a b
18
15 x
6 50è
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the sides of the triangle whose lengths a

are given, using the appropriate symbols.
15 = H
6=O
O
2 We are given the lengths of the opposite side sin q =
(O) and the hypotenuse (H). Write the ratio H
that contains both of these sides.
3 Identify the values of the pronumerals. O = 6, H = 15
6 2
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into sin b = =
15 5
the ratio. (Since the given angle is denoted
with the letter b, replace q with b.)
b 1 Label the sides of the triangle whose lengths b
18 = A
are either given, or need to be found, using the
x=O
appropriate symbols. 50è
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 148 15/05/12 12:07 PM

O
2 The length of the adjacent side (A) is given tan q =
and the length of the opposite side (O) needs A
to be found. Write the ratio that contains these
sides.
3 Identify the values of the pronumerals. O = x, A = 18, q = 50è
x
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into tan 50è =
the ratio. 18
REMEMBER
1. When using the calculator to find values of sine, cosine and tangent, make sure the
calculator is in Degree mode.
2. To find the size of an angle whose sine, cosine or tangent is given, perform an inverse
operation; that is, sin-1, cos-1 or tan-1.
3. Use the calculator’s conversion function to convert between decimal degrees and
degrees, minutes and seconds.
4. There are 60 minutes in 1 degree and 60 seconds in 1 minute.
5. The three trigonometric ratios, sine, cosine and tangent, are defined as:
O A O
sin q = , cos q = and tan q = ,
H H A
where H is the hypotenuse, O is the opposite side and A is the adjacent side.
6. The three ratios are abbreviated to the useful mnemonic SOH CAH TOA.
7. To determine which trigonometric ratio to use, follow these steps.
(a) Label the sides of the right-angled triangle that are either given, or need to be
found, using the symbols O, A, H with respect to the angle in question.
(b) Consider the sides that are involved and write the trigonometric ratio containing
both of these sides. (Use SOH CAH TOA to assist you.)
(c) Identify the values of the pronumerals in the ratio.
(d) Substitute the given values into the ratio.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 Calculate each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places.
eBook plus a sin 30è b cos 45è c tan 25è
d sin 57è e tan 83è f cos 44è
Activity 5-C-1
Review of 2 WE7 Calculate each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places.
trigonometry a sin 40è30Å b cos 53è57Å c tan 27è34Å
doc-5017 d tan 123è40Å e sin 92è32Å f sin 42è8Å
Activity 5-C-2 g cos 35è42Å35ë h tan 27è42Å50ë i cos 143è25Å23ë
Using trigonometry
j sin 23è58Å21ë k cos 8è54Å2ë l sin 286è
doc-5018
m tan 420è n cos 845è o sin 367è35Å
Activity 5-C-3
Applying 3 WE8 Find the size of angle q, correct to the nearest degree, for each of the following.
trigonometry a sin q = 0.763 b cos q = 0.912 c tan q = 1.351
doc-5019
d cos q = 0.321 e tan q = 12.86 f cos q = 0.756
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 149 15/05/12 12:07 PM

4 WE9a Find the size of the angle q in each of the following, correct to the nearest minute.
a sin q = 0.814 b sin q = 0.110 c tan q = 0.015
d cos q = 0.296 e tan q = 0.993 f sin q = 0.450
5 WE9b Find the size of the angle q in each of the following, correct to the nearest second.
a tan q = 0.5 b cos q = 0.438 c sin q = 0.9047
d tan q = 1.1141 e cos q = 0.8 f tan q = 43.76
6 Find the value for each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
a 3.8 cos 42è b 118 sin 37è c 2.5 tan 83è
2 220 2 cos 23°
d e f
sin 45° cos 14° 5 sin 18°
12.8 18.7 55.7
g h i
tan 60è32Å sin 35è25Å42ÅÅ cos 89è21Å
3.8 tan 1è51Å44ÅÅ 2.5 sin 27è8Å 3.2 cos 34è52Å
j k l
4.5 sin 25è45Å 10.4 cos 83è2Å 0.8 sin 12è48Å
eBook plus
7 WE 10 For each of the following triangles, write the expressions for ratios of each of the given
angles:
Digital doc i sine ii cosine
SkillSHEET 5.3
iii tangent
doc-5226
a d b c
q h b
i k
a j
f e g
l
d e f
o
g a b
n
b u
m c v
g
t
8 WE 11 Write the trigonometric ratio which must be used in order to find the value of the
eBook plus
pronumeral in each of the following triangles.
Digital doc a b c
SkillSHEET 5.7 25 5
doc-5231 q
q
15
12 4
30
d f 14.3
2.7 e
p 17
t
q
35è 17.5
a
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 150 15/05/12 12:07 PM

g 7 h i
q
20 31 9.8
a
3.1
x
15è
REASONING
9 Consider the right-angled triangle shown at right.
a Label each of the sides using the letters O, A, H with a
respect to the 41è angle.
b Measure the side lengths (to the nearest millimetre).
c Determine the value of each trigonometric ratio. (Where
applicable, answers should be given correct to 2 decimal
places.)
i sin 41è
ii cos 41è 41è
iii tan 41è
d What is the value of the unknown angle, a ?
e Determine the value of each of these trigonometric ratios, correct to 2 decimal places.
i sin a
ii cos a
iii tan a
(Hint: First relabel the sides of the triangle
with respect to angle a.)
f What do you notice about the relationship REFLECTION  
between sin 41è and cos a ? How do we determine which of sin,
g What do you notice about the relationship cos or tan to use in a trigonometry
between sin a and cos 41è? question?
h Make a general statement about the two angles.
5D Using trigonometry to calculate

side lengths
eBook plus ■■ Consider this right-angled triangle.
Labelling the sides with respect to the 42è angle, we can
Interactivity 24 m
Using see that the unknown side is opposite and we are given the x
trigonometry hypotenuse.
x
int-1146 From the diagram at right, sin 42è = . Using a 42è
24
calculator, we know that the sine ratio of a 42è angle is Hy
po
approximately 0.6691. We can now solve this equation 24 tenus
Opposite
x m e
to find the value of x.
We are therefore able to calculate a side length if we are
given the size of an angle and one other side. 42è
Adjacent
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 151 15/05/12 12:07 PM

■■ The solution to the above problem is:

O
sin q = the sine ratio formula
H
x
sin 42è = the result of substituting into the formula
24
x = 24 ì sin 42è rearranging the formula to make x the subject
x ö 16.06 m the result of the calculation.
We need to apply this method using any of the three trigonometric ratios to find a side
length.
■■ The steps used in solving the problem are as follows.
Step 1. Label the sides of the triangle, which are either given, or need to be found, with
respect to the given angle.
Step 2. Consider the sides involved and determine which of the trigonometric ratios is
required. (Use the mnemonic SOH CAH TOA to help you.)
(a) Use the sine ratio if the hypotenuse (H) and the opposite side (O) are
involved.
(b) Use the cosine ratio if the hypotenuse (H) and the adjacent side (A) are
involved.
(c) Use the tangent ratio if the opposite (O) and the adjacent (A) sides are
involved.
Step 3. Substitute the values of the pronumerals into the ratio.
Step 4. Solve the resultant equation for the unknown side length.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Find the value of the pronumeral for each of the following. Give answers correct to 3 decimal
places.
a b
6 cm 32è
a
0.346 cm f
35è
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the sides of the triangle, which are either a

given, or need to be found. H O
6 cm
a
35è
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio sin q =
to use. H
a
3 Substitute O = a, H = 6, q = 35è. sin 35è =
6
4 Make a the subject of the equation. 6 sin 35è = a
a = 6 sin 35è
5 Calculate and round the answer, correct to a ö 3.441 cm
3 decimal places.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 152 15/05/12 12:07 PM

b 1 Label the sides of the triangle, which are either b

given, or need to be found.
32è
H A
0.346 cm f
A
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio cos q =
to use. H
f
3 Substitute A = f, H = 0.346 and q = 32è. cos 32è =
0.346
0.346 cos 32è = f
4 Make f the subject of the equation. f = 0.346 cos 32è
5 Calculate and round the answer, correct to ö 0.293 cm
3 decimal places.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Find the value of the pronumeral in the triangle shown. Give the answer correct to 2 decimal places.
120 m
5è
P
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Label the sides of the triangle, which are either H O

given, or need to be found. 120 m
5è
A P
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio to use. tan q =
A
120
3 Substitute O = 120, A = P and q = 5è. tan 5è =
P
4 Make P the subject of the equation.
(i) Multiply both sides of the equation by P. P ì tan 5è = 120
120
(ii) Divide both sides of the equation by tan 5è. P=
tan 5°
5 Calculate and round the answer, correct to P ö 1371.61 m
2 decimal places.
REMEMBER
The trigonometric ratios can be used to find a side length in a right-angled triangle when
we are given one other side length and one of the acute angles.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 153 15/05/12 12:07 PM

EXERCISE
5D Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE 12 Find the length of the unknown side in each of the following, correct to 3 decimal
eBook plus
places.
Activity 5-D-1 a b c
Calculating side
lengths using 8
trigonometry x
doc-5020
Activity 5-D-2 10 cm a 25è
Applying a 31è
trigonometry to 14
simple figures
doc-5021 60è
Activity 5-D-3
Practical applications
of trigonometry 2 WE 13 Find the length of the unknown side in each of the following triangles, correct to
doc-5022 2 decimal places.
a b 4.6 m
71è
13è
m
n
2.3 m
c
94 mm
68è
t
3 Find the length of the unknown side in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b P c
8è5 14 m
2'4
5''
11.7 m
43.95 m
t
1 2'
18è
40è26'
x
d e f
6è25'
x
x 80.9 cm
x
75.23 km
21è25'34"
'
è 42 11.2 mm
34
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 154 15/05/12 12:07 PM

4 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
a x b 23.7 m
36è42'
y
43.9 cm
46è
c d
34
è1
2 z p
12.3 m ' 15.3 m
13è12'
e f
q 0.732 km
p
73è5' a
63è11'
47.385 km b
UNDERSTANDING
5 Given that the angle q is 42è and the length of the hypotenuse is 8.95 m in a right-angled
triangle, find the length of:
a the opposite side
b the adjacent side.
Give each answer correct to 1 decimal point.
6 A ladder rests against a wall. If the angle between the ladder and the ground is 35è and the foot
of the ladder is 1.5 m from the wall, how high up the wall does the ladder reach?
REASONING
7 Tran is going to construct an enclosed rectangular desktop that is at an incline of 15è. The
diagonal length of the desktop is 50 cm. At one end, the desktop will be raised 8 cm. The
desktop will be made of wood. The diagram below represents this information.
Side view of the desktop Top view of the desktop
x z
8 cm
15è
y 50 cm
a Determine the values (in centimetres) of x, y

and z of the desktop. Write your answers REFLECTION  
correct to 2 decimal places. How does solving a trigonometric

b Using your answer from part a determine the equation differ when we
minimum area of wood, in cm2, Tran needs are finding the length of the
hypotenuse side compared to
to construct his desktop. Write your answer
when finding the length of a
correct to 2 decimal places. shorter side?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 155 15/05/12 12:07 PM

5E Using trigonometry to calculate

angle size
■■ To find the size of an angle using the trigonometric ratios, we need to be given the length of
any two sides.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
For each of the following, find the size of the angle, q, correct to the nearest degree.
a b
5m
5 cm q
3.5 cm
11 m
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the sides of the triangle, which are a

either given, or need to be found.
H O
5 cm
3.5 cm
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio sin q =
to use. We are given O and H, so choose the H
sine ratio.
3.5
3 Substitute O = 3.5 and H = 5 and evaluate sin q =
the expression. 5
= 0.7
4 Make q the subject of the equation using q = sin-1 0.7
inverse sine. = 44.427 004è
5 Evaluate q and round the answer, correct to q ö 44è
the nearest degree.
b 1 Label the sides of the triangle, which are b
either given, or need to be found. O
5m
q
11 m A
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio tan q =
to use. We are given O and A, so choose the A
tangent ratio.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 156 15/05/12 12:07 PM

5
3 Substitute O = 5 and A = 11. As the value tan q = 11
of tan (q ) is a simple fraction, we do not
need to evaluate the expression.
5
4 Make q the subject of the equation using q = tan-1 11
inverse tangent. = 24.443 954 78è
5 Evaluate q and round the answer, correct to q ö 24è
the nearest degree.
■■ When asked for a more accurate measurement of an angle, we are able to use the calculator to
find an angle correct to the nearest minute or nearest second.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Find the size of angle q in each of the triangles shown below.

a 3.1 m b
q
55 cm
7.2 m
q
42 cm
(Answer correct to (Answer correct to

the nearest minute.) the nearest second.)
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Label the sides of the triangle, which are a 3.1 m A

either given, or need to be found. q
O
7.2 m
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio tan q =
to use. A
7.2
3 Substitute O = 7.2 and A = 3.1 and evaluate tan q =
the expression. 3.1
= 2.322 580 645
4 Make q the subject of the equation using q = tan-1 2.322 580 645
inverse tangent.
5 Evaluate q and write the calculator display. q = 66.705 436 75è
6 Use the calculator to convert the answer to = 66è42Å19.572ë
degrees, minutes and seconds and round the q ö 66è42Å
answer to the nearest minute.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 157 15/05/12 12:07 PM

b 1 Label the sides of the triangle, which are b

either given, or need to be found.
H
55 cm
q
42 cm A
A
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio cos q =
to use. H
42
3 Substitute A = 42 and H = 55. cos q = 55
42
4 Make q the subject of the equation using q = cos-1 55
inverse cosine.
5 Evaluate q and write the calculator q = 40.214 171 02è

display.
6 Use the calculator to convert the = 40è12Å51.016ë

answer to degrees, minutes and seconds q ö 40è12Å51ë
and round the answer to the nearest
second.
REMEMBER
1. The trigonometric ratios can be used to find the size of the acute angles in a
right-angled triangle when we are given the length of two sides.
2. To find an angle size we need to use the inverse trigonometric functions.
3. Answers may be given correct to the nearest degree, minute or second, or as decimal
degrees.
EXERCISE
5E Using trigonometry to calculate angle size
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 14 Find the size of the angle, q, in each of the following. Give your answer correct to the
eBook plus nearest degree.
Activity 5-E-1 a b c
Review of angle
calculations
doc-5023 5.2
4.8 4.7 8
Activity 5-E-2
Calculation angles
using trigonometry
doc-5024 q q
q
3.2
3
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 158 15/05/12 12:07 PM

2 WE 15a Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following. Give
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS your answer correct to the nearest minute.
a b c
eBook plus b 7.2 m
12
Activity 5-E-3
Applying 17
trigonometry to 4m q
angle calculations 10
doc-5025 q
12
3 WE 15b Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following. Give
your answer correct to the nearest second.
a b
a
5m
3m
q
eBook plus 2
Digital doc
c
SkillSHEET 5.8
doc-5232
2.7
a
3.5
4 Find the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral in each of the following, giving your
answer correct to the nearest degree.
a b
13.5 a 89.4
15.3
c
77.3
c 106.4 d
d
43.7
18.7
92.7
b
e f
12.36
13.85 7.3 cm 12.2 cm
e
18.56
9.8 cm a
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 159 15/05/12 12:07 PM

eBook plus
5 Find the size of each of the angles in the following, giving your answers correct to the nearest
minute.
Digital doc a b c
WorkSHEET 5.2 d x
doc-5233 a 5.7
0.798 2.3
56.3 y
0.342 e
b
27.2
UNDERSTANDING
6 a Calculate the length of the sides r, l and h. Write A
your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
r
b Calculate the area of ABC, correct to the nearest h l
125è
square centimetre.
D
c Calculate ±BCA. 20 cm B 30 cm C
REASONING
7 In the sport of air racing, small planes have to travel between two large towers (or pylons). The
gap between a pair of pylons is smaller than the wing-span of the plane, so the plane has to go
through on an angle with one wing ‘above’ the other. The wing-span of a competition airplane
is 8 metres.
a Determine the angle, correct to 1 decimal place, that the plane has to tilt if the gap
between pylons is:
i 7 metres ii 6 metres iii 5 metres.
b Because the plane has rolled away from the
horizontal as it travels between the pylons it loses
speed. If the plane’s speed is below 96 km/h it will
stall and possibly crash. For each degree of ‘tilt’ REFLECTION  
the speed of the plane is reduced by 0.98 km/h. How is finding the angle of a
What is the minimum speed the plane must go right-angled triangle different to
through each of the pylons in part a? Write your finding a side length?
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 160 15/05/12 12:07 PM


eBook plus
■■ Many people use trigonometry at work. It is particularly important in careers such as the
building trades, surveying, architecture, navigation and engineering. Trigonometric ratios
eLesson have a variety of applications, some of which will be discussed in this section.
Height of a
satellite
■■ Trigonometric ratios can be used to solve problems. When solving a problem, the following
eles-0173 steps can be of assistance.
1. Sketch a diagram to represent the situation described in the problem.
2. Label the sides of the right-angled triangle with respect to the angle involved.
3. Identify what is given and what needs to be found.
4. Select an appropriate trigonometric ratio and use it to find the unknown measurement.
5. Interpret your result by writing a worded answer.
Angles of elevation and depression

■■ When we need to look up or down in order to see a certain object, our line of vision (that is,
the straight line from the observer’s eye to the object) is inclined. The angle of inclination of
the line of vision to the horizontal when looking up is referred to as the angle of elevation,
and when looking down it is referred to as the angle of depression.
■■ The angle of elevation is measured up from the horizontal line to the line of vision.
Angle of
elevation
q
Horizontal
■■ The angle of depression is measured down from the horizontal line to the line of vision.
Horizontal
q Angle of
depression
■■ For any two objects, A and B, the angle of elevation of B, as seen from A, is equal to the angle
of depression of A as seen from B.
B
Angle of depression q
of A from B
Angle of elevation
q of B from A
A
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 161 15/05/12 12:07 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 16
From an observer, the angle of elevation of the top of a tree is 50è. If the observer is 8 metres from
the tree, find the height of the tree.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Sketch a diagram and label the sides of the triangle with

respect to the given angle. Let the height of the tree be h.
h
O
50è
8m A
O
2 Identify the appropriate trigonometric ratio. We are tan q =
given A and need to find O, so choose the tangent ratio. A
h
3 Substitute O = h, A = 8 and q = 50è. tan 50è =
8
4 Rearrange to make h the subject. h = 8 tan 50è
5 Calculate and round the answer to 2 decimal places. ö 9.53
6 Give a worded answer. The height of the tree is 9.53 m.
REMEMBER
1. To solve a problem involving trigonometric ratios, follow these steps:

(a) Draw a diagram to represent the situation.
(b) Label the diagram with respect to the angle involved (either given or that needs to
be found).
(c) Identify what is given and what needs to be found.
(d) Select an appropriate trigonometric ratio and use it to find the unknown side or angle.
(e) Interpret the result by writing a worded answer.
2. The angle of elevation is measured up and the angle of depression is measured down
from the horizontal line to the line of vision.
Horizontal
q Angle of
depression
Angle of
q elevation
Horizontal
3. For any two objects, A and B, the angle of elevation B

of B, as seen from A, is equal to the angle of Angle of depression q
depression of A as seen from B. of A from B
Angle of elevation
q of B from A
A
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 162 15/05/12 12:07 PM

EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 16 The angle of elevation from an observer to the top of a tree is 54è22Å. If the tree is
eBook plus known to be 12.19 m high, how far is the observer from it?
Activity 5-F-1
2 From the top of a cliff 112 m high, the angle of depression to a boat is 9è15Å. How far is the
Identifying elevation boat from the foot of the cliff?
and depression 3 A person on a ship observes a lighthouse on the cliff, which is 830 metres away from the ship.
doc-5026
The angle of elevation of the top of the lighthouse is 12è.
Activity 5-F-2
Calculating elevation
a How far above sea level is the top of the lighthouse?
and depression b If the height of the lighthouse is 24 m, how high is the cliff?
doc-5027 4 At a certain time of the day a post, 4 m tall, casts a shadow of 1.8 m. What is the angle of
Activity 5-F-3 elevation of the sun at that time?
Applications of
elevation and 5 An observer, who is standing 47 m from a building, measures the angle of elevation of the top
depression of the building as 17è. If the observer’s eye is 167 cm from the ground, what is the height of the
doc-5028 building?
UNDERSTANDING
eBook plus
6 A surveyor needs to determine the height of a building. She measures the angle of elevation of
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 5.6
the top of the building from two points, 38 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 180 cm above
doc-5228 the ground.
47è12 35è5
' 0'
x 38 m 180 cm
a Find two expressions for the height of the building, h, in terms of x using the two
angles.
b Solve for x by equating the two expressions obtained in a.
c Find the height of the building.
7 The height of another building needs to be determined but cannot be found directly. The
surveyor decides to measure the angle of elevation of the top of the building from different
sites, which are 75 m apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 189 cm above the ground.
43è35 32è1
' 8'
x 75 m 189 cm
a Find two expressions for the height of the building, h, in terms of x using the two
angles.
b Solve for x.
c Find the height of the building.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 163 15/05/12 12:07 PM

8 A lookout tower has been erected on top of a cliff. At a distance of 5.8 km from the foot of the
cliff, the angle of elevation to the base of the tower is 15.7è and to the observation deck at the
top of the tower is 16è respectively as shown in the figure below. How high from the top of the
cliff is the observation deck?
16è
15.7è
5.8 km
9 Elena and Sonja were on a camping trip to the

1.3 km Angle of depression
Grampians, where they spent their first day
hiking. They first walked 1.5 km along a path 20è
1.5 km
inclined at an angle of 10è to the horizontal. 150 m
10è
Then they had to follow another path, which 1.4 km
was at an angle of 20è to the horizontal. They
walked along this path for 1.3 km, which brought them to the edge of the cliff. Here Elena
spotted a large gum tree 1.4 km away. If the gum tree is 150 m high, what is the angle of
depression from the top of the cliff to the top of the gum tree?
10 a Find the height of a telegraph
pole in the photograph at right if
the angle of elevation to the top
of the pole is 8è from a point at
the ground level 60 m from the
base of the pole.
b Find the height of the light pole
in the figure below.
43.3è 8è
60 m
60 m
11 From a point on top of a cliff, two boats are observed.

32è
If the angles of depression are 58è and 32è and the cliff 58è
is 46 m above sea level, how far apart are the boats?
46 m
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12 Joseph is asked to obtain an estimate of the height

of his house using any mathematical technique. He
decides to use an inclinometer and basic x
trigonometry. Using the inclinometer, Joseph q
determines the angle of elevation, q, from his eye
level to the top of his house to be 42è. The point h d
from which Joseph measures the angle of elevation
is 15 m away from his house and the distance from
Joseph’s eyes to the ground is 1.76 m.
a Fill in the given information on the diagram
provided (substitute values for the pronumerals). 40è
b Determine the height of Joseph’s house. 62è
13 The competitors of a cross-country run are nearing
the finish line. From a lookout 100 m above the track,
100 m
the angles of depression to the two leaders, Nathan and
Rachel, are 40è and 62è respectively. How far apart are
the two competitors?
eBook plus 14 A 2.05 m tall man, standing in front of a street light
3.08 m high, casts a 1.5 m shadow.
Digital doc a What is the angle of elevation from the ground to
WorkSHEET 5.3
doc-5234
the source of light?
b How far is the man from the bottom of the light
pole?
3.08 m 2.05 m
1.5 m
REASONING
15 The angle of elevation of a hot air balloon changes
from 27è at 7.00 am to 61è at 7.03 am, according to an REFLECTION  
observer who is 300 m away from the take-off point. What is the difference between
a Assuming a constant speed, calculate that speed an angle of elevation and an
(in m/s and km/h) at which the balloon is rising, angle of depression?
correct to 2 decimal places.
b The balloon then falls 120 metres. What is the
angle of elevation now? Write your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

■■ A bearing can be expressed as either a true bearing or a compass direction.
Compass directions
■■ Compass (conventional) bearings are directions measured from the north–south line in
either a clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
■■ To identify the compass direction of an object we need to state:
1. whether the angle is measured from north (N) or south (S)
2. the size of the angle and
3. whether the angle is measured in the direction of west (W) or east (E).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 165 15/05/12 12:07 PM

■■ For example, the compass direction of S20èE means the direction is 20è from south towards
east, while the compass direction N40èW means the direction that is 40è from north towards
west.
N N40èW N
40è
W E W E
20è
S20èE
S S
True bearings
■■ True bearings are measured from north in a clockwise direction. They are always expressed
in 3 digits.
■■ The diagrams below show the bearings of 025è true and 250è true respectively. (These true
bearings are more commonly written as 025èT and 250èT.)
N 025è true N
25è
W E W E
250è
250èT
S S
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
A boat travels a distance of 5 km from P to Q in a direction of 035èT.

a How far east of P is Q?
b How far north of P is Q?
c What is the true bearing of P from Q?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a diagram to represent the situation. Label the a N

O
hypotenuse and the opposite and adjacent sides. x
Q
m
Ay H
5k
35è
P
O
2 To determine how far Q is east of P, we need to sin q =
find the value of x. We are given the length of the H
hypotenuse (H) and need to find the length of the
opposite side (O). Choose the sine ratio.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 166 15/05/12 12:07 PM

x
3 Substitute O = x, H = 5 and q = 35è. sin 35è =
5
4 Make x the subject of the equation. x = 5 sin 35è
5 Evaluate and round the answer, correct to = 2.87
2 decimal places.
6 Write the answer in words. Point Q is 2.87 km east of P.
A
b 1 To determine how far Q is north of P, we need to b cos q =
find the value of y. This can be done in several ways, H
namely: using the cosine ratio, the tangent ratio, or
Pythagoras’ theorem. Let’s use the cosine ratio.
y
2 Substitute P = y, H = 5 and q = 35è. cos 35è =
5
3 Make y the subject of the equation. y = 5 cos 35è
4 Evaluate and round the answer, correct to = 4.10
2 decimal places.
5 Write the answer in words. Point B is 4.10 km north of A.
c 1 To find the bearing of P from Q, we need to draw the c N N
compass directions through Q and then measure the
angle in the clockwise direction from the north line Q
through Q to the line PQ. Show the required angle a
on the diagram.
35è
2 Study the diagram. The angle that represents the true True bearing = 180è + a
bearing is the sum of 180è (from north to south) and a = 35è
the angle, labelled a. Now the north lines through P True bearing = 180è + 35è
and Q are parallel and so the line PQ is a transversal. = 215è
Therefore angle 35è and angle a are equal (being
alternate angles). Calculate the true bearing.
3 Write the answer in words. The bearing of P from Q is 215èT.
■■ Sometimes a person or an object (for example, a ship) changes direction during their journey.
(This can even happen more than once.) In situations like this we are usually interested in the
total distance the object has moved and its final bearing from the starting point.
The following worked example shows how to deal with such situations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
A boy walks 2 km on a true bearing of 090è and then 3 km on a true bearing of 130è.
a How far east of the starting point is the boy at the completion of his walk? (Answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
b How far south of the starting point is the boy at the completion of his walk? (Answer correct to
1 decimal place.)
c What is the bearing of the boy (from the starting point), in degrees and minutes, at the completion
of his walk?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 167 15/05/12 12:07 PM

THINK WRITE/DRAW
Draw a diagram of the boy’s journey. N N
2 km 130è
3 km
a 1 The first leg of the journey is due east so we a N N

find the eastern component of the second
leg. Construct a triangle about the second 2 km 130è
E
leg of the journey. We can calculate one
of the missing angles by using the rule of 50è H
Ay 3 km
supplementary angles: 180è - 130è = 50è.
x
O
O
2 We need to find the eastern component of sin q =
the journey, x, which is the opposite side and H
have been given the hypotenuse. Choose the
sine ratio.
x
3
5 Evaluate and round correct to 1 decimal = 2.3 km

place.
6 Add to this the 2 km east that was walked in Total distance east = 2 + 2.3
the first leg of the journey and give a worded = 4.3 km
answer. The boy walked a total of 4.3 km east of the
starting point.
b 1 In the first part of the journey the boy b Distance south = y km
has not moved south at all. Thus the
distance that he moved south of the starting
point is the southern component of the second
leg, labelled y. (See the diagram in part a.)
y
2 To find y we can use Pythagoras’ theorem, a2 = c2 - b2 cos 50è =
as we know the lengths of two out of 3
three sides in the right-angled triangle. y2 = 32 - 2.32 y = 3 cos 50è
Note that the hypotenuse, c, is 3 and one = 9 - 5.29 = 1.9 km
of the sides is 2.3, as found in part a. = 3.71
Round the answer correct to 1 decimal y = 3.71
place. = 1.9 km
Note: Alternatively, the cosine ratio could
have been used.
3 Write the answer in words. The boy walked a total of 1.9 km south of the
starting point.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 168 15/05/12 12:07 PM

c 1 Draw a diagram of the journey and write c N N

in the distances found in parts a and b. The a
bearing of the boy from the starting point is 2 km 130è
represented by the angle a (that is, the angle q
measured in a clockwise direction from A 1.9 km 3 km
north to the line joining the starting and the
finishing points of the journey).
4.3 km
O
2 The size of angle a cannot be found directly.

Find the size of the supplementary angle
labelled q.
O
3 We have the lengths of the opposite side tan q =
and the adjacent side, so choose the tangent A
ratio.
4.3
4 Substitute O = 4.3 and A = 1.9 and evaluate. tan q =
1.9
= 2.263 157 895
5 Make q the subject of the equation using the q = tan-1 2.263 157 895
inverse tangent function.
6 Evaluate and round to the nearest minute. = 66.161 259 82è
= 66è9Å40.535ë
= 66è10Å
7 Find the angle a. a = 180è - 66è10Å
= 113è50Å
8 Write the answer in words. The bearing of the boy from his starting point
is 113è50Å T.
REMEMBER
1. To identify the compass direction of an object we need to state (in this order):
(a) whether the angle is measured from north (N) or south (S)
(b) the size of the angle and
(c) whether the angle is measured in the direction of west (W) or east (E).
2. True bearings are measured from north in a clockwise direction and expressed as
3 digits and with a T.
3. When solving problems involving bearings or compass directions, always draw a clear
diagram prior to attempting the problem.
EXERCISE
FLUENCY
1 Change each of the following compass directions to true bearings.

a N20èE b N20èW c S35èW
d S28èE e N34èE f S42èW
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 169 15/05/12 12:07 PM

INDIVIDUAL 2 Change each of the following true bearings to compass directions.

PATHWAYS a 049èT b 132èT c 267èT
eBook plus d 330èT e 086èT f 234èT
Activity 5-G-1 3 Describe the following paths using true bearings.

Bearings
doc-5029 a N b N
Activity 5-G-2
Calculations
involving bearings
3k
35è
m
doc-5030
Activity 5-G-3 W E
22è
Applications 2.5
involving bearings km
doc-5031
S
c d N
N
35è 2.5 km
4 km
W E
35è
m
8k
S
e f
N N
N N
12 30
km 0m
65è
50è m 40è 50è
7k
0m
50
4 Show each of the following by drawing the paths.

a A ship travels 040èT for 40 km and then 100èT for 30 km.
b A plane flies for 230 km in a direction 135èT and a further 140 km in a direction 240èT.
c A bushwalker travels in a direction 260èT for 0.8 km, then changes direction to 120èT for
1.3 km, and finally travels in a direction of 32è for 2.1 km.
d A boat travels N40èW for 8 km, then changes direction to S30èW for 5 km and then
S50èE for 7 km.
e A plane travels N20èE for 320 km, N70èE for 180 km and S30èE for 220 km.
5 WE 17 a You are planning a trip on your yacht. If you travel 20 km from A to B on a bearing
of 042èT:
i how far east of A is B?
ii how far north of A is B?
iii what is the bearing of A from B?
b In the next part of the journey you decide to travel 80 km from B to C on a bearing of
130èT.
i Show the journey to be travelled using a diagram.
ii How far south of B is C?
iii How far east of B is C?
iv What is the bearing of B from C?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 170 15/05/12 12:07 PM

c In the next part of the journey you decide to travel 45 km from C to D on a bearing of 210èT.
Show the journey to be travelled using a diagram.
i
How far south of C is D?
ii
iii How far west of C is D?
iv What is the bearing of C from D?
6 If a farmhouse is situated 220 m N35èE from a shed, what is the true bearing of the shed from
the house?
UNDERSTANDING
7 A pair of hikers travel 0.7 km on a true bearing of 240è and then 1.3 km on a true bearing of
300è. How far west have they travelled from their starting point?
8 WE 18 A boat travels 6 km on a true bearing of 120è and then 4 km on a true bearing of 080è.
a How far east is the boat from the starting point on the completion of its journey?
b How far south is the boat from the starting point on the completion of its journey?
c What is the bearing of the boat from the starting point on the completion of its journey?
9 A plane flies on a true bearing of 320è for 450 km. It then flies on a true bearing of 350è for
130 km and finally on a true bearing of 050è for 330 km. How far north of its starting point is
the plane?
10 Find the final bearing for each of the following.
Express your answer in true bearings, correct to the
nearest minute.
a A boat travels due east for 4 km and then travels
N20èE for 3 km. What is the final bearing of the
boat from the starting point?
b A bushwalker travels due north for 3 km, then
due east for 8 km. What is the final bearing of the
bushwalker from the starting point?
c A car travels due south for 80 km, then travels due west for 50 km, and finally due south
for a further 30 km. What is the final bearing of the car from the starting point?
REASONING
11 A yacht is sailing around islands in the Pacific
y
Ocean. The sailor sees a mountain range on
an island that is on a bearing of 330èT. The
29è
yacht sails at a rate of 5 km/h for 30 minutes N N
due West, such that the mountain range is x
now on a bearing of 050èT. From this new 50è 30è
position, the sailor determines that the angle a q
of elevation to the highest point on the d km
mountain range is 29è, as shown in the 330è
diagram at right. Note: Diagram is not drawn to scale.
a Determine the exact values of the angles labelled q and a.
b Determine the distance d, in kilometres, the yacht sailed on a bearing of due West before
another bearing of the mountain range was taken.
c Using any suitable method, determine the value
of x, in kilometres. Write your answer correct to
3 decimal places. REFLECTION  
d Using the value of x from part b determine the
What is the difference between
value of y, the height above sea level of highest true bearings and compass
point on the mountain range, in kilometres. Write directions?
your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 171 15/05/12 12:07 PM

5H Applications
■■ Many people use trigonometry at work.
eBook plus
It is particularly important in careers such
Interactivity as the building trades, surveying,
Applying
architecture and engineering.
trigonometry
to drafting ■■ Trigonometric ratios can be used to find
problems angles of elevation and depression, as well
int-2781 as to calculate distances which we could
not otherwise easily measure.
■■ When solving a problem, remember the
following steps.
1. Sketch a diagram to represent the
situation described in the problem.
2. Label the sides of the right-angled
triangle with respect to the angle
involved.
3. Identify what is given and what needs to
be found.
4. Select an appropriate trigonometric
ratio and use it to find the unknown
measurement.
5. Interpret your result by writing a
worded answer.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
A ladder of length 3 m makes an angle of 32è with the wall.

a How far is the foot of the ladder from the wall?
b How far up the wall does the ladder reach?
c What angle does the ladder make with the ground?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Sketch a diagram and label the sides of the (wall)

right-angled triangle with respect to the given
angle.
A
3m 32è
H y
a x
O
O
a 1 We need to find the distance of the foot of the a sin q =
ladder from the wall (O) and are given the H
length of the ladder (H). Choose the sine ratio.
x
3
4 Evaluate and round the answer to ö 1.59 m
2 decimal places.
5 Write the answer in words. The foot of the ladder is 1.59 m from the wall.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 172 15/05/12 12:07 PM

A
b 1 We need to find the height the ladder b cos q =
reaches up the wall (A) and are given the H
hypotenuse (H). Choose the cosine ratio.
y
2 Substitute A = y, H = 3 and q = 32è. cos 32è =
3
3 Make y the subject of the equation. y = 3 cos 32è
4 Evaluate and round the answer to y ö 2.54 m
2 decimal places.
5 Write the answer in words. The ladder reaches 2.54 m up the wall.
c 1 To find the angle that the ladder makes c a + 90è + 32è = 180è
with the ground, we could use any of the a + 122è = 180è
trigonometric ratios, as the lengths of a = 180è - 122è
all three sides are known. However, it is a = 58è
quicker to use the angle sum of a triangle.
2 Write the answer in words. The ladder makes a 58è angle with the
ground.
REMEMBER
To solve a problem involving trigonometric ratios, follow these steps:

(b) Label the diagram with respect to the angle involved (either given or that needs to be
found).
(d) Select an appropriate trigonometric ratio and use it to find the unknown side
or angle.
EXERCISE
5H Applications
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE 19 A 3 m-long ladder is placed against a wall so that it reaches 1.8 m up the wall.
eBook plus a What angle does the ladder make with the ground?
b What angle does the ladder make with the wall?
Activity 5-H-1
Trigonometry c How far from the wall is the foot of the ladder?
applications 1 2 Jamie decides to build a wooden pencil box. He wants his ruler to be able to lie across
doc-5032
the bottom of the box, so he allows 32 cm along the diagonal. The width of the box is to
Activity 5-H-2
Trigonometry
be 8 cm.
applications 2
doc-5033
Activity 5-H-3 32 cm 8 cm
Trigonometry q
applications 3
doc-5034
Calculate:
a the size of angle q
b the length of the box.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 173 15/05/12 12:07 PM

3 A carpenter wants to make a roof pitched at 29è30Å, as shown in the diagram. How long should
he cut the beam, PR?
R
29è30'
P Q
10.6 m
4 The sloping sides of a gable roof are each 7.2 m long. They rise to a height of 2.4 m in the
centre. What angle do the sloping sides make with the horizontal?
5 The mast of a boat is 7.7 m high. A guy wire from the top of the mast is fixed to the deck 4 m
from the base of the mast. Determine the angle the wire makes with the horizontal.
UNDERSTANDING
6 A desk top of length 1.2 m and width 0.5 m rises to 10 cm.
E F
10 cm
0.5 m C D
A 1.2 m B
Calculate:
a ±DBF
b ±CBE.
7 A cuboid has a square end.
H G
X
D C
E F
O
45 cm
A 25 cm B
a If the length of the cuboid is 45 cm and its height and width are 25 cm each, calculate:
i the length of BD ii the length of BG
iii the length of BE iv the length of BH
v ±FBG vi ±EBH.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 174 15/05/12 12:07 PM

b If the midpoint of FG is X and the centre of the rectangle ABFE is O calculate:

i the length OF
ii the length FX
iii ±FOX
iv the length OX.
8 In a right square-based pyramid, the length of the side of the base is 12 cm and the height is
26 cm.
26 cm
12 cm
Determine:
a the angle the triangular face makes with the base
b the angle the sloping edge makes with the base
c the length of the sloping edge.
9 In a right square-based pyramid, the length of the side of the square base is 5.7 cm.
68è
5.7 cm
If the angle between the triangular face and the base is 68è, determine:
a the height of the pyramid
b the angle the sloping edge makes with the base
c the length of the sloping edge.
10 In a right square-based pyramid, the height is 47 cm. If the angle between a triangular face and
the base is 73è, calculate:
a the length of the side of the square base
b the length of the diagonal of the base
c the angle the sloping edge makes with the base.
11 The height of a vertical cone is 24.5 cm.
48è37'10"
24.5 cm
If the angle at the apex is 48è37Å10ë, determine:

a the length of the slant edge of the cone
b the radius of the cone.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 175 15/05/12 12:07 PM

REASONING
12 Aldo the carpenter is lost in a rainforest. He comes across a large river and he knows that he
can not swim across it. Aldo intends to build a bridge across the river. He draws some plans to
calculate the distance across the river as shown in the diagram below.
72è
River Tree
4.5 cm
88è
a Aldo used a scale of 1 cm to represent 20 m. Find the real-life distance represented by

4.5 cm in Aldo’s plans.
b Use the diagram below to write an equation for h in terms of d and the two angles.
h
J1 J2
d-x x
d
c Use your equation from b to find the distance across the river, correct to the nearest
metre.
REFLECTION  
What are some real-life

applications of trigonometry?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 176 15/05/12 12:07 PM

Summary
■■ The hypotenuse is the longest side of the triangle and is opposite the right angle.
■■ On your diagram, check whether you are finding the length of the hypotenuse or one of the
shorter sides.
■■ The length of a side can be found if we are given the length of the other sides by using the
formula c2 = a2 + b2.
■■ When using Pythagoras’ theorem, always check the units given for each measurement.
■■ If necessary, convert all measurements to the same units before using the rule.
■■ Worded problems can be solved by drawing a diagram and using Pythagoras’ theorem to
solve the problem.
■■ Worded problems should be answered in a sentence.
Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions

■■ Pythagoras’ theorem can be used to solve problems in three dimensions.
■■ Some common 3-D shapes include boxes, pyramids and right-angled wedges.
■■ To solve problems in three dimensions it is helpful to draw sections of the original shape in
two dimensions.
Trigonometric ratios
■■ When using the calculator to find values of sine, cosine and tangent, make sure the calculator
is in Degree mode.
■■ To find the size of an angle whose sine, cosine or tangent is given, perform an inverse
operation; that is, sin-1, cos-1 or tan-1.
■■ Use the calculator’s conversion function to convert between decimal degrees and degrees,
minutes and seconds.
■■ There are 60 minutes in 1 degree and 60 seconds in 1 minute.
■■ The three trigonometric ratios, sine, cosine and tangent, are defined as:
O A O
sin q = , cos q = and tan q = ,
H H A
where H is the hypotenuse, O is the opposite side and A is the adjacent side.
■■ The three ratios are abbreviated to the useful mnemonic SOH CAH TOA.
■■ To determine which trigonometric ratio to use, follow these steps.
(a) Label the sides of the right-angled triangle that are either given, or need to be found,
using the symbols O, A, H with respect to the angle in question.
(b) Consider the sides that are involved and write the trigonometric ratio containing both of
these sides. (Use SOH CAH TOA to assist you.)
(c) Identify the values of the pronumerals in the ratio.
(d) Substitute the given values into the ratio.
Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths

■■ The trigonometric ratios can be used to find a side length in a right-angled triangle when we
are given other side length and one of the acute angles.
Using trigonometry to calculate angle size

■■ The trigonometric ratios can be used to find the size of the acute angles in a right-angled
triangle when we are given the length of two sides.
■■ To find an angle size we need to use the inverse trigonometric functions.
■■ Answers may be given correct to the nearest degree, minute or second, or as decimal
degrees.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 177 15/05/12 12:07 PM

Angles of elevation and depression

■■ The angle of elevation is measured up and the angle of depression is measured down from the
horizontal line to the line of vision.
Horizontal
q Angle of
depression
Angle of
q elevation
Horizontal
■■ For any two objects, A and B, the angle of elevation of B, as seen from A, is equal to the angle
of depression of A as seen from B.
B
Angle of depression q
of A from B
Angle of elevation
q of B from A
A
Bearings and compass directions

■■ To identify the compass direction of an object we need to state (in this order):
(a) whether the angle is measured from north (N) or south (S)
(b) the size of the angle
(c) whether the angle is measured in the direction of west (W) or east (E).
■■ True bearings are measured from north in a clockwise direction and expressed as 3 digits and
with a T.
■■ When solving problems involving bearings or compass directions, always draw a clear
diagram prior to attempting the problem.
Applications
■■ To solve a problem involving trigonometric ratios, follow these steps:
(b) Label the diagram with respect to the angle involved (either given or that needs to be
found).
(d) Select an appropriate trigonometric ratio and use it to find the unknown side or angle.

Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 178 15/05/12 12:07 PM

Chapter review
FLUENCY 7 Which of the following statements is correct?
A sin 55è = cos 55è
1 The most accurate measure
B sin 45è = cos 35è
for the length of the third
C cos 15è = sin 85è
side in the triangle at right
D sin 30è = sin 60è
is:
5.6 m E sin 42è = cos 48è
A 4.83 m
B 23.3 cm 2840 mm 8 Which of the following can be used to find the
C 3.94 m value of x in the diagram below?
D 2330 mm
E 4826 mm
2 What is the value of x in 28.7
this figure?
A 5.4 x
5 35è
B 7.5 x
C 10.1
D 10.3 2 7 A 28.7 sin 35è
E 4
B 28.7 cos 35è
3 What is the closest length A B C 28.7 tan 35è
of AG of the cube at 28.7
right? D
D
C 10 sin 35°
A 10
B 30 28.7
E E
C 20 F cos 35°
D 14 9 Which of the following expressions can be used to
10
E 17 find the value of a in the triangle shown?
H 10 G
4 If sin 38è = 0.6157, which of the following will
also give this result?
A sin 218è
B sin 322è
75
C sin 578è 35
D sin 682è
E sin 142è
a
5 The angle 118è52Å34ë is also equal to:
B 118 °
52
A 118.5234è 34 35
A 35 sin 75è B sin-1 75
C 118.861è D 118.876è
E 118.786è 75 35
C sin-1 D cos-1 75
6 Which trigonometric ratio for the triangle shown at 35
right is incorrect? 75
E cos-1 35
b
A sin a =
c 10 If a school is 320 m S42èW from the police station,
a
B sin a = what is the true bearing of the police station from
c a b
a the school?
C cos a = a q A 042èT
c c
D tan a = b B 048èT
a C 222èT
a D 228èT
E tan q =
b E 312èT
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 179 15/05/12 12:08 PM

11 Calculate x, correct to 2 decimal places. PROBLEM SOLVING

a 1 A surveyor needs to determine the height of a
x building. She measures the angle of elevation
of the top of the building from two points, 64 m
123.1 cm
apart. The surveyor’s eye level is 195 cm above the
ground.
48.7 cm
b 117 mm
82 mm x
12 Calculate the value of the pronumeral, correct to

2 decimal places.
13.4 cm
x x
13 Calculate the height of this pyramid.
10 mm
8 mm
8 mm
14 A person standing 23 m away from a tree observes

the top of the tree at an angle of elevation of 35è.
If the person is 1.5 m tall, what is the height of
the tree? h
15 A man of height 1.8 m stands at the window of 47è48 36è2
' 4'
a tall building. He observes his young daughter in
x 64 m 195 cm
the playground below. If the angle of depression
from the man to the girl is 47è and the floor on
which the man stands is 27 m above the ground,
a Find the expressions for the height of the
how far from the bottom of the building is the
building, h, in terms of x using the two
child?
angles.
16 A plane flies 780 km in a direction of 185èT. b Solve for x by equating the two expressions
How far west has it travelled from the starting obtained in part a.
point? c Find the height of the building.
17 A hiker travels 3.2 km on a bearing of 250èT 2 The height of a right square-based pyramid is
and then 1.8 km on a bearing of 320èT. How 13 cm. If the angle the face makes with the base is
far west has she travelled from the starting 67è, find:
point? a the length of the edge of the square base
18 If a 4 m ladder is placed against a wall and the foot b the length of the diagonal of the base
of the ladder is 2.6 m from the wall, what angle c the angle the slanted edge makes with the
does the ladder make with the wall? base.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 180 15/05/12 12:08 PM

3 A boat sails on a compass direction of E12èS for 4 A car is travelling northwards on an elevated
10 km then changes direction to S27èE for another expressway 6 m above ground at a speed of
20 km. The boat then decides to return to its 72 km/h. At noon another car passes under the
starting point. expressway, at ground level, travelling west, at a
speed of 90 km/h.
a How far apart, in metres, are the two cars
A 40 seconds after noon?
12è b At this time the first car stops, while the second
10 km B
car keeps going. At what time will they be
3.5 km apart? Write your answer correct to the
27è nearest tenth of a second.
20 km
5 Two towers face each other separated by a distance,
d, of 20 metres. As seen from the top of the first
tower, the angle of depression of the second tower’s
base is 59è and that of the top is 31è. What is the
C
height, in metres correct to 2 decimal places, of
a How far, correct to 2 decimal places, is the boat
each of the towers?
from its starting point?
b On what bearing should the boat travel to
return to its starting point? Write the angle eBook plus
correct to the nearest degree. Interactivities

int-2840
int-2838
Crossword Chapter 5
int-2839
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 181 15/05/12 12:08 PM

Chapter opener • Activity 5-D-3 (doc-5022): Practical applications of
Digital doc trigonometry
• Hungry brain activity Chapter 5 (doc-5223) (page 131) 5E Using trigonometry to calculate angle size
Are you ready? Digital docs
Digital docs (page 132) • Activity 5-E-1 (doc-5023): Review of angle
• SkillSHEET 5.1 (doc-5224): Rounding to a given calculations (page 158)
number of decimal places • Activity 5-E-2 (doc-5024): Calculating angles using
• SkillSHEET 5.2 (doc-5225): Rounding the size of an trigonometry (page 158)
angle to the nearest minute and second • Activity 5-E-3 (doc-5025): Applying trigonometry to
• SkillSHEET 5.3 (doc-5226): Labelling the sides of a angle calculations (page 159)
right-angled triangle • SkillSHEET 5.8 (doc-5232): Rounding angles to the
• SkillSHEET 5.5 (doc-5227): Rearranging formulas nearest degree (page 159)
• SkillSHEET 5.6 (doc-5228): Drawing a diagram from • WorkSHEET 5.2 (doc-5233): Using trigonometry
given directions (page 160)
5A Pythagoras’ Theorem 5F Angles of elevation and depression
Digital docs (page 137) eLesson
• Activity 5-A-1 (doc-5011): Review of Pythagoras’ • Height of a satellite (eles-0173) (page 161)
theorem Digital docs
• Activity 5-A-2 (doc-5012): Practising Pythagoras’ • Activity 5-F-1 (doc-5026): Identifying elevation and
theorem depression (page 163)
• Activity 5-A-3 (doc-5013): More of Pythagoras’ • Activity 5-F-2 (doc-5027): Calculating elevation and
theorem depression (page 163)
• SkillSHEET 5.1 (doc-5224): Rounding to a given • Activity 5-F-3 (doc-5028): Applications of elevation
number of decimal places and depression (page 163)
• SkillSHEET 5.6 (doc-5228): Drawing a diagram from
5B Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
given directions (page 163)
Digital docs • WorkSHEET 5.3 (doc-5234): Elevation and depression
• Activity 5-B-1 (doc-5014): Pythagoras in 3-dimensions (page 165)
(page 143)
• Activity 5-B-2 (doc-5015): Pythagoras in 3-D figures 5G Bearings and compass directions
(page 143) Digital docs (page 170)
• Activity 5-B-3 (doc-5016): Investigating triangles in • Activity 5-G-1 (doc-5029): Bearings
3-D figures (page 143) • Activity 5-G-2 (doc-5030): Calculations involving
• SkillSHEET 5.4 (doc-5229): Drawing 3-D shapes bearings
(page 143) • Activity 5-G-3 (doc-5031): Applications involving
• WorkSHEET 5.1 (doc-5230): Pythagoras’ theorem bearings
(page 145) 5H Applications
5C Trigonometric ratios Interactivity (page 172)
Digital docs • Applying trigonometry to drafting problems (int-2781)
• Activity 5-C-1 (doc-5017): Review of trigonometry Digital docs (page 173)
(page 149) • Activity 5-H-1 (doc-5032): Trigonometry applications 1
• Activity 5-C-2 (doc-5018): Using trigonometry • Activity 5-H-2 (doc-5033): Trigonometry applications 2
(page 149) • Activity 5-H-3 (doc-5034): Trigonometry applications 3
• Activity 5-C-3 (doc-5019): Applying trigonometry Chapter review
(page 149) Interactivities (page 181)
• SkillSHEET 5.3 (doc-5226): Labelling the sides of a • Test Yourself Chapter 5 (int-2840): Take the end-of-
right-angled triangle (page 150) chapter test to test your progress
• SkillSHEET 5.7 (doc-5231): Selecting an appropriate • Word search Chapter 5 (int-2838): an interactive word
trigonometric ratio based on the given information search involving words associated with this chapter
(page 150) • Crossword Chapter 5 (int-2839): an interactive crossword
5D Using trigonometry to calculate side lengths using the definitions associated with the chapter
Interactivity
• Using trigonometry (int-1146) (page 151)
Digital docs (page 154) www.jacplus.com.au
• Activity 5-D-1 (doc-5020): Calculating side lengths
using trigonometry
• Activity 5-D-2 (doc-5021): Applying trigonometry to
simple figures
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_05.indd 182 15/05/12 12:08 PM

MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY • USING UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
6
6A Area
6B Total surface area
6C Volume
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?

1 List what you know about measurement.
Create a sunshine wheel to show your list.
Surface area 3 As a class, create a large sunshine

wheel that shows your class’s knowledge
of measurement.
and volume eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 6
doc-5235
OPENING QUESTION
How can you determine the most efficient

size of a cylindrical water tank of a
particular volume?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 183 15/05/12 12:09 PM

Are you ready?

eBook plus Conversion of area units

1 Convert each of the following to the units given in brackets. Write the answer using scientific
Digital doc
notation (standard form).
SkillSHEET 6.1
doc-5236 a 3.6 m2 (mm2) b 20 000 cm2 (km2) c 5.2 ha (m2)
eBook plus
Using a formula to find the area of a common shape
2 Find the area of each of the following plane figures.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.2 a b 8 cm c
doc-5237 3m
3 cm
2.5 cm
8m
12 cm
eBook plus
Total surface area of cubes and rectangular prisms
3 Find the total surface area of each of the following prisms.
Digital doc
a b c
SkillSHEET 6.3 10 cm
doc-5238
10 cm 3m 10 cm
5 cm 2 cm
8 cm
eBook plus Conversion of volume units

4 Convert each of the following to the units given in brackets. Give the answers in scientific
Digital doc
notation (standard form).
SkillSHEET 6.4
doc-5239 a 3.4 m3 (cm3) b 250 000 mm3 (m3) c 6.5 cm3 (mm3)
eBook plus
Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms
5 Find the volume of each of the prisms in question 3.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.5
doc-5240
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 184 15/05/12 12:09 PM

6A Area
■■ The area of a figure is the amount of surface or flat space within the boundaries of the figure.
■■ The units used for area are mm2, cm2, m2, km2 or ha (hectares), depending upon the size of
the figure.
l ha = 10 000 (or 104) m2
■■ There are many real-life situations that require an understanding of the area concept. Some
eBook plus
are, ‘the area to be painted’, ‘the floor area of a room or house’, and ‘how much land one has’,
Digital doc ‘how many tiles are needed for a wall’.
SkillSHEET 6.1 ■■ It is important that you are familiar with converting units of area. This can be revised by
doc-5236
completing SkillSHEET 6.1.
Using area formulas

■■ The area of many plane figures can be found by using a formula. The table below shows the
formula for the area of some common shapes.
Shape Formula
1. Square A = l 2, where l is a side length.
2. Rectangle l A = lw, where l is the length and w is the

width.
1
3. Triangle A = 2 bh, where b is the base length and h the
height.
h
b
1
4. Trapezium a A = 2 (a + b)h, where a and b are lengths of
parallel sides and h the height.
h
5. Circle A = p r2, where r is the radius.

r
6. Parallelogram A = bh, where b is the base length and h the

h height.
b
(continued)
Chapter 6 Surface area and volume 185
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 185 15/05/12 12:09 PM

Shape Formula
θ
7. Sector A= ì p r2, where q is the sector angle
360°
in degrees and r is the radius.
q
r
1
8. Rhombus A= 2
xy, where x and y are diagonals.
y
x
9. Ellipse A = p ab, where a and b are the lengths
b of the semi-major and semi-minor axes
a respectively.
■■ Measurements must be in the same unit of length before substituting into an area formula.
Alternative way to find the area of a triangle

eBook plus
■■ If the lengths of all three sides of a triangle are known, its area,
b a
A, can be found by using Heron’s formula:
eLesson
Heron’s A = s( s − a )( s − b )( s − c ) where a, b and c are the lengths of c
formula a+b+c
eles-0177 the three sides and s is the semi-perimeter or s = .
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the areas of the following plane figures, correct to 2 decimal places.
a b c
2 cm
3 cm 5 cm
5 cm 15 cm
40è
6 cm
THINK WRITE
a 1 The shape is a triangle with three side a A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

lengths given, but not the height. In this
case Heron’s formula is used.
2 Identify the values of a, b and c. a = 3, b = 5, c = 6
a+b+c
3 Calculate the value of s, the s=
semi-perimeter of the triangle. 2
= 3 + 5+6
2
14
=
2
=7
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 186 15/05/12 12:09 PM

4 Substitute the values of a, b, c and s into A = 7(7 − 3)(7 − 5)(7 − 6)

Heron’s formula and evaluate, correct to
= 7 × 4 × 2 ×1
2 decimal places.
= 56
= 7.48 cm2
b 1 The shape shown is an ellipse. Write the b A = p ab
appropriate area formula.
2 Identify the values of a and b (the semi- a = 5, b = 2
major and semi-minor axes).
3 Substitute the values of a and b into the A=pì5ì2
formula and evaluate, correct to 2 decimal = 31.42 cm2
places.
θ
c 1 The shape shown is a sector. Write the c A= ì p r2
formula for finding the area of a sector. 360°
2 Write the value of q and r. q = 40è, r = 15

40°
3 Substitute and evaluate the expression, A= ì p ì 152
correct to 2 decimal places. 360°
= 78.54 cm2
Areas of composite figures

■■ A composite figure is a figure made up of a combination of simple figures.
■■ The area of a composite figure can be calculated by:
•• calculating the sum of the areas of the simple figures that make up the composite figure
•• calculating the area of a larger shape and then subtracting the extra area involved.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Find the area of each of the following composite shapes.
a C b A B
AB = 8 cm
EC = 6 cm 9 cm
FD = 2 cm D C
F 2 cm
A B
E E F
5 cm
D H 10 cm G
THINK WRITE
a 1 ACBD is a quadrilateral that can be split a Area ACBD = Area ABC + Area ABD
into two triangles: ABC and ABD.
1
2 Write the formula for the area of a triangle Atriangle = 2 bh
containing base and height.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 187 15/05/12 12:09 PM

3 Identify the values of b and h for ABC. ABC: b = AB = 8, h = EC = 6

1
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals Area of ABC = 2 ì AB ì EC
into the formula and, hence, calculate the 1
= ì8ì6
area of ABC. 2
= 24 cm2
5 Identify the values of b and h for ABD. ABD: b = AB = 8, h = FD = 2
1
6 Calculate the area of ABD. Area of ABD = 2 AB ì FD
1
= 2 ì8ì2
= 8 cm2
7 Add the areas of the two triangles together Area of ACBD = 24 cm2 + 8 cm2
to find the area of the quadrilateral ACBD. = 32 cm2
b 1 One way to find the area of the shape b Area = Area ABGH - Area DEFC
shown is to find the total area of the
rectangle ABGH and then subtract the area
of the smaller rectangle DEFC.
2 Write the formula for the area of a Arectangle = l ì w
rectangle.
3 Identify the values of the pronumerals for Rectangle ABGH: l = 9 + 2 + 9
the rectangle ABGH. = 20
w = 10
4 Substitute the values of the pronumerals Area of ABGH = 20 ì 10
into the formula to find the area of the = 200 cm2
rectangle ABGH.
5 Identify the values of the pronumerals for Rectangle DEFC: l = 5, w = 2
the rectangle DEFC.
6 Substitute the values of the pronumerals Area of DEFC = 5 ì 2
into the formula to find the area of the = 10 cm2
rectangle DEFC.
7 Subtract the area of the rectangle DEFC Area = 200 - 10
from the area of the rectangle ABGH to = 190 cm2
find the area of the given shape.
REMEMBER
1. Area is a measure of the amount of surface within the boundaries of a figure.

2. The units for measuring area are mm2, cm2, m2 and km2.
3. Land area is usually measured in hectares (ha) where 1 ha = 10 000 (or 104) m2.
4. Areas can be calculated by using formulas that are specific to the given plane figure.
5. Areas of composite figures can be calculated by adding the areas of the simple figures
making the composite figure or by calculating the area of an extended figure and
subtracting the extra area covered.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 188 15/05/12 12:09 PM

EXERCISE
6A Area
Where appropriate, give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS FLUENCY
eBook plus
1 Find the areas of the following shapes.
Activity 6-A-1 a b c
Review of area
doc-5035
4 cm
Activity 6-A-2
4 cm
Area problems
doc-5036
12 cm 15 cm
Activity 6-A-3
Tricky area problems
doc-5037
10 cm
eBook plus
d 12 cm e f
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.2
doc-5237 8 cm
15 cm 8 mm 13 mm
18 cm
7 mm
g h i
6m 15 cm
7m 10 cm
18 cm
2 Express the area in questions 1e and 1g in terms of p.

3 WE 1a Use Heron’s formula to find the area of the following triangles.
a b
3 cm
8 cm
5 cm
16 cm
6 cm
12 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 189 15/05/12 12:09 PM

4 WE 1b Find the area of the following ellipses. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a b
9 mm
12 mm
4 mm
5 mm
5 WE 1c Find the area of the following shapes, i stating the answer exactly; that is in terms of
p and ii correct to 2 decimal places.
a b c
30è 18 cm
70è
6 mm
12 cm
345è
6 MC A figure has an area of about 64 cm2. Which of the following cannot possibly represent
the figure?
A A triangle with base length 16 cm and height 8 cm
B A circle with radius 4.51 cm
C A rectangle with dimensions 16 cm and 4 cm
D A square with side length 8 cm
E A rhombus with diagonals 16 cm and 4 cm
7 MC The area of the quadrilateral shown below right is to be calculated.
Which of the following lists all the lengths C
required to calculate the area?
A AB, BC, CD and AD
B AB, BE, AC and CD F
C BC, BE, AD and CD B
D AC, BE and FD
E AC, CD and AB
E
A D
8 WE 2 Find the area of the following composite shapes.

a 20 cm b 40 m
28 m
15 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 190 15/05/12 12:09 PM

c 8 cm d
3 cm 2 cm
4 cm 2.1 m
3.8 m
e f
28 cm
18 cm
5 cm
12 cm
9 Find the shaded area in each of the following.

a b 16 m
8m 2m 2m
3 cm
r = 7 cm
c d
8m
3m
40è
5m
e 8m f 15 m
5m
2m 7.5 m
13 m 7 m
5m
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 191 15/05/12 12:09 PM

UNDERSTANDING
10 A sheet of cardboard is 1.6 m by 0.8 m. The following shapes are cut from the cardboard:
• a circular piece with radius 12 cm
• a rectangular piece 20 cm by 15 cm
• 2 triangular pieces with base 30 cm and height 10 cm
• a triangular piece with side length 12 cm, 10 cm and 8 cm.
What is the area of the remaining piece of cardboard?
11 A rectangular block of land, 12 m by 8 m, is surrounded by a concrete path 0.5 m wide. Find
the area of the path.
12 Concrete slabs 1 m by 0.5 m are used to cover a footpath 20 m by 1.5 m. How many slabs are
needed?
13 A city council builds a 0.5 m wide concrete path around the garden as shown below.
12 m
5m
8m 3m
Find the cost of the job if the workman charges $40.00 per m2.
14 A game of tennis can be played with 4 people using the whole court or it can be played with
2 people using the singles court, which excludes the edge on either side, as shown in the
diagram.
1.8 m
x
8.23 m
6.40 m 10.97 m
11.89 m
a What is the total area of the whole tennis court?

b What is the area of the singles court?
c What area can one person use when playing doubles?
d What area can one person use when playing singles?
e What percentage of the total tennis court area is used by one person for singles?
f How far is the ball served before it bounces if it follows the path indicated in the
diagram? That is, calculate x.
15 Ron the excavator operator has 100 metres of barricade mesh and needs to enclose an area to
work in safely. He chooses to make a rectangular region with dimensions x and y.
a Write an equation that connects x, y and the perimeter.
b Write y in terms of x.
c Write an equation for the area of the region in terms of x.
d Fill in the table for different values of x.
x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Area
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 192 15/05/12 12:09 PM

e Can x have a value more than 50? Why?

f Sketch a graph of area against x.
g Determine the value of x that makes the area a maximum.
h What is the value of y for maximum area?
i What shape encloses the maximum area?
j Calculate the maximum area.
Ron decides to choose to make a circular area with the barricade mesh.
k What is the radius of this circular region?
l What area is enclosed in this circular region?
m How much extra area does Ron now have compared to his rectangular region?
REASONING
16 Dan has purchased a country property with layout and dimensions
as shown in the diagram.
a Show that the property has a total area of 987.5 ha.
b Dan wants to split the property in half (in terms of area) 1500 m
5000 m
by building a straight-lined fence either vertically or
horizontally through the property. Assuming the cost of the 2000 m
fencing is a fixed amount per linear metre, justify where the
fence should be built (that is, how many metres from the 1000 m
top left-hand corner and in which direction), to minimise
the cost.
17 In question 15, Ron the excavator operator could choose to enclose a rectangular or circular
eBook plus
area with 100 m of barricade mesh. In this case, the circular region resulted in a larger safe
Digital doc work area.
WorkSHEET 6.1
a Show that for 150 m of barricade mesh, a circular
doc-5241
region again results in a larger safe work area as REFLECTION  
opposed to a rectangular region. How are perimeter and area
b Show that for n metres of barricade mesh, a circular different but fundamentally
region will result in a larger safe work area as related?
opposed to a rectangular region.

eBook plus
■■ The total surface area (TSA) of a solid is the sum of the areas of all the faces (outside
surfaces) of that solid. It can be found by calculating the area of the net of the solid.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.3
doc-5238
TSA of rectangular prisms and cubes
■■ The following formulas have been introduced in previous years.
h
Rectangular prism (cuboid):
TSA = 2(lh + lw + wh) w
l
■■ A special case of the rectangular prism is the cube where all sides are equal
(l = w = h).
Cube:
TSA = 6l2
l
To see a worked example and revise finding the total surface area of cubes and rectangular
prisms, complete the SkillSHEET shown.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 193 15/05/12 12:09 PM

eBook plus TSA of spheres and cylinders

Interactivity Sphere:
TSA-sphere
int-2782
TSA = 4p r2 r
Note: The mathematics required to obtain the rule for the total surface area of a sphere is beyond
the scope of Year 10.
Cylinder:
TSA = 2p r(r + h) or 2p r2 + 2p rh h
r
■■ The formula for the TSA of the cylinder is found from the area of the net as shown.
TSA = p r 2 + p r 2 + 2p rh
= 2p r 2 + 2p rh r
= 2p r(r + h) A = pr 2
2p r
A = 2prh h
r
A = pr 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find the total surface area of the solids below, correct to 1 decimal place.
a r = 7 cm b 50 cm
r
1.5 m
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula for the TSA of a sphere. a TSA = 4p r2

2 Identify the value for r. r=7
3 Substitute and evaluate. TSA = 4 ì p ì 72
= 615.8 cm2
b 1 Write the formula for the TSA of a b TSA = 2p r(r + h)
cylinder.
2 Identify the values for r and h. Note that the r = 50 cm, h = 1.5 m
units will need to be the same. = 150 cm
3 Substitute and evaluate. TSA = 2 ì p ì 50 ì (50 + 150)
= 62 831.9 cm2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 194 15/05/12 12:09 PM

TSA of cones
■■ The total surface area of a cone can be found by considering its net.
s SA = Acircular base + Acurved surface,

= p r2 + Asector of radius, s
s
r r
■■ The sector is a fraction of the full circle of radius, s, with circumference, 2p s.
■■ The sector has arc length, equivalent to the circumference of the base of the cone, 2p r.
■■ The fraction of the full circle represented by the sector can be found by writing the arc length
as a fraction of the circumference of the full circle, 2π r = r .

2π s s
Area of a sector = fraction of the circle ì p r2
r
= × π s2
s
= p rs
Therefore, SA = Acircular base + Acurved surface
= p r2 + p rs
= p r(r + s)
Cone: TSA = p r(r + s) or p r2 + p rs
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Find the total surface area of the cone shown.
15 cm
12 cm
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for the TSA of a cone. TSA = p r (r + s)

2 State the values of r and s. r = 12, s = 15
3 Substitute and evaluate. TSA = p ì 12 ì (12 + 15)
= 1017.9 cm2
TSA of other solids

■■ TSA can be found by summing the areas of each face.
■■ The areas of each face may need to be calculated separately.
■■ Always consider top, bottom, front, back, left and right faces.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 195 15/05/12 12:09 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Find the total surface area of the square-based pyramid shown.
5 cm
6 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 There is no formula, so write the components TSA = Area of square base + Area of four
of the TSA. These are the square base and four triangular faces
identical triangles.
2 Find the area of the square base. Area of base = l2, where l = 6
Area of base = 62
= 36 cm2
3 The four side faces are isosceles triangles. Draw

one face and write the formula for finding its 5 cm
area. h
3 cm
1
Area of a triangular face = 2 bh; b = 6
4 Find the height of the triangle using Pythagoras’ a2 = c2 - b2, where a = h, b = 3, c = 5

theorem. h2 = 52 - 32
h2 = 25 - 9
h2 = 16
h = 4 cm
1
5 Calculate the area of the triangular face by Area of triangular face = 2
ì6ì4
substituting b = 6 and h = 4.
= 12 cm2
6 Calculate the TSA by adding the area of the TSA = 36 + 4 ì 12

square base and the area of four triangular faces = 36 + 48
together. = 84 cm2
■■ Note that the area of a triangular face of the square-based pyramid in the previous
example could also be calculated using Heron’s formula, as the lengths of all three sides
were given.
TSA of composite solids

■■ The TSA of a composite solid is calculated by summing the areas of the solid’s faces.
■■ When two smaller solids are joined, the surfaces involved in the join will not be part of the
surface of the composite solid. For example, if a square-based pyramid is stacked on top of a
cube of the same base dimensions, the two faces in the join (one of the cube’s faces and the
pyramid’s base) are inside and therefore not part of the surface of the solid.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 196 15/05/12 12:09 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Find the total surface area of the object shown.
6 cm
10 cm
10 cm
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 The solid shown is made up of a cube and TSA = 5 ì area of a square

a square pyramid. Only five faces of the + 4 ì area of a triangle
cube are on the surface. Likewise, only
triangular faces of the pyramid are on the
surface. Thus, the TSA of the solid consists
of five identical squares and four identical
triangles.
2 Find the area of the square face with the side Asquare = l2, where l = 10
length 10 cm. A = 102
A = 100 cm2
3 Draw a triangular face and work out its

height using Pythagoras’ theorem. 6 cm
h
5 cm
a2 = c2 - b2, where a = h, b = 5, c = 6
h2 = 62 - 52
h2 = 36 - 25
h2 = 11
h = 3.32 cm
1
4 Find the area of the triangular face with the Atriangle = 2
bh, where b = 10, h = 3.32
base of 10 cm and the height of 3.32 cm. 1
= ì 10 ì 3.32
2
= 16.6 cm2
5 Find the TSA of the solid by adding the area TSA = 5 ì 100 + 4 ì 16.6
of 5 squares and 4 triangles together. = 500 + 66.4
= 566.4 cm2
■■ Applications of surface area are commonly seen when calculating the amount of material
needed for building structures such as silos, tanks, swimming pools, or painting or tiling
surfaces.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 7
The silo shown at right is to be built from

metal. The top portion of the silo is a cylinder
of diameter 4 m and height 8 m. The bottom
part of the silo is a cone of slant height 3 m.
The silo has a circular opening of radius 30 cm 4m 8m
on the top.
a What area of metal (to the nearest m2) is
required to build the silo?
3m
b If it costs $12.50 per m2 to cover the surface
with an anti-rust material, how much will it
cost to cover the silo completely?
THINK WRITE
a 1 The surface area of the silo consists of a TSA = area of a large circle
the circle (the top face), the curved part - area of a small circle
of the cylinder and the curved part of the + area of curved section of a cylinder
cone. The circular opening is cut out from + area of curved section of a cone
the top face and thus its area must be
subtracted.
2 To find the area of the top face, subtract Area of top face = Alarge circle - Asmall circle
the area of the small circle from the area = p r2 - p R2
of the larger circle. Let R = radius of 4
where r = 2 = 2 m and R = 30 cm = 0.3 m.
small circle.
Area of top face = p ì 22 - p ì 0.32
= 12.28 m2
3 The middle part of the silo is the curved Area of curved section of cylinder = 2p rh
part of a cylinder. Find its area. (Note that where r = 2, h = 8.
in the formula TSAcylinder = 2p r 2 + 2p rh, Area of curved section of cylinder
the curved part is represented by 2p rh.) =2ìpì2ì8
= 100.53 m2
4 The bottom part of the silo is the curved Area of curved section of cone = p rs
section of a cone. Find its area. (Note that where r = 2, s = 3.
in the formula TSAcone = p r 2 + p rs, the Area of curved section of cone = p ì 2 ì 3
curved part is given by prs.) = 18.85 m2
5 Find the total surface area of the silo TSA = 12.28 + 100.53 + 18.85
by finding the sum of the surface areas = 131.66 m2
calculated above.
6 Write the worded answer. (Remember The area of metal required is 132 m2.
that we were asked to give the answer to
the nearest square metre.)
b To find the total cost, multiply the total surface b Cost = 132 ì $12.50
area of the silo by the cost of an anti-rust material = $1650.00
per m2 ($12.50).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 198 15/05/12 12:09 PM

REMEMBER
1. The total surface area (TSA) of a figure is the sum of the areas of all its outside
faces.
2. TSA of a cube with the length of the edge, l, is given by the formula TSA = 6l 2
3. TSA of a rectangular prism with dimensions l, w and h is TSA = 2(lw + lh + wh)
4. TSA of a closed cylinder of radius, r, and height, h, is TSA = 2p rh + 2p r 2
5. TSA of a sphere of radius, r, is TSA = 4p r 2
6. TSA of a closed cone with radius, r, and slant height, s, is TSA = p rs + p r 2
7. TSA of a pyramid = area of base + area of triangular faces
8. TSA of a composite shape can be found by calculating the areas of individual faces that
are on the surface and then adding them together
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS Note: Where appropriate, give the answers correct to 1 decimal place.
eBook plus 1 Find the total surface areas of the solids shown.
Activity 6-B-1
a b
Introducing
surface area
doc-5038
Activity 6-B-2
Surface
area problems 10 cm 8 cm
doc-5039
Activity 6-B-3
Tricky surface c 12 cm d 2m
area problems
doc-5040
15 cm 1.5 m
20 cm 3m
eBook plus
Digital doc 2 WE 3 Find the total surface area of the solids shown below.
SkillSHEET 6.3 a b
doc-5238 r=3m 21 cm
r 30 cm
c 0.5 m d
12 cm
2.1 m
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 199 15/05/12 12:09 PM

3 WE 4 Find the total surface area of the cones below.

a b
8 cm
20 cm
12 cm
14 cm
4 WE5 Find the total surface area of the solids below.

a b
12 cm 2.5 m
15 cm 1.5 m
c d
9.1 cm
8 cm 14 cm
6 cm
10 cm
5.1 cm 7.2 cm 7 cm
5 Find the surface areas of the following.

a A cube of side length 1.5 m
b A rectangular prism 6 m ì 4 m ì 2.1 m
c A cylinder of radius 30 cm and height 45 cm, open at one end
d A sphere of radius 28 mm
e An open cone of radius 4 cm and slant height 10 cm
f A square pyramid of base length 20 cm and slant edge 30 cm
6 WE 6 Find the total surface area of the objects shown.
a 8 cm b
10 cm
5 cm
12 cm
5 cm
20 cm 20 cm
35 cm
12 cm
c d
2 cm
m
5 cm 2.5 c
3 cm
3 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 200 15/05/12 12:09 PM

e f 5 cm
3.5 cm
20 cm
10 cm
12 cm
15 cm
7 MC A cube has a total surface area of 384 cm2. The length of the edge of the cube is:
A 9 cm B 8 cm C 7 cm
D 6 cm E 5 cm
UNDERSTANDING
8 Open cones are made from nets cut from a large sheet of paper 1.2 m ì 1.0 m. If a cone has
a radius of 6 cm and a slant height of 10 cm, how many cones can be made from the sheet?
(Assume there is 5% wastage of paper.)
9 A steel girder is to be painted. Calculate the area of the surface to be painted.
2 cm
2 cm
5 cm
20 cm
120 cm
2 cm
12 cm
10 WE 7 The greenhouse shown below is to be built using shade cloth. It has a wooden door of
dimensions 1.2 m ì 0.5 m.
a Find the total area of shade cloth needed to complete
the greenhouse.
b Find the cost of the shade cloth at $6.50 per m2.
2.5 m 5m
3m
11 A cylinder is joined to a hemisphere to make a cake holder, as shown below. The surface of the
cake holder is to be chromed at 5.5 cents per cm2.
a Find the total surface area to be chromed.
b Find the cost of chroming the cake holder.
10 cm
15 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 201 15/05/12 12:09 PM

12 A soccer ball is made up of a number of hexagons sewn together 2 cm

on its surface. Each hexagon can be considered to have dimensions
as shown in the diagram.
y
a Calculate q o. x
b Calculate the values of x and y exactly.
c Calculate the area of the trapezium in the diagram.
d Hence, determine the area of the hexagon.
e If the total surface area of the soccer ball is 192 3 cm2, how q
many hexagons are on the surface of the soccer ball?
13 a Determine the exact total surface area of a sphere with radius 2 metres.
An inverted cone with side length 4 metres is placed on top of the sphere so that the
centre of its base is 0.5 metres above the centre of the sphere.
b Find the radius of the cone exactly.
c Find the area of the curved surface of the cone exactly.
d What are the exact dimensions of a box that could precisely fit the cone connected to
the sphere?
Complete the following question without the aid of a calculator.
14 The table shown below is to be varnished (including the base of each leg). The table top has a
thickness of 180 mm and the cross-sectional dimension of the legs is 50 mm by 50 mm.
80 cm
60 cm
70 cm
A friend completes the calculation as shown. Assume there are no simple calculating errors.
Analyse the working presented and justify if the TSA calculated is correct.
Table top 0.96 2 ì (0.8 ì 0.6)

Legs 0.416 16 ì (0.52 ì 0.05)
Table top edging 0.504 0.18 ì (2(0.8 + 0.6))
TSA 1.88 m2
15 A shower recess with dimensions 1500 mm (back wall) by 900 mm (side wall) needs to have
the back and two side walls tiled to a height of 2 m.
a Calculate the area to be tiled in m2.
b Justify that 180 tiles (including those that need to be cut) of dimension 20 cm by 20 cm
will be required. Disregard the grout.
c Evaluate the cheapest option of tiling; $1.50/tile or $39.50/box, where a box covers 1 m2
or tiles of dimension 30 cm by 30 cm costing
$3.50/tile.
16 If the surface area of a sphere to a cylinder is in the REFLECTION  
eBook plus
ratio 4 : 3 and the sphere has a radius of 3a, show Why is calculating the total surface
Digital doc that if the radius of the cylinder is equal to its area of a composite solid more
WorkSHEET 6.2 difficult than for a simple solid such
doc-5242 height, then the radius of the cylinder is 3 3a . as a rectangular prism or cylinder?
2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 202 15/05/12 12:09 PM

6C Volume
■■ The volume of a 3-dimensional figure is the amount of space it takes up.
eBook plus
■■ The units for volume are mm3, cm3 and m3.
Digital doc ■■ To revise the technique of converting from one unit to another, complete SkillSHEET 6.4.
SkillSHEET 6.4
doc-5239
Volume of prisms and other shapes
■■ The volume of any solid with a uniform cross-sectional area is given by the formula: V = AH,
where A is the cross-sectional (or base) area and H is the height of the solid.
■■ The height of a prism simply means the dimension perpendicular to a solid’s cross-sectional
base. This is often the physical height, depth or length.
■■ Prisms are the most recognisable solids with uniform cross-sectional areas. A prism is a
solid shape with identical opposite ends joined by straight edges, forming a congruent
cross-section.
■■ In some cases a special formula can be developed from the formula V = AH.
eBook plus Cube Volume = AH

= area of a square ì height
Interactivity l
Maximising
= l2 ì l
the volume = l3
of a cuboid
int-1150
Rectangular prism Volume = AH

h = area of a rectangle ì height
= lwh
w
l
Cylinder r Volume = AH
= area of a circle ì height
= p r 2h
h
Triangular prism Volume = AH

= area of a triangle ì height
1
= 2 bh ì H
H
h
b
eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.5 ■■ To see a worked example and revise the volume of a cube and rectangular prism, complete
doc-5240 SkillSHEET 6.5.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 203 15/05/12 12:09 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Find the volumes of the following shapes.

a 14 cm b 5 cm
20 cm 4 cm
10 cm
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula for the volume of the a V = pr 2h

cylinder.
2 Identify the value of the pronumerals. r = 14, h = 20
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = p ì 142 ì 20
ö 12 315.04 cm3
1
b 1 Write the formula for the volume of a b V = 2 bh ì H
triangular prism.
2 Identify the value of the pronumerals. b = 4, h = 5, H = 10
(Note h is the height of the triangle and H is
the depth of the prism.)
1
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 2 ì 4 ì 5 ì 10
= 100 cm3
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
a What effect will doubling each of the side lengths of a cube have on its volume (in comparison
with the original shape)?
b What effect will halving the radius and doubling the height of a cylinder have on its volume
(in comparison with the original shape)?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula for the volume of the a V = l3

cube.
2 Identify the value of the pronumeral. lnew = 2l
Note: Doubling is the same as multiplying
by 2.
3 Substitute and evaluate. Vnew = (2l)3
4 Compare the answer obtained in step 3 = 8l 3
with the volume of the original shape.
5 Write your answer. Doubling each side length of a cube will
increase the volume by a factor of 8; that is,
the new volume will be 8 times as large as
the original volume.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 204 15/05/12 12:09 PM

b 1 Write the formula for the volume of the b V = p r2h

cylinder.
r
2 Identify the value of the pronumerals. rnew = , hnew = 2h
Note: Halving is the same as dividing by 2. 2
2
3 Substitute and evaluate. Vnew = p  r  2h
 2 
r2
=π× × 2h
24
π r 2h
=
2
1
4 Compare the answer obtained in step 3 = 2 pr2h
with the volume of the original shape.
5 Write your answer. Halving the radius and doubling the height
of a cylinder will decrease the volume by a
factor of 2; that is, the new volume will be
half as large as the original volume.
Volume of spheres
4
■■ Volume of a sphere of radius, r, can be calculated using the formula: V = 3 p r 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find the volume of a sphere of radius 9 cm. Answer correct to 1 decimal place.
THINK WRITE
4
1 Write the formula for the volume of a sphere. V = 3 pr3
2 Identify the value of r. r=9
4
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 3 ì p ì 93
= 3053.6 cm3
Volume of pyramids
■■ Pyramids (including cones) are not prisms as the cross-section changes
from the base upwards.
■■ It has been found that the volume of a pyramid is one-third the volume
of an equivalent prism with the same base area and height.
1
Volume of a pyramid = 3 AH
H
Area of base = A
base
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 205 15/05/12 12:09 PM

■■ Since a cone is a pyramid with a circular cross-section, the volume of

a cone is one-third the volume of a cylinder with the same base area and
height.
1
Volume of a cone = 3 AH
1
= 3 p r 2h
h
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Find the volume of each of the following solids.

a b
12 cm
10 cm
8 cm
8 cm
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Write the formula for the volume of a cone. a V = 3 p r2h
2 Identify the values of r and h. r = 8, h = 10
1
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 3 ì p ì 82 ì 10
= 670.21 cm3
1
b 1 Write the formula for the volume of a b V= AH
3
pyramid.
2 Find the area of the square base. A = l2 where l = 8
A = 82
= 64 cm2
3 Identify the value of H. H = 12
4 Substitute and evaluate. 1
V = 3 ì 64 ì 12
= 256 cm3
Volume of composite figures

■■ A composite solid is made from smaller solids.
■■ The volume of each smaller solid component can be calculated separately.
■■ The volume of a composite solid is calculated by summing the volumes of each of the smaller
solid components.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 206 15/05/12 12:09 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Calculate the volume of the composite solid shown.
3m
1.5 m
THINK WRITE
1 The given solid is a composite figure, made up of a V = Volume of cube + Volume of pyramid
cube and a square-based pyramid.
2 Find the volume of the cube. Vcube = l 3 where l = 3
Vcube = 33
= 27 m3
1
3 Write the formula for finding the volume of a Vsquare-based pyramid = 3 AH
square-based pyramid.
4 Find the area of the square base. A = l2
= 32
= 9 m2
5 Identify the value of H. H = 1.5
1
6 Substitute and evaluate the volume of the pyramid. Vsquare-based pyramid = 3 ì 9 ì 1.5
= 4.5 m3
7 Find the total volume by adding the volume of the V = 27 + 4.5
cube and pyramid. = 31.5 m3
Capacity
■■ Capacity measures the amount of liquid that will fit in a 3-dimensional figure.
■■ The units for capacity are: mL, L and kL.
■■ Volume and capacity are fundamentally related:
1 cm3 = 1 mL
1000 cm3 = 1 L
1 m3 = 1000 L = 1 kL
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Find the capacity (in litres) of a rectangular

aquarium, which is 50 cm long, 30 cm wide and
40 cm high.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 207 15/05/12 12:09 PM

THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for the volume of a rectangular V = lwh

prism.
2 Identify the values of the pronumerals. l = 50, w = 30, h = 40
3 Substitute and evaluate. V = 50 ì 30 ì 40
= 60 000 cm3
4 State the capacity of the container in millilitres, using 60 000 cm3 = 60 000 mL
1 cm3 = 1 mL.
5 Since 1 L = 1000 mL, to convert millilitres to litres = (60 000 ó1000) L
divide by 1000. = 60 L
6 Give a worded answer. The capacity of the fish tank is 60 L.
REMEMBER
1. Volume of a 3-dimensional figure is the amount of space it takes up

2. Volume is measured in cubic units
3. Volume of a prism = AH, where A is the cross-sectional area (or base) and H is the
height of the prism
4. The height of a prism is the dimension perpendicular to the prism’s cross-section.
4
5. Volume of a sphere = 3 p r3
1
6. Volume of a cone = 3 p r2h
1
7. Volume of a pyramid = 3 AH
8. Capacity of a 3-dimensional figure is the amount of liquid that will fit in that figure.
9. The relationship between the volume of a solid and the capacity (amount of liquid it
can hold) is: 1 cm3 = 1 mL, 1000 cm3 = 1 L.
10. 1 m3 = 1000 L = 1 kL
EXERCISE
6C Volume
FLUENCY
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS 1 Find the volumes of the following prisms.
eBook plus a b
Activity 6-C-1
Review of volume
and capacity
doc-5041
Activity 6-C-2
Volume and capacity 3 cm 4.2 m
problem
doc-5042 c 12 cm d
Activity 6-C-3
Tricky volume and
15 cm
capacity problems 4.2 cm
doc-5043
20 cm 7.5 cm
3 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 208 15/05/12 12:09 PM

eBook plus
2 Calculate the volume of each of these solids.
a b
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 6.5
doc-5240 18 mm
15 cm
[Base area: 25 mm2] [Base area: 24 cm2]
3 WE 8 Find the volume of each of the following. Give each answer correct to 1 decimal place
where appropriate.
a b
14 cm 2.7 m
12 cm 1.5 m
c d
12 mm
10 cm
7 cm 8 mm
8 cm 6 mm
4 WE 10 Find the volume of a sphere (correct to 1 decimal place) with a radius of:
a 1.2 m
b 15 cm
c 7 mm
d 50 cm.
5 WE 11a Find the volume of each of the following cones, correct to 1 decimal place.
a b
22 mm
10 cm 20 mm
6 cm
6 WE 11b Find the volume of each of the following pyramids.

a 12 cm b
42 cm
24 cm
10 cm
30 cm
c
12 cm
m
18 c
16 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 209 15/05/12 12:09 PM

7 WE 12 Calculate the volume of each of the following composite solids correct to 2 decimal
places where appropriate.
a 8 cm b
10 cm
5 cm
12 cm
5 cm
20 cm 20 cm
35 cm
12 cm
c d
2 cm
m
5 cm 2.5 c
3 cm

3 cm

e f 5 cm
3.5 cm
20 cm
10 cm
12 cm

15 cm
UNDERSTANDING
8 WE 9 a What effect will tripling each of the side lengths of a cube have on its volume
b What effect will halving each of the side lengths of a cube have on its volume
c What effect will doubling the radius and halving the height of a cylinder have
on its volume (in comparison with the original shape)?
d What effect will doubling the radius and dividing the height of a cylinder by 4 have on its
volume (in comparison with the original shape)?
e What effect will doubling the length, halving the width and tripling the height of a
rectangular prism have on its volume (in comparison with the original shape)?
9 MC A hemispherical bowl has a thickness of 2 cm and an outer
2 cm
diameter of 25 cm. If the bowl is filled with water to its full capacity,
the volume of the water will be:
A 1526.04 cm3
B 1308.33 cm3
C 3052.08 cm3
D 2616.66 cm3 25 cm
3
E 2424.52 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 210 15/05/12 12:09 PM

10 Tennis balls of diameter 8 cm are packed in a box 40 cm ì 32 cm ì 10 cm,
as shown. What is unused space in the box?
11 WE 13 A cylindrical water tank has a diameter of 1.5 m and a height of 2.5 m. What is the
capacity (in litres) of the tank?
12 A monument in the shape of a rectangular pyramid (base length of 10 cm, base width of 6 cm,
height of 8 cm), a spherical glass ball (diameter of 17 cm) and conical glassware (radius of
14 cm, height of 10 cm) are packed in a rectangular prism of dimensions 30 cm by 25 cm by
20 cm. The extra space in the box is filled up by a packing material. What volume of packing
material is required?
13 A swimming pool is being constructed so that it is the
8m
upper part of an inverted square-based pyramid.
a Calculate H.
b Calculate the volume of the pool.
3m
c How many 6 m3 bins will be required to take the dirt away?
d How many litres of water are required to fill this pool? 4m
e How deep is the pool when it is half-filled? H
14 A soft drink manufacturer is looking to repackage cans of soft drink

to minimise the cost of packaging while keeping the volume constant.
Consider a can of soft drink with a capacity of 400 mL.
a If the soft drink was packaged in a spherical can:
i find the radius of the sphere
ii find the total surface area of this can.
b If the soft drink was packaged in a cylindrical can with a radius of 3 cm:
i find the height of the cylinder
c If the soft drink was packaged in a square-based pyramid with a base side length of 6 cm:
i find the height of the pyramid
d Which can would you recommend the soft drink manufacturer use for its repackaging?
Why?
REASONING
15 Marion has mixed together ingredients for a cake. The recipe requires a baking tin that is
cylindrical in shape with a diameter of 20 cm and a height of 5 cm.
Marion only has a tin as shown and a muffin tray consisting of 24 muffin cups.
Each of the muffin cups in the tray is a portion of a cone as shown in the diagram.
Should Marion use the tin or muffin tray? Explain.
8 cm 12 cm
4 cm 10 cm
15 cm
8 cm
4 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 211 15/05/12 12:09 PM

16 Nathaniel and Andrew are going to the snow for

survival camp. They plan to construct an igloo,
consisting of an entrance and hemispherical structure, 1.5 m
as shown. Nathaniel and Andrew are asked to redraw
their plans and increase the size of the liveable region
(hemispherical structure) so that the total volume
(including the entrance) is doubled. How can this be
1.5 m
achieved? 1m
17 Sam is having his 16th birthday party and wants to make an ice trough to keep drinks cold. He
has found a square piece of sheet metal with a side length of 2 metres. He cuts squares, of side
length x metres, from each corner then bends the sides of the remaining sheet.
When four squares of the appropriate side length are cut from the corners the capacity of
the trough can be maximised at 588 litres. Explain how Sam should proceed to maximise the
capacity of the trough.
18 The Hastings family house has a rectangular roof with dimensions 17 m ì 10 m providing
eBook plus
water to three water tanks, each with a radius of 1.25 m and a height of 2.1 m.
Digital doc When rain falls it is measured in millimetres. This means that this is the depth to which the
WorkSHEET 6.3 water would fill if it were captured. Show that approximately 182 millimetres of rain must
doc-6733
fall on the roof to fill the tanks.
REFLECTION  
Volume is measured in cubic units.

How is this reflected in the volume
formula?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 212 15/05/12 12:09 PM

Summary
Area
■■ Area is a measure of the amount of surface within the boundaries of a figure.
■■ The units for measuring area are mm2, cm2, m2 and km2.
■■ Land area is usually measured in hectares (ha) where 1 ha = 10 000 (or 104) m2.
■■ Areas can be calculated by using formulas that are specific to the given plane figure.
■■ Areas of composite figures can be calculated by adding the areas of the simple figures making
the composite figure or by calculating the area of an extended figure and subtracting the extra
area covered.
Total surface area

■■ The total surface area (TSA) of a figure is the sum of the areas of all its outside faces.
■■ TSA of a cube with the length of the edge, l, is given by the formula TSA = 6l 2
■■ TSA of a rectangular prism with dimensions l, w and h is TSA = 2(lw + lh + wh)
■■ TSA of a closed cylinder of radius, r, and height, h, is TSA = 2p rh + 2p r 2
■■ TSA of a sphere of radius, r, is TSA = 4p r 2
■■ TSA of a closed cone with radius, r, and slant height, s, is TSA = p rs + p r 2
■■ TSA of a pyramid = area of base + area of triangular faces
■■ TSA of a composite shape can be found by calculating the areas of individual faces that are
on the surface and then adding them together
Volume
■■ Volume of a 3-dimensional figure is the amount of space it takes up
■■ Volume is measured in cubic units
■■ Volume of a prism = AH, where A is the cross-sectional area (or base) and H is the height of
the prism
■■ The height of a prism is the dimension perpendicular to the prism’s cross-section.
■■ Volume of a sphere = 43 πr 3
■■ Volume of a cone = 13 πr 2h
■■ Volume of a pyramid = 13 AH
■■ Capacity of a 3-dimensional figure is the amount that will fit in that figure
■■ The relationship between the volume of a solid and the capacity
(amount of liquid it can hold) is: 1 cm3 = 1 mL, 1000 cm3 = 1 L.
■■ 1 m3 = 1000 L = 1 kL

Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 213 15/05/12 12:10 PM

Chapter review
FLUENCY 5 Find the areas of the following plane figures. All
measurements are in cm.
1 If all measurements are in cm, the area of the figure
a
below is:
7 3
14
12
A 16.49 cm2 B 39.25 cm2
C 9.81 cm2 D 23.56 cm2
b 10
E 30 cm2
2 If all measurements are in 6
centimetres, the area of the 8
figure at right is: 5
A 50.73 cm2 15
B 99.82 cm2 5
C 80.18 cm2 c
D 90 cm2
E 119.45 cm2 5 3
7
3 If all measurements are in centimetres, the shaded
area of the figure below is:
5
30è
d
2 3
7
6
A 3.93 cm2 B 11.52 cm2
C 388.77 cm2 D 141.11 cm2
e
E 129.59 cm2
10
4 The total surface area of the solid below is:
12
28 mm
f
40 mm
80è 10
A 8444.6 mm2 B 9221 mm2
C 14146.5 mm2 D 50271.1 mm2
E 16609.5 mm2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 214 15/05/12 12:10 PM

6 Find the areas of the following figures. All 8 Find the total surface area of each of the following
measurements are in cm. solids.
a a 35 cm
15
50 cm
20
b
12 b 14 mm
10
20 mm
c
c 10
6 8 cm
10
5
20
7 Find the shaded area in each of the following. All

d 14 cm
measurements are in cm. 12 cm
a Q QO = 15 cm
SO = 8 cm
18 cm
PR = 18 cm
O
7 cm 10 cm
R
P S
e 10 mm
b 10 mm
14 mm 4 mm
12.5
[closed at both ends]
12 cm
c
5
10 cm
10 cm
10 cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 215 15/05/12 12:10 PM

9 Find the volume of each of the following. g

11 cm
a
9 cm
7 cm
h
30 cm
b
7 cm
20 cm
8 cm 42 cm
12 cm
i
c 35 cm 12 mm
40 cm
PROBLEM SOLVING
1 A rectangular block of land 4 m ì 25 m is

d
surrounded by a concrete path 1 m wide.
a Calculate the area of the path.
b Calculate the cost of concreting at $45 per
3.7 m square metre.
2 What effect will tripling the radius and dividing
1m the height of a cylinder by 6 have on its volume
3 What effect will halving the length, tripling the
e
width and doubling the height of a rectangular
10 cm prism have on its volume (in comparison with the
original shape)?
30 cm 4 A cylinder of radius 14 cm and height 20 cm is
joined to a hemisphere of radius 14 cm to form a
12 cm bread holder.
a Find the total surface area.
f b Find the cost of chroming the bread holder on
the outside at $0.05 per cm2.
12 cm c What is the storage volume of the bread
holder?
d How much more space is in this new bread
holder than the one it is replacing, which had a
10 cm quarter circle end with a radius of 18 cm and a
length of 35 cm?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 216 15/05/12 12:10 PM

5 Bella Silos has two rows of silos for storing wheat. d How much wheat can be stored altogether in
Each row has 16 silos and all the silos are identical, these silos?
with a cylindrical base (height of 5 m, diameter e Wheat is pumped from these silos into cartage
of 1.5 m) and conical top (diameter of 1.5 m, height trucks with rectangular containers 2.4 m wide,
of 1.1 m). 5 m long and 2.5 m high. How many truckloads
a What is the slant height of the conical tops? are necessary to empty all the silos?
b What is the total surface area of all the silos? f If wheat is pumped out of the silos at
c What will it cost to paint the silos if one litre 2.5 m3/min, how long will it take to fill one
of paint covers 40 m2 at a bulk order price of truck?
$28.95 per litre?
eBook plus
Interactivities
int-2843
int-2841
Crossword Chapter 6
int-2842
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 217 15/05/12 12:10 PM

Chapter opener • Activity 6-B-2 (doc-5039): Surface area problems
(page 199)
Digital doc
• Activity 6-B-3 (doc-5040): Tricky surface area
• Hungry brain activity Chapter 6 (doc-5235)
problems (page 199)
(page 183) • SkillSHEET 6.3 (doc-5238): Total surface area of
Are you ready? cubes and rectangular prisms (page 193, 199)
• WorkSHEET 6.2 (doc-5242): Surface area (page 202)
• SkillSHEET 6.1 (doc-5236): Conversion of area units 6C Volume
• SkillSHEET 6.2 (doc-5237): Using a formula to find Digital docs
the area of a common shape • Activity 6-C-1 (doc-5041): Review of volume and
• SkillSHEET 6.3 (doc-5238): Total surface area of capacity (page 208)
cubes and rectangular prisms • Activity 6-C-2 (doc-5042): Volume and capacity
• SkillSHEET 6.4 (doc-5239): Conversion of volume problem (page 208)
units • Activity 6-C-3 (doc-5043): Tricky volume and
• SkillSHEET 6.5 (doc-5240): Volume of cubes and capacity problems (page 208)
rectangular prisms • SkillSHEET 6.4 (doc-5239): Conversion of volume
6A Area
units (page 203)
• SkillSHEET 6.5 (doc-5240): Volume of cubes and
Digital docs rectangular prisms (page 203, 209)
• Activity 6-A-1 (doc-5035): Review of area • WorkSHEET 6.3 (doc-6733): Volume (page 212)
(page 189) Interactivity
• Activity 6-A-2 (doc-5036): Area problems • Maximising the volume of a cuboid (int-1150)
(page 189) (page 203)
• Activity 6-A-3 (doc-5037): Tricky area problems
(page 189) Chapter review
• SkillSHEET 6.1 (doc-5236): Conversion of area units Interactivities(page 217)
(page 185) • Test Yourself Chapter 6 (int-2843): Take the end-of-
• SkillSHEET 6.2 (doc-5237): Using a formula to find chapter test to test your progress
the area of a common shape (page 189) • Word search Chapter 6 (int-2841): an interactive
• WorkSHEET 6.1 (doc-5241): Area (page 193) word search involving words associated with this
eLesson chapter
• Heron’s formula (eles-0177) (page 186) • Crossword Chapter 6 (int-2842): an interactive
crossword using the definitions associated with the
6B Total surface area chapter
Interactivity
• TSA-sphere (int-2782) (page 194) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
Digital docs www.jacplus.com.au
• Activity 6-B-1 (doc-5038): Introducing surface area
(page 199)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_06.indd 218 15/05/12 12:10 PM

7
7A Expanding algebraic expressions
7B Factorising expressions with three terms
7C Factorising expressions with two or four
terms
7D Factorising by completing the square
7E Mixed factorisation
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?

1 List what you know about quadratic
Quadratic expressions. Create a concept map to

show your list.
expressions then with a small group.

quadratic expressions.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 7
doc-5243
OPENING QUESTION
What distance does the dolphin cover in

one leap?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 219 15/05/12 12:13 PM

Are you ready?

eBook plus Expanding brackets

1 Expand each of the following.
Digital doc
a 4(3x + 5) b 5x(2x - 3) c -4x(3 - 2x)
SkillSHEET 7.1
doc-5244
eBook plus Expanding a pair of brackets

2 Expand each of the following expressions.
Digital doc
a (x + 2)(x - 2) b (2x - 3)2 c (3x + 2)(2x - 5)
SkillSHEET 7.2
doc-5245
eBook plus Factorising by taking out the highest common factor

3 Factorise each of the following expressions.
Digital doc
a 4x2 + 8x b -15x2 - 9x c 6x2 - x
SkillSHEET 7.3
doc-5246
eBook plus Factorising by taking out a common binomial factor

4 Factorise each of the following.
Digital doc
a 3x(x + 2) + 4(x + 2) b 4x(x - 1) - (x - 1) c -2x(x + 3) - (x + 3)
SkillSHEET 7.4
doc-5247
eBook plus Simplifying algebraic fractions

5 Write each of the following fractions in simplest form.
Digital doc
( x + 3)( x − 2) x+7 3 x ( x + 2)2 ( x + 3)
SkillSHEET 7.7 a b c
doc-5248 ( x − 2) ( x − 3)( x + 7)2 6 x ( x + 3)2 ( x + 2)
eBook plus Simplifying surds

Digital doc
SkillSHEET 7.8 a 24 b 3 12 c 4 243
doc-5249
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 220 15/05/12 12:13 PM


Binomial expansion
■■ When an expression contains two sets of brackets, expansion is known as binomial
expansion.
■■ Consider the expression (a + b)(c + d). Its expansion can be represented visually by this area
model.
a + b
c ac bc
+
d ad bd
This diagram visually shows that (a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd

factorised expanded
form form
■■ Generally, binomial expressions contain only one variable, together with constants.
■■ Expansion of the binomial expression (x + 3)(x + 2) can be shown visually by this area model.
x + 3
x ì x = x2 3ìx
x
= 3x
+
3ì2
2 2 ì x = 2x
=6
Expressed mathematically this is:

(x + 3)(x + 2) = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
= x2 + 5x + 6
factorised expanded
form form
■■ It is not necessary to draw this area model when expanding binomial expressions. The shortcut
is to simply multiply each term in the first bracket by each term in the second bracket.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Expand each of the following.

a (x + 3)(x + 2) b (x - 7)(6 - x)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (x + 3)(x + 2)

2 Multiply the terms in the second bracket by the first term = x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2)
in the first bracket and then the second term in the first
bracket.
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying each term in the = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6
brackets by the term outside the bracket.
4 Collect like terms. = x2 + 5x + 6
Chapter 7 Quadratic expressions 221
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 221 15/05/12 12:13 PM

b 1 Write the expression. b (x - 7)(6 - x)
2 Multiply the terms in the second bracket by the first term = x(6 - x) - 7(6 - x)
in the first bracket and then the second term in the first
bracket. Notice that the minus sign stays with the second
term in the first bracket (-7).
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying each term in the brackets = 6x - x2 - 42 + 7x
by the term outside the bracket. Remember to change the sign
when the term outside the bracket is negative.
4 Collect like terms. = -x2 + 13x - 42
FOIL method
■■ The word FOIL provides us with an acronym for the expansion of a binomial product.
F
■■ First: multiply the first terms in each bracket together
(x + a)(x - b)
O
■■ Outer: multiply the two outer terms
(x + a)(x - b)
I
■■ Inner: multiply the two inner terms
(x + a)(x - b)
L
■■ Last: multiply the last terms in each bracket together
(x + a)(x - b)
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Use FOIL to expand (x + 2)(x - 5).
THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. (x + 2)(x - 5)
2 Multiply the first term in each bracket, then the outer terms, the = x ì x + x ì -5 + 2 ì x + 2 ì -5
inner terms and finally the last two terms. = x2 - 5x + 2x - 10
3 Collect like terms. = x2 - 3x - 10
■■ If there is a term outside the pair of brackets, expand the brackets and then multiply each term
of the expansion by that term.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Expand 3(x + 8)(x + 2).

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. 3(x + 8)(x + 2)
2 Use FOIL to expand the pair of brackets. = 3(x2 + 2x + 8x + 16)

3 Collect like terms within the brackets. = 3(x2 + 10x + 16)
4 Multiply each of the terms inside the brackets by the term = 3x2 + 30x + 48
outside the brackets.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 222 15/05/12 12:13 PM

■■ This method can be extended to include three or even more sets of brackets. In such
examples, expand two brackets first and then multiply the result by the third bracket.
Expanding expressions that are perfect squares

■■ A special binomial expansion involves the expansion of a perfect square.
■■ The expansion of (a + b)2 can be represented visually by this area model.
a + b
a ì a = a2 aìb
a
= ab
+
bìb
b a ì b = ab
= b2
(a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ab + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
■■ This result tells us that to expand a perfect square:
1. square the first term
2. multiply the two terms together and then double them
3. square the last term.
■■ Similarly (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2. (Try this expansion for yourself.)
■■ Any perfect square can also be expanded using FOIL; however, this method provides a
quicker alternative for performing such expansions.
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
or
(a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Expand and simplify each of the following.

a (2x - 5)2 b -3(2x + 7)2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (2x - 5)2

2 Expand using the rule = (2x)2 - 2 ì 2x ì 5 + (5)2
(a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2. = 4x2 - 20x + 25
b 1 Write the expression. b -3(2x + 7)2
2 Expand the brackets using the rule = -3[(2x)2 + 2 ì 2x ì 7 + (7)2]
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2. = -3(4x2 + 28x + 49)
3 Multiply every term inside the brackets = -12x2 - 84x - 147
by the term outside the brackets.
Difference of two squares rule

■■ This rule results from the expansion of an expression of the form (a + b)(a - b).
Note: The brackets can be in any order.
■■ The two brackets contain the same terms, but one has the terms added and the other subtracted.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 223 15/05/12 12:13 PM

■■ The area model for the difference of two squares rule shows a large square with a smaller
square removed from it.
■■ Consider the larger square has a side length of a, while the smaller square has a side
length of b.
a a a
b a2 - b2 a-b a-b
a a2 a
- b b2 = = b
b
a-b a-b
The final figure shows two rectangles with dimensions a by (a - b) and b by (a - b).
So, a(a - b) + b(a - b) = a2 - b2
To factorise, take out a common factor of (a - b) on the left-hand side.
(a - b)(a + b) = a2 - b2
Alternatively, the difference of two squares rule is usually written as (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Expand and simplify each of the following.

a (3x + 1)(3x - 1)
b 4(2 x - 7)(2 x + 7)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a (3x + 1)(3x - 1)

2 Expand using the rule (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2. = (3x)2 - (1)2
= 9x2 - 1
b 1 Write the expression. b 4(2x - 7)(2x + 7)
2 Expand using the difference of two squares rule. = 4[(2x)2 - (7)2]
= 4(4x2 - 49)
3 Multiply every term inside the brackets by the = 16x2 - 196
term outside the brackets.
REMEMBER
1. When expanding an algebraic expression with:

(a) one bracket — multiply each term inside the bracket by the term outside the bracket
(b) two brackets — multiply the terms in order: First terms, Outer terms, Inner terms
and then Last terms (FOIL)
(c) a term outside the two brackets — expand the pair of brackets first, then multiply
each term of the expanded expression by the term outside the brackets
(d) three brackets — expand any two of the brackets and then multiply the expanded
expression by the third bracket.
2. Perfect squares rule: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 or (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
3. Difference of two squares rule: (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 224 15/05/12 12:13 PM

EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 Expand each of the following.
eBook plus a 2(x + 3) b 4(x - 5) c 3(7 - x)
d -(x + 3) e x(x + 2) f 2x(x - 4)
Activity 7-A-1
g 3x(5x - 2) h 5x(2 - 3x) i 2x(4x + 1)
Review of expansion
doc-5044 j 2x2(2x - 3) k 3x2(2x - 1) l 5x2(3x + 4)
Activity 7-A-2 2 WE 1, 2 Expand each of the following.
Expanding algebraic a (x + 3)(x - 4) b (x + 1)(x - 3) c (x - 7)(x + 2)
expressions
doc-5045
d (x - 1)(x - 5) e (2 - x)(x + 3) f (x - 4)(x - 2)
Activity 7-A-3
g (2x - 3)(x - 7) h (x - 1)(3x + 2) i (3x - 1)(2x - 5)
Expanding more j (3 - 2x)(7 - x) k (5 - 2x)(3 + 4x) l (11 - 3x)(10 + 7x)
complex algebraic
3 WE 3 Expand each of the following.
expressions
doc-5046 a 2(x + 1)(x - 3) b 4(2x + 1)(x - 4) c -2(x + 1)(x - 7)
d 2x(x - 1)(x + 1) e 3x(x - 5)(x + 5) f 6x(x - 3)(x + 3)
g -2x(3 - x)(x - 3) h -5x(2 - x)(x - 4) i 6x(x + 5)(4 - x)
eBook plus
a (x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 2) b (x - 3)(x - 1)(x + 2) c (x - 5)(x + 1)(x - 1)
d (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) e (2x - 1)(x + 1)(x - 4) f (3x + 1)(2x - 1)(x - 1)
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 7.1
5 Expand each of the following and simplify.
doc-5244 a (x + 2)(x - 1) - 2x b 3x - (2x - 5)(x + 2)
c (2x - 3)(x + 1) + (3x + 1)(x - 2) d (3 - 2x)(2x - 1) + (4x - 5)(x + 4)
e (x + 1)(x - 7) - (x + 2)(x - 3) f (x - 2)(x - 5) - (x - 1)(x - 4)
g (x - 3)(x + 1) + 3x h ( 2 - 3x)( 3 + 2x) - 5x
eBook plus
6 MC a (3x - 1)(2x + 4) expands to:
A 6x2 + 10x - 4 B 5x2 - 24x + 3 C 3x2 + 2x - 4
Digital doc D 6x2 - 10x - 4 E 6x2 - 4
SkillSHEET 7.2
b -2x(x - 1)(x + 3) expands to:
doc-5245
A x2 + 2x - 3 B -2x2 - 4x + 6 C -2x3 - 4x2 + 6x
D -2x3 + 4x2 - 6x E -2x3 - 3
7 MC The expression (x - 1)(x - 3)(x + 2) is not the same as:
A (x – 3)(x – 1)(x + 2)
B (x + 3)(x – 1)(x – 2)
C (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 3)
D (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 3)
E (x – 3)(x + 2)(x – 1)
8 WE 4a Expand and simplify each of the following.
a (x - 1)2 b (x + 2)2 c (x + 5)2
d (4 + x)2 e (7 - x)2 f (12 - x)2
g (3x - 1) 2 h (12x - 3)2 i (5x + 2)2
j (2 - 3x) 2 k (5 - 4x)2 l (1 - 5x)2
9 WE 4b Expand and simplify each of the following.
a 2(x - 3)2 b 4(x - 7)2 c 3(x + 1)2
d -(2x + 3) 2 e -(7x - 1)2 f 2(2x - 3)2
g -3(2 - 9x) 2 h -5(3 - 11x)2 i -4(2x + 1)2
10 WE 5 Expand and simplify each of the following.
a (x + 7)(x - 7) b (x + 9)(x - 9) c (x - 5)(x + 5)
d (x - 1)(x + 1) e (2x - 3)(2x + 3) f (3x - 1)(3x + 1)
g (7 - x)(7 + x) h (8 + x)(8 - x) i (3 - 2x)(3 + 2x)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 225 15/05/12 12:13 PM

UNDERSTANDING
11 The length of the side of a rectangle is (x + 1) cm and the width is (x - 3) cm.
a Find an expression for the area of the rectangle.
b Simplify the expression by expanding.
c If x = 5 cm, find the dimensions of the rectangle and, hence, its area.
12 Chickens are kept in a square enclosure with sides measuring x m. The number of chickens is
increasing and so the size of the enclosure is to have 1 metre added to one side and 2 metres to
the adjacent side.
a Draw a diagram of the original enclosure.
b Add to the first diagram or draw another one to show the new enclosure. Mark the lengths
on each side on your diagram.
c Find an expression for the area of the new enclosure.
d Simplify the expression by removing the brackets.
e If the original enclosure had sides of 2 metres, find the area of the original square and
then the area of the new enclosure.
13 A jewellery box has a square base with sides measuring (x + 2) cm and is 5 cm high.
a Write an expression for the area of the base of the box.
b Write an expression for the volume of the box.
(V = area of base ì height)
c Simplify the expression by expanding the brackets.
d If x = 8 cm, find the volume of the box in cm3.
e Find the area of the lid of the box and, hence, find how many
1-cm square tiles could be inlaid in the lid.
14 In redesigning their courtyard, Linda and Finn removed a section of
paving as shown in the diagram below.
x
Section of
paving x+1
removed
x+3
3x + 5
a Write down an expression, in terms of x, for the area of the section of paving that is
removed. Write your answer in expanded form.
b Find the area of paving that remains in terms of x.
c A circular fountain is to be placed in the section created from removing the paving.
i Write down the largest possible radius, in terms of x, for the circular fountain.
ii I f the area of the circular fountain is 1.77 m2, determine the value of x. Write your
answer to the nearest centimetre.
REASONING
15 Find the values a, b, c, d and e that make the following identity true.
4x2(x − 2)(x + 3) + 3 = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e
16 A tissue box has the side lengths shown at right.
a Write an expression in factorised form for the
volume of the box. (x - 3) cm
b Find the volume when x is 5 cm. (x - 1) cm
c What is the volume when x = 1 (x + 2) cm
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 226 15/05/12 12:13 PM

d Is it possible for x to be zero? Justify your answer.

e What is the smallest number x can be so that all the measurements are feasible?
f Find the volume of the box when x is 4 cm.
g If the volume of the box is 120 cm3, find the value
of x. (Hint: Try substituting values of x into the REFLECTION  
expression until you find the correct one.) Why does the Difference of Two
h Write the expression for volume in expanded form. Squares rule have that name?
Use this to calculate the volume when x = 6 cm.
7B Factorising expressions with

three terms
■■ An expression with three terms is called a trinomial.
■■ Quadratic trinomials can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c where the highest power is a
squared term.
Factorising ax2 + bx + c when a = 1

■■ Factorising is the inverse of expanding, so the area model for x + 3
expanding a binomial can be considered in reverse.
■■ Looking in reverse, it can be seen that x x2 3x
x + 3x + 2x + 6 = (x + 3)(x + 2).
2
+
■■ This means that the factorised form of x2 + 5x + 6 is (x + 3)(x + 2). 2 2x 6
■■ The technique is to find two factors of 6 which add to 5 (3 and 2).
■■ Note that there are other factors of 6 (6 and 1, -3 and -2, -6 and
-1), but there is only one pair of factors which adds to 5.
■■ Obviously, it is not necessary to draw an area model to factorise every trinomial.
■■ The following method works for every possible trinomial (when a = 1) that can
be factorised.
Step 1. Place the trinomial in the correct order or standard form x2 + bx + c.
Step 2. Find all the factor pairs of c (the constant term).
Step 3. Identify the factor pair whose sum equals b.
Step 4. Express the trinomial x2 + bx + c in factor form; that is, (x + __)(x + __).
■■ Remember to first check for and take out any common factors. As always, you can check your
answer by expanding the brackets to re-create the original expression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Factorise each of the following.

a x2 - x - 20
b -2x2 + 16x - 14
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x2 - x - 20

2 Check for a common factor (none).
3 Identify the factors of x2 as x and -20: 5 + -4 = 1, -5 + 4 = -1
x and find the factors of the last
term (-20) which add to equal the
coefficient of the middle term (-1).
4 Write the expression and its x2 - x - 20 = (x - 5)(x + 4)
factorised form.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 227 15/05/12 12:13 PM

b 1 Write the expression. b -2x2 + 16x - 14

2 Check for a common factor. (-2 = -2(x2 - 8x + 7)
can be taken out.)
3 Identify the factors of x2 as x and 7: 1 + 7 = 8, -1 + -7 = -8
x and find the factors of the last
term (7) which add to equal the
coefficient of the middle term (-8).
4 Write the expression and its -2(x2 - 8x + 7) = -2(x - 1)(x - 7)
factorised form.
Factorising ax2 + bx + c when a ò 1

■■ If the coefficient of x2 is not 1, and there is not a common factor, we factorise the
expression by splitting up the x-term so that the expression can then be factorised by
grouping.
■■ A quadratic trinomial of the form ax2 + bx + c is broken up into four terms by finding two
numbers that multiply to give ac and add to give b.
■■ Alternatively, the cross-product method could be used. This is illustrated in the following
worked example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Factorise 10x2 - x - 2 by:

a grouping b the cross-product method
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression and check for a a 10x2 - x - 2

common factor (none).
2 Find the factor pair of ac (-20) which -20: 2 + -10 = -8, -4 + 5 = 1, 4 + -5 = -1
gives a sum of b (-1).
3 Rewrite the expression by breaking 10x2 - x - 2
the x-term into two terms using the = 10x2 + 4x - 5x - 2
factor pair from step 2.
4 Factorise by grouping terms. = 2x(5x + 2) - (5x + 2)
= (5x + 2)(2x - 1)
b 1 Write the expression. b 10x2 - x - 2
2 List the factor pairs of the first term Factors of Sum the
(10x2) and the last term (-2). 10x2 -2 cross-products Result
Note: There are four possible factor 2x -2 2x -2 2x - 10x = -8x
pairs for the first term: x and 10x; 2x
5x 1 5x 1
and 5x; -x and -10x; -2x and -5x. In
some cases, all variations will have to 2x 1 2x 1 -4x + 5x = x
be tested to obtain the required middle 5x -2 5x -2
term. 2x 2 2x 2 -2x + 10x = 8x
3 Calculate the sum of each cross- 5x -1 5x -1
product pair until you find the 2x -1 2x -1
combination that produces the middle 4x – 5x = -x
5x 2 5x 2
term from the original expression
(shown in red).
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4 Express the trinomial in factor form. 10x2 - x - 2 = (2x - 1)(5x + 2)

Note: The first pair of brackets contain
the first row entries and the second pair
of brackets contain the second row
entries that produce the middle term
from the original expression.
REMEMBER
1. When factorising any expression, look for a common factor first.

2. To factorise a quadratic trinomial when the coefficient of x2 is 1 (that is, x2 + bx + c):
(a) identify the factor pair of c whose sum is equal to b
(b) express the trinomial in factor form, x2 + bx + c = (x + __)(x + __).
3. To factorise a quadratic trinomial when the coefficient of x2 is not 1 (that is,
ax2 + bx + c where a ò 1):
(a) identify the factor pair of ac whose sum is equal to b
(b) rewrite the expression by breaking the x-term into two terms using the factor pair
from the previous step
(c) factorise the resulting expression by grouping.
Alternatively, the cross-product method could be used to solve any quadratic trinomial.
4. All factorisations can be checked by expanding to re-create the original expression.
EXERCISE
7B Factorising expressions with three terms
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 6a Factorise each of the following.
eBook plus a x2 + 3x + 2 b x2 + 4x + 3 c x2 + 10x + 16
d x + 8x + 16
2 e x2 - 2x - 3 f x2 - 3x - 4
Activity 7-B-1
Introducing quadratic
g x - 11x - 12
2 h x2 - 4x - 12 i x2 + 3x - 4
factorisation j x + 4x - 5
2 k x2 + 6x - 7 l x2 + 3x - 10
doc-5047 m x2 - 4x + 3 n x2 - 9x + 20 o x2 + 9x - 70
Activity 7-B-2
Practising quadratic 2 WE 6b Factorise each of the following.
factorisation a -2x2 - 20x - 18 b -3x2 - 9x - 6 c -x2 - 3x - 2
doc-5048 d -x - 11x - 10
2 e -x2 - 7x - 10 f -x2 - 13x - 12
Activity 7-B-3 g -x - 7x - 12
2 h -x2 - 8x - 12 i 2x2 + 14x + 20
Tricky quadratic
factorisation j 3x + 33x + 30
2 k 5x2 + 105x + 100 l 5x2 + 45x + 100
doc-5049 3 Factorise each of the following.
a a2 - 6a - 7 b t2 - 6t + 8 c b2 + 5b + 4
d m2 + 2m - 15 e p2 - 13p - 48 f c2 + 13c - 48
g k2 + 22k + 57 h s2 - 16s - 57 i g2 - g - 72
j v2 - 28v + 75 k x2 + 14x - 32 l x2 - 19x + 60
4 MC a To factorise -14x2 - 49x + 21, the first step is to:
A find factors of 14 and 21 that will add to -49
eBook plus
B take out 14 as a common factor
Digital doc C take out -7 as a common factor
SkillSHEET 7.5
D find factors of 14 and -49 that will add to make 21
doc-5250
E take out -14 as a common factor
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b The expression 42x2 - 9x - 6 can be completely factorised to:

A (6x - 3)(7x + 2) B 3(2x - 1)(7x + 2) C (2x - 1)(21x + 6)
D 3(2x + 1)(7x - 2) E 42(x - 3)(x + 2)
5 MC When factorised, (x + 2)2 – (y + 3)2 equals:
A (x + y – 2)(x + y + 2) B (x – y – 1)(x + y – 1) C (x – y – 1)(x + y + 5)
D (x – y + 1)(x + y + 5) E (x + y – 1)(x + y + 2)
6 Which method of factorising is the most appropriate for each of the following expressions?
a Factorising using common factors
b Factorising using the difference of two squares rule
c Factorising by grouping
d Factorising quadratic trinomials
i 5x2 + 3x − 2 ii 25a2 − b2 iii x2 + 6x + 9 – y2
2
iv 16x – 25x v 4x – 4y + x – y
2 2 vi x2 + 14x - 32
7 WE 7 Factorise each of the following using an appropriate method.
a 2x2 + 5x + 2 b 2x2 - 3x + 1 4x2 - 17x - 15
c
d 4x + 4x - 3
2 e 2x2 - 9x - 35 3x2 + 10x + 3
f
g 6x2 - 17x + 7 h 12x2 - 13x - 14 10x2 - 9x - 9
i
j 20x2 + 3x - 2 k 12x2 + 5x - 2 15x2 + x - 2
l
8 Factorise each of the following, remembering to look for a common factor first.
a 4x2 + 2x - 6 b 9x2 - 60x - 21
c 72x + 12x - 12
2 d -18x2 + 3x + 3
e -60x + 150x + 90
2 f 24ax2 + 18ax - 105a
g -8x + 22x - 12
2 h -10x2 + 31x + 14
i -24x + 35x - 4
2 j -12x2 - 2xy + 2y2
k -30x + 85xy + 70y
2 2 l -600x2 - 780xy - 252y2
UNDERSTANDING
9 Consider the expression (x - 1)2 + 5(x - 1) - 6.
a Substitute w = x - 1 in this expression.
b Factorise the resulting quadratic.
c Replace w with x - 1 and simplify each factor. This is the factorised form of the original
expression.
10 Use the method outlined in question 9 to factorise each of the following expressions.
a (x + 1)2 + 3(x + 1) - 4
b (x + 2)2 + (x + 2) - 6
c (x - 3)2 + 4(x - 3) + 4
d (x + 3)2 + 8(x + 3) + 12
e (x - 7)2 - 7(x - 7) - 8
f (x - 5)2 - 3(x - 5) - 10
11 Factorise x2 + x - 0.75.
12 Students decide to make Valentine’s Day cards. The total area of
each card is equal to (x2 - 4x - 5) cm2.
a Factorise the expression to find the dimensions of the cards in
terms of x.
b Write down the length of the shorter side in terms of x.
c If the shorter sides of a card are 10 cm in length and the
longer sides are 16 cm in length, find the value of x.
d Find the area of the card proposed in part c.
Happy
e If the students want to make 3000 Valentine’s Day cards, how
Valentine's
much cardboard will be required? Give your answer in terms Day
of x.
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13 The area of a rectangular playground is given by the general expression (6x2 + 11x + 3) m2
where x is a positive whole number.
a Find the length and width of the play ground in terms of x.
b Write an expression for the perimeter of the playground.
c If the perimeter of a particular playground is 88 metres, find x.
REASONING
14 Cameron wants to build an in-ground ‘endless’ pool. Basic models have a depth of 2 metres
and a length triple the width. A spa will also be attached to the end of the pool.
a The pool needs to be tiled. Write an expression for the surface area of the empty pool
(that is, the floor and walls only).
b The spa needs an additional 16 m2 of tiles. Write an expression for the total area of tiles
needed for both the pool and the spa.
c Factorise this expression.
d Cameron decides to use
tiles that are selling at a
discount price, but there
are only 280 m2 of the tile
available. Find the maximum
dimensions of the pool if the
width is in whole metres.
e What area of tiles is actually
needed to construct the
pool?
f What volume of water can the
pool hold?
15 A quilt is made by repeating the patch at right.
y b y
The letters indicate the colours of fabric that make up the patch —
yellow, black and white. The yellow and white pieces are square and
the black pieces are rectangular. Many of these patches are sewn b w b
together in rows and columns to make a pattern. The finished quilt,
made from 100 patches, is a square with an area of 1.44 m2. y b y
An interesting feature is created when the blocks are sewn together:
each colour forms a shape. The shape and its area are exactly the same
for each colour. (The feature appears throughout the quilt, except at the edges.)
a Determine the size of each yellow, black and white
fabric piece in a patch. REFLECTION  
eBook plus b How much (in m2) of each of the different colours In your own words, describe
Digital doc would be needed to construct the quilt? (Ignore how you would factorise a
WorkSHEET 7.1 seam allowances.) quadratic trinomial.
doc-5251 c Sketch a section of the finished product.
7C Factorising expressions with two

or four terms
■■ Factorising to the inverse or opposite of expanding.
■■ The factorised form shows the expression as a product of factors, while the expanded form
shows the expression as a sum or difference of terms.
■■ The most straightforward type of factorisation is where a common factor is removed from
the expression. Once this has been done, we need to consider the number of terms in the
expression to see whether other types of factorisation may be possible to further simplify.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 231 15/05/12 12:13 PM

Factorising expressions of the type a2 - b2

■■ Recall the area model for the difference of two squares rule.
■■ When factorising an algebraic expression of the type a2 - b2, follow these steps.
1. Look for a common factor first. If there is one, factorise by taking it out.
2. Rewrite the expression showing the two squares and identifying the a and b parts of the
expression.
3. Factorise, using the rule a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b).
WORKED EXAMPLE 8

a 4x2 - 9
b 7x2 - 448
c x2 - 17
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a 4x2 - 9

2 Check for a common factor and write as two = (2x)2 - 32
perfect squares.
3 Factorise using a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b). = (2x + 3)(2x - 3)
b 1 Write the expression. b 7x2 - 448
2 Check for a common factor and take it out. = 7(x2 - 64)
3 Write the terms in the bracket as two perfect = 7(x2 - 82)
squares.
4 Factorise using a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b). = 7(x + 8)(x - 8)
c 1 Write the expression. c x2 - 17
2 Check for a common factor and write as two = x2 - ( 17 )2
perfect squares. In this case, a surd needs to be
used to rewrite 17 as a perfect square.
3 Factorise using a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b). = (x + 17 )(x - 17 )
Factorising expressions with four terms

■■ If there are four terms to be factorised, look for a common factor first.
■■ Then group the terms in pairs and look for a common factor in each pair. It may be that a new
common factor emerges as a bracket (common binomial factor).
WORKED EXAMPLE 9

a x - 4y + mx - 4my
b x2 + 3x - y2 + 3y
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression and look for a common a x - 4y + mx - 4my

factor. (There isn’t one.)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 232 15/05/12 12:13 PM

2 Group the terms so that those with common = (x - 4y) + (mx - 4my)
factors are next to each other.
3 Take out a common factor from each group (it = 1(x - 4y) + m(x - 4y)
may be 1).
4 Factorise by taking out a common binomial = (x - 4y)(1 + m)
factor. The factor (x - 4y) is common to both
groups.
b 1 Write the expression and look for a common b x2 + 3x - y2 + 3y
factor.
2 Group the terms so that those with common = (x2 - y2) + (3x + 3y)
factors are next to each other.
3 Factorise each group. = (x + y)(x - y) + 3(x + y)
4 Factorise by taking out a common binomial = (x + y)(x - y + 3)
factor. The factor (x + y) is common to both
groups.
■■ In Worked example 9, grouping occurred in pairs. This is known as grouping ‘two and two’.
■■ Now we will look at grouping a different combination, known as grouping ‘three and one’.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Factorise the following expression: x2 + 12x + 36 - y2.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression and look for a common factor. x2 + 12x + 36 - y2

2 Group the terms so that those that can be factorised = (x2 + 12x + 36) - y2
are next to each other.
3 Factorise the quadratic trinomial. = (x + 6)(x + 6) - y2
This is the form of a perfect square. = (x + 6)2 - y2
4 Factorise the expression using = (x + 6 + y)(x + 6 - y)
a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b).
REMEMBER
1. To factorise an expression with two terms:

(a) take out any common factors
(b) check whether the difference of two squares rule can be used.
2. To factorise an expression with four terms:
(b) check whether they can be grouped using the ‘two and two’ method or the
‘three and one’ method.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 233 15/05/12 12:13 PM

EXERCISE
7C Factorising expressions with two or four terms
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 Factorise each of the following by taking out a common factor.
eBook plus a x2 + 3x b x2 - 4x c 3x2 - 6x
d 4x + 16x
2 e 9x2 - 3x f 8x - 8x2
Activity 7-C-1
g 12x - 3x 2 h 8x - 12x2 i 8x2 - 11x
Factorising
expressions with two 2 Factorise each of the following by taking out a common binomial factor.
or four terms a 3x(x - 2) + 2(x - 2) b 5(x + 3) - 2x(x + 3) c (x - 1)2 + 6(x - 1)
doc-5050 d (x + 1) - 2(x + 1)
2 e (x + 4)(x - 4) + 2(x + 4) f 7(x - 3) - (x + 3)(x - 3)
Activity 7-C-2
More factorising
3 WE 8a Factorise each of the following.
expressions with two a x2 - 1 b x2 - 9 c x2 - 25
or four terms d x - 100
2 e y2 - k2 f 4x2 - 9y2
doc-5051 g 16a2 - 49 h 25p2 - 36q2 i 1 - 100d 2
Activity 7-C-3
Advanced factorising
4 WE 8b Factorise each of the following.
expressions with two a 4x2 - 4 b 5x2 - 80 c ax2 - 9a
or four terms d 2b - 8d
2 2 e 100x2 - 1600 f 3ax2 - 147a
doc-5052 g 4px - 256p
2 h 36x2 - 16 i 108 - 3x2
5 MC a If the factorised expression is (x + 7)(x - 7), then the original expression must have
been:
A x2 - 7 B x2 + 7 C x2 - 49
eBook plus
D x2 + 49 E x2 - 14x + 49
Digital doc  x 3  x 3
b If the factorised expression is  − + then the original expression must have
4 5   4 5 
SkillSHEET 7.3
doc-5246 been: 
x2 ( 3 )
2
x2 3 x2 9
A − B − C −
4 5 16 25 4 ( )2
5
x2 ( 3 )
2
x2 9
D − E −
4 25 16 ( )2
5
c The factorised form of 64x2 - 9y2 is:
A (64x + 9y)(64x - 9y) B (8x + 3y)(8x - 3y)
C (8x - 3y)(8x - 3y) D (8x + 3y)(8x + 3y)
E (16x + 3y)(16x - 3y)
eBook plus
6 MC Which of the following expressions would be factorised by grouping ‘two and two’?
Digital doc A x2 – a2 + 12a − 36 B x2 −7x −10
SkillSHEET 7.4 C 2x − 6x − xy + 3y
2 D (s – 5)2 – 25(s + 3)2
doc-5247
E (r + 5) – (r + 3)(r + 5)
7 WE 8c Factorise each of the following.
a x2 - 11 b x2 - 7 c x2 - 15
d 4x - 13
2 e 9x - 19
2 f 3x2 - 66
g 5x - 15
2 h 2x - 4
2 i 12x2 - 36
a (x - 1)2 - 4 b (x + 1)2 - 25 c (x - 2)2 - 9
d (x + 3) - 16
2 e 49 - (x + 1) 2 f 36 - (x - 4)2
g (x - 1) - (x - 5)
2 2 h 4(x + 2) - 9(x - 1)
2 2 i 25(x - 2)2 - 16(x + 3)2
9 WE 9a Factorise each of the following.
a x - 2y + ax - 2ay b 2x + ax + 2y + ay
c ax - ay + bx - by d 4x + 4y + xz + yz
e ef - 2e + 3f - 6 f mn - 7m + n - 7
g 6rt - 3st + 6ru - 3su h 7mn - 21n + 35m - 105
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 234 15/05/12 12:13 PM

i 64 - 8j + 16k - 2jk j 3a2 - a2b + 3ac - abc

k 5x2 + 10x + x2y + 2xy l 2m2 - m2n + 2mn - mn2
a xy + 7x - 2y - 14 b mn + 2n - 3m - 6
c pq + 5p - 3q - 15 d s2 + 3s - 4st - 12t
e a2b - cd - bc + a2d f xy - z - 5z2 + 5xyz
11 WE 9b Factorise each of the following.
a a2 - b2 + 4a - 4b b p2 - q2 - 3p + 3q
c m2 - n2 + lm + ln d 7x + 7y + x2 - y2
e 5p - 10pq + 1 - 4q2 f 49g2 - 36h2 - 28g - 24h
12 WE 10 Factorise each of the following.
a x2 + 14x + 49 - y2 b x2 + 20x + 100 - y2
c a2 - 22a + 121 - b2 d 9a2 + 12a + 4 - b2
e 25p2 - 40p + 16 - 9t2 f 36t2 - 12t + 1 - 5v
13 MC a In the expression 3(x - 2) + 4y(x - 2), the common binomial factor is:
A 3 + 4y B 3 - 4y C x
D -x + 2 E x - 2
b Which of the following terms is a perfect square?
A 9 B (x + 1)(x - 1) C 3x2
D 5(a + b) 2 E 25x
c Which of the following expressions can be factorised using grouping?
A x2 - y2 B 1 + 4y - 2xy + 4x2 C 3a2 + 8a + 4
D x + x + y - y
2 2 E 2a + 4b - 6ab + 18
14 MC When factorised, 6(a + b) − x(a + b) equals:
A 6 – x(a + b) B (6 – x)(a + b) C 6(a + b – x)
D (6 + x)(a – b) E (6 + x)(a + b)
UNDERSTANDING
15 The area of a rectangle is (x2 - 25) cm2.
a Factorise the expression.
b Using the factors, find a possible length and width of the rectangle.
c If x = 7 cm, find the dimensions of the rectangle.
d Hence, find the area of the rectangle.
e If x = 13 cm, how much bigger would the area of this rectangle be?
REASONING
16 A circular garden of diameter 2r m
is to have a gravel path laid around
it. The path is to be 1 m wide.
a Find the radius of the garden.
b Find the radius of the circle that
includes both the garden and the
path.
c Find the area of the garden in terms
of r.
d Find the area of the garden and
path together in terms of r, using
the formula for the area of a circle.
e Write an equation to find the area of the path, then write your equation in fully factorised
form.
f If the radius of the garden is 5 m, use the answer to part e to find the area of the path,
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 235 15/05/12 12:13 PM

17 A roll of material is (x + 2) metres wide. Annie buys (x + 3) metres and Bronwyn buys
5 metres.
a Write an expression, in terms of x, for the area of
each piece of material.
b If Annie has bought more material than Bronwyn,
write an expression for how much more she has than
Bronwyn.
c Factorise and simplify this expression.
d Find the width of the material if Annie has 5 m2 more
than Bronwyn.
e How much material does each person have? explain
your answer.
REFLECTION  
What do you always check for first when factorising?

eBook plus
■■ A quadratic equation can be written in general form: y = ax2 + bx + c and in turning point
form: y = a(x – h)2 + k.
Interactivity ■■ A process called ‘completing the square’ makes it possible to change from the general form
Completing
the square
to the turning point form. This process is useful when a quadratic equation will not factorise
int-2783 easily and the turning point and the x-intercepts are required.
■■ Completing the square relies on the knowledge of perfect squares and the difference of two
squares. Recall:
Perfect squares: (x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x - a)2 = x2 – 2ax + a2
Difference of two squares: x2 – a2 = (x - a)(x + a)
Suppose we want to factorise x2 + 4x + 2. There are no factors of 2 which add to x
give 4, so we cannot factorise using the cross-product method. Instead, the x x2
first two terms can be used to ‘build’ a perfect square.
Start with a square, x2, as shown at right.
x 2
x x2 2x
To show 4x, add two rectangles, each with an area of 2x.
2 2x
We now have two sides of a square with side length (x + 2).

Two units with a value of 1 are added to make x2 + 4x + 2. x 2
There are 2 units missing. x x2 2x
This square, then, can be expressed as: x2 + 4x + 2 = (x + 2)2 - 2
This can then be factorised using surds and the difference of two
squares rule, with 2 expressed as ( 2 )2 . 1 1
2 2x
2
(x + 2)2 - 2 = (x +
2)2 - ( 2)
= (x + 2 - 2)(x + 2 + 2)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 236 15/05/12 12:13 PM

The factors include surds. This means that the expression has been factorised over the Real
Number field. If the factors are not surds they have been factorised over the Rational Number
field.
■■ To complete the square algebraically, we add the square of half the coefficient of x and, to
compensate for adding this number, we need to subtract the same number to keep the equation
equivalent. For example:
x2 + 6x + 1 = x2 + 6x + (3)2 + 1 - (3)2
= (x + 3)2 + 1 - 9
= (x + 3)2 - 8
Using the difference of two squares rule, this factorises to:
= (x + 3 - 8)(x + 3 + 8).
■■ Odd coefficients of x are more difficult to deal with; Fractions or decimals will need to
be used.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Factorise each of the following by first completing the square.

a x2 - 8x + 5
b x2 + 5x + 1
c 2x2 + 8x - 3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x2 - 8x + 5
( )
2
1
2 Identify the coefficient of x, halve it and 2
× −8 = (-4)2 = 16
square the result.
3 Add the result of step 2 to the expression, = x2 - 8x + 16 + 5 - 16
placing it after the x-term. To balance the
expression, we need to subtract the same
amount as we have added.
4 Insert brackets around the first three terms to = (x2 - 8x + 16) - 11
group them and then simplify the remaining
terms.
5 Factorise the first three terms to produce a = (x - 4)2 - 11
perfect square.
6 Rewrite the expression as the difference of = (x - 4)2 - ( 11)2
two squares.
7 Factorise using the difference of two squares = (x - 4 + 11)(x - 4 - 11)
rule.
b 1 Write the expression. b x2 + 5x + 1
( ) =( )
2 2
2 Identify the coefficient of x, halve it and 1 5 25
2
×5 = 4
2
square the result.
25 25
3 Add the result of step 2 to the expression, = x 2 + 5x + 4
+1− 4
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 237 15/05/12 12:13 PM

4 Insert brackets around the first three terms

to group them and simplify the remaining
(
= x 2 + 5 x + 25
4
25
+ 44 − 4 )
terms. (Convert them to equivalent
fractions.)
= (x 2
+ 5x +
25
4 )− 21
4
( )−
2
5 21
5 Factorise the first three terms to produce a = x+ 2 4
perfect square.
2 2
 5   21 
6 Rewrite the expression as the difference of =x+  −
two squares.  2   2 
 5 21   5 21 
7 Factorise using the difference of two squares = x+ +   x+ −
rule.  2 2  2 2 
 5 + 21   5 − 21 
or  x +   x+
 2  2 
c 1 Write the expression. c 2x2 + 8x − 3

2 Factorise the expression. (
= 2 x 2 + 4 x − 32 )
( )
2
1
×4 = (2)2 = 4
square the result.
4 Add the result of step 3 to the expression,
(
= 2 x 2 + 4 x + 4 − 32 − 4 )
5 Insert brackets around the first three terms
to group them and simplify the remaining
( )
= 2 ( x 2 + 4 x + 4) − 32 − 4
= 2 ( ( x + 4 x + 4) − )
terms. (Convert them to equivalent 2 11
fractions.) 2
6 Factorise the first three terms to produce a = 2 ( ( x + 2) − ) 2 11

2
perfect square.

( ) 
2
7 Rewrite the expression as the difference of = 2  ( x + 2)2 − 11
two squares.  2
8 Factorise using the difference of two squares

rule. Leave the factor of 2 outside the
(
= 2 ( x + 2) − )((x + 2) + )
11
2
11
2
difference of two squares expression.

 22   22 
9 Rationalise the surd denominator. = 2  ( x + 2) −   ( x + 2) +
 2  2 
 4 − 22   4 + 22 
or 2  x +   x+
 2  2 
■■ Remember that you can expand the brackets to check your answer.
■■ If the coefficient of x2 ò 1, factorise the expression before completing the square.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 238 15/05/12 12:13 PM

REMEMBER
1. If a quadratic trinomial cannot be factorised by finding an integer factor pair, then

factorise using the completing the square method:
(a) if possible, take out a common factor and write it outside the brackets
(b) halve the value of the coefficient of the x-term and square the result
(c) add this number to the expression, writing it after the x-term. Balance the
expression by also inserting the necessary subtraction.
(d) factorise the first three terms as a perfect square and then simplify the remaining
terms
(e) rewrite the expression as the difference of two squares
(f) factorise using the difference of two squares rule.
2. All factorisations can be checked by expanding to the original expression.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 Complete the square for each of the following expressions.
eBook plus a x2 + 10x b x2 + 6x
c x - 4x
2 d x2 + 16x
Activity 7-D-1
e x - 20x
2 f x2 + 8x
Introducing
completing the g x - 14x
2 h x2 + 50x
square i x - 2x
2
doc-5053
2 WE 11a Factorise each of the following by first completing the square.
Activity 7-D-2
Practising a x2 - 4x - 7 b x2 + 2x - 2
completing the c x - 10x + 12
2 d x2 + 6x - 10
square e x + 16x - 1
2 f x2 - 14x + 43
doc-5054
g x + 8x + 9
2 h x2 - 4x - 13
Activity 7-D-3
i x - 12x + 25
2
Completing the
square 3 WE 11b Factorise each of the following by first completing the square.
doc-5055
a x2 - x - 1 b x2 - 3x - 3
c x + x - 5
2 d x2 + 3x - 1
e x + 5x + 2
2 f x2 + 5x - 2
g x - 7x - 1
2 h x2 - 9x + 13
i x - x - 3
2
4 WE 11c Factorise each of the following by first looking for a common factor and then
completing the square.
a 2x2 + 4x - 4 b 4x2 - 8x - 20
c 5x2 + 30x + 5 d 3x2 - 12x - 39
e 5x2 - 30x + 10 f 6x2 + 24x - 6
g 3x2 + 30x + 39 h 2x2 - 8x - 14
i 6x2 + 36x - 30
UNDERSTANDING
5 Which method of factorising is the most appropriate for each of the following expressions?
a Factorising using common factors
b Factorising using the difference of two squares rule
c Factorising by grouping
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 239 15/05/12 12:13 PM

Factorising quadratic trinomials

d
Completing the square
e
i 3x2 − 8x − 3 ii 49m2 − 16n2 iii x2 + 8x + 4 – y2
2
iv 7x – 28x v 6a – 6b + a – b
2 2 vi x2 + x – 5
vii (x – 3) + 3(x – 3) – 10
2 2
viii x – 7x – 1
6 MC a To complete the square, the term which should be added to x2 + 4x is:
A 16 B 4 C 4x D 2 E 2x
b To factorise the expression x - 3x + 1, the term that must be both added and
2
subtracted is:
3 9
A 9 B 3 C 3x D E 4
2
7 MC The factorised form of x2 – 6x + 2 is:
A (x + 3 - 7)(x + 3 + 7) B (x + 3 - 7 )(x - 3 + 7 )
C (x - 3 - 7)(x - 3 - 7) D (x - 3 - 7 )(x + 3 + 7 )
E (x - 3 + 7)(x -3 - 7)
REASONING
8 A square measuring x cm in side length has a cm added to its
length and b cm added to its width. The resulting rectangle REFLECTION  
has an area of (x2 + 6x + 3) cm2. Find the values of a and b, Why is this method called
correct to 2 decimal places. completing the square?
■■ The following exercise will help you to practise recognising the appropriate method of
factorising needed for a given expression.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS Factorise each of the following expressions in questions 1–45.
eBook plus 1 3x + 9 2 x2 + 4x + 4 - 9y2 3 x2 - 36
Activity 7-E-1
4 x2 - 49 5 5x2 - 9x - 2 6 15x - 20y
Mixed factorisation 7 5c + de + dc + 5e 8 5x2 - 80 9 -x2 - 6x - 5
doc-5056
Activity 7-E-2
10 x2 + x - 12 11 mn + 1 + m + n 12 x2 - 7
Harder mixed 13 16x2 - 4x 14 5x2 + 60x + 100 15 18 + 9x - 6y - 3xy
factorisation
doc-5057 16 x2 - 8x + 16 - y2 17 4x2 +8 18 fg + 2h + 2g + f h
Activity 7-E-3 19 x2 -5 20 10mn - 5n + 10m - 5 21 x2 + 6x + 5
Advanced mixed
factorisation 22 x2 - 10x - 11 23 x2 - 4 24 -5a + bc + ac - 5b
doc-5058
25 xy - 1 + x - y 26 3x2 + 5x + 2 27 7x2 - 28
28 -4x2 - 28x - 24 29 2p - rs + pr - 2s 30 3x2 - 27
31 -3u + tv + ut - 3v 32 x2 - 11 33 12x2 - 7x + 1
34 (x - 1)2 - 4 35 (x + 2)2 - 16 36 (2x + 3)2 - 25
37 3(x + 5)2 - 27 38 25 - (x - 2)2 39 4(3 - x)2 - 16y2
40 (x + 2y)2 - (2x + y)2 41 (x + 3)2 - (x + 1)2 42 (2x - 3y)2 - (x - y)2
43 (x + 3)2 + 5(x + 3) + 4 44 (x - 3)2 + 3(x - 3) - 10 45 2(x + 1)2 + 5(x + 1) + 2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 240 15/05/12 12:13 PM

UNDERSTANDING
eBook plus
46 Consider the following product of algebraic fractions.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 7.6 x 2 + 3 x − 10 x2 + 4x + 4
doc-5252 ×
x2 − 4 x2 − 2x − 8
a Factorise the expression in each numerator and denominator.
b Cancel factors common to both the numerator and the denominator.
c Simplify the expression as a single fraction.
47 Use the procedure in question 46 to factorise and simplify each of the following.
eBook plus
x2 − 4x + 3 x 2 + 5x + 6 3 x 2 − 17 x + 10 x2 − 1
Digital doc a × b ×
SkillSHEET 7.7 x 2 − 4 x − 12 x2 − 9 6 x 2 + 5x − 6 x2 − 6x + 5
doc-5248
6 x − 12 3x + 6 6x2 − x − 2 2x2 + x − 1
c × d ×
2
x −4 x ( x − 5) 2 x 2 + 3 x + 1 3 x 2 + 10 x − 8
x2 + 4x − 5 x 2 + 10 x + 25 x2 − 7x + 6 x 2 − x − 12
e ÷ f ÷
x2 + x − 2 x2 + 4x + 4 x2 + x − 2 x2 − 2x − 8
4 ab + 8a 5ac + 5a p2 − 7 p p2 + p − 6
g ÷ 2 h ÷
eBook plus (c − 3) c − 2c − 3 2
p − 49 2
p + 14 p + 49
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 7.2 m 2 + 4 m + 4 − n2 2m 2 + 4 m − 2mn d 2 − 6d + 9 − 25e 2 4 d − 12 − 20 e
doc-5254 i ÷ j ÷
2
4 m − 4 m − 15 2
10 m + 15m 2
4 d − 5d − 6 15d − 10
REFLECTION  
When an expression is fully factorised,

what should it look like?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 241 15/05/12 12:13 PM

Summary
Expanding algebraic expressions
■■ When expanding an algebraic expression with:
(a) one bracket — multiply each term inside the bracket by the term outside the bracket
(b) two brackets — multiply the terms in order: First terms, Outer terms, Inner terms and
then Last terms (FOIL)
(c) a term outside the two brackets — expand the pair of brackets first, then multiply each
term of the expanded expression by the term outside the brackets
(d) three brackets — expand any two of the brackets and then multiply the expanded
expression by the third bracket.
■■ Perfect squares rule: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 or (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
■■ Difference of two squares rule: (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
Factorising expressions with three terms

■■ When factorising any expression, look for a common factor first.
■■ To factorise a quadratic trinomial when the coefficient of x2 is 1 (that is, x2 + bx + c):
(a) identify the factor pair of c whose sum is equal to b
(b) express the trinomial in factor form, x2 + bx + c = (x + __)(x + __).
■■ To factorise a quadratic trinomial when the coefficient of x2 is not 1 (that is, ax2 + bx + c
where a ò 1):
(a) identify the factor pair of ac whose sum is equal to b
(b) rewrite the expression by breaking the x-term into two terms using the factor pair from
the previous step
(c) factorise the resulting expression by grouping.
Alternatively, the cross-product method could be used to solve any quadratic trinomial.
■■ All factorisations can be checked by expanding to re-create the original expression.
Factorising expressions with two or four terms

■■ To factorise an expression with two terms:
(b) check whether the difference of two squares rule can be used.
■■ To factorise an expression with four terms:
(b) check whether they can be grouped using the ‘two and two’ method or the ‘three and one’
method.
Factorising by completing the square

■■ If a quadratic trinomial cannot be factorised by finding an integer factor pair, then factorise
using the completing the square method:
(a) if possible, take out a common factor and write it outside the brackets
(b) halve the value of the coefficient of the x-term and square the result
(c) add this number to the expression, writing it after the x-term. Balance the expression by
also inserting the necessary subtraction.
(d) factorise the first three terms as a perfect square and then simplify the remaining terms
(e) rewrite the expression as the difference of two squares
(f) factorise using the difference of two squares rule.
■■ All factorisations can be checked by expanding to the original expression.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 242 15/05/12 12:13 PM

■■ This method will not always give a difference of two squares. A sum of two squares will
sometimes be obtained. If the coefficient of x2 ò 1, factorise the expression before completing
the square.
■■ This method can be used to convert an expression into turning point form to find the turning
point of a quadratic graph.

Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 243 15/05/12 12:13 PM

Chapter review
FLUENCY d (2x - 5)(x - 3)
e (4x - 1)(3x - 5)
1 When expanded, -3x(x + 4)(5 - x) becomes:
f 3(x - 4)(2x + 7)
A -3x3 - 3x2 – 27x B -3x3 + 3x2 – 27x
C 3x + 3x – 60x
3 2 D -3x3 + 3x2 – 60x
g (2x - 5)(x + 3)(x + 7)
E 3x - 3x – 60x
3 2 h (x + 5)(x + 7) + (2x - 5)(x - 6)
i (x + 3)(5x - 1) - 2x
2 When expanded, (3x + 7)2 becomes:
A 9x2 + 49 B 3x2 + 49 10 Expand and simplify each of the following.
C 3x + 21x + 49
2 D 9x2 + 42x + 49 a (x - 7)2 b (2 - x)2
E 9x + 21x + 49
2 c (3x + 1)2 d -2(3x - 2)2
e -7(2x + 5)2 f -10(4x - 5)2
3 The factorised form of -3d 2 - 9d + 30 is:
g (x + 9)(x - 9) h (3x - 1)(3x + 1)
A -3(d - 5)(d - 2) B -3(d + 5)(d - 6) i (5 + 2x)(5 - 2x)
C -(3d + 5)(d - 2) D -(3d + 5)(d - 6)
E -3(d + 5)(d - 2) 11 Factorise each of the following.
a 2x2 - 8x
4 If the factorised expression is (2x – 5)(2x + 5), then
b -4x2 + 12x
the original expression must have been: c 3ax - 2ax2
A 2x2 – 5 B 4x2 – 5 d (x + 1)2 + (x + 1)
C 4x2 – 25 D 4x2 – 20x + 25
e 3(2x - 5) - (2x - 5)2
E 2x2 + 25
f (x - 4)(x + 2) - (x - 4)
5 To factorise -5x2 - 45x + 100, the first step is to:
A find factors of 5 and 100 that sum to -45
a x2 - 16 b x2 - 25
B take out 5 as a common factor c 2x - 72
2 d 3x2 - 27y2
C take out -5 as a common factor e 4ax - 16ay
2 2 f (x - 4)2 - 9
D find factors of 5 and -45 that will add to
13 Factorise each of the following by grouping.
make 100
a ax - ay + bx - by b 7x + ay + ax + 7y
E take out -5x as a common factor
c xy + 2y + 5x + 10 d mn - q - 2q2 + 2mnq
6 To complete the square, the term which should be e pq - 5r - r + 5pqr
2 f uv - u + 9v - 9
added to x2 – 12x is: g a2 - b2 + 5a - 5b h d2 - 4c2 - 3d + 6c
A 36 B -12 C -12x i 2 + 2m + 1 - m 2
D -6 E -6x
14 Factorise each of the following by grouping.
7 Which of the following is equivalent to 5x2 – 20x – 5? a 4x2 + 12x + 9 - y2
A 5(x – 2)2 B 5(x – 2)2 – 3 b 49a2 - 28a + 4 - 4b2
C 5(x – 2)2 – 15 D 5(x – 2)2 – 20 c 64s2 - 16s + 1 - 3t
2
E 5(x – 2) – 25
8 In the expanded form of (x − 3)(x + 5), which of the
a x2 + 10x + 9 b x2 - 11x + 18
following is incorrect?
c x2 - 4x - 21 d x2 + 3x - 28
A The value of the constant is -15.
e -x2 + 6x - 9 f 3x2 + 33x - 78
B The coefficient of the x term is 2. g -2x2 + 8x + 10 h -3x2 + 24x - 36
C The coefficient of the x term is -8. i 8x + 2x - 1
2 j 6x2 + x - 1
D The coefficient of the x2 term is 1. k 8x + 4x - 12
2 l 105x2 - 10x - 15
E The expansion shows this to be a trinomial m -12x + 62x - 70
2 n -45x2 - 3x + 6
expression. o -60x - 270x - 270
2
9 Expand each of the following and simplify where 16 Factorise each of the following by completing the
necessary. square.
a 3x(x - 4) a x2 + 6x + 1 b x2 - 10x - 3
b -7x(3x + 1) c x2 + 4x - 2 d x2 - 5x + 2
c (x - 7)(x + 1) e x2 + 7x - 1 f 2x2 + 18x - 2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 244 15/05/12 12:13 PM

17 Factorise each of the following using the most 2 A section of garden is to have a circular pond of
appropriate method. radius 2r with a 2 m path around its edge.
a 3x2 - 12x b x2 + 6x + 2 a State the diameter of the pond.
c 4x - 25
2 d 2x2 + 9x + 10 b State the radius of the pond and path.
e 2ax + 4x + 3a + 6 f -3x2 - 3x + 18 c State the area of the pond.
18 First factorise then simplify each of the following. d State the area of the pond and path.
x+4 2 x − 12 3 x + 6 7 x − 42 e Write an expression to find the area of the path
a × b × only and write it in factorised form.
5 x − 30 x +1 4 x − 24 6 x + 12
f If the radius of the pond is 3 metres, find the
x2 − 4 x2 + 4x − 5 area of the path.
c ×
x 2 + 5x x 2 − 2 x − 8 3 In order to make the most of the space available for
PROBLEM SOLVING
headlines and stories, the front page of a newspaper
is given an area of x2 – 5x – 14 cm2.
1 A large storage box has a square base with sides a Factorise the expression to find the dimensions
measuring (x + 2) cm and is 32 cm high. of the paper in terms of x.
b Write down the length of the shorter side in
terms of x.
c If the shorter side of the front page is 28 cm,
find the value of x.
d Find the area of this particular paper.
4 Here is a well-known puzzle.
Let a = b = 1
Step 1: Write a = b. a=b
Step 2: Multiply both a2 = ab
sides by a.
Step 3: Subtract b2 a2 - b2 = ab - b2
from both sides.
Step 4: Factorise. (a + b)(a - b) = b(a - b)
Step 5: Simplify by (a + b) = b
dividing by
a Write an expression for the area of the base of
(a - b).
the box.
Step 6: Substitute 1+1=1
b Write an expression for the volume of the box
a = b = 1.
(V = area of base ì height).
Where is the error?
c Simplify the expression by expanding the
Show your thinking.
brackets.
eBook plus
d If x = 30 cm, find the volume of the box in cm3.
Interactivities
int-2846
int-2844
Crossword Chapter 7
int-2845
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 245 15/05/12 12:13 PM

Chapter opener • Activity 7-C-3 (doc-5052): Advanced factorising
Digital doc expressions with two or four terms
• Hungry brain activity (doc-5243) (page 219) • SkillSHEET 7.3 (doc-5246): Factorising by taking
out the highest common factor
Are you ready? • SkillSHEET 7.4 (doc-5247): Factorising by taking
Digital docs (page 220) out a common binomial factor
• SkillSHEET 7.1 (doc-5244): Expanding brackets
• SkillSHEET 7.2 (doc-5245): Expanding a pair of
brackets Digital docs (page 239)
• SkillSHEET 7.3 (doc-5246): Factorising by taking • Activity 7-D-1 (doc-5053): Introducing completing
out the highest common factor the square
• SkillSHEET 7.4 (doc-5247): Factorising by taking • Activity 7-D-2 (doc-5054): Practising completing
out a common binomial factor the square
• SkillSHEET 7.7 (doc-5248): Simplifying algebraic • Activity 7-D-3 (doc-5055): Completing the
fractions square
• SkillSHEET 7.8 (doc-5249): Simplifying surds Interactivity
• Completing the square (int-2783) (page 236)
• Activity 7-A-1 (doc-5044): Review of expansion Digital docs
• Activity 7-A-2 (doc-5045): Expanding algebraic • Activity 7-E-1 (doc-5056): Mixed factorisation
expressions (page 240)
• Activity 7-A-3 (doc-5046): Expanding more • Activity 7-E-2 (doc-5057): Harder mixed
complex algebraic expressions factorisation (page 240)
• SkillSHEET 7.1 (doc-5244): Expanding brackets • Activity 7-E-3 (doc-5058): Advanced mixed
• SkillSHEET 7.2 (doc-5245): Expanding a pair of factorisation (page 240)
brackets • SkillSHEET 7.6 (doc-5252): Factorising by grouping
three and one (page 241)
7B Factorising expressions with three terms • SkillSHEET 7.7 (doc-5248): Simplifying algebraic
Digital docs fractions (page 241)
• Activity 7-B-1 (doc-5047): Introducing quadratic • WorkSHEET 7.2 (doc-5254): Mixed factorisation
factorisation (page 229) (page 241)
• Activity 7-B-2 (doc-5048): Practising quadratic
Chapter review
factorisation (page 229)
• Activity 7-B-3 (doc-5049): Tricky quadratic Interactivities(page 245)
factorisation (page 229) • Test Yourself Chapter 7 (int-2846): Take the end-of-
• SkillSHEET 7.5 (doc-5250): Finding a factor pair chapter test to test your progress.
that adds to a given number (page 229) • Word search Chapter 7 (int-2844): an interactive
• WorkSHEET 7.1 (doc-5251): Factorising and word search involving words associated with this
expanding (page 231) chapter
• Crossword Chapter 7 (int-2845): an interactive
7C Factorising expressions with two crossword using the definitions associated with the
or four terms chapter
• Activity 7-C-1 (doc-5050): Factorising expressions To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
with two or four terms www.jacplus.com.au
• Activity 7-C-2 (doc-5051): More factorising
expressions with two or four terms
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_07.indd 246 15/05/12 12:13 PM

8
8A Solving quadratic equations
8B The quadratic formula
8C Solving quadratic equations by
inspecting graphs
8D Finding solutions to quadratic
equations by interpolation and using
the discriminant
8E Solving a quadratic equation and a
linear equation simultaneously
Quadratic WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?

1 List what you know about quadratic
equations
equations. Create a concept map to
show your list.
quadratic equations.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 8
doc-5255
OPENING QUESTION
How can you tell that these images

show shapes which are represented by
quadratic equations?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 247 15/05/12 12:15 PM

Are you ready?

eBook plus Factorising by taking out the highest common factor

Digital doc
a x2 - 3x b 4x2 + 12x c 36x2 - 12x
SkillSHEET 8.1
doc-5256
eBook plus Finding a factor pair that adds to a given number

2 For each of the following, find a factor pair of the first number that adds to the second number.
Digital doc
a -6, 1 b 6, -5 c -6, -1
SkillSHEET 8.2
doc-5257
eBook plus Simplifying surds

Digital doc
SkillSHEET 8.3 a 24 b 2 50 c 3 288
doc-5258
eBook plus Substituting into quadratic equations

4 Substitute the x-value in brackets into each of the following quadratic equations to determine
Digital doc
the y-value.
SkillSHEET 8.4
doc-5259 a y = x2 - 4x + 3 (x = 3)
b y = -3x2 + 2x - 8 (x = 2)
c y = -8x2 - 3x - 12 (x = -2)
eBook plus Equation of a vertical line

5 Write the equation for each of the lines shown below.
Digital doc y
a y b y c
SkillSHEET 8.5
doc-5260
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
-2-1 0 1 2 3 4
x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 248 15/05/12 12:15 PM


■■ The general form of a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0.
■■ To solve an equation means to find the value of the pronumeral(s) or variables, which when
substituted, will make the equation a true statement.
■■ This is done by using the Null Factor Law.
If a ì b = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0 (or possibly both a and b equal 0).
■■ Equations that are not in factor form need to be factorised before the Null Factor Law can
be applied.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation (x - 7)(x + 11) = 0.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation and check that the right-hand (x - 7)(x + 11) = 0
side equals zero.
2 The left-hand side is factorised so use the Null x - 7 = 0 or x + 11 = 0
Factor Law to find two linear equations.
3 Solve for x. x = 7 x = -11
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Solve each of the following equations.

a x2 - 3x = 0 b 3x2 - 27 = 0
c x2 - 13x + 42 = 0 d 36x2 - 21x = 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. Check that the right- a x2 - 3x = 0

hand side equals zero.
2 Factorise by taking out any common x(x - 3) = 0
factors (x).
3 Use the Null Factor Law to write two x = 0 or x - 3 = 0
linear equations.
4 Solve for x. x = 0 x=3
b 1 Write the equation. Check that the right- b 3x2 - 27 = 0
hand side equals zero.
2 Take out any common factors (3). 3(x2 - 9) = 0
3 Look at the number of terms to factorise 3(x2 - 32) = 0
and identify the appropriate method. 3(x + 3)(x - 3) = 0
Factorise using the difference of two
squares rule.
4 Use the Null Factor Law to write two x + 3 = 0 or x - 3 = 0
linear equations.
5 Solve for x. x = -3 x=3
(Alternatively, x = ê3)
Chapter 8 Quadratic equations 249
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 249 15/05/12 12:15 PM

c 1 Write the equation. Check that the c x2 - 13x + 42 = 0

right-hand side equals zero. Check for
any common factors (none).
2 Look at the number of terms to factorise 42: -6 + -7 = -13
and identify the appropriate method. (x - 6)(x - 7) = 0
Factorise by finding a factor pair of
42 that adds to -13.
3 Use the Null Factor Law to write two x - 6 = 0 or x - 7 = 0
linear equations.
4 Solve for x. x = 6 x=7
d 1 Write the equation. Check that the right- d 36x2 - 21x = 2
hand side equals zero. (It does not.)
2 Rearrange the equation so the right-hand 36x2 - 21x - 2 = 0
side of the equation equals zero. Check
for any common factors (none).
3 Recognise that the expression to factorise -72: 3 + -24 = -21
is a quadratic trinomial. Identify a
factor pair of ac (-72) which adds to the
coefficient of x (-21).
4 Rewrite the expression by breaking the 36x2 - 24x + 3x - 2 = 0
x-term into two terms using the factor pair
from step 3.
5 Factorise the expression by grouping. 12x(3x - 2) + (3x - 2) = 0
(3x - 2)(12x + 1) = 0
6 Use the Null Factor Law to write two 3x - 2 = 0 or 12x + 1 = 0
linear equations. 3x = 2 12x = -1
2 1
7 Solve for x. x = 3 x = - 12
Solving quadratic equations by completing the square

■■ If it is not possible to find an integer factor pair when factorising a quadratic trinomial,
the completing the square method can be used before applying the Null Factor Law to the
equation.
■■ This method allows us to find irrational solutions. In other words, the solutions will be surds.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find the solutions to the equation x2 + 2x - 4 = 0. Give exact answers.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. Check that the right-hand x2 + 2x - 4 = 0

side equals zero.
( × 2)
2
1
square the result.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 250 15/05/12 12:15 PM

( × 2) − 4 − ( × 2) = 0
2 2
1 1
3 Add the result of step 2 to the equation, placing x2 + 2x + 2 2
it after the x-term. To balance the equation, we
need to subtract the same amount as we have x2 + 2x + (1)2 - 4 − (1)2 = 0
added. x2 + 2x + 1 - 4 - 1 = 0
4 Insert brackets around the first three terms to (x2 + 2x + 1) - 5 = 0

group them and then simplify the remaining
terms.
5 Factorise the first three terms to produce a (x + 1)2 - 5 = 0
perfect square.
6 Express as the difference of two squares and (x + 1)2 - ( 5)2 = 0
then factorise. (x + 1 + 5)(x + 1 - 5) = 0
7 Use the Null Factor Law to find linear x + 1 + 5 = 0 or x + 1 - 5 = 0
equations.
8 Solve for x. Keep the answer in surd form to x = -1 - 5 x = -1 + 5
provide an exact answer.
(Alternatively, x = -1 ê 5 .)
■■ There are many problems that can be modelled by a quadratic equation. You should first form
the quadratic equation that represents the situation before attempting to solve such problems.
■■ Recall that worded problems should always be answered with a sentence.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 eBook plus
When two consecutive numbers are multiplied together, the result is 20. eLesson
Determine the numbers. Completing
the square
eles-0174
THINK WRITE
1 Define the terms by using a pronumeral for one Let the two numbers be x and (x + 1).
of the numbers and adding 1 to it to give the
second number.
2 Write an equation multiplying the numbers to x(x + 1) = 20
give the answer.
3 Rearrange the equation so that the right-hand x(x + 1) - 20 = 0
side equals zero.
4 Expand to remove the brackets. x2 + x - 20 = 0
5 Factorise. (x + 5)(x - 4) = 0
6 Use the Null Factor Law to solve for x. x + 5 = 0 or x - 4 = 0
x = -5 x=4
7 Use the answer to determine the second If x = -5, x + 1 = -4.
number. If x = 4, x + 1 = 5.
8 Answer the question in a sentence. The numbers are 4 and 5 or -5 and -4.
9 Check the solutions. Check: 4 ì 5 = 20 -5 ì -4 = 20
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 251 15/05/12 12:15 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
The height of a football after being kicked is determined by the formula h = -0.1d 2 + 3d, where d is
the horizontal distance from the player.
a How far away is the ball from the player when it hits the ground?
b What horizontal distance does the ball cover when the height of the ball first reaches 20 m?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the formula. a h = -0.1d 2 + 3d

2 The ball hits the ground when h = 0. Write -0.1d 2 + 3d = 0
the formula with h = 0 on the
right-hand side.
3 Factorise the expression. -0.1d 2 + 3d = 0
d(-0.1d + 3) = 0
4 Use the Null Factor Law and then simplify d = 0 or -0.1d + 3 = 0
the expression. -0.1d = -3
−3
d =
−0.1
= 30
5 Interpret the solutions. d = 0 is the origin of the kick.
d = 30 is the distance from the origin the ball
has travelled when it lands.
6 Answer the question in a sentence. The ball is 30 m from the player when it hits the
ground.
b 1 To find the height of the ball at 20 m, b h = -0.1d 2 + 3d
substitute 20 for h. 20 = -0.1d 2 + 3d
2 Rearrange the expression. 0.1d2 – 3d + 20 = 0
3 Multiply both sides of the equation by 10 d2 – 30d + 200 = 0
to remove the decimal from the coefficient.
4 Factorise the expression. (d – 20)(d – 10) = 0
5 Apply the Null Factor Law. d − 20 = 0 or d – 10 = 0
6 Solve. d = 20 d = 10
7 Interpret the solution. The first time the The ball first reaches a height of 20 m after it
ball reaches a height of 20 m is the smaller has travelled a distance of 10 m.
value of d. Answer in a sentence.
REMEMBER
1. The general form of a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0.

2. To solve a quadratic equation:
(a) make sure the right-hand side of the equation equals zero
(b) take out any common factors
(c) factorise the left-hand side if applicable
(d) use the Null Factor Law to solve for x.
3. An exact answer is a surd or an answer that has not been rounded or approximated.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 252 15/05/12 12:15 PM

EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 1 Solve each of the following equations.
eBook plus a (x + 7)(x - 9) = 0 b (x - 3)(x + 2) = 0 c (x - 2)(x - 3) = 0
d x(x - 3) = 0 e x(x - 1) = 0 f x(x + 5) = 0
Activity 8-A-1 1 1
Solving simple g 2x(x - 3) = 0 h 9x(x + 2) = 0 i (x - 2 )(x + 2 ) = 0
quadratics
doc-5059 j -(x + 1.2)(x + 0.5) = 0 k 2(x - 0.1)(2x - 1.5) = 0 l (x + 2)(x - 3) = 0
Activity 8-A-2 2 Solve each of the following equations.
Solving quadratic a (2x - 1)(x - 1) = 0 b (3x + 2)(x + 2) = 0 c (4x - 1)(x - 7) = 0
equations
doc-5060
d (7x + 6)(2x - 3) = 0 e (5x - 3)(3x - 2) = 0 f (8x + 5)(3x - 2) = 0
Activity 8-A-3
g x(x - 3)(2x - 1) = 0 h x(2x - 1)(5x + 2) = 0 i x(x + 3)(5x - 2) = 0
Solving more 3 WE 2a Solve each of the following equations.
complex quadratics a x2 - 2x = 0 b x2 + 5x = 0 c x2 = 7x
doc-5061
d 3x = -2x
2 e 4x2 - 6x = 0 f 6x2 - 2x = 0
g 4x2 - 2 7x = 0 h 3x2 + 3x = 0 i 15x - 12x2 = 0
4 WE 2b Solve each of the following equations.
a x2 - 4 = 0 b x2 - 25 = 0 c 3x2 - 12 = 0
d 4x - 196 = 0
2 e 9x2 - 16 = 0 f 4x2 - 25 = 0
1
g 9x2 = 4 h 36x2 = 9 i x2 - 25 = 0
1 2
j x -4 =0 k x2 - 5 = 0 l 9x2 - 11 = 0
36 9
5 WE 2c Solve each of the following equations.
a x2 - x - 6 = 0 b x2 + 6x + 8 = 0 c x2 - 6x - 7 = 0
d x2 - 8x + 15 = 0 e x2 - 2x + 1 = 0 f x2 - 3x - 4 = 0
g x2 - 10x + 25 = 0 h x2 - 3x - 10 = 0 i x2 - 8x + 12 = 0
j x2 - 4x - 21 = 0 k x2 - x - 30 = 0 l x2 - 7x + 12 = 0
6 MC The solutions to the equation x2 + 9x - 10 = 0 are:
A x = 1 and x = 10 B x = 1 and x = -10 C x = -1 and x = 10
D x = -1 and x = -10 E x = 1 and x = 9
7 MC The solutions to the equation x2 – 100 = 0 are:
A x = 0 and x = 10 B x = 0 and x = -10 C x = -10 and x = 10
D x = 0 and x = 100 E x = -100 and x = 100
8 WE 2d Solve each of the following equations.
a 2x2 - 5x = 3 b 3x2 + x - 2 = 0 c 5x2 + 9x = 2
d 6x - 11x + 3 = 0
2 e 14x2 - 11x = 3 f 12x2 - 7x + 1 = 0
g 6x - 7x = 20
2 h 12x2 + 37x + 28 = 0 i 10x2 - x = 2
j 6x - 25x + 24 = 0
2 k 30x2 + 7x - 2 = 0 l 3x2 - 21x = -36
9 WE 3 Find the solutions for each of the following equations. Give exact answers.
a x2 - 4x + 2 = 0 b x2 + 2x - 2 = 0 c x2 + 6x - 1 = 0
d x - 8x + 4 = 0
2 e x - 10x + 1 = 0
2 f x2 - 2x - 2 = 0
g x + 2x - 5 = 0
2 h x + 4x - 6 = 0
2 i x2 + 4x - 11 = 0
10 Find the solutions for each of the following equations. Give exact answers.
a x2 - 3x + 1 = 0 b x2 + 5x - 1 = 0 c x2 - 7x + 4 = 0
d x - 5 = x
2 e x - 11x + 1 = 0
2 f x2 + x = 1
g x + 3x - 7 = 0
2 h x - 3 = 5x
2 i x2 - 9x + 4 = 0
11 Solve each of the following equations, rounding answers to 2 decimal places.
a 2x2 + 4x - 6 = 0 b 3x2 + 12x - 3 = 0 c 5x2 - 10x - 15 = 0
d 4x - 8x - 8 = 0
2 e 2x - 6x + 2 = 0
2 f 3x2 - 9x - 3 = 0
g 5x - 15x - 25 = 0
2 h 7x + 7x - 21 = 0
2 i 4x2 + 8x - 2 = 0
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 253 15/05/12 12:15 PM

UNDERSTANDING
12 Are there real solutions to the equation x2 + 4x + 10 = 0? Give reasons for your answer.
13 WE 4 When two consecutive numbers are multiplied, the result is 72. Find the numbers.
14 When two consecutive even numbers are multiplied, the result is 48. Find the numbers.
15 When a number is added to its square the result is 90. Find the number.
16 Twice a number is added to three times its square. If the result is 16, find the number.
17 Five times a number is added to two times its square. If the result is 168, find the number.
18 WE 5 A soccer ball is kicked. The height, h, in metres, of the soccer ball
t seconds after it is kicked can be represented by the equation h = -t(t - 6).
Find how long it takes for the soccer ball to hit the ground again.
19 The length of an Australian flag is twice its width and the diagonal length
is 45 cm.
a If x cm is the width of the flag, find the length in terms of x.
b Draw a diagram of the flag marking in the diagonal. Mark the length and the width in
terms of x.
c Use Pythagoras’ theorem to write an equation relating the lengths of the sides to the
length of the diagonal.
d Solve the equation to find the dimensions of the Australian flag. Round your answer to
the nearest cm.
20 If the length of a paddock is 2 m more than its width and the area is 48 m2, find the length and
width of the paddock.
21 Solve for x.
x2 + 4x + 3 x2 + 2x + 1
a =
x2 + 4x + 4 x 2 + 5x + 6
x2 − 2x − 3 x 2 + x − 12
b =
x2 − 6x + 8 ( x 2 − 16)( x − 2)
( x − 1)( x 2 + 2 x + 1) 3x 2 + 4 x + 1
c =
2x2 + 6x + 4 3 x 2 + 15 x + 18
REASONING
22 Henrietta is a pet rabbit who lives in an
enclosure that is 2 m wide and 4 m
long. Her human family has decided to
purchase some more rabbits to keep
her company and so the size of the
enclosure must be increased.
a Draw a diagram of Henrietta’s
enclosure, clearly marking the
lengths of the sides.
b If the length and width of the
enclosure are increased by x m,
find the new dimensions.
c If the new area is to be 24 m2,
write an equation relating the
sides and the area of the enclosure
(Area = length ì width).
d Use the equation to find the value of x and, hence, the length of the sides of the new
enclosure.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 254 15/05/12 12:15 PM

23 A student is required to cover an area of 620 cm2 with mosaic tiles. The tile pattern is to be
surrounded by a border 2 cm wide to complete the display page. The length of the display
page is l cm and its width is 4 cm less than its length.
a Find the width of the display page in terms of l.
b Find the width and length of the tile pattern in terms of l.
c Using the answers from b, write an equation relating the area of the tile pattern to its
dimensions.
d Use the completing the square method to solve the equation and, hence, find the length,
l cm, of the display page. Round your answer to the nearest cm.
e Find the area of the display page. Round your answer to the nearest cm2.
24 The cost per hour, C(s), in thousands of dollars of running two cruise ships, Annabel and Betty,
travelling at a speed of s knots is given by the following relationships.
CAnnabel(s) = 0.3s2 + 4.2s + 12 and CBetty(s) = 0.4s2 + 3.6s + 8
a Determine the cost per hour for each ship if they are both
travelling at 28 knots.
eBook plus
b Find the speed in knots at which both ships must travel REFLECTION  
Digital doc for them to have the same cost. What does the Null
WorkSHEET 8.1 c Explain why only one of the solutions obtained in your Factor Law mean?
doc-5261 working for part b is valid.

■■ The method of solving quadratic equations by completing the square can be generalised to
produce what is called the quadratic formula.
■■ Consider solving the general equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. We will first follow the steps involved
in completing the square.
b c
1. Divide both sides of the equation by a. x2 + x + = 0
a a
2 2
2 b  b  b c
2. Complete the square. x + x+  −  + =0
a  2a   2a  a
2
 b b2 c
3. Factorise the first three terms as a perfect square.  x +  − + =0
2a  4a 2 a
2
 b b 2 − 4 ac
4. Add the final two terms.  x + − =0
2a  4a2
2
 b
2  b 2 − 4 ac 
5. Write as the difference of two squares.  x + −   =0
2a   2a 
 b b 2 − 4 ac   b b 2 − 4 ac 
6. Factorise using the difference of two x+ + x+ −  =0
squares rule.  2a 2a   2a 2a 
b b 2 − 4 ac b b 2 − 4 ac
7. Solve the two linear factors. x+ + = 0 or x + − =0
2a 2a 2a 2a
−b b 2 − 4 ac −b b 2 − 4 ac
x= − x = +
2a 2a 2a 2a
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 255 15/05/12 12:15 PM

− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
■■ The solution can be summarised as x = where a is the coefficient of x2, b is
2a
the coefficient of x and c is the constant or the term without an x.
■■ This formula can be used to solve any quadratic equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations.

a 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0 (exact answer) b -3x2 - 6x - 1 = 0 (round to 2 decimal places)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
3 State the values for a, b and c. where a = 3, b = 4, c = 1
− 4 ± (4)2 − (4 × 3 × 1)
4 Substitute the values into the formula. x=
2×3
−4 ± 4
5 Simplify and solve for x. =
6
−4 ± 2
=
6
−4 + 2 −4 − 2
x= or x =
6 6
1
x = - 3 x = -1
b 1 Write the equation. b -3x2 - 6x - 1 = 0
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
3 State the values for a, b and c. where a = -3, b = -6, c = -1
−( −6) ± 36 − 4 × −3 × −1
4 Substitute the values into the formula. x=
2 × −3
6 ± 24
5 Simplify the fraction. =
−6
6±2 6
=
−6
3± 6
=
−3
3+ 6 3− 6
x= or
−3 −3
6 Solve for x. x ö -1.82 or x ö -0.18
Note: When asked to give an answer in exact form,
you should simplify any surds as necessary.
■■ If the value inside the square root sign is negative, then there are no solutions to the equation.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 256 15/05/12 12:15 PM

REMEMBER
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
The quadratic formula x = can be used to solve quadratic equations of the
2a
form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 State the values for a, b and c in each of the following equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
eBook plus a 3x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 b 7x2 - 12x + 2 = 0
c 8x2 - x - 3 = 0 d x2 - 5x + 7 = 0
Activity 8-B-1
e 5x - 5x - 1 = 0
2 f 4x2 - 9x - 3 = 0
Introducing the
quadratic formula g 12x - 29x + 103 = 0
2 h 43x2 - 81x - 24 = 0
doc-5062 i 6x - 15x + 1 = 0
2
Activity 8-B-2 2 WE 6a Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations. Give exact
Practice using the
answers.
quadratic formula
doc-5063 a x2 + 5x + 1 = 0 b x2 + 3x - 1 = 0
Activity 8-B-3 c x - 5x + 2 = 0
2 d x2 - 4x - 9 = 0
Using the quadratic e x + 2x - 11 = 0
2 f x2 - 7x + 1 = 0
formula g x - 9x + 2 = 0
2 h x2 - 6x - 3 = 0
doc-5064
i x + 8x - 15 = 0
2 j -x2 + x + 5 = 0
k -x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 l -x2 - 2x + 7 = 0
3 WE 6b Use the quadratic formula to solve each of the following equations. Give approximate
eBook plus
answers rounded to 2 decimal places.
Digital doc a 3x2 - 4x - 3 = 0 b 4x2 - x - 7 = 0
SkillSHEET 8.6
c 2x + 7x - 5 = 0
2 d 7x2 + x - 2 = 0
doc-5262
e 5x - 8x + 1 = 0
2 f 2x2 - 13x + 2 = 0
g -3x + 2x + 7 = 0
2 h -7x2 + x + 8 = 0
i -12x + x + 9 = 0
2 j -6x2 + 4x + 5 = 0
k -11x - x + 1 = 0
2 l -4x2 - x + 7 = 0
m -2x + 12x - 1 = 0
2 n -5x2 + x + 3 = 0
0 -3x + 5x + 2 = 0
2
4 MC The solutions of the equation 3x2 - 7x - 2 = 0 are:

A 1, 2 B 1, -2 C -0.257, 2.59
D -0.772, 7.772 E -1.544, 15.544
5 MC In the expansion of (6x – 5)(3x + 4), the coefficient of x is:
A 18 B -15 C 9
D 6 E -2
6 MC In the expanded form of (x − 2)(x + 4), which of the following is incorrect?
A The value of the constant is -8.
B The coefficient of the x term is -6.
C The coefficient of the x term is 2.
D The coefficient of the x2 term is 1.
E The expansion shows this to be a trinomial expression.
7 MC An exact solution to the equation x2 + 2x – 5 = 0 is:
A -3.449 B -1 + 24 C -1 + 6
2 + −16 2 + 24
D E
2 2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 257 15/05/12 12:15 PM

UNDERSTANDING
8 Solve each of the following equations using any suitable method. Round to 3 decimal places
where appropriate.
a 2x2 - 7x + 3 = 0 b x2 - 5x = 0 c x2 - 2x - 3 = 0
d x2 - 3x + 1 = 0 e x2 - 7x + 2 = 0 f x2 - 6x + 8 = 0
g x2 - 5x + 8 = 0 h x2 - 7x - 8 = 0 i x2 + 2x - 9 = 0
j 3x2 + 3x - 6 = 0 k 2x2 + 11x - 21 = 0 l 7x2 - 2x + 1 = 0
m -x2 + 9x - 14 = 0 n -6x2 - x + 1 = 0 o -6x2 + x - 5 = 0
REASONING
9 The surface area of a closed cylinder is given by the formula SA = 2πr(r + h), where r cm is
the radius of the can and h cm is the height.
The height of a can of wood finish is 7 cm and its surface area is 231 cm2.
a Substitute values into the formula to form a quadratic equation using the pronumeral, r.
b Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and, hence, find the radius of the can.
Round the answer to 1 decimal place.
c Calculate the area of the paper label on the can. Round the answer to the nearest square
centimetre.
x
10 To satisfy lighting requirements, a window must have an area
of 1500 cm2.
30 cm
a Find an expression for the area of the window in terms of x.
b Write an equation so that the window satisfies the lighting
requirements.
c Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation and find x to the x
nearest mm.
11 Two competitive neighbours build rectangular pools that cover the same area but are different
shapes. Pool A has a width of (x + 3) m and a length that it 3 m longer than its width. Pool B has
a length that is double the width of Pool A. The width of Pool B is 4 m shorter than its length.
a Find the exact dimensions of each pool if their areas are the same.
b Verify mathematically that the areas are the
same. REFLECTION  
12 A block of land is in the shape of a right- What kind of answer will you get if
angled triangle with a perimeter of 150 m and a the value inside the square root sign
hypotenuse of 65 m. Determine the lengths of the in the quadratic formula is zero?
other two sides.
8C Solving quadratic equations by

inspecting graphs y
■■ The graph of a quadratic equation is called a
parabola. y = ax2 + bx + c
■■ To solve quadratic equations graphically means
to find the values of x where y = 0 or where the
parabola intercepts the x-axis.
(0, c)
■■ A quadratic equation written in standard form has
solutions when the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c is
equal to zero. 0 x
■■ In this section, we will find solutions (also
called roots or zeros) of quadratic equations by Solutions/roots/zeros
inspecting their corresponding graphs. to ax2 + bx + c = 0
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 258 15/05/12 12:15 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Determine the solution (or roots) of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting their
corresponding graphs. Round answers to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
a x2 + x - 2 = 0 b 2x2 - 4x - 5 = 0
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a The graph of y = x2 + x - 2 is equal to zero a y

when y = 0. Look at the graph to find where 3
y = 0; that is, where it intersects the x-axis. 2
1
-3 -2 -1
-1
0 1 2 3x
-2 y = x2 + x - 2
-3
x2 + x - 2 = 0
From the graph, the solutions are
x = 1 and x = -2.
b The graph of y = 2x2 - 4x - 5 is equal to zero b y
when y = 0. Look at the graph to see where 6
y = 0; that is, where it intersects the x-axis. 4
By sight, we can only give estimates of the 2
solutions. -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3x
-2
-4
-6
-8
2x2 - 4x – 5 = 0
From the graph, the solutions are
x ö -0.9 and x ö 2.9.
■■ Some quadratic equations have only one solution. For example, the graph of x2 - 4x + 4 = 0
has the one solution of x = 2. That is, the graph of equation touches the x-axis only at x = 2.
y
y = x2 - 4x + 4
5
-2 0 2 4 x
y
■■ There are also quadratic equations that have no real solutions.
For example, the graph of y = 3x2 - 4x + 4 does not intersect
10
the x-axis and so 3x2 - 4x + 4 = 0 has no real solutions (that is,
no solutions that are real numbers).
5
y = 3x2 - 4x + 4
0 x
-2 2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 259 15/05/12 12:15 PM

Confirming solutions
■■ It is possible to confirm the solutions obtained by sight. As we saw with linear equations, this
is achieved by substituting the solution or solutions into the original quadratic equation. If
both sides of the equation are equal, the solution is correct.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in Worked example 7.

a x2 + x - 2 = 0; solutions: x = 1 and x = -2
b 2x2 - 4x - 5 = 0; solutions: x ö -0.9 and x ö 2.9
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the left-hand side of the equation a When x = 1,

and substitute x = 1 into the expression. x2 + x - 2 = 12 + 1 - 2
2 Simplify to check that the expression is = 0 Solution is confirmed.
equal to zero.
3 Write the expression and substitute When x = -2,
x = -2. x2 + x - 2 = (-2)2 + -2 - 2
4 Simplify to check that the expression is =4-2-2
equal to zero. = 0 Solution is confirmed.
b 1 Write the left-hand side of the equation b When x = -0.9,
and substitute x = -0.9 into the 2x2 - 4x - 5 = 2 ì (-0.9)2 - 4 ì -0.9 - 5
expression.
2 Simplify. As the x-values are only = 1.62 + 3.6 - 5
estimates, the results should be = -0.22
reasonably close to zero.
As -0.9 is only an estimate, the left-hand side
expression can be said to be close to zero.
3 Write the expression and substitute When x = 2.9,
x = 2.9 into the expression. 2x2 - 4x - 5 = 2 ì (2.9)2 - 4 ì 2.9 - 5
4 Simplify to check that the expression is = 16.82 - 11.6 - 5
reasonably close to zero. = -0.22
As 2.9 is only an estimate, the left-hand side
expression can be said to be close to zero.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
A golf ball hit along a fairway follows the path shown in the graph. The height, h metres after it has
1
travelled x metres horizontally, follows the rule h = - 270 (x2 - 180x). Use the graph to find how far the
ball landed from the golfer.
h h = - –––
270 (x - 180x)
1 2
30
20
10
0 90 180 x
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 260 15/05/12 12:15 PM

THINK WRITE
On the graph, the ground is represented by the x-axis The golf ball lands 180 m from the golfer.
since this is where h = 0. The golf ball lands when
the graph intersects the x-axis.
REMEMBER
1. The solution(s) (also known as roots or zeros) of a quadratic equation can be found by
inspecting the graph of the equation. You may need to draw the graph of the equation
first using a calculator or graphing software.
2. The root of any graph is the x-intercept or the x-coordinate of the point where the graph
crosses the x-axis.
3. The roots or intercepts of the quadratic graph y = ax2 + bx + c are the solutions to the
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
EXERCISE
8C Solving quadratic equations by inspecting graphs
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 7 Determine the roots of each of the following quadratic equations by inspecting the
eBook plus corresponding graphs. Round answers to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
a x2 - x - 6 = 0 b x2 - 11x + 10 = 0
Activity 8-C-1
Finding solutions to y y
quadratic equations
by inspecting graphs 12 8
doc-5065 8
Activity 8-C-2 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
4 -8
Solving quadratic
-16
equations by -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
inspecting graphs -4 -24 y = x2 - 11x + 10
-8 y = x - x - 6
2
doc-5066
Activity 8-C-3
Harder solutions to
quadratic equations
by inspecting graphs c -x2 + 25 = 0 d 2x2 - 8x + 8 = 0
doc-5067 y y
y = -x2 + 25 y = 2x2 - 8x + 8
30 20
20 10
10
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-10
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-10

e x2 - 3x - 4 = 0 f x2 - 3x - 6 = 0
y y
15 y = x - 3x - 6
2
15 y = x - 3x - 4
2
10 10
5 5
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-10 -10
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 261 15/05/12 12:15 PM

g x2 + 15x - 250 = 0 h -x2 = 0

y y
200 5 y = -x2
100 0
-5 5 x
-30 -20 -10 0 10 x -5
-100
-10
-200
-300
-400
y = x2 + 15x - 250
i x2 + x - 3 = 0 j 2x2 + x - 3 = 0
5 5
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -2 -1 0 1 2 x
y = x2 + x - 3 y = 2x2 + x - 3
-5 -5

UNDERSTANDING
2 WE 8 Confirm, by substitution, the solutions obtained in question 1.
3 WE9 A golf ball hit along a fairway follows the path shown in the graph.
h h = - –––
200 (x - 150x)
1 2
28
0 75 150 x
The height, h metres after it has travelled x metres horizontally, follows the rule
1
h = - 200 (x2 - 150x). Use the graph to find how far the ball lands from the golfer.
4 A ball is thrown upwards from a building and follows the path shown in the graph until it lands
on the ground.
h h = -x2 + 4x + 21
25
21
0 2 7 x
The ball is h metres above the ground when it is a horizontal distance of x metres from the
building. The path of the ball follows the rule h = -x2 + 4x + 21. Use the graph to find how
far from the building the ball lands.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 262 15/05/12 12:15 PM

REASONING
5 a Use a graphics calculator to sketch the two functions
y = 2x2 - 5x - 3 and y = -x2 – 3x. REFLECTION  
b Use the calculator to find the solution to What does ‘the root of a
2x2 - 5x - 3 = -x2 - 3x, correct to 2 decimal places. graph’ mean?
c Comment on your answers to parts a and b.
8D Finding solutions to quadratic

equations by interpolation and using
the discriminant
Interpolation
■■ Consider the quadratic equation x2 - 3x – 6 = 0.
eBook plus
Using a graphing calculator or graphing software to sketch the graph of the equation
Interactivity y = x2 - 3x – 6, we can see there is a solution between x = 4 and x = 5.
Solving by
y
interpolation y = x2 - 3x - 6
int-1147 20
10
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-10
■■This can be confirmed using the following logic:

Step 1. The value of y = x2 - 3x - 6 when x = 4 can be expressed as
y(4) = 42 - 3 ì 4 - 6
= -2
The value of y = x2 - 3x - 6 when x = 5 can be expressed as
y(5) = 52 - 3 ì 5 - 6
=4
Since the graph moves from below the x-axis at x = 4, to above the x-axis at x = 5, it is
reasonable to assume that there is a solution somewhere between x = 4 and x = 5.
Step 2. Choose a value between x = 4 and x = 5; for example, 4.5.
y(4) = 42 - 3 ì 4 - 6
= -2
y(4.5) = 4.52 - 3 ì 4.5 - 6
= 0.75
Since the graph moves from below the x-axis at x = 4, to above the x-axis at x = 4.5, it is
reasonable to assume there is a solution somewhere between x = 4 and x = 4.5.
Step 3. Repeat step 2, checking that your equations are approaching zero. The solution is
approximately x = 4.372.
Repeat the process to find the other root, somewhere between -2 and 0.
■■ Notes
1. This process can also be done on a spreadsheet.
2. A CAS calculator can also help you to find the roots. Rather than using the trace function,
try using the table function after drawing the graph. Step up in increments of 0.1 then 0.01
to pinpoint the solution.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 263 15/05/12 12:15 PM

Using the discriminant

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
■■ The formula x = gives the solutions to the general quadratic equation
2a
ax2 + bx + c = 0. By examining the expression under the square root sign, b2 - 4ac, we can
determine the number and type of solutions produced and, hence, the number of x-intercepts
to expect when the quadratic equation is graphed.
■■ The expression b2 - 4ac is known as the discriminant and is denoted by the symbol D (delta).
■■ Case 1: D < 0
If x2 + 2x + 3 = 0, then a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3.
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
D = b2 - 4ac x=
2a
= 22 - (4 ì 1 ì 3)
= -8 − 2 ± −8
=
2
If the discriminant is less than zero, there are no real solutions because the expression
under the square root sign is negative. It is not possible to find a real number that is the square
root of a negative number.
Hence, the graph of y = x2 + 2x + 3 will not intersect the x-axis; i.e., there will be no x-axis
intercepts.
■■ Case 2: D = 0
If 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0, then a = 4, b = 12 and c = 9.
D = b2 - 4ac −b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x=
= 122 - (4 ì 4 ì 9) 2a
= 144 - 144 −12 ± 0
=0 =
2×4
12
= - 8
3
= - 2
If the discriminant is equal to zero then the two solutions are the same. That is, if b2 - 4ac = 0,
−b + 0 −b − 0 −b
then x = and x = . This may be regarded as one rational solution that is equal to .
2a 2a 2a
One solution indicates that the quadratic trinomial is a perfect square that can be factorised
easily using the perfect squares rule; that is, 4x2 + 12x + 9 = (2x + 3)2.
Hence, the graph of y = 4x2 + 12x + 9 will touch the x-axis once.
■■ Case 3: D > 0
If the discriminant is positive, there are two distinct solutions. We can determine more
information than this by checking whether the discriminant is also a perfect square.
(a) If 2x2 - 7x - 4 = 0, then a = 2, b = -7 and c = -4.
2
D = b2 - 4ac x = − b ± b − 4 ac
= (-7)2 - (4 ì 2 ì -4) 2a
= 49 + 32 7 ± 81
= 81 =
2×2
7±9
=
4
1
x = 4 or x = - 2
If the discriminant is positive and a perfect square, the quadratic trinomial will have
two rational solutions. This means the quadratic trinomial can be factorised easily; that is,
2x2 - 7x - 4 = (2x + 1)(x - 4).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 264 15/05/12 12:15 PM

(b) If x2 - 5x - 1 = 0 then a = 1, b = -5 and c = -1.

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
D = b2 - 4ac x =
= (-5)2 - (4 ì 1 ì -1) 2a
= 25 + 4
= 29 x = 5 ± 29
2 ×1
5 ± 29
x =
2
If the discriminant is positive but not a perfect square, the factors are irrational and the
quadratic formula must be used to find the two irrational (surd) solutions.
Hence, the graphs of both equations shown in (a) and (b) will each have two x-intercepts.
■■ The table below summarises the three cases.
D > 0 (positive)
Not a perfect
D < 0 (negative) D = 0 (zero) Perfect square square
Number of No solutions 1 rational solution 2 rational solutions 2 irrational (surd)

solutions solutions
Graph Graph does not cross Graph touches the Graph crosses the x-axis twice
or touch the x-axis x-axis
y y y y
x x -b -a a b x
a b

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
By using the discriminant, determine whether the following equations have:

i two rational solutions
ii two irrational solutions
iii one rational solution (two equal solutions)
iv no real solutions.
a x2 - 9x - 10 = 0 b x2 - 2x - 14 = 0
c x - 2x + 14 = 0
2 d x2 + 14x = -49
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a x2 - 9x - 10 = 0

2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = -9, c = -10
3 Find the discriminant. D = b2 - 4ac
= (-9)2 - (4 ì 1 ì -10)
= 121
4 Identify the number and type of solutions The equation has two rational solutions.
when D > 0 and is a perfect square.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 265 15/05/12 12:15 PM

b 1 Write the equation. b x2 - 2x - 14 = 0
2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = -2, c = -14

= (-2)2 - 4 ì 1 ì -14
= 60
4 Identify the number and type of solutions The equation has two irrational solutions.
when D > 0 but not a perfect square.
c 1 Write the equation. c x2 - 2x + 14 = 0
2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = -2, c = 14
= (-2)2 - (4 ì 1 ì 14)
= -52
4 Identify the number and type of solutions The equation has no real solutions.
when D < 0.
d 1 Write the equation, then rewrite it so the d x2 + 14x = -49
right side equals zero. x2 + 14x + 49 = 0
2 Identify the coefficients a, b and c. a = 1, b = 14, c = 49
= 142 - (4 ì 1 ì 49)
=0
4 Identify the number and types of solutions The equation has 1 rational solution.
when D = 0.
Remember, the number of solutions of a quadratic equation is the same as the number of
x-intercepts obtained when the equation is graphed.
REMEMBER
1. Interpolation can be used to find approximate solutions to quadratic equations.

2. The discriminant of a quadratic equation is given by D = b2 - 4ac.
3. If D < 0, there are no real solutions to the equation.
4. If D = 0, there is only one rational solution (or two equal solutions) to the equation. The
equation can be factorised easily.
5. If D > 0, there are two distinct solutions to the equation.
(a) If the discriminant is a perfect square, the solutions are rational and the equation
can be factorised easily.
(b) If the discriminant is not a perfect square, the solutions are irrational and the
equation can be solved using the quadratic formula or the completing the square
method.
6. The number of solutions of a quadratic equation corresponds to the number of
x-intercepts obtained when the equation is graphed.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 266 15/05/12 12:15 PM

7. This information can be summarised in the following table:
D > 0 (positive)
Not a perfect
D < 0 (negative) D = 0 (zero) Perfect square square
Number of No solutions 1 rational 2 rational 2 irrational
solutions solution solutions (surd) solutions
Graph Graph does not Graph touches Graph crosses the x-axis twice
cross or touch the x-axis
the x-axis
EXERCISE
8D Finding solutions to quadratic equations
INDIVIDUAL by interpolation and using the discriminant
PATHWAYS
FLUENCY
eBook plus
1 Use a graphing calculator or graphing software to sketch the graph of each of the following
Activity 8-D-1 equations and then use the process of interpolation to find approximate solutions.
Finding solutions to
a x2 + 3x - 7 = 0 b 3x2 - 2x - 4 = 0 c 2x2 + 7x - 10 = 0
quadratic equations
by interpolation 2 Determine the discriminant for each of the following equations.
doc-5068 a x2 - 3x + 5 b 4x2 - 20x + 25 = 0 c x2 + 9x - 22 = 0
Activity 8-D-2 d 9x + 12x + 4
2 e x + 3x - 7 = 0
2 f 25x2 - 10x + 1 = 0
Harder solutions to g 3x - 2x - 4 = 0
2 h 2x - 5x + 4 = 0
2 i x2 - 10x + 26 = 0
quadratic equations
j 3x2 + 5x - 7 = 0 k 2x2 + 7x - 10 = 0 l x2 - 11x + 30 = 0
by interpolation
doc-5069 3 WE 10 By using the discriminant, determine whether the equations in question 2 have:
Activity 8-D-3 i two rational solutions
Difficult solutions to ii two irrational solutions
quadratic equations
iii one rational solution (two equal solutions)
by interpolation
doc-5070 iv no real solutions.
4 With the information gained from the discriminant, use the most efficient method to solve each
equation in question 2. Where appropriate, round answers to 3 decimal places.
UNDERSTANDING
5 Consider the equation 3x2 + 2x + 7 = 0.
a What are the values of a, b and c?
b What is the value of b2 - 4ac?
c How many real solutions, and hence x-intercepts, are there for this equation?
6 Consider the equation -6x2 + x + 3 = 0.
a What are the values of a, b and c?
b What is the value of b2 - 4ac?
c How many real solutions, and hence x-intercepts, are there for this equation?
d With the information gained from the discriminant, use the most efficient method to solve
the equation. Give an exact answer.
7 MC The discriminant of the equation x2 - 4x - 5 = 0 is:
A 36 B 11 C 4 D 0 E -4
8 MC Which of the following quadratic equations has two irrational solutions?
A x2 - 8x + 16 = 0 B 2x2 - 7x = 0 C x2 + 8x + 9 = 0
D x - 4 = 0
2 E x - 6x + 15 = 0
2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 267 15/05/12 12:15 PM

9 MC The equation x2 = 2x - 3 has:

A two rational solutions B exactly one solution
C no solutions D two irrational solutions
E one rational and one irrational solution
REASONING
10 Find the value of k if x2 - 2x - k = 0 has one solution.
11 Find the values of m for which mx2 - 6x + 5 = 0 has one solution.
12 Find the values of n when x2 - 3x - n = 0 has two solutions.
13 Show that 3x2 + px - 2 = 0 will have real solutions for all values of p.
14 The path of a dolphin as it leaps out of the water can be modelled by the equation
h = -0.4d2 + d, where h is the dolphin’s height above water and d is the horizontal distance
from its starting point. Both h and d are in metres.
a How high above the water is the dolphin when it has travelled 2 m horizontally from its
starting point?
b What horizontal distance has the dolphin covered when it first reaches a height of 25 cm?
c What horizontal distance has the dolphin covered when it next reaches a height of 25 cm?
Explain your answer.
d What horizontal distance does the dolphin cover in one leap? (Hint: What is the value of
h when the dolphin has completed its leap?)
e Can this dolphin reach a height of:
i 0.5 m
ii 1 m during a leap?
eBook plus
How can you determine this without actually solving REFLECTION  
Digital doc the equation? What does the
WorkSHEET 8.2 f Find the greatest height the dolphin reaches during discriminant tell us?
doc-5264
a leap.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 268 15/05/12 12:15 PM

8E Solving a quadratic equation and a

linear equation simultaneously
■■ There are occasions when it is necessary to find the intersections points (if any) of a quadratic
and a linear equation.
■■ There are three possible outcomes in this situation.
eBook plus
1. The straight line can intersect twice with the parabola. y
Interactivity
Simultaneous
quadratic
equations
int-2784
0 x
2. The straight line can be a tangent to the parabola. In y

this case the straight line touches the parabola at
one point.
0 x
3. The straight line may not intersect at all with y

the parabola.
0 x
■■ A quadratic equation can be solved simultaneously with a linear equation using the
substitution method.
■■ The x2 term in the quadratic equation makes it impractical to use the elimination method.
■■ Each equation is best written with y as the subject so that the right-hand side of each equation
can then be set equal to one another.
■■ The result can then be simplified to produce a new quadratic equation.
■■ The quadratic equation will have two solutions if the straight line cuts the parabola twice,
one solution if the straight line is a tangent to the parabola, and no solution if the line does
not intersect the parabola.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 269 15/05/12 12:15 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Solve the simultaneous equation pair y = x2 + 2x + 2 and y = 7 - 2x.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other, and y = x2 + 2x + 2 [1]

number them. y = 7 - 2x [2]
2 Both equations are written with y as the x2 + 2x + 2 = 7 - 2x
subject, so equate them.
3 Move every term to the left-hand side to x2 + 4x - 5 = 0
create a new quadratic equation.
4 Factorise and use the Null Factor Law to (x + 5)(x - 1) = 0
solve the quadratic equation. x + 5 = 0 or x - 1 = 0
x = -5 or x=1
5 Substitute each answer for x into equation [2] Substituting x = -5 into [2]:
to find the corresponding values of y. y = 7 - 2(-5)
y = 17
Substituting x = 1 into [2]:
y = 7 - 2(1)
y=5
6 Answer the question. Solution: x = -5, y = 17 (-5, 17) or
x = 1, y = 5 (1, 5)
7 Check the answers by substituting the point Check: Substitute (-5, 17) into
of intersection into equation [1]. y = x2 + 2x + 2
RHS = (-5)2 + 2(-5) + 2
= 25 - 10 + 2
= 17
= LHS
Substitute (1, 5) into y = x2 + 2x + 2
RHS = (1)2 + 2(1) + 2
=1+2+2
=5
= LHS
Both solutions are correct.
■■ When there is only one solution to the simultaneous equation pair, the straight line is a
tangent to the parabola.
■■ When this situation arises, the new quadratic equation formed will be a perfect square.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Solve the simultaneous equation pair y = x2 - 5x + 2 and y = x - 7.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other, and y = x2 - 5x + 2 [1]
number them. y = x - 7 [2]
2 Both equations are written with y as the x2 - 5x + 2 = x - 7
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 270 15/05/12 12:15 PM

3 Move every term to the left-hand side to x2 - 6x + 9 = 0

create a new quadratic equation.
4 Factorise and use the Null Factor Law to (x - 3)2 = 0
solve the quadratic equation. x-3=0
x=3
5 Substitute for x into equation [2] to find the Substituting x = 3 into [2]:
corresponding value of y. y=3-7
= -4
6 Answer the question. Solution: x = 3, y = -4 (3, -4)
7 Check the answer by substituting the point Check: Substitute into y = x2 - 5x + 2
of intersection into equation [1]. RHS = (3)2 -5(3) + 2
= 9 - 15 + 2
= -4
= LHS
The solution is correct.
■■ When there is no intersection of the parabola and the straight line, the discriminant has a
value less than zero.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Show that the equations y = x2 + x + 4 and y = 2x - 1 have no solution when solved

simultaneously.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equations, one under the other, and y = x2 + x + 4 [1]

number them. y = 2x - 1 [2]
2 Both equations are written with y as the x2 + x + 4 = 2x - 1
3 Move every term to the left-hand side to create x2 - x + 5 = 0
a new quadratic equation.
4 If the equations are to have no solution, D = b2 - 4ac
then D < 0. = (-1)2 - 4 ì 1 ì 5
= 1 - 20
= -19
<0
5 Draw a conclusion. There is no solution to the pair of simultaneous
equations as the discriminant of the resulting
quadratic is less than 0.
REMEMBER
1. To solve a quadratic equation with a linear equation we use the substitution method.
2. Make y the subject of both the quadratic equation and the linear equation, and then
equate the right-hand side expressions formed. This will leave a new quadratic equation
to solve for x.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 271 15/05/12 12:15 PM

3. If the new quadratic equation has two solutions, both must be substituted back into one
of the original equations to find the corresponding values of y.
4. In some cases there will only be one value of x. This occurs when the linear equation is
a tangent to the parabola.
5. In some cases there will be no solution to a straight line and a parabola. If this is the
case, the discriminant of the equation formed when solving will be less than 0, that is,
b2 - 4ac < 0.
EXERCISE
8E Solving a quadratic equation and a linear
INDIVIDUAL
equation simultaneously
PATHWAYS 1 WE 11 Solve the simultaneous equation pair y = x2 + 4x + 1 and y = x + 5.
eBook plus 2 Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
a y = x2 + 5x + 16 b y = x2 + x - 7 c y = x2 - 7x + 10
Activity 8-E-1
Introduction to
y = 4 - 2x y = 5x + 5 y=x-5
quadratic and linear 3 WE 12 Solve the simultaneous equation pair y = x2 - 3x + 6 and y = x + 2.
solutions
4 WE 13 Show that the equations y = x2 - 4x + 7 and y = 2x - 4 have no solution when solved
doc-5071
Activity 8-E-2
simultaneously.
Practising quadratic 5 Solve each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
and linear solutions a y = x2 - x - 2 b y = x2 + 4x - 5 c y = x2 - 4x + 10
doc-5072
y = 2x + 8 y=x-7 y = 4x - 6
Activity 8-E-3
Tricky quadratic and
d y = x2 + 6x + 11 e y = x2 f y = x2 - 9x + 12
linear solutions y = 4 - 2x y = 4x - 3 y = 2x + 2
doc-5073 6 Solve the simultaneous pair y = x + 5x + 7 and y = 1.
2
UNDERSTANDING
7 a Find the point of intersection of the parabola y = x2 + 5x - 11 with the line x = 1.
b Is the line a tangent to the parabola? If not, explain why there is still only one solution.
8 The parabolas y = x2 - 4 and y = 4 - x2 intersect in two places. Find the coordinates of their
points of intersection.
9 For each of the following pairs of equations:
i solve simultaneously to find the points of intersection
ii illustrate the solution (or lack of solution) using a sketch graph.
a y = x2 + 6x + 5 and y = 11x - 1
b y = x2 + 5x - 6 and y = 8x - 8
c y = x2 + 9x + 14 and y = 3x + 5
d y = x2 - 7x + 10 and y = -11x + 6
e y = x2 - 2x - 3 and y = x - 6
f y = x2 + 11x + 28 and y = 10x + 40
g y = x2 + 5x - 36 and y = 15x - 61
h y = x2 - 6x - 16 and y = -4x - 17
i y = x2 - 2x - 24 and y = 4x + 3
j y = x2 - 7x + 10 and y = -4x + 6
k y = -x2 + 4x + 21 and y = x + 11
l y = -x2 + 14x - 48 and y = 13x - 54
m y = -x2 + 4x + 12 and y = 9x + 16
n y = x2 + 7x + 12 and y = 20
o y = -x2 - 4x + 5 and y = -4x + 9
p y = x2 - 4x + 4 and y = 8x - 32
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 272 15/05/12 12:15 PM

10 An engineer’s plans for a proposed road through a y

mountain are shown at right. At what heights above x–2
y=- +5
sea level will the entrance and exit to the tunnel be, 2
y = x–4 +2
given the equations of the mountain profile and road
path as shown on the plan? Entrance Proposed road
of tunnel
Sea level
x
REASONING
11 A graphic designer draws a logo involving a parabola sitting
y
in a V shape on a set of axes as shown at right.
Find the equation of the parabola, given it is of the form y = kx2 y= kx 2
and the points of intersection of the V with the parabola.
-1 0 1 x
-2
REFLECTION  
If a Cartesian plane showed two upright and two inverted

parabolas, how many intersection points would be possible?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 273 15/05/12 12:15 PM

Summary
Solving quadratic equations
■■ The general form of a quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0.
■■ To solve a quadratic equation:
(a) make sure the right-hand side of the equation equals zero
(b) take out any common factors
(c) factorise the left-hand side if applicable
(d) use the Null Factor Law to solve for x.
■■ An exact answer is a surd or an answer that has not been rounded or approximated.
The quadratic formula
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
The quadratic formula x = can be used to solve quadratic equations of the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0. 2a
Solving a quadratic equations by inspecting graphs

■■ The solution(s) (also known as roots or zeros) of a quadratic equation can be found by
inspecting the graph of the equation. You may need to draw the graph of the equation first
using a CAS calculator or graphing software.
■■ The root of any graph is the x-intercept or the x-coordinate of the point where the graph
crosses the x-axis.
■■ The roots or intercepts of the quadratic graph y = ax2 + bx + c are the solutions to the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Finding solutions to quadratic equations by interpolation

■■ The discriminant of a quadratic equation is given by D = b2 - 4ac.
■■ If D < 0, there are no real solutions to the equation.
■■ If D = 0, there is only one rational solution (or two equal solutions) to the equation. The
equation can be factorised easily.
■■ If D > 0, there are two distinct solutions to the equation.
(a) If the discriminant is a perfect square, the solutions are rational and the equation can be
factorised easily.
(b) If the discriminant is not a perfect square, the solutions are irrational and the equation can
be solved using the quadratic formula or the completing the square method.
■■ The number of solutions of a quadratic equation corresponds to the number of x-intercepts
obtained when the equation is graphed.
■■ This information can be summarised in the following table:
D > 0 (positive)
D < 0 (negative) D = 0 (zero) Perfect square Not a perfect square
Number of No solutions 1 rational 2 rational 2 irrational (surd)
solutions solution solutions solutions
Graph Graph does not cross Graph touches Graph crosses the x-axis twice
or touch the x-axis the x-axis
Solving a quadratic equation and a linear equation simultaneously

■■ To solve a quadratic equation with a linear equation we use the substitution method.
■■ Make y the subject of both the quadratic equation and the linear equation, and then equate the
right-hand side expressions formed. This will leave a new quadratic equation to solve for x.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 274 15/05/12 12:15 PM

■■ If the new quadratic equation has two solutions, both must be substituted back into one of the
original equations to find the corresponding values of y.
■■ In some cases there will only be one value of x. This occurs when the linear equation is a
tangent to the parabola.
■■ In some cases there will be no solution to a straight line and a parabola. If this is the case, the
discriminant of the equation formed when solving will be less than 0, that is, b2 - 4ac < 0.

Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 275 15/05/12 12:15 PM

Chapter review
FLUENCY 9 Ten times an integer is added to seven times its
square. If the result is 152, what was the original
1 MC The solutions to the equation
number?
x2 + 10x - 11 = 0 are:
A x = 1 and x = 11 10 Solve each of the following by using the quadratic
B x = 1 and x = -11 formula, rounding answers to 3 decimal places.
C x = -1 and x = 11 a 4x2 - 2x - 3 = 0
D x = -1 and x = -11 b 7x2 + 4x - 1 = 0
E x = 1 and x = 10 c -8x2 - x + 2 = 0
2 MC The solutions to the equation -5x2 + x + 3 = 0 11 Solve each of the following equations, rounding
are: answers to 3 decimal places.
3 a 18x2 - 2x - 7 = 0
A x = 1 and x =
5 b 29x2 - 105x - 24 = 0
B x = -0.68 and x = 0.88 c -5x2 + 2 = 0
C x = 3 and x = -5
12 The graph of y = x2 - 4x - 21 is shown.
D x = 0.68 and x = -0.88
3 y = x2 - 4x - 21
E x = 1 and x = - 5 y
3 MC The discriminant of the equation -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x

5
x2 - 11x + 30 = 0 are:
A 1 B 241 10
C 91 D 19
E -11
-21
4 MC Which of the following quadratic equations
(2, -25)
has two irrational solutions?
A x2 - 6x + 9 = 0 Use the graph to find the solutions to the quadratic
B 4x2 - 11x = 0 equation x2 - 4x - 21 = 0.
C x2 - 25 = 0 13 Determine the roots of the quadratic graph shown.
D x2 + 8x + 2 = 0
E x2 - 4x + 10 = 0 y = -2x2 - 4x + 6
y
5 The area of a pool is (6x2 + 11x + 4) m2. Find 10
the length of the rectangular pool if its width is 5
(2x + 1) m
6 Solve each of the following quadratic equation by -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
first factorising the left-hand side of the equation. -5
a x2 + 8x + 15 = 0 b x2 + 7x + 6 = 0 -10
c x + 11x + 24 = 0
2 d x2 + 4x - 12 = 0
e x - 3x - 10 = 0
2 f x2 + 3x - 28 = 0 14 Identify whether each of the equations below has
g x - 4x + 3 = 0
2 h x2 - 11x + 30 = 0 no real solutions, one solution or two solutions.
i x - 2x - 35 = 0
2
State whether the solutions are rational or irrational.
7 Solve each of the following quadratic equations. a x2 + 11x + 9 = 0 b 3x2 + 2x - 5 = 0
a 2x2 + 16x + 24 = 0 b 3x2 + 9x + 6 = 0 c x - 3x + 4 = 0
2
c 4x + 10x - 6 = 0
2 d 5x2 + 25x - 70 = 0 15 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous
e 2x - 7x - 4 = 0
2 f 6x2 - 8x - 8 = 0 equations.
g 2x - 6x + 4 = 0
2 h 6x2 - 25x + 25 = 0 a y = x2 + 4x - 10
i 2x + 13x - 7 = 0
2
y = 6 - 2x
8 Solve each of the following by completing the b y = x2 - 7x + 20
square. Give an exact answer for each one. y = 3x - 5
a x2 + 8x - 1 = 0 b 3x2 + 6x - 15 = 0 c y = x2 + 7x + 11
c -4x - 3x + 1 = 0
2 y=x
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 276 15/05/12 12:15 PM

PROBLEM SOLVING Use the graph to determine:

1 When a number is added to its square, the result is a how far the diver landed from the edge of the
56. Determine the number. pool and
b how high the diving board was above the water.
2 Leroy measure his bedroom and finds that its length
is 3 metres more than its width. If the area of the 7 Let m and n be the solutions to the quadratic
bedroom is 18 m2 , calculate the length and width equation x2 – 2 5x – 2 = 0. Determine the value
of the room. of m2 + n2.
3 The surface area of a cylinder is given by the 8 While it requires a minimum of 2 points to
formula SA = 2p r(r + h), where r cm is the radius determine the graph of a line, it requires a
of the cylinder and h cm is the height. minimum of 3 points to determine the shape of a
The height of a can of soft drink is 10 cm and its parabola. The general equation of a parabola is
surface area is 245 cm2. y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are the constants
a Substitute values into the formula to form a to be determined.
quadratic equation using the pronumeral r. a Determine the equation of the parabola that has
b Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation a y-intercept of (0, –2), and passes though the
and, hence, find the radius of the can. Round points (1, –5) and (–2, 16).
your answer to 1 decimal place. b Determine the equation of a parabola which
c Calculate the area of the label on the can. The goes through the points (0, 0), (2, 2) and (5, 5).
label covers the entire curved surface. Round Show full working to justify your answer.
the answer to the nearest square centimetre. 9 When the radius of a circle increases by 6 cm, its
4 Find the values of d when 2x2 - 5x - d = 0 has one area increases by 25%. Use the quadratic formula
solution. to find the exact radius of the original circle.
5 For what values of k does
(k - 1)x2 - (k - 1)x + 2 = 0 have two distinct
solutions? eBook plus
6 A platform diver follows a path determined by the Interactivities

equation h = -0.5d2 + 2d + 6, where h represents Test yourself Chapter 8
int-2849
the height of the diver above the water and d
represents the distance from the diving board. Both int-2847
pronumerals are measured in metres. Crossword Chapter 8
h int-2848
8
6
4
2
-4 -2-20 2 4 6 8 d
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 277 15/05/12 12:15 PM

Chapter opener • Activity 8-C-2 (doc-5066): Solving quadratic
Digital doc equations by inspecting graphs
• Hungry brain activity Chapter 8 (doc-5255) (page 247) • Activity 8-C-3 (doc-5067): Harder solutions to
quadratic equations by inspecting graphs
Are you ready?
Digital docs (page 248) 8D Finding solutions to quadratic equations by
• SkillSHEET 8.1 (doc-5256): Factorising by taking interpolation and using the discriminant
out the highest common factor Interactivity
• SkillSHEET 8.2 (doc-5257): Finding a factor pair • Solving by interpolation (int-1147) (page 263)
that adds to a given number Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 8.3 (doc-5258): Simplifying surds • Activity 8-D-1 (doc-5068): Finding solutions to
• SkillSHEET 8.4 (doc-5259): Substituting into quadratic equations by interpolation (page 267)
quadratic equations • Activity 8-D-2 (doc-5069): Harder solutions to
• SkillSHEET 8.5 (doc-5260): Equation of a vertical quadratic equations by interpolation (page 267)
line • Activity 8-D-3 (doc-5070): Difficult solutions to
8A Solving quadratic equations quadratic equations by interpolation (page 267)
• WorkSHEET 8.2 (doc-5264): Using the discriminant
eLesson
(page 268)
• Completing the square (eles-0174) (page 251)
Digital docs 8E Solving a quadratic equation and a linear
• Activity 8-A-1 (doc-5059): Solving simple equation simultaneously
quadratics (page 253) Interactivity
• Activity 8-A-2 (doc-5060): Solving quadratic • Simultaneous quadratic equations (int-2784)
equations (page 253) (page 269)
• Activity 8-A-3 (doc-5061): Solving more complex Digital docs (page 272)
quadratics (page 253) • Activity 8-E-1 (doc-5071): Introduction to quadratic
• WorkSHEET 8.1 (doc-5261): Solving quadratic and linear solutions
equations (page 255) • Activity 8-E-2 (doc-5072): Practising quadratic and
8B The quadratic formula linear solutions
• Activity 8-E-3 (doc-5073): Tricky quadratic and
linear solutions
• Activity 8-B-1 (doc-5062): Introducing the quadratic
formula Chapter review
• Activity 8-B-2 (doc-5063): Practice using the Interactivities(page 277)
quadratic formula • Test yourself Chapter 8 (int-2849): Take the end-of-
• Activity 8-B-3 (doc-5064): Using the quadratic chapter test to test your progress
formula • Word search Chapter 8 (int-2847): an interactive
• SkillSHEET 8.6 (doc-5262): Substituting into the word search involving words associated with this
quadratic formula chapter
8C Solving quadratic equations by inspecting • Crossword Chapter 8 (int-2848): an interactive
graphs crossword using the definitions associated with the
chapter
• Activity 8-C-1 (doc-5065): Finding solutions to To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
quadratic equations by inspecting graphs
www.jacplus.com.au
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_08.indd 278 15/05/12 12:15 PM

9
9A Plotting parabolas
9B Sketching parabolas using the basic
graph of y = x 2
9C Sketching parabolas in turning point
form
9D Sketching parabolas of the form
y = ax 2 + bx + c
9E Exponential functions and their graphs
9F The hyperbola
9G The circle
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?
Functions
1 List what you know about functions.
functions.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 9
doc-5265
OPENING QUESTION
The path of this thrown ball follows the

quadratic equation y = -0.45x 2 + 2.2x + 1.5.
What is the maximum height reached by
the ball?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 279 15/05/12 12:17 PM

Are you ready?

completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either search for the SkillSHEET in your ebookPLUS or
eBook plus Substitution into quadratic equations

1 Substitute the x-value in brackets into each of the following quadratic equations to determine
Digital doc
the y-value.
SkillSHEET 9.1
doc-5266 a y = x2 - 4x + 3 (x = 3)
b y = -3x2 + 2x - 8 (x = 2)
c y = -8x2 - 3x - 12 (x = -2)
eBook plus Equation of a vertical line

2 Write the equation for each of the lines shown below.
Digital doc a b c
y y y
SkillSHEET 9.2
doc-5267
x x x
-4 -3 -2-1 0 1 2 3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
eBook plus Completing the square

3 Complete the square for each of the following.
Digital doc
a x2 + 2x + 2 b x2 - 3x + 4 c 2x2 - 4x + 6
SkillSHEET 9.3
doc-5268
eBook plus Solving quadratic equations using the quadratic formula

4 Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula. Leave your answer in
Digital doc
surd form.
SkillSHEET 9.4
doc-5269 a x2 + x - 1 = 0 b 2x2 - 4x + 1 = 0 c -3x2 - 2x + 2 = 0
eBook plus Solving quadratic equations of the type ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 1

5 Solve the following quadratic equations by factorising.
Digital doc
a x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 b x2 + x - 2 = 0 c x2 - 4 = 0
SkillSHEET 9.5
doc-5270
eBook plus Solving quadratic equations of the type ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a ò 1

6 Solve the following quadratic equations by factorising.
Digital doc
a 2x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 b 3x2 - 5x - 2 = 0 c 6x2 - 13x + 6 = 0
SkillSHEET 9.6
doc-5271
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 280 15/05/12 12:17 PM

■■ A parabola is the graphical form of a quadratic equation. Its shape is seen in many everyday
situations, some of which are parts of nature and some are made by humans.
■■ If you look at these pictures, you will notice that:

1. the parabolas are symmetrical. For each one, a line could be drawn down the middle to
divide the parabola exactly in half. This line is called the axis of symmetry.
2. they have either a maximum turning point ( ) or a minimum turning point ( )
3. some are wider or narrower than others but they have basically the same shape.
■■ If the equation of the parabola is given, a table of values can be produced by substituting
x-values into the equation to obtain the corresponding y-values. These x- and y-values provide
the coordinates for points which can be plotted and joined to form the shape of the graph.
When plotting graphs, use grid or graph paper for accuracy.
■■ The graph of y = x 2, shown below, has been produced in this manner. The axis of symmetry is
the y-axis, with the equation x = 0. The turning point is (0, 0).
y y = x2
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 10
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 8
-4 -3-2-1 0 1 2 3 4
x
-2 (0, 0)
■■ The graph of y = x2 is the basic graph of a quadratic equation or parabola. It has a minimum
turning point at (0, 0). This parabola can be dilated (made wider or narrower), translated
(moved horizontally and/or vertically) and reflected (turned upside down), to form other
parabolas. How some of these transformations take place can be seen in the worked
examples that follow.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the
values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the turning
point.
a y = 2x2 for -3 Ç x Ç 3
1
b y = x2 for -3 Ç x Ç 3
2
Chapter 9 Functions 281
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 281 15/05/12 12:17 PM

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = 2x2
2 Produce a table of values using x-values x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

from -3 to 3.
y 18 8 2 0 2 8 18
3 Draw a set of clearly labelled axes, plot y

the points and join them with a smooth 20
curve. The scale would be from 20 to -2 18
on the y-axis and -4 to 4 on the x-axis. 16
4 Label the graph. 14
12
y = 2x2
10
8
6
4
2
-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 x
-2
5 Write the equation of the line that divides The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = 0.
the parabola exactly in half.
6 Write the coordinates of the turning point. The turning point is (0, 0).
b 1 Write the equation. b y = 12 x 2
2 Produce a table of values using x-values x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

from -3 to 3.
y 4.5 2 0.5 0 0.5 2 4.5

curve. The scale would be from 6 to -2
5
on the y-axis and -4 to 4 on the x-axis.
4 y = 1–2 x2
4 Label the graph.
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
-1
-2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 282 15/05/12 12:17 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of x shown as the
values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point
and the y-intercept for each one.
a y = x2 + 2 for -3 Ç x Ç 3
b y = (x + 3)2 for -6 Ç x Ç 0
c y = -x2 for -3 Ç x Ç 3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = x2 + 2

2 Produce a table of values. x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 11 6 3 2 3 6 11
curve. The scale on the y-axis would be
from 0 to 12 and -4 to 4 on the x-axis. 9

y = x2 + 2
3
(0, 2)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
7 Find the y-coordinate of the point where The y-intercept is 2.
the graph crosses the y-axis.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = (x + 3)2
2 Produce a table of values. x -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
curve. The scale on the y-axis would be (0, 9)
8
from 0 to 10 and -7 to 1 on the x-axis.
y = (x + 3)2 6
4 Label the graph.
4
(-3, 0)
2
-7-6-5-4-3-2-1 0 1 x
5 Write the equation of the line that divides The equation of the axis of symmetry is x = -3.
6 Write the coordinates of the turning point. The turning point is (-3, 0).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 283 15/05/12 12:17 PM

c 1 Write the equation. c y = -x2

2 Produce a table of values. x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -9 -4 -1 0 -1 -4 -9
the points and join them with a smooth
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
curve. The scale on the y-axis would be
from -10 to 1 and from -4 to 4 on the
x-axis.
4 Label the graph.
y = -x2
-9
REMEMBER
1. Produce a table of values by substituting each integer value of x into the equation.
2. Plot a graph by drawing and labelling a set of axes, plotting the points from the table
and joining the points to form a smooth curve.
3. The axis of symmetry is the line that divides the parabola exactly in half.
4. The turning point is the point where the graph changes direction or turns.
5. The turning point is a maximum if it is the highest point on the graph and a minimum if
it is the lowest point on the graph.
6. The x-intercepts are the x-coordinates of the points where the graph crosses the x-axis.
7. The y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the y-axis.
EXERCISE
You may wish to use a graphing calculator for this exercise.
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS FLUENCY
eBook plus 1 Plot the graph of y = x2 for values of x between -3 and 3. State the equation of the axis of
symmetry and the coordinates of the turning point.
Activity 9-A-1
Review of plotting
2 WE 1 Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of
parabolas x shown as the values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry and the
doc-5074 coordinates of the turning point.
Activity 9-A-2 a y = 3x2 for -3 Ç x Ç 3
Plotting parabolas
1
doc-5075 b y = x2 for -3 Ç x Ç 3
4
3 Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 2 with that of y = x2 in question 1. Explain
how placing a number in front of x2 affects the graph obtained.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 284 15/05/12 12:17 PM

4 WE2a Plot the graph of each of the following for values of x between -3 and 3. State the
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates of the turning point and the y-intercept for
each one.
eBook plus
a y = x2 + 1 b y = x2 + 3
Activity 9-A-3 c y = x - 3
2 d y = x2 - 1
Trends in plotting 5 Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 4 with that for y = x2 in question 1. Explain
parabolas
doc-5076
how adding to or subtracting from x2 affects the graph obtained.
6 WE2b Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of
x shown as the values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates
eBook plus
of the turning point and the y-intercept for each one.
a y = (x + 1)2 -5 Ç x Ç 3
Digital doc b y = (x + 2)2 -6 Ç x Ç 2
SkillSHEET 9.1
c y = (x - 2)2 -1 Ç x Ç 5
doc-5266
d y = (x - 1)2 -2 Ç x Ç 4
7 Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 6 with that for y = x2 in question 1. Explain
eBook plus
how adding to or subtracting from x before squaring affects the graph obtained.
Digital doc 8 WE2c Plot the graph of each of the following equations. In each case, use the values of
SkillSHEET 9.2
x shown as the values in your table. State the equation of the axis of symmetry, the coordinates
doc-5267
of the turning point and the y-intercept for each one.
a y = -x2 + 1 -3 Ç x Ç 3
b y = -(x - 1)2 -2 Ç x Ç 4
c y = -(x + 2)2 -5 Ç x Ç 1
d y = -x2 - 3 -3 Ç x Ç 3
9 Compare the graphs you have drawn for question 8 with that for y = x2 in question 1. Explain
how a negative sign in front of x2 affects the graph obtained. Also compare the graphs obtained
in question 8 with those in questions 4 and 6. Which graphs have the same turning point? How
are they different?
UNDERSTANDING
10 Plot the graph of each of the following, and state:
i the equation of the axis of symmetry
ii the coordinates of the turning point and whether it is a maximum or a minimum
iii the y-intercept.
a y = (x - 5)2 + 1 0ÇxÇ6
b y = 2(x + 2)2 - 3 -5 Ç x Ç 1
c y = -(x - 3)2 + 4 0ÇxÇ6
d y = -3(x - 1)2 + 2 -2 Ç x Ç 4
e y = x2 + 4x - 5 -6 Ç x Ç 2
f y = -x2 - 2x + 15 -6 Ç x Ç 4
g y = -3x2 - 6x + 24 -5 Ç x Ç 3
h y = (x - 2)2 + 1 -2 Ç x Ç 4
11 Use your graphs from question 10 a–d to answer the following.
a Explain how you can determine whether a parabola has a minimum or maximum turning
point by looking only at its equation.
b Explain how you can determine the coordinates of the turning point of a parabola by
looking only at the equation.
c Explain how you can obtain the equation of the axis of symmetry by looking only at the
equation of the parabola.
12 MC For the graph of y = (x - 2)2 + 5, the turning point is:
A (5, 2) B (2, -5) C (2, 5)
D (-2, -5) E (-2, 5)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 285 15/05/12 12:17 PM

13 MC For the graph of y = 3(x - 1)2 + 12, the turning point is:
A (3, 12) B (1, 12) C (-1, 12)
D (-3, 12) E (-1, -12)
14 MC For the graph of y = (x + 2)2 - 7, the y-intercept is:
A -2 B -7 C -3
D -11 E 7
15 MC Which of the following is true for the graph of y = -(x - 3)2 + 4?
A Turning point (3, 4), y-intercept -5
B Turning point (3, 4), y-intercept 5
C Turning point (-3, 4), y-intercept -5
D Turning point (-3, 4), y-intercept 5
E Turning point (3, -4), y-intercept 13
REASONING
16 A ball is thrown into the air. The height, h metres,
of the ball at any time, t seconds, can be found by
using the equation h = -(t - 4)2 + 16.
a Plot the graph for values of t between 0 and 8.
b Use the graph to find:
i the maximum height of the ball
ii h ow long it takes for the ball to fall back to
the ground.
17 F
rom a crouching position in a ditch, an archer wants
to fire an arrow over a horizontal tree branch, which is
15 metres above the ground. The height, in metres (h),
of the arrow t seconds after it has been fired is given by
the equation h = -8t(t - 3).
a Plot the graph for t = 0, 1, 1.5, 2, 3.
b From the graph find:
i the maximum height the arrow reaches
ii whether the arrow clears the branch and the
distance by which it clears or falls short of the
branch
iii the time it takes to reach maximum height
iv how long it takes for the arrow to hit the ground.
18 There are 0, 1, 2 and infinite possible points of
intersection for two parabolas.
a Illustrate these on separate graphs.
b Explain why infinite points of intersection are
REFLECTION  
possible. Give an example.
c How many points of intersection are possible for a What x-values can a parabola
parabola and a straight line? Illustrate these. have? What y-values can a
parabola have?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 286 15/05/12 12:17 PM


graph of y = x 2
eBook plus ■■ Identifying the type of transformation which has occurred to the graph of y = x2 allows us to
Interactivity sketch rather than plot a parabola. A sketch graph is not drawn on grid or graph paper and there
Dilation of is no scale shown along each axis. It allows us to see the relationship between x and y and the
y = x 2 key features of the graph such as the coordinates of the turning point and the x- and y-intercepts.
int-1148
y
Dilation y = 2x2
y = x2
■■ Compare the graph of y = 2x2 with that of y = x2. This graph is
thinner or closer to the y-axis. As the coefficient of x2 increases, the
graph becomes narrower and closer to the y-axis.
■■ The turning point has not changed under the transformation and is (0, 0) x
still (0, 0). This is called an invariant point.
1
■■ Compare the graph of y = 4 x2 with that of y = x2. y
The graph is wider or closer to the x-axis. y = x2
The turning point has not changed and is still (0, 0). y = 1–4 x2
As the coefficient of x2 decreases (but remains positive), the
graph becomes wider or closer to the x-axis.
(0, 0) x
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
State whether each of the following graphs is wider or narrower than the graph of y = x2 and state
the coordinates of the turning point of each one.
1
a y = x2 b y = 4x2
5
THINK WRITE
1
a 1 Write the equation. a y = 5 x2
1
2 Look at the coefficient of x2 and decide 5
< 1, so the graph is wider than that of y = x2.
whether it is greater than or less than 1.
3 The dilation doesn’t change the turning point. The turning point is (0, 0).
b 1 Write the equation. b y = 4x2
2 Look at the coefficient of x2 and decide 4 > 1, so the graph is narrower than that
whether it is greater than or less than 1. of y = x2.
3 The dilation doesn’t change the turning point. The turning point is (0, 0).
eBook plus Vertical translation y

y = x2 + 2
■■ Compare the graph of y = + 2 with that of y =
x2 x2.
Interactivity
Vertical The whole graph has been moved or translated 2 units y = x2
translation of upwards. The turning point has become (0, 2).
y = x 2 + c
int-1192
(0, 2)
x
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 287 15/05/12 12:17 PM

■■ Compare the graph of y = x2 - 3 with that of y = x2. y y = x2

The whole graph has been moved or translated 3 units
downwards. The turning point has become (0, -3). y = x2 - 3
(0, -3)
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
State the vertical translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of each of the
following equations.
a y = x2 + 5
b y = x2 - 4
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = x2 + 5

2 +5 means the graph is translated upwards 5 units. Vertical translation of 5 units up
3 Translate the turning point of y = x2,which is The turning point becomes (0, 5).
(0, 0). The x-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the y-coordinate has 5 added to it.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = x2 - 4
2 -4 means the graph is translated downwards Vertical translation of 4 units down
4 units.
3 Translate the turning point of y = x2 which is The turning point becomes (0, -4).
(0, 0). The x-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the y-coordinate has 4 subtracted
from it.
Note: There are no invariant points under a vertical translation.
eBook plus Horizontal translation

■■ Compare the graph of y = (x - 2)2 with that of y = x2. y
Interactivity
Horizontal The whole graph has been moved or translated 2 units to the y = x2
translation of right. The turning point has become (2, 0).
y = (x - h)2
int-1193 (0, 4) y = (x - 2)2
(2, 0) x
■■ Compare the graph of y = (x + 1)2 with that of y = x2. y y = (x + 1)2

The whole graph has been moved or translated 1 unit left. The y = x2
turning point has become (-1, 0).
(0, 1)
(-1, 0) x
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WORKED EXAMPLE 5
State the horizontal translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of each of the
following equations.
a y = (x - 3)2
b y = (x + 2)2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x - 3)2

2 -3 means the graph is translated to the right Horizontal translation of 3 units to
3 units. the right
3 Translate the turning point of y = x2 which is The turning point becomes (3, 0).
(0, 0). The y-coordinate of the turning point
remains 0, and the x-coordinate has 3 added to it.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = (x + 2)2
2 +2 means the graph is translated to the left 2 units. Horizontal translation of 2 units to the left
3 Translate the turning point of y = which is
x2 The turning point becomes (-2, 0).
(0, 0). The y-coordinate of the turning point remains
0, and the x-coordinate has 2 subtracted from it.
Note: There are no invariant points under a horizontal translation.
Reflection
y
■■ Compare the graph of y = -x2 with that of y = x2. y = x2
In each case the axis of symmetry is the line x = 0 and the turning
point is (0, 0). The only difference between the equations is the
negative sign in y = -x2 and the difference between the graphs is
that y = x2 ‘sits’ on the x-axis and y = -x2 ‘hangs’ from the x-axis. x
(One is a reflection or mirror image of the other.) y = x2 has a (0, 0)
minimum turning point and y = -x2 has a maximum turning point.
What is the invariant point?
■■ Any quadratic graph where x2 is positive has a shape and is said y = -x2
to be upright. Conversely, if x2 is negative the graph has a shape
and is said to be inverted.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
For each of the following graphs, give the coordinates of the turning point and state whether it is a
maximum or a minimum.
a y = -(x - 7)2 b y = 5 - x2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = -(x - 7)2

2 It is a horizontal translation of 7 units to the The turning point is (7, 0).
right, so 7 units is added to the x-coordinate
of (0, 0).
3 The sign in front of the x2 term is negative, so it Maximum turning point
is inverted.
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b 1 Write the equation. b y = 5 - x2

2 Rewrite the equation so that the x2 term is first. y = -x2 + 5
3 The vertical translation is 5 units up, so 5 units The turning point is (0, 5).
is added to the y-coordinate of (0, 0).
4 The sign in front of the x2 term is negative, so Maximum turning point
the graph is inverted.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
For each of the following quadratic equations:

i state the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of y = x2 needed to obtain
the graph
ii state the coordinates of the turning point
iii hence, sketch the graph.
a y = (x + 3)2 b y = -2x2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the quadratic equation. a y = (x + 3)2

2 Identify the transformation needed — horizontal i Horizontal translation of 3 units to
translation only, no dilation or reflection. the left
3 State the turning point. ii The turning point is (-3, 0).
4 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 3)2. You may find it iii y = (x + 3)2 y
helpful to lightly sketch the graph of y = x2 on the y = x2
same set of axes first.
(-3, 0) x
b 1 Write the quadratic equation. b y = -2x2

2 Identify the transformations needed — dilation i Reflection so graph is inverted. As
(2 in front of x2) and reflection (negative in front 2 > 1, the graph is narrower than that
of x2 term), no translation. of y = x2.
3 The turning point remains the same as there is no ii The turning point is (0, 0).
translation.
4 Sketch the graph of y = -2x2. You may find it iii y
y = x2
helpful to lightly sketch the graph of y = x2 on the
same set of axes first.
(0, 0) x
y = -2x2
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REMEMBER
1. If the graph of y = x2 is translated k units vertically, the equation becomes y = x2 + k.

2. If the graph of y = x2 is translated h units horizontally, the equation becomes
y = (x - h)2.
3. If the graph of y = x2 is dilated by factor a, the graph becomes narrower if a > 1 and
wider if 0 < a < 1.
4. If the x2 term is positive, the graph is upright. If there is a negative sign in front of the
x2 term, the graph is inverted.
5. Invariant points are points that do not change under a transformation.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL graph of y = x 2
PATHWAYS
FLUENCY
eBook plus
1 WE3 State whether each of the following graphs is wider or narrower than the graph of y = x2
Activity 9-B-1 and state the coordinates of the turning point of each one.
Review of sketching 1
basic parabolas
a y = 5x2 b y = 3 x2
doc-5077 c y = 7x2 d y = 10x2
Activity 9-B-2 2 2
e y = 5 x f y = 0.25x2
Sketching basic
parabolas
g y = 1.3x2 h y = 3x2
doc-5078
Activity 9-B-3
2 WE4 State the vertical translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of
Trends in sketching each of the following equations.
basic parabolas a y = x2 + 3 b y = x2 - 1
doc-5079 c y = x - 7
2
d y = x2 +
1
4
1
e y = x2 - f y = x2 - 0.14
2
g y = x2 + 2.37 h y = x2 + 3
3 WE5 State the horizontal translation and the coordinates of the turning point for the graphs of
each of the following equations.
a y = (x - 1)2 b y = (x - 2)2
c y = (x + 10)2 d y = (x + 4)2
1 1
e y = (x - )2 f y = (x + 5 )2
2
g y = (x + 0.25)2 h y = (x + 3)2
4 WE6 For each of the following graphs give the coordinates of the turning point and state
whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
a y = -x2 + 1 b y = x2 - 3
c y = -(x + 2) 2 d y = 3x2
e y = 4 - x 2 f y = -2x2
g y = (x - 5) 2 h y = 1 + x2
5 In each of the following state whether the graph is wider or narrower than y = x2 and whether it
has a maximum or a minimum turning point.
a y = 3x2 b y = -3x2
1 1
c y = 2 x2 d y = - x2
5
4
e y = - x2 f y = 0.25x2
3
g y = 3x2 h y = -0.16x2
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UNDERSTANDING
6 WE7 For each of the following quadratic equations:
i state the appropriate dilation, reflection and translation of the graph of y = x2 needed
to obtain the graph
ii state the coordinates of the turning point
iii hence, sketch the graph.
a y = (x + 1)2 b y = -3x2
1
c y = x2 + 1 d y = x2
3
e y = x2 - 3 f y = (x - 4)2
2
g y = - 5 x2 h y = 5x2
i y= -x2 +
2 j y = -(x - 6)2
k y = -x - 4
2 l y = -(x + 1)2
1
m y = 2(x + 1)2 - 4 n y = 2 (x - 3)2 + 2
1 1 7 3
o y = - 3 (x + 2)2 + 4 p y = - 4 (x - 1)2 - 2
REASONING
7 A vase 25 cm tall is positioned on a bench near a wall as shown. y
The shape of the vase follows the curve y = (x - 10)2, where
y cm is the height of the vase and x cm is the distance of the vase
from the wall.
Wall
a How far is the base of the vase from the wall?
b What is the shortest distance from the top of the vase to the
eBook plus
wall?
Digital doc c If the vase is moved so that the top just touches the wall,
x
WorkSHEET 9.1 find the new distance from the wall to the base. Bench
doc-5272 d Find the new equation that follows the shape of the vase.
REFLECTION  
What are the turning points of the

graphs y = x2 + k and y = (x - h)2?
9C Sketching parabolas in turning

point form
■■ So far, to sketch quadratic graphs we have looked at transforming the graph of y = x2 by
dilation, reflection or translation.
■■ These transformations can be combined into what is called the turning point form of a
quadratic equation: y = a(x - h)2 + k.
■■ We can easily find some of the key features of a parabola from the turning point form of a
quadratic equation. These include:
(i) the turning point (h, k)
(ii) whether the graph is upright with a minimum turning point (a > 0) or the graph is
inverted with a maximum turning point (a < 0)
(iii) whether it is wider (|a| > 1), narrower (|a| < 1) or the same width (|a| = 1) as the graph of
y = x2.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 8
For each of the following equations, state the coordinates of the turning point of the graph and
whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
a y = (x - 6)2 - 4 b y = -(x + 3)2 + 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x - 6)2 - 4
2 Identify the transformations — horizontal The turning point is (6, -4).

translation of 6 units to the right and a
vertical translation of 4 units down. State
the turning point.
3 As a is positive (a = 1), the graph is Minimum turning point
upright with a minimum turning point.
b 1 Write the equation. b y = -(x + 3)2 + 2
2 Identify the transformations — horizontal The turning point is (-3, 2).
translation of 3 units to the left and a
vertical translation of 2 units up. State the
turning point.
3 As a is negative (a = -1), the graph is Maximum turning point
inverted with a maximum turning point.
■■ Other key features such as the x- and y-intercepts can also be determined from the equation of
a parabola.
■■ The point(s) where the graph cuts or touches the x-axis are called the x-intercept(s). At these
points, y = 0.
■■ The point where the graph cuts the y-axis is called the y-intercept. At this point, x = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Determine i the y-intercept and ii the x-intercepts (where they exist) for the parabolas with
equations:
a y = (x + 3)2 - 4 b y = 2(x - 1)2 c y = -(x + 2)2 - 1.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x + 3)2 - 4

2 Find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 i y-intercept: when x = 0,
into the equation. y = (0 + 3)2 - 4
=9-4
=5
The y-intercept is 5.
3 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0 ii x-intercepts: when y = 0,
into the equation and solving for x. Add 4 (x + 3)2 - 4 = 0
to both sides of the equation. (x + 3)2 = 4
Take the square root of both sides of the (x + 3) = +2 or -2
equation.
Subtract 3 from both sides of the equation. x = 2 - 3 or x = -2 - 3
Solve for x. x = -1 x = -5
The x-intercepts are -5 and -1.
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b 1 Write the equation. b y = 2(x − 1)2

into the equation. y = 2(0 - 1)2
=2ì1
=2
into the equation and solving for x. Note 2(x − 1)2 = 0
that there is only one solution for x and so (x − 1)2 = 0
there is only one x-intercept. (The graph x−1=0
touches the x-axis.) x=0+1
x=1
The x-intercept is 1.
c 1 Write the equation. c y = -(x + 2)2 - 1
into the equation. y = -(0 + 2)2 - 1
= -4 - 1
= -5
The y-intercept is -5.
into the equation and solving for x. -(x + 2)2 - 1 = 0
We cannot take the square root of -1 to (x + 2)2 = -1
obtain real solutions; therefore, there are There are no real solutions, so there are no
no x-intercepts. x-intercepts.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
For each of the following:

i write the coordinates of the turning point
ii state whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
iii state whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as the graph of y = x2
iv find the y-intercept
v find the x-intercepts
vi sketch the graph.
a y = (x - 2)2 + 3
b y = -2(x + 1)2 + 6
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x - 2)2 + 3

2 State the coordinates of the turning point i The turning point is (2, 3).
from the equation. Use (h, k) since the
equation is in the turning point form of
y = a(x - h)2 + k where a = 1, h = 2 and
k = 3.
3 State the nature of the turning point by ii The graph has a minimum turning point as
considering the sign of a. the sign of a is positive.
4 Specify the width of the graph by iii The graph has the same width as y = x2 since
considering the magnitude of a. a = 1.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 294 15/05/12 12:17 PM

5 Find the y-intercept by substituting x = 0 iv y-intercept: when x = 0,

into the equation. y = (0 - 2)2 + 3
=4+3
=7
y-intercept is 7.
6 Find the x-intercepts by substituting v x-intercepts: when y = 0,
y = 0 into the equation and solving for x. (x - 2)2 + 3 = 0
As we have to take the square root of a (x − 2)2 = -3
negative number, we cannot solve for x. There are no real solutions, and hence no
x-intercepts.
7 Sketch the graph, clearly showing the vi y
turning point and the y-intercept. y = (x - 2)2 + 3
3
(2, 3)
0 2 x
b 1 Write the equation. b y = -2(x + 1)2 + 6

2 State the coordinates of the turning point from i The turning point is (-1, 6).
the equation. Use (h, k) since the equation is in
the turning point form of y = a(x - h)2 + k
where a = -2, h = -1 and k = 6.
3 State the nature of the turning point by ii The graph has a maximum turning point as
considering the sign of a. the sign of a is negative.
4 Specify the width of the graph by iii The graph is narrower than y = x2
considering the magnitude of a. since |a| > 1.
5 Find the y-intercept by substituting iv y-intercept: when x = 0,
x = 0 into the equation. y = -2(0 + 1)2 + 6
= -2 ì 1 + 6
=4
6 Find the x-intercepts by substituting v x-intercepts: when y = 0,
y = 0 into the equation and solving for x. -2(x + 1)2 + 6 = 0
2(x + 1)2 = 6
(x + 1)2 = 3
x + 1 = 3 or x + 1 = - 3
x = -1 + 3 x = -1 - 3
The x-intercepts are -1 - 3 and -1 + 3
(or approximately -2.73 and 0.73).
7 Sketch the graph, clearly showing vi y
the turning point and the x- and (–1, 6)
y-intercepts. 4
8 Label the graph.
0 x
–1 – 3 –1 + 3
y = –2(x + 1)2 + 6
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 295 15/05/12 12:17 PM

Unless otherwise stated, exact values for the intercepts should be shown on sketch graphs.
REMEMBER
1. If the equation of a parabola is in turning point form, y = a(x - h)2 + k, then the turning
point is (h, k).
2. If a is positive, the graph is upright with a minimum turning point.
3. If a is negative, the graph is inverted with a maximum turning point.
4. If the magnitude of a is greater than 1, the graph is narrower than the graph of y = x2.
5. If the magnitude of a is between 0 and 1, the graph is wider than the graph of y = x2.
6. To find the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into the equation.
7. To find the x-intercepts, substitute y = 0 into the equation and solve for x.
EXERCISE
9C Sketching parabolas in turning point form
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE8 For each of the following equations, state the coordinates of the turning point of the
eBook plus graph and whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
a y = (x - 1)2 + 2 b y = (x + 2)2 - 1 c y = (x + 1)2 + 1
Activity 9-C-1
Reviewing turning d y = -(x - 2)2 + 3 e y = -(x - 5)2 + 3 f y = (x + 2)2 - 6
1 3 1 2
point form g y = (x + 2 )2 - 4 h y = (x - 3)2 + 3 i y = (x + 0.3)2 - 0.4
doc-5080
Activity 9-C-2 2 For each of the following state:
Turning point form i the coordinates of the turning point
doc-5081
ii whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
Activity 9-C-3
iii whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as that of y = x2.
Interpreting turning
point form trends a y = 2(x + 3)2 - 5 b y = -(x - 1)2 + 1 c y = -5(x + 2)2 - 4
1 1 1 1
doc-5082 d y = (x - 3) + 2
2 e y = - (x + 1) + 7
2 f y = 0.2(x + )2 - 2
4 2 5
3 Select the equation that best suits each of the following graphs.
i y ii y iii y
3
1
0 x -1 0 x
0 2 x
-3
iv y v y vi y
0 1 x
-2 0 x 0 x
-1
-3
a y = (x - 1)2 - 3 b y = -(x - 2)2 + 3 c y = x2 - 1

d y = -(x + 2)2 + 3 e y = -x2 + 1 f y = (x + 1)2 - 3
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 296 15/05/12 12:17 PM

1 1
4 MC a The translations required to change y = x2 into y = (x - 2 )2 + are:
3
1 1 1 1
A right , up B left , down 3
2 3 2
1 1 1 1
C right , down 3 D left , up 3
2 2
1 1
E right 3
, up 2
1 1 1 1
b For the graph 4 (x - )2 + , the effect of the 4
on the graph is:
2 3
A no effect
B to make the graph narrower
C to make the graph wider
D to invert the graph
1
E to translate the graph up of a unit
4
c Compared to the graph of y = x2, y = -2(x + 1)2 - 4 is:
A inverted and wider
B inverted and narrower
C upright and wider
D upright and narrower
E inverted and the same width
d A graph with minimum turning point (1, 5) and which is narrower than the graph of
y = x2 is:
1
A y = (x - 1)2 + 5 B y = (x + 1)2 + 5
2
C y = 2(x - 1)2 + 5 D y = 2(x + 1)2 + 5
1
E y = (x - 1)2 + 5
2
e Compared to the graph of y = x2, the graph of y = -3(x - 1)2 - 2 has the following
features.
A Maximum TP at (-1, -2), narrower
B Maximum TP at (1, -2), narrower
C Maximum TP at (1, 2), wider
D Minimum TP at (1, -2), narrower
E Minimum TP at (-1, -2), wider
5 WE9 Determine i the y-intercept and ii the x-intercepts (where they exist) for the parabolas
with equations:
a y = (x + 1)2 - 4 b y = 3(x - 2)2 c y = -(x + 4)2 - 2
d y = (x - 2) - 9
2 e y = 2x + 4
2 f y = (x + 3)2 - 5
UNDERSTANDING
6 WE10 For each of the following:

i write the coordinates of the turning point
ii state whether the graph has a maximum or a minimum turning point
iii state whether the graph is wider, narrower or the same width as the graph of y = x2
iv find the y-intercept
v find the x-intercepts
vi sketch the graph.
a y = (x - 4)2 + 2 b y = (x - 3)2 - 4 c y = (x + 1)2 + 2
d y = (x + 5) - 3
2 e y = -(x - 1) + 2
2 f y = -(x + 2)2 - 3
g y = -(x + 3) - 22 h y = 2(x - 1) + 3
2 i y = -3(x + 2)2 + 1
7 Consider the equation 2x2 - 3x - 8 = 0.
a Complete the square.
b Use the result to determine the exact solutions to the original equation.
c Determine the turning point of y = 2x2 - 3x - 8 and indicate its type.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 297 15/05/12 12:17 PM

8 a Find the equation of a quadratic which has a turning point of (-4, 6) and has an x-intercept
at (-1, 0).
b State the other x-intercept (if any).
REASONING
9 The price of shares in fledgling company ‘Lollies’r’us’ plunged dramatically one afternoon,
following the breakout of a small fire on the premises. However, Ms Sarah Sayva of Lollies
Anonymous agreed to back the company, and share prices began to rise.
Sarah noted at the close of trade that afternoon that the company’s share price followed
the curve: P = 0.1(t - 3)2 + 1 where $P is the price of shares t hours after noon.
a Sketch a graph of the relationship between time and share price to represent the
situation.
b What was the initial share price?
c What was the lowest price of shares that afternoon?
d At what time was the price at its lowest?
e What was the final price of ‘Lollies’r’us’ shares as trade closed at 5 pm?
10 Rocky is practising for a football kicking competition. After being kicked, the path that the ball
follows can be modelled by the quadratic relationship:
−1
h= (d − 15)2 + 8,
30
where h is the vertical distance the ball reaches (in metres), and d is the horizontal distance
(in metres).
a Determine the initial vertical height of
the ball.
b Determine the exact maximum horizontal
distance the ball travels. REFLECTION  
c Write down both the maximum height and Does a in the equation y = a(x - h)2 + k
the horizontal distance when the maximum have any impact on the turning point?
height is reached.
9D Sketching parabolas of the form

eBook plus y = ax 2 + bx + c
Interactivity ■■ The standard form of a quadratic equation is y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are
Sketching constants.
parabolas ■■ As seen in the previous section, to sketch a parabola we need to know:
int-2785
1. y-intercept
2. x-intercepts
3. the nature of the turning point; that is, whether it is a maximum or a minimum
turning point
4. the coordinates of the turning point.
Finding the turning point of a parabola when the equation

is not in turning point form
1. Changing to turning point form
■■ As seen previously, when an equation is written in turning point form the coordinates of the
turning point can be read from the equation. That is, the coordinates of the turning point for
y = a(x - h)2 + k are (h, k).
■■ To change to turning point form we use the completing the square method.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 298 15/05/12 12:17 PM

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Change each of the following equations into turning point form and hence state the coordinates of
the turning point for each one.
a y = x2 + 6x + 2 b y = -2x2 + 7x - 3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a y = x2 + 6x + 2
2 Complete the square: 2 2

 6  6
(i) Halve the coefficient of x and square it. = x2 + 6x +  2  −  2  + 2
(ii) Add this new term to the equation, = x2 + 6x + (3)2 - (3)2 + 2
placing it after the x-term.
(iii) Balance the equation by subtracting the = (x2 + 6x + 9) - 9 + 2
same term from the right-hand side of the
equation.
3 Factorise the perfect square and simplify the = (x + 3)2 - 9 + 2
remaining terms. = (x + 3)2 - 7
4 State the coordinates of the turning point. The turning point is (-3, -7).
b 1 Write the equation. b y = -2x2 + 7x - 3
2 Take out a common factor. = -2  x 2 − 7 x + 3


2 2
3 Complete the square:  2 1 7 2 3
1
(i) Halve the coefficient of x and square it. = −2  x 2 − 72 x +  2 × − 72  −  2 × − 2  + 
2
(ii) Add this new term to the equation,  
 2 2 3
placing it after the x-term. =
7
−2  x 2 − 2 x +  − 47  −  − 47  + 2 
(iii) Balance the equation by subtracting the  
same term from the right-hand side of the  2 7 49  49 3 8
= −2  x − x + 16  − 16 + 2 × 8 
equation.  2 
 2 7 
= −2  x − x + 49  − 49 + 24 
 2 16 16 16 
 2 
4 Factorise the perfect square and simplify the = −2  x − 7  − 25 
 2 16 
remaining terms.
2 25

5 Multiply the common factor by each term in = −2  x − 47  + 8
the square brackets so that the equation is in
turning point form.
 7 25 
6 State the coordinates of the turning point. The turning point is  ,  or 13 , 31  .
4 8 4 8
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 - 4x - 2 using the completing the square method to find the coordinates
of the turning point. Show all relevant points.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation. y = 2x2 - 4x - 2

y=0-0-2
= -2
The y-intercept is -2.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 299 15/05/12 12:17 PM

3 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0. Factors x-intercepts: when y = 0,

cannot be easily found, so use the quadratic formula to 0 = 2x2 - 4x - 2
solve for x. 2x - 4x - 2 = 0
2
2(x2 - 2x - 1) = 0
x2 - 2x - 1 = 0
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x=
2a
where a = 1, b = -2, c = -1
2 ± (−2)2 − 4(1)(−1)
x=
2
2± 8
x=
2
2±2 2
x=
2
The x-intercepts are 1 - 2 and 1 + 2
(approx. -0.41 and 2.41).
4 Find the turning point by taking out a common factor y = 2x2 - 4x - 2
from the original equation. = 2(x2 - 2x - 1)
Complete the square:
( ) ( )
5  2 2 2 2 
(i) Halve the coefficient of the x-term and square it. = 2  x 2 − 2 x + − 2 − − 2 − 1
 
(ii) Add this new term to the equation, placing it after
= 2[(x2 - 2x + (-1)2) - (-1)2 - 1]
the x-term.
(iii) Balance the equation by subtracting the same term = 2[(x2 - 2x + 1) - 1- 1]
from the right-hand side of the equation.
6 Factorise the perfect square and simplify the remaining = 2[(x - 1)2 - 2]
terms.
7 Multiply the common factor by each term in the square = 2(x - 1)2 - 4
brackets so that the equation is in turning point form.
8 State the coordinates of the turning point. Turning point is (1, -4).
9 State the nature of the turning point. As the sign of a is The parabola has a minimum turning point.
positive, the parabola has a minimum turning point.
10 Sketch the graph. y
y = 2x2 - 4x - 2
11 Label the graph.
1- 2 0 1 1+ 2 x
-2
-4
(1, -4)
2. Using the x-intercepts to find the x-coordinate of the turning point

■■ A parabola is symmetrical, so the x-intercepts are the same distance from the axis
of symmetry (the line which divides the graph exactly in half ). This means that the
x-coordinate of the turning point is halfway between the x-intercepts.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 300 15/05/12 12:17 PM

■■ In this graph, the x-intercepts are exactly 1 unit from the y-axis y
y = x2 - 1
which is the axis of symmetry. One way to find the x-coordinate
of the turning point is to calculate the average of the two
x-intercepts. In this case, 1 + −1 = 0 is the x-coordinate of the
2
turning point. The y-coordinate of the turning point can then be x
found by substituting the x-coordinate into the equation. -1 0 1
-1
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Sketch the graph of y = x2 - 10x + 21, using the x-intercepts to find the coordinates of the turning
point.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation. y = x2 - 10x + 21

y = 0 - 0 + 21
= 21
3 Find the x-intercepts by substituting y = 0. x-intercepts: when y = 0,
x2 - 10x + 21 = 0
4 Factorise and solve for x by using the Null Factor Law. (x - 7)(x - 3) = 0
x - 7 = 0 or x - 3 = 0
x = 7 x = 3
The x-intercepts are 3 and 7.
3+7
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point by averaging x-value of the turning point =
2
the x-intercepts, x1 + x 2 . (This is halfway between the 10
x-intercepts.) 2 =
2
=5
6 Find the y-coordinate of the turning point by When x = 5, y = 52 - 10(5) + 21
substituting the x-coordinate into the equation and = -4
solving for y.
7 State the coordinates of the turning point. The turning point is (5, -4).
8 State the nature of the turning point. As the sign of a is Parabola has a minimum turning point.
positive, the parabola has a minimum turning point.
y = x2 - 10x + 21
0 3 5 7 x
-4
(5, -4)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 301 15/05/12 12:17 PM

REMEMBER
1. If the equation is in the form y = ax2 + bx + c, the coordinates of the turning point can
be found by:
(a) using the completing the square method to change the equation into turning point form
(b) finding the x-coordinate of the point exactly halfway between the two x-intercepts.
This is the x-coordinate of the turning point. Then substitute the x-value into the
equation to find the y-coordinate.
−b
(c) using x = . Then substitute the x-value into the equation to find the y-coordinate.
2a
2. The graph should also show both the y-intercept and the x-intercepts of the parabola if
they exist.
EXERCISE
9D Sketching parabolas of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE11 Change each of the following equations into turning point form and write the
eBook plus coordinates of the turning point for each one.
a y = x2 + 4x - 2 b y = x2 + 12x - 4 c y = x2 - 8x + 6
Activity 9-D-1
d y = x - 2x + 12
2 e y = x + 3x + 1
2 f y = x2 + x - 2
Understanding
parabola sketching g y = x + 7x + 2
2 h y = 2x + 4x + 8
2 i y = 3x2 - 12x + 6
doc-5083 2 WE12 Sketch the graph of each of the following using the completing the square method to
Activity 9-D-2 find the coordinates of the turning point. Show all relevant points.
Parabola sketching
a y = x2 + 2x - 5 b y = x2 - 4x + 7
doc-5084
c y = x + 6x - 3
2 d y = x2 - 5x + 1
Activity 9-D-3
Sketching tricky e y = -x - 5x + 1
2 f y = -x2 + x - 3
parabolas g y = 3x + 3x - 12
2 h y = -5x2 + 10x - 35
doc-5085 i y = -7x - 7x + 49
2
3 WE13 Sketch the graph of each of the following, using the x-intercepts to find the coordinates
of the turning point.
eBook plus a y = x2 + x - 12 b y = x2 - 12x + 32
c y = x2 - 8x - 9 d y = -x2 - 6x - 8
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 9.3 e y = -x2 - 6x + 27 f y = -x2 + 2x + 35
doc-5268 g y = x2 + 4x - 5
4 Sketch the graphs of each of the following.
a y = 2x2 - 17x - 9 b y = 3x2 - 23x + 14
eBook plus c y = 5x + 27x + 10
2 d y = 6x2 + 7x - 3
Digital doc
e y = -2x + 7x + 4
2 f y = -2x2 + 11x + 21
SkillSHEET 9.4 g y = -6x + 5x + 6
2 h y = -18x2 + 67x - 14
doc-5269 i y = 2x - 7x + 8
2
y
5 MC a The equation that best suits the graph shown is:
A y = x + 2x - 24
2
B y = 3x2 + 6x - 72
C y = x2 - 2x - 24
D y = 3x2 - 6x - 72
E y = 2x2 + 4x - 72 (-6, 0) 0 (4, 0) x
-72
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 302 15/05/12 12:17 PM

eBook plus
b The equation y = x2 + 5x - 24 is best represented by:
A y B y
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 9.5
doc-5270 24
0 x x
eBook plus -3 8 -3 0 8
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 9.6 -24
doc-5271
C y D y
24
0 x -8 0 x
-8 3 3
-24
E y
-8 0 3 x
-12
6 Match each of the following graphs with the appropriate equation.

a y b y
0 1 2 3 x
0 4 x
c y d y
9
-2 0 6 x -3 0 3 x
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 303 15/05/12 12:17 PM

e y f y
0 1 5 x 0 3– 5–
x
2 2
g y h y
-1 0 1 x 0 1 x
-1
i y = x2 - 6x + 5 ii y = x2 - 1
iii y = -x2 + 9 iv y = 3x2 - 12x
v y = 2x - 2x2 vi y = -x2 + 4x + 12
vii y = -x2 + 5x - 6 viii y = -4x2 + 16x - 15
UNDERSTANDING
7 a Find the equations for parabolas A and B in both turning point form and standard form.
b For the two parabolas, A and B, state the transformations on A to create B.
y
8
A
6
(3, 4)
4
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6x
(-1, -1) -2
-4
B
-6
8 Use a graphical method on your calculator to find the points of intersection of these parabolas,
y = x2 + 6x + 5
y = -x2 - 4x + 2
9 Use simultaneous equations to show that the parabola y = x2 + 6x + 5 and the straight line
y = 2x + 1 intersect at one point only.
a Find the coordinates of this point of intersection.
b Verify this by graphing the simultaneous equations on your calculator and finding the
point of intersection.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 304 15/05/12 12:17 PM

REASONING
10 Consider the family of parabolas y = x2 + px + 5.

a Sketch, on the same set of axes, the parabolas for p = -4, -2, 2, 4.
b Discuss the effect of p on the graph.
11 The height, h metres, of a model rocket above the ground t seconds after launching is given by
the equation h = 4t(50 - t) for 0 Ç t Ç 50.
a Sketch the graph of the rocket’s flight.
b Determine the height of the rocket when it is launched.
c What is the greatest height the rocket reaches?
d After how long does the rocket reach the greatest height?
e How long is the rocket in the air?
12 A farmer decides to fence a new rectangular paddock with the greatest possible area, using an
existing fence for one side and 40 metres of fencing to make the other three sides. Let the area
of the paddock be defined as A m2.
a Write an equation using x and y to describe the area of the paddock.
b Write an equation relating x and y and the length of fencing
available. Existing fence
c Rearrange the equation so that y is the subject.
d Substitute this value of y into the equation for the area.
xm
e Using the intercept method find the coordinates of the New
turning point. paddock
f Sketch the graph. xm ym
g Use the graph to find the maximum area of the paddock and
its dimensions.
13 A daring feat performed
in Acapulco, Mexico, is
for a person to dive from a
cliff into the ocean.
Starting from about
17 metres above the water,
the height, h (in metres),
of a diver t seconds after
he jumps can be
represented by the
equation
h = -4.9t2 + 1.5t + 17.
a Sketch a graph to
represent the diver’s
height after jumping.
b How long does it
take for the diver to
reach the water (to the
nearest second)?
c When does the diver reach his maximum height above the water? Give your answer
d What is the diver’s greatest height above
the water? Give your answer correct to the nearest cm.
14 A farmer has 300 metres of fencing with which to fence 3 sides of a rectangular paddock.
a Using the method described in question 8, find an equation relating the area and the width
of the paddock.
b Sketch the graph.
c Use the graph to find the greatest possible area for the paddock and its dimensions.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 305 15/05/12 12:17 PM

15 In preparation for an Archery Games opening ceremony, an archer shoots a fiery arrow that
follows a parabolic path into a cauldron. The cauldron is 15 metres high with its centre a
distance of 10 metres from a wall.
The archer releases the arrow at a distance of 34 metres horizontally from the wall as
represented by the diagram below.
P
Wall
Cauldron
15 m
10 m
34 m
This event can be represented on a set of axes and the path of the arrow can be modelled by
a quadratic equation of the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
a Given that if the cauldron was not in the way, the arrow would land 2 metres from the
wall. Show that the path of the arrow can be represented by the equation
−5 2 45 85
y= x + x− .
64 16 16
b Use your calculator to graph the equation
and hence find the exact coordinates REFLECTION  
where the arrow reaches its maximum Which feature is most clearly displayed in
eBook plus an equation of the type y = ax 2 + bx + c:
height, P.
c Convert the equation in part a to turning the x-intercept(s), the y-intercept or the
Digital doc
turning point?
WorkSHEET 9.2 point form to show that your answer to b
doc-5273
is correct.
9E Exponential functions and

their graphs
■■ Relationships of the form y = ax are called exponential functions with base a, where a is a
real number not equal to 1, and x is the index power or exponent.
■■ The term ‘exponential’ is used, as the independent variable x is the exponent (or index).
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Complete the table of values below and use it to plot the graph of y = 2x.
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Substitute each value of x into the function y = 2x to x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

obtain the corresponding y-value. 1 1 1 1
y 16 8 4 2 1 2 4 8 16
2 Plot each point generated on a set of axes.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 306 15/05/12 12:17 PM

3 Join with a smooth curve. y

y = 2x
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
4 Label the graph.
eBook plus
The graph in Worked example 14 has several important features.
■■ The graph passes through (0, 1). That is, the y-intercept is 1. The graph of any equation in the
Interactivity form y = ax will pass through this point.
Exponential
graphs ■■ The graph passes through the point (1, 2). All graphs of the form y = ax will pass through the
int-1149 point (1, a).
■■ y > 0 for all values of x. You will notice that for negative values of x, the graph gets very close
to but will never touch the x-axis. When this occurs, the line that the graph approaches is
called an asymptote. The equation of the asymptote for y = ax is y = 0; i.e. the x-axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
a Plot the graph of y = 3 ì 2x for -3 Ç x Ç 3. b State the y-intercept.

c Write the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Prepare a table of values taking x-values a

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
from -3 to 3. Fill in the table by substituting 3 3 1
each value of x into the given equation. y 8 4
12 3 6 12 24
2 Draw a set of axes on graph paper to plot y

24
the points from the table and join them with 22
a smooth curve. 20 y = 3 ì 2x
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
y=0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
3 Label the graph.

b Locate where the curve cuts the y-axis. b The y-intercept is 3.
Alternatively, find the y-value for x = 0 in the table.
c Find an imaginary line to which the curve gets c The equation of the asymptote is y = 0.
closer and closer but does not cross. As it is a
horizontal asymptote, the equation will be of the
form y = constant.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 307 15/05/12 12:17 PM

■■ Compare the graphs drawn in Worked examples 14 and 15. When 2x was multiplied by a
constant, the graph was dilated; that is, its width changed. Since the constant was a positive
number greater than 1, the graph became narrower. If the constant had been a fraction or
decimal between 0 and 1, the graph would have become wider.
■■ The following worked example considers the effect of a negative exponent.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Plot the graph of y = 3-x for -3 Ç x Ç 3, clearly showing the y-intercept and the horizontal
asymptote.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw up a table of values. x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

1 1 1
y 27 9 3 1 3 9 27
2 Substitute the values of x into the equation to

find the corresponding y-values.
3 Draw a set of axes, plot the points generated y
from the table and join with a smooth curve. 28
y= 3–x 26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4 y=1 y=0
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
4 Label the graph.
Further exponential graphs

■■ Recall the dilation, reflection and translation rules for quadratic graphs. These rules also apply
to exponential graphs.
■■ Adding to or subtracting from the basic function shifts the graph up or down the y-axis.
y = ax + k or y = ax - k
■■ Adding to or subtracting from x shifts the graph left or right along the x-axis.
y = ax - h or y = ax + h
REMEMBER
1. Relationships of the form y = ax, where a ò 1 are called exponential functions with
base a.
2. To obtain the graph of an exponential function, construct a table of values first and then
plot the points from the table and join them with a smooth curve. Alternatively use a
graphics calculator, CAS calculator or graphing software.
3. An asymptote is a line which the graph approaches but never cuts or touches.
4. Multiplying by a constant dilates the basic graph — that is, makes it narrower or wider.
5. If x is a negative number, the graph is reflected across the y-axis.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 308 15/05/12 12:17 PM

EXERCISE
You may use a graphing calculator or graphing software to assist you in this exercise.
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS FLUENCY
eBook plus 1 a WE 14 Complete the table below and use the table to plot the graph of y = 10x for
-2 Ç x Ç 2.
Activity 9-E-1
Exploring exponential
graphs
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
doc-5086
y
Activity 9-E-2
Features of
b Why would it be difficult to draw the graph for -4 Ç x Ç 4?
exponential graphs
doc-5087 2 Plot the graph of each of the following exponential functions.
Activity 9-E-3 a y = 4x b y = 5x c y = 6x
Tricky exponential
3 On the one set of axes, draw the graphs of y = 2x, y = 2-x, y = 3x, y = 3-x, y = 4x and y = 4-x.
graphs
doc-5088 4 Use your answer to question 3 to describe the effect of increasing the value of a on the graph
of y = ax.
5 WE 15 a Plot the graph of y = 2 ì 3x for -3 Ç x Ç 3.
eBook plus
b State the y-intercept.
Digital doc c Write the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
SkillSHEET 9.7
doc-5274
6 Complete the following table of values and then plot the graph of y = 2x, y = 3 ì 2x, and
y = 15 ì 2x on the same set of axes.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
2x
3 ì 2x
1
5
ì 2x
7 Study the graphs in question 6 and state the effect that the value of k has on graphs with
equation y = k ì ax.
8 WE 16 Plot the graph of y = 2-x for -3 Ç x Ç 3, clearly showing the y-intercept and the
horizontal asymptote.
9 On the one set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = 3x and y = 3-x.
10 Use your answer to question 9 to describe the effect of a negative index on the graph of
y = ax.
11 a Complete the table of values below and use the points generated to sketch the graph of
( ).
x
1
y= 2
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y
()
x
1 1
b By writing
2
with a negative index, show algebraically that the functions y = 2
and
y = 2-x are identical.
12 Draw the graphs of y = (1.2)x, y = (1.5)x and y = (1.8)x.
13 a Draw the graph of y = 10 ì (1.3)x.
b State the y-intercept.
c Write the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 309 15/05/12 12:17 PM

14 Use a calculator to draw the graphs of each of the following on the one set of axes.
a y = 3x
b y = 3x + 2
c y = 3x - 3
15 For the graphs drawn in question 14, state the equation of the horizontal asymptote.
16 Use your answers to questions 14 and 15 to state the effect that changing the value of c has on
the graph of y = 3x + c.
UNDERSTANDING
17 Match each of the graphs (a–d) with the correct equation below (i–iv).
a y b y (1, 12)
10 12
8 10
6 8
4 6
2 (1, 1.6) 4
x 2
-10 -5 0 5 10
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
c y d y
20 10
16 (1, 16) 8
12 6
8 4
4 2 (1, 0.75)
-4 -2 0 2 4 x -4 -2 0 2 4 x
i y = 3 ì 4x
ii y = 2 ì 8x
iii y = 3 ì 0.25x
iv y = 2 ì 0.8x
18 MC The equation for the graph at right is: y
A y = 2x B y = 3x 10
C y = 2 ì 3x D y = 3 ì 2x 8
-x 6
E y = 2
4 (1, 3)
2
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
19 MC The graph of y = -3 ì 4x is best represented by:

A y B y
0 x
(0, 1)
(0, -3)
0 x
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 310 15/05/12 12:17 PM

C y D y
(0, 3)
0 x
(0, -1)
0 x
E y
0 x
(0, -1)
20 On the same set of axes draw the graphs of:

a y = 4x b y = 4x + 1 c y = 4x - 3.
21 Use your answer to question 20 to state the effect that changing the value of b has on the graph
of y = 4x - b.
22 Sketch graphs of each of the following on the one set of axes, showing the y-intercept and the
horizontal asymptote. (Remember that a sketch graph shows the basic shape of the relationship
and its key features. A sketch graph is not drawn by plotting points from a table of values.)
a y = 2x and y = 2x + 4 b y = 2x and y = 2x - 1
+
c y = 2 and y = 2
x x 4 d y = 2x and y = 2x - 1
Check your answers with a graphing calculator or graphing software.
REASONING
23 Myung-Hye invests $1000 at 10% p.a. interest compounded annually. This investment can be
represented by the function A = 1000 ì (1.1)n, where A is the amount to which the investment
grows and n is the number of years of the investment.
a Prepare a table of values for 0 Ç n Ç 6. Substitute integer values of n into the equation and
use a calculator to determine corresponding values of A.
b Plot the points generated by the table, clearly labelling the axes. Join the points with a
smooth curve.
c Use the table of values or the graph to find the value of the investment after 3 years.
24 Kevin buys a car for $40 000. The car depreciates at the rate of 15% p.a. The value, $V, of the
car after n years can be given by the equation V = 40 000 ì (0.85)n.
a Prepare a table of values for
0 Ç n Ç 5. Substitute integer
values of n into the equation
and use a calculator to find
corresponding values of V.
Round answers to the nearest
whole number as required.
b Plot the points generated by the table, clearly labelling the axes. Join the points with a
smooth curve.
c Describe what is happening to the value of the car as n increases.
d Find the value of the car after 5 years. Give the answer to the nearest dollar.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 311 15/05/12 12:17 PM

25 The graph shows the growth rate of two different bacteria.

1400
Bacteria population ( ì 1000)

a Determine when each bacteria reaches a
population of 500 000. 1200
b Estimate the starting population of each bacteria. 1000
B A
c Which bacteria grows at a faster rate? 800
d When are the populations equal?
600
26 The rat population in Hamlin is very prolific; the rats
400
double their population every 2 days. An initial count
of rats in the town shows 2048 rats. 200
a What is the rat population 10 days after the initial
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
count?
Time (s)
b Predict the population after 100 days.
c Write an equation that enables you to predict the
rat population. REFLECTION  
d Predict when the rat population will reach:
What are two different
i 1 million transformations that can be
ii 10 million done to exponential graphs?
iii 1 billion (1000 million).
9F The hyperbola k
■■ A hyperbola is a function of the form xy = k or y = .
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
1
Complete the table of values below and use it to plot the graph of y = .
x
1 1
x -3 -2 -1 -2 0 1 2 3
2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Substitute each x value into the function 1 1

1 x -3 -2 -1 - 2 0 2
1 2 3
y = to obtain the corresponding y value.
x y
1 1
- 3 - 2 -1 -2 Undefined 2 1
1 1
2 3
2 Draw a set of axes and plot the points from y

the table. Join them with a smooth curve.
2 y = —1x
1
-3 -2 -1
0 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
■■ The graph in Worked example 17 has several important features.

1. There is no function value (y value) when x = 0. At this point the hyperbola is undefined.
When this occurs, the line that the graph approaches (x = 0) is called a vertical asymptote.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 312 15/05/12 12:18 PM

2. As x becomes larger and larger, the graph gets very close to but will never touch the x-axis.
The same is true as x becomes smaller and smaller. The hyperbola also has a horizontal
asymptote at y = 0.
3. The hyperbola has two separate branches. It cannot be drawn without lifting your pen from
the page and is an example of a discontinuous graph.
k 1
■■ As with exponential functions, graphs of the form y = are the same basic shape as y =
with y values dilated by a factor of k. x x
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
4
a Plot the graph of y = for -2 Ç x Ç 2. b Write down the equation of each asymptote.
x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Prepare a table of values taking x a 1 1

x -2 -1 - 2 0 1 2
values from -2 to 2. Fill in the table by 2
substituting each x value into the given y -2 -4 -8 Undefined 8 4 2
equation to find the corresponding y value.
2 Draw a set of axes and plot the points from y
the table. Join them with a smooth curve.
8 y = —4x
4
-2 -1
0 1 2 x
-4
-8
b Consider any lines that the curve approaches but b Vertical asymptote is x = 0.
does not cross. Horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
■■ Consider the effect of negative values of k.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
−3
Plot the graph of y = for -3 Ç x Ç 3.
x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a table of values and substitute each 1 1

x -3 -2 -1 - 2 0 2 1 2 3
x value into the given equation to find the
corresponding y value. y 1 1.5 3 6 Undefined -6 -3 -1.5 -1
2 Draw a set of axes and plot the points from the y

table. Join them with a smooth curve. 6
3 y = –3
—
x
1 2 3
-3 -2 -1 0 x
-3
-6
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 313 15/05/12 12:18 PM

REMEMBER
k
1. A hyperbola is a function of the form y = .
x
2. To obtain the graph of a hyperbola, construct a table of values. Plot the points and
join them with a smooth curve. Alternatively, use a graphics calculator or a computer
graphing package.
3. A hyperbola will often have both a horizontal and a vertical asymptote.
EXERCISE
9F The hyperbola
INDIVIDUAL You may use a graphics calculator or computer graphing package to assist you in this exercise.
PATHWAYS
FLUENCY
eBook plus
10
1 WE 17 Complete the table of values below and use it to plot the graph of y = .
Activity 9-F-1 x
Hyperbola graphs
doc-5089 x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Activity 9-F-2
Exploring the y
hyperbola
doc-5090 2 WE 18 a Plot the graph of each hyperbola.
Activity 9-F-3 b Write down the equation of each asymptote.
More hyperbola
graphs 5 20 100
i y = ii y = iii y =
doc-5091 x x x
2 3 4
3 On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of y = , y = and y = .
x x x
4 Use your answer to question 3 to describe the effect of increasing the value of k on the
k
graph of y = .
x
−10
5 WE 19 Plot the graph of y = for -5 Ç x Ç 5.
x
6 −6
6 On the same set of axes, draw the graphs of y = and y = .
x x
−k
7 Use your answer to question 6 to describe the effect of the negative in y = .
x
1
8 Complete the table of values below and use the points to plot y = . State the equation of
the vertical asymptote. x −1
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y
9 Plot the graph of each hyperbola and label the vertical asymptote.
1
a y =
x−2
1
b y =
x−3
1
c y =
x +1
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 314 15/05/12 12:18 PM

UNDERSTANDING
1
10 Use your answers to question 9 to describe the effect of a in y = .
x−a
11 Sketch each of the following, showing the position of the vertical asymptote.
−4
a y =
x +1
2
b y =
x −1
5 REFLECTION  
c y =
x+2 How could you summarise the effect of the
12 Give an example of the equation of a transformations dealt with in this exercise on
hyperbola that has a vertical asymptote of: 1
the shape of the basic hyperbola y = ?
a x = 3 x
b x = -10.
9G The circle
■■ A circle is the path traced out by a point at a constant distance (the radius) from a fixed point
(the centre).
■■ Consider the circles shown below right. The first circle has its centre at the origin and radius r.
Let P (x, y) be a point on the circle. y
By Pythagoras: x 2 + y2 = r 2.
P(x, y)
This relationship is true for all points, P, on the circle. r y
The equation of a circle, with centre (0, 0) and radius r, is: x x
x2 + y2 = r 2
■■ If the circle is translated h units to the right, parallel to the

y
x-axis, and k units upwards, parallel to the y-axis, then: P(x, y)
y
(y - k)
The equation of a circle, with centre (h, k) and radius r, is: k
(x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r 2 (x - h)
h x x
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Sketch the graph of 4x2 + 4y2 = 25, stating the centre and radius.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Express the equation in standard form by dividing x2 + y2 = r2

both sides by 4. 4x2 + 4y2 = 25
25
x2 + y2 = 4
2 State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (0, 0)

25
3 Find the length of the radius by taking the square r2 = 4
root of both sides. (Ignore the negative results.) 5
r= 2
Radius = 2.5 units
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 315 15/05/12 12:18 PM


2.5
-2.5 2.5
x
-2.5
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Sketch the graph of (x - 2)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 16, clearly showing the centre and radius.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Express the equation in standard form. (x - h)2 + ( y - k)2 = r 2

(x - 2)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 16
2 State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (2, -3)
3 State the length of the radius. r 2 = 16
r=4
Radius = 4 units
1
-2 2 6 x
-3 4
-7
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Sketch the graph of the circle x2 + 2x + y2 - 6y + 6 = 0.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Express the equation in standard form by (x - h)2 + ( y - k)2 = r 2

completing the square on the x terms and again on x2 + 2x + y2 - 6y + 6 = 0
the y terms. (x + 2x + 1) - 1 + ( y2 - 6y + 9) - 9 + 6 = 0
2
(x + 1)2 + ( y - 3)2 - 4 = 0

(x + 1)2 + ( y - 3)2 = 4
2 State the coordinates of the centre. Centre (-1, 3)
3 State the length of the radius. r2 = 4
r=2
Radius = 2 units
5
3
1
-3 -1 1 x
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 316 15/05/12 12:18 PM

REMEMBER
Circle graphs:
x2 + y 2 = r 2 centre (0, 0) radius r
(x - h)2 + ( y - k)2 = r 2 centre (h, k) radius r
EXERCISE
9G The circle
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE 20 Sketch the graphs of the following, stating the centre and radius of each.
eBook plus a x2 + y2 = 49
b x2 + y2 = 42
Activity 9-G-1
Circle graphs c x2 + y2 = 36
doc-5092 d x2 + y2 = 81
Activity 9-G-2 e 2x2 + 2y2 = 50
Exploring the circle f 9x2 + 9y2 = 100
doc-5093
2 WE 21 Sketch the graphs of the following, clearly showing the centre and the radius.
Activity 9-G-3
More circle graphs a (x - 1)2 + ( y - 2)2 = 52
doc-5094 b (x + 2)2 + ( y + 3)2 = 62
c (x + 3)2 + ( y - 1)2 = 49
d (x - 4)2 + ( y + 5)2 = 64
e x2 + ( y + 3)2 = 4
f (x - 5)2 + y2 = 100
3 WE 22 Sketch the graphs of the following circles.
a x2 + 4x + y2 + 8y + 16 = 0
b x2 - 10x + y2 - 2y + 10 = 0
c x2 - 14x + y2 + 6y + 9 = 0
d x2 + 8x + y2 - 12y - 12 = 0
e x2 + y2 - 18y - 19 = 0
f 2x2 - 4x + 2y2 + 8y - 8 = 0
UNDERSTANDING
4 MC The graph of (x - 2)2 + ( y + 5)2 = 4 is:
A y y
5 B
–2 x
-2 x
y D y
C
2 x x
2
-5 -5
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 317 15/05/12 12:18 PM

5 MC The centre and radius of the circle (x + 1)2 + ( y - 3)2 = 4 is:
A (1, -3), 4 B (-1, 3), 2
C (3, -1), 4 D (1, -3), 2
6 Find the equation representing y
the outer edge of the galaxy as
shown in the photo at right, using
the astronomical units provided.
x
5 9
REFLECTION  
How could you write equations representing

a set of concentric circles (circles with the
same centre, but different radii)?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 318 15/05/12 12:18 PM

Summary
Plotting parabolas
■■ Produce a table of values by substituting each integer value of x into the equation.
■■ Plot a graph by drawing and labelling a set of axes, plotting the points from the table and
joining the points to form a smooth curve.
■■ The axis of symmetry is the line that divides the parabola exactly in half.
■■ The turning point is the point where the graph changes direction or turns.
■■ The turning point is a maximum if it is the highest point on the graph and a minimum if it is
the lowest point on the graph.
■■ The x-intercepts are the x-coordinates of the points where the graph crosses the x-axis.
■■ The y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the y-axis.
Sketching parabolas using the basic graph of y = x 2
■■ If the graph of y = x2 is translated c units vertically, the equation becomes y = x2 + c.
■■ If the graph of y = x2 is translated h units horizontally, the equation becomes y = (x − h)2.
■■ If the graph of y = x2 is dilated by factor a, the graph becomes narrower if a > 1 and wider if
0 < a < 1.
■■ If the x2 term is positive, the graph is upright. If there is a negative sign in front of the x2 term,
the graph is inverted.
■■ Invariant points are points that do not change under a transformation.
Sketching parabolas in turning point form
■■ If the equation of a parabola is in turning point form, y = a(x - h)2 + k, then the turning point
is (h, k).
■■ If a is positive, the graph is upright with a minimum turning point.
■■ If a is negative, the graph is inverted with a maximum turning point.
■■ If the magnitude of a is greater than 1, the graph is narrower than the graph of y = x2.
■■ If the magnitude of a is between 0 and 1, the graph is wider than the graph of y = x2.
■■ To find the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into the equation.
■■ To find the x-intercepts, substitute y = 0 into the equation and solve for x.
Sketching parabolas of the form y = ax2 + bx + c
■■ If the equation is in the form y = ax2 + bx + c, the coordinates of the turning point can be
found by:
(a) using the completing the square method to change the equation into turning point form
(b) finding the x-coordinate of the point exactly halfway between the two x-intercepts. This is
the x-coordinate of the turning point. Then substitute the x-value into the equation to find
the y-coordinate.
−b
(c) using x = . Then substitute the x-value into the equation to find the y-coordinate.
2a
■■ The graph should also show both the y-intercept and the x-intercepts of the parabola if they
exist.
Exponential functions and their graphs
■■ Relationships of the form y = ax, where a ò 1 are called exponential functions with base a.
■■ To obtain the graph of an exponential function, construct a table of values first and then plot
the points from the table and join them with a smooth curve. Alternatively use a graphics
calculator, CAS calculator or graphing software.
■■ An asymptote is a line which the graph approaches but never cuts or touches.
■■ Multiplying by a constant dilates the basic graph — that is, makes it narrower or wider.
■■ If x is a negative number, the graph is reflected across the y-axis.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 319 15/05/12 12:18 PM

The hyperbola
k
■■ A hyperbola is a function of the form y = .
x
■■ To obtain the graph of a hyperbola, construct a table of values. Plot the points and join them
with a smooth curve. Alternatively, use a graphics calculator or a computer graphing package.
■■ A hyperbola will often have both a horizontal and a vertical asymptote.
The circle
■■ Circle graphs:
x2 + y 2 = r 2 centre (0, 0) radius r
(x - h)2 + ( y - k)2 = r 2 centre (h, k) radius r

Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 320 15/05/12 12:18 PM

Chapter review
FLUENCY B y
10
1 The turning point for the graph y = 3x2 − 4x + 9 is:
 1 2 5
A ,1
 3 3
B
 1 2
 3 , 3  -4 -2 0 2 4x
-3
-5
 1 1
C ,1
 6 6 
-10
2
D
 3
, 7 2 
3
C y
2 2
E  , 6  10
3 3
2 Which graph of the following equations has the 5
x-intercepts closest together? 3
A y = x2 + 3x + 2
-4 -2 2 4x
B y = x2 + x - 2
C y = 2x2 + x - 15 -5
D y = 4x2 + 27x - 7
E y = x2 - 2x - 8 -10
3 Which graph of the equations below has the largest D y
y-intercept? 10
A y = 3(x - 2)2 + 9
B y = 5(x - 1)2 + 8 5
C y = 2(x - 1)2 + 19 1
D y = 2(x - 5)2 + 4 -4 -2 0 2 4x
E y = 12(x - 1)2 + 10 -5
4 The translation required to change y = x2 into
1
y = (x - 3)2 + 4 is: -10
1 E
A right 3, up y
4
10
1
B right 3, down
4
1 5
C left 3, down 3
4
1
D left 3, up -4 -2 0 2 4x
4
1
E right , up 3 -5
4
5 The graph of y = -3 ì 2x is best represented by: -10

A y 6 Use the completing the square method to find the
10 turning point for each of the following graphs.
a y = x2 - 8x + 1
5
3 b y = x2 + 4x - 5
7 For the graph of the equation y = x2 + 8x + 7,
-4 -2 0 2 4x
produce a table of values for the x-values between
-5 -9 and 1, and then plot the graph. Show the
y-intercept and turning point. From your graph,
-10 state the x-intercepts.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 321 15/05/12 12:18 PM

8 For each of the following, find the coordinates of 21 Find the equation of this circle.
the turning point and the x- and y-intercepts and y
sketch the graph. 6
a y = (x - 3)2 + 1 b y = 2(x + 1)2 - 5
9 For the equation y = -x2 - 2x + 15, sketch the
graph and determine the x- and y-intercepts and the -6 0 6 x
coordinates of the turning point.
10 For the exponential function y = 5x: -6
a complete the table of values below
x y
PROBLEM SOLVING
-3
-2 1 Consider the quadratic equation: y = x2 - 4x + 7.
a Determine the equation of the quadratic which
-1
just touches the one above at the turning point.
0 b Confirm your result graphically.
1
2 The height, h, in metres of a golf ball t seconds
2 after it is hit is given by the formula h = 4t - t2.
3 a Sketch the graph of the path of the ball.
b plot the graph. b What is the maximum height the golf ball
11 Draw the graph of y = 10 ì 3x for -4 Ç x Ç 4. reaches?
c How long does it take for the ball to reach the
12 Draw the graph of y = 10-x for -4 Ç x Ç 4.
maximum height?
13 a On the same axes draw the graphs of y = (1.2)x d How long is it before the ball lands on the
and y = (1.5)x. ground after it has been hit?
b Use your answer to part a to explain the effect
3 A ball is thrown upwards from a building
of changing the value of a in the equation of
and follows the path given by the formula
y = a x.
h = -x2 + 4x + 21. The ball is h metres above the
14 a On the one set of axes draw the graphs of ground when it is a horizontal distance of x metres
1
y = 2 ì 3x, y = 5 ì 3x and y = 2 ì 3x. from the building.
b Use your answer to part a to explain the a Sketch the graph of the path of the ball.
effect of changing the value of k in the b What is the maximum height the ball reaches?
equation y = kax. c How far is the ball from the wall when it
15 a On the same set of axes sketch the graphs of reaches the maximum height?
y = (2.5)x and y = (2.5)-x. d How far from the building does the ball land?
b Use your answer to part a to explain the effect 4 A soccer ball is kicked upwards in the air. The
of a negative index on the equation y = ax. height, h, in metres, t seconds after the kick is
16 Sketch each of the following. modelled by the quadratic equation h = -5t2 + 20t.
4 2
a y = b y = −
x x
−3
17 Sketch y =
x−2
18 Give an example of an equation of a hyperbola that
has a vertical asymptote at x = -3.
19 Sketch each of these circles. Clearly show the a Sketch the graph of this relationship.
centre and the radius. b For how many seconds is the ball in the air?
a x2 + y2 = 16 b (x - 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = 64 c For how many seconds is the ball above a
20 Sketch the following circles. Remember to first height of 15 m? That is, solve the quadratic
complete the square. inequation -5t2 + 20t > 15.
a x2 + 4x + y2 - 2y = 4 d For how many seconds is the ball above a
b x2 + 8x + y2 + 8y = 32 height of 20 m?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 322 15/05/12 12:18 PM

5 The height of the water level in a cave is determined d If the owners decide on the first design, P(x),
by the tides. At any time, t, in hours after 9 am, the percentage of area within the courtyard
the height, h(t), in metres, can be modelled by the without grass is 40.5%. By using any method,
function h(t) = t2 - 12t + 32, 0 Ç t Ç 12. find the approximate percentage of area of
a What values of t is the model valid for? Write courtyard without lawn with the new design,
your answer in interval notation. N(x)
b Determine the initial height of the water. 7 A stone arch bridge has a span of 50 metres. The
c Bertha has dropped her keys onto a ledge shape of the curve AB can be modelled using a
which is 7 metres from the bottom of the cave. quadratic equation.
By using a graphics calculator, determine the
times in which she would be able to climb b(x)
down to retrieve her keys. Write your answers
correct to the nearest minute.
6 A grassed area is planted in a courtyard that has
a width of 5 metres and length of 7 metres. The 4.5 m
perimeter of the grassed area is described by the
function P = -x2 + 5x, where P is the distance, A B x
50 m
in metres, from the house and x is the distance, (0, 0)
in metres from the side wall. The diagram below
represents this information on a Cartesian plane. a Taking A as the origin (0, 0) and given that the
maximum height of the arch above the water
7m level is 4.5 metres, show using algebra, that the
shape of the arch can be modelled using the
Wall equation b(x) = −0.0072x2 + 0.36x, where b(x)
is the vertical height of the bridge, in metres,
and x is the horizontal distance, in metres.
x b A floating platform 20 metres wide and
5m
House p metres high is towed under the bridge. Given
that the platform needs to have a clearance of
a In terms of P, write down an inequality that at least 30 centimetres on each side, explain
describes the region where the grass has been why the maximum value of p is less than
planted. 10.7 centimetres.
b Determine the maximum distance the grass
area will be from the house. eBook plus
c The owners of the house have decided that
Interactivities
they would prefer the grassed area to be in
a maximum distance of 3.5 metres from the int-2852
house. The perimeter of the lawn following this Word search Chapter 9
design can be described by the equation int-2850
N(x) = ax2 + bx + c Crossword Chapter 9
int-2851
i Using algebra, show that this new
design can be described by the function
N(x) = -0.48x(x - 5)
ii Describe the transformation that maps P(x)
to N(x)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 323 15/05/12 12:18 PM

Digital docs
Chapter opener
• Activity 9-D-1 (doc-5083): Understanding parabola
Digital doc sketching (page 302)
• Hungry brain activity Chapter 9 (doc-5265) (page 279) • Activity 9-D-2 (doc-5084): Parabola sketching
Are you ready?
(page 302)
• Activity 9-D-3 (doc-5085): Sketching tricky parabolas
Digital docs (page 280) (page 302)
• SkillSHEET 9.1 (doc-5266): Substitution into quadratic • SkillSHEET 9.3 (doc-5268): Completing the square
equations (page 302)
• SkillSHEET 9.2 (doc-5267): Equation of a vertical line • SkillSHEET 9.4 (doc-5269): Solving quadratic
• SkillSHEET 9.3 (doc-5268): Completing the square equations using the quadratic formula (page 302)
• SkillSHEET 9.4 (doc-5269): Solving quadratic • SkillSHEET 9.5 (doc-5270): Solving quadratic
equations using the quadratic formula equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 1
• SkillSHEET 9.5 (doc-5270): Solving quadratic (page 303)
equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 1 • SkillSHEET 9.6 (doc-5271): Solving quadratic
• SkillSHEET 9.6 (doc-5271): Solving quadratic equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ò 1
equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ò 1 (page 303)
• WorkSHEET 9.2 (doc-5273): y = ax2 + bx + c
(page 306)
Digital docs
• Activity 9-A-1 (doc-5074): Review of plotting
parabolas (page 284) Interactivity
• Activity 9-A-2 (doc-5075): Plotting parabolas (page 284) • Exponential graphs (int-1149) (page 307)
• Activity 9-A-3 (doc-5076): Trends in plotting parabolas Digital docs (page 309)
(page 285) • Activity 9-E-1 (doc-5086): Exploring exponential
• SkillSHEET 9.1 (doc-5266): Substitution into quadratic graphs
equations (page 285) • Activity 9-E-2 (doc-5087): Features of exponential
• SkillSHEET 9.2 (doc-5267): Equation of a vertical line graphs
(page 285) • Activity 9-E-3 (doc-5088): Tricky exponential
graphs
9B Sketching parabolas using the basic • SkillSHEET 9.7 (doc-5274): Substitution into index
graph of y = x 2 expressions
Interactivities 9F The hyperbola
• Dilation of y = x2 (int-1148) (page 287) Digital docs (page 314)
• Vertical translation of y = x2 + c (int-1192) (page 287) • Activity 9-F-1 (doc-5089): Hyperbola graphs
• Horizontal translation of y = (x - h)2 (int-1193) (page 288) • Activity 9-F-2 (doc-5090): Exploring the
Digital docs hyperbola
• Activity 9-B-1 (doc-5077): Review of sketching basic • Activity 9-F-3 (doc-5091): More hyperbola graphs
parabolas (page 291)
• Activity 9-B-2 (doc-5078): Sketching basic parabolas 9G The circle
(page 291) Digital docs (page 317)
• Activity 9-B-3 (doc-5079): Trends in sketching basic • Activity 9-G-1 (doc-5092): Circle graphs
parabolas (page 291) • Activity 9-G-2 (doc-5093): Exploring the circle
• WorkSHEET 9.1 (doc-5272): Quadratic graphs • Activity 9-G-3 (doc-5094): More circle graphs
(page 292) Chapter review
9C Sketching parabolas in turning point form Interactivities (page 323)
Digital docs (page 296) • Test yourself Chapter 9 (int-2852): Take the end-of-
• Activity 9-C-1 (doc-5080): Reviewing turning point chapter test to test your progress
form • Word search Chapter 9 (int-2850): an interactive
• Activity 9-C-2 (doc-5081): Turning point form word search involving words associated with this
• Activity 9-C-3 (doc-5082): Interpreting turning point chapter
form trends • Crossword Chapter 9 (int-2851): an interactive
9D Sketching parabolas of the form chapter
y = ax 2 + bx + c To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
Interactivity
www.jacplus.com.au
• Sketching parabolas (int-2785) (page 298)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_09.indd 324 15/05/12 12:18 PM

measurement anD geometry • geometric reasoning
10
10a Congruence review
10B Similarity review
10C Congruence and proof
10d Quadrilaterals: definitions and
properties
10e Quadrilaterals and proof
What Do you knoW ?

1 List what you know about geometry.
Deductive Create a concept map to show your list.

geometry
eBook plus
3 As a class, create a
large concept map
Digital doc
that shows your Hungry brain activity
class’s knowledge Chapter 10
of geometry. doc-5275
opening Question
Can you predict the path of a ball after it

has been hit by the cue? Will the ball land
in a pocket?
are you ready?

completing■the■matching■SkillSHEET.■Either■search■for■the■SkillSHEET■in■your eBookPLUS■or■
eBook plus Naming angles, lines and figures

1 For■the■triangle■shown■at■right,■use■correct■mathematical■ C
Digital doc
notation■to■name:
SkillSHEET 10.1
doc-5276 a the■triangle A
b the■angle■marked■ñ
c the■line■opposite■the■right■angle. B
eBook plus Corresponding sides and angles of congruent triangles

2 The■two■triangles■below■are■congruent.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.2 A Q
doc-5277
P
B
C R
Triangle 1 Triangle 2
a Which■side■in■Triangle■1■corresponds■to■side■QR■in■Triangle■2?
b Which■side■in■Triangle■2■corresponds■to■side■BC■in■Triangle■1?
c Name■the■angle■in■Triangle■1■that■corresponds■to■±PQR■in■Triangle■2.
d Name■the■angle■in■Triangle■2■that■corresponds■to■±ABC■in■Triangle■1.
eBook plus Writing similarity statements A

3 For■the■pair■of■similar■triangles■shown■at■right,■write■the■similarity■
Digital doc
statement■and■list■the■ratios■of■the■corresponding■sides.■
SkillSHEET 10.3
doc-5278
D E
B C
eBook plus Identifying quadrilaterals
4 Name■the■following■shapes.
Digital doc c
a b
SkillSHEET 10.4
doc-5279
326 maths Quest 10 for the australian curriculum

measurement AND geometry • geometric reasoning
10A Congruence review

■■ Congruent figures have the same size and the same shape; that is, they are identical in all
respects. It can be said that congruent figures are similar figures with a scale factor of 1.
■■ The symbol used for congruency is @.
For example, DABC in the diagram below is congruent to DPQR. This is written as
DABC @ DPQR.
C P Q
A B R
Note that the vertices of the two triangles are written in corresponding order.
■■ Of all the shapes that are being tested for congruency, we are particularly interested in
triangles. There are five tests designed to check whether triangles are congruent. Three
of these tests are for any type of triangle and one is specifically designed for right-angled
triangles. The tests are summarised in the table below.
Test Diagram Abbreviation
All three corresponding sides are SSS

equal in length.
A pair of corresponding sides and SAS

the included angle are equal.
A pair of corresponding angles and ASA

the included side are equal.
A pair of corresponding angles and a AAS

non-included side are equal.
The hypotenuse and one pair of RHS

corresponding sides in right-angled
triangles are equal.
■■ In each of the tests we need to show three equal measurements about a pair of triangles in
order to show they are congruent.
Chapter 10 Deductive geometry 327

Worked Example 1
Select a pair of congruent triangles from the diagram below, giving a reason for your answer.
A Q 18 cm N
L 35è
50è 15 cm 95è
C
95è 35è 95è
P R
15 cm
B M
Think Write
1 In each triangle the length of the side opposite the AC = PR = 15 cm, LN = 18 cm

95è angle is given. If triangles are to be congruent, Since LN ò AC and LN ò PR, DLMN is not
the sides opposite the angles of equal size must be congruent to DABC and DPQR.
equal in length. Draw your conclusion.
2 We have a pair of equal sides. For DABC and DABC: ±A = 50è, ±B = 95è,
DPQR to be congruent, 2 pairs of corresponding ±C = 180è - 50è - 95è
angles must be shown to be equal. = 35è
±B = ±Q
±C = ±R
3 Triangles ABC and PQR have a pair of DABC @ DPQR (ASA)
corresponding sides equal in length and 2 pairs of
angles the same, so draw your conclusion.
■■ Note that in the above worked example the congruent triangles were identified by using the
ASA test, which implies that two angles and one pair of corresponding sides must be the
same.
■■ Note that if two pairs of corresponding angles are equal, the third pair must also be equal.
Worked Example 2
Given that DABD @ DCBD, find the values of B

the pronumerals in the figure at right.
40è z y
A x D C
3 cm
Think Write
1 In congruent triangles corresponding sides are DABD @ DCBD

equal in length. Side AD (marked x) corresponds AD = CD, AD = x, CD = 3
to side DC, so state the value of x. So x = 3 cm.
2 Since triangles are congruent, corresponding ±A = ±C
angles are equal. State the angles corresponding ±A = 40è, ±C = y
to y and z and hence find the values of these So y = 40è.
pronumerals. ±BDA = ±BDC
±BDA = z, ±BDC = 90è
So z = 90è.

Worked Example 3
Prove that DPQS is congruent to DRSQ. P Q
S R
Think Write
1 Study the diagram and state which sides, and/or QP = SR (given)

angles are equal. ±SPQ = ±SRQ = 90° (given)
QS is common.
2 Select the appropriate congruency test. (In this So DPQS @ DRSQ (RHS).
case it is RHS because the triangles have an equal
side, a right angle and a common hypotenuse.)
remember
1. Congruent figures are identical in all respects; that is, they have the same shape and the
same size.
2. Triangles are congruent if any one of the following applies:
(a) corresponding sides are the same (SSS)
(b) two corresponding sides and the included angle are the same (SAS)
(c) two angles and a pair of corresponding sides are the same (ASA)
(d) two corresponding angles and a non-included side are equal (AAS)
(e) the hypotenuse and one pair of the other corresponding sides are the same in a
right-angled triangle (RHS).
3. The symbol used for congruency is @.
Exercise
10A Congruence review
Individual Fluency
Pathways 1 WE 1 Select a pair of congruent triangles in each of the following, giving a reason for your
eBook plus answer. All side lengths are in cm.
a
Activity 10-A-1 65è 65è
Review of congruent
shapes
3 II
doc-5095 4 3 III
Activity 10-A-2 I 4
Practice with 70è 4 3
congruent figures
doc-5096 65è 70è 45è

b
inDiViDual 110è
pathWays 6 cm
I
eBook plus 40è 6 cm
III
Activity 10-A-3 II
Tricky congruent
figures 110è 110è 40è
doc-5097 6 cm
40è
eBook plus c 3
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.1 5
doc-5276
4 II
3
III
I 4
eBook plus 3
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.2 d 3.5 2 3.5
doc-5277
2 I
III
4.8 II
3.5 4.8 2.5
4.8
unDerstanDing
2 We2 ■Find■the■value■of■the■pronumeral■in■each■of■the■following■pairs■of■con■gruent■triangles.■
All■side■lengths■are■in■cm.
a b c
80è
4 3
30è
85è
z
x x x y
4
d e
x
40è
y n m z
7 30è y
x

reasoning
3 We3 ■Prove■that■each■of■the■following■pairs■of■triangles■are■congruent.
eBook plus
a P b P Q
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.5
doc-5280
S R
R S Q
c P S Q d A B
D C
R
e Q
P R
4 mc ■Note:■There■may■be■more■than■one■correct■answer.■
Which■of■the■following■is■congruent■to■the■triangle■
shown■at■right? 3 cm
5 cm
35è
a 3 cm B
5 cm
5 cm
3 cm
35è
35è
C d 3 cm
3 cm 35è
5 cm
35è 5 cm
chapter 10 Deductive geometry 331

5 Prove that DABC @ DADC and hence find the values of the pronumerals in each of the
following.
a A b B D c B C
30è y
30è 30è
7 cm w 70è 65è
x x
A C A D
B x y D
4 cm 40è 40è z
C
6 Explain why the triangles

shown at right are not ■
necessarily congruent. 40è
5 cm 5 cm
7 cm
40è
7 cm
7 Explain why the triangles

shown at right are not ■ 8 cm
congruent. 8 cm
30è 30è
70è 70è
8 Show that DABO @ DACO, if O is the centre of the circle. A B
reflection  
O
How can you be certain that
two figures are congruent?
C
10B Similarity review

■■ Similar figures have identical shape but different size.
■■ The corresponding angles in similar figures are equal in size and the corresponding sides are
in the same ratio, called a scale factor.
■■ The sign used to denote similarity is ~ which is read as ‘is similar to’.
•• Similar figures can be obtained as a result of an enlargement or reduction.
•• If an enlargement (or a reduction) took place, the original figure can be called the object
and the enlarged (or reduced) figure called the image. It can also be said that the object
maps to the image.
■■ For any two similar figures, the scale factor can be obtained using the following formula:
length of the image
Scale factor =
length of the object
Note: The size of the scale factor indicates whether the original object has been enlarged or
reduced. That is, if the scale factor is greater than 1, an enlargement has occurred. If it is less
than 1, a reduction in size has occurred.

■■ Consider the pair of similar triangles below.
U
A
10
5 6
3
B C V 8 W
4
The following can be said about these triangles.

– Triangle UVW is similar to triangle ABC or, using symbols, DUVW ~ DABC.
– The corresponding angles of the two triangles are equal in size: ±CAB = ±WUV,
±ABC = ±UVW and ±ACB = ±UWV.
UV VW UW
– The corresponding sides of the two triangles are in the same ratio. = = = 2;
AB BC AC
that is, DUVW has each of its sides twice as long as the corresponding sides in DABC.
– The scale factor is 2.
Testing triangles for similarity

■■ Triangles can be checked for similarity using one of the tests described in the table below.
Test Abbreviation
All corresponding angles are equal in size. AAA or equiangular

(angle–angle–angle)
All corresponding sides are in the same ratio. SSS

(side–side–side)
Two pairs of corresponding sides are in the same SAS

ratio and the included angles are equal in size. (side–angle–side)
Both are right-angled triangles; the hypotenuses RHS

and one other pair of corresponding sides are in the (right angle–hypotenuse–side)
same ratio.
■■ Note: When using the equiangular test, only two corresponding angles have to be checked.
Since the sum of the interior angles in any triangle is a constant number (180è), the third pair
of corresponding angles will automatically be equal, provided that the first two pairs match
exactly.
Worked Example 4
Find a pair of similar triangles among those shown. Give a reason for your answer.
a b c
3 cm 6 cm
3 cm 140è 5 cm
140è 140è
2 cm 4 cm

Think Write
1 In each triangle we know the size of two sides and the For triangles a and b:
included angle, so the SAS test can be applied. Since all 6 4
=2=2
3
included angles are equal (140è), we need to find ratios of
corresponding sides, taking two triangles at a time. For triangles a and c:
= 1.6 , 2 = 1.5
5 3
3
For triangles b and c:
= 0.83 , 4 = 0.75
5 3
6
2 Only triangles a and b have corresponding sides in the same Triangle a ~ triangle b (SAS)
ratio (and included angle of equal size). State your conclusion,
specifying the similarity test that has been used.
Worked Example 5
Prove that DABC is similar to DEDC. A D

C
B
E
Think Write
1 AB is parallel to DE. Transversal BD forms two alternate ±ABC = ±EDC

angles: ±ABC and ±EDC. (alternate angles)
2 Transversal AE forms two alternate angles: ±BAC and ±DEC. ±BAC = ±DEC
(alternate angles)
3 While crossing each other, the two transversals form vertically ±BCA = ±DCE
opposite angles at C. (vertically opposite angles)
4 Triangles ABC and EDC have three pairs of corresponding \ DABC ~ DEDC (equiangular,
angles of equal size and therefore are similar. State this using AAA)
appropriate mathematical symbols and specify the similarity
test being used.
remember
1. Similar figures have the same shape but different size.

2. Corresponding angles of similar figures are equal in size.
3. Corresponding sides of similar figures are in the same ratio, called the scale factor.
4. Triangles can be tested for similarity using the following requirements:
(a) corresponding angles are equal in size (AAA or equiangular)
(b) corresponding sides are in the same ratio (SSS)
(c) two pairs of corresponding sides are in the same ratio, and angles included between
those sides are equal in size (SAS)
(d) one angle in each triangle is right (90è); the hypotenuses and one pair of
corresponding sides are in the same ratio (RHS).
5. The symbol for similarity is ~.

exercise
10B similarity review
inDiViDual fluency
pathWays 1 We4 ■Find■a■pair■of■similar■triangles■among■those■shown■in■each■part.■Give■a■reason■for■your■
eBook plus answer.
a i■ ii iii
Activity 10-B-1
Review of similar
shapes 5 5 10
doc-5098
Activity 10-B-2
Similarity practice
doc-5099 3 4 6
Activity 10-B-3 b i■ ii iii
Tricky similarity
problems
doc-5100
4 2 8
20è 5 20è 2.5 20è 12
c i■ 2 ii 2 iii
4 5 6
3 4 4.5
3
d i■ ii iii
40è 60è 50è 60è 40è 60è
e i■ ii iii
4 8 7
3 6 5
2 4 4
unDerstanDing
2 Name■two■similar■triangles■in■each■of■the■following■fi■gures.
a Q b A c P Q
B
B D C R
A C
P R
d A B e B
D S T
D E
A C E

reasoning
3 We5 ■Prove■that■DABC■is■similar■to■DEDC■in■each■of■the■following.
eBook plus
a C b D
Digital doc A
SkillSHEET 10.3
doc-5278 E D C
B
A B
E
eBook plus
c E d D
Digital doc A
SkillSHEET 10.6
doc-5281 B
C
B
D
A C E
AB BC
4 a■ Complete■this■statement:■ = = . D
AD AE 4
B
b Find■the■value■of■the■pronumerals. 2
A 3
f
4
C
g
E
5 Find■the■value■of■the■pronumeral■in■the■diagram■at■right.■ Q
A
x
2
P
4 B 4 R
6 The■triangles■shown■at■right■are■similar.■Find■the■
value■of■x■and■y.■ 45è
4
45è 1
20è
9 x
y
7 Find■the■values■of■x■and■y■in■the■diagram■at■right. S
P
eBook plus 1.5 8
reflection 3 R
Digital doc How can you be certain that y 6
WorkSHEET 10.1 x
two figures are similar? Q
doc-5282
T
10c congruence and proof

■■ In■geometry,■congruence■is■one■of■the■main■tools■we■can■use■to■prove■both■familiar■and■
unfamiliar■properties■of■shapes.
■■ In■this■section,■we■will■aim■to■prove■key■deductive■geometry■theorems■about■triangles.■In■a■
proof,■it■is■important■to■give■reasons■for■all■steps.

Worked Example 6
Prove that if two sides of a triangle are equal, then A

the angles opposite those sides are equal, that is,
±ABC = ±ACB.
B C
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a diagram. Construct AD so that ■ A

±BAD = ±CAD.
B C
D
2 State the known facts about the sides and angles. AB = AC (given)
±BAD = ±CAD (by construction)
AD is common.
3 Summarise the given information. Two sides and the included angle in DBAD and
DCAD are equal.
4 State which congruency test applies. DBAD @ DCAD (SAS)
5 State the conclusion. ±ABC = ±ACB (corresponding angles in
congruent triangles are equal)
Worked Example 7
PQR is an isosceles triangle with PQ = PR. Also, MQ = NR. P

Prove that MR = NQ.
M N
Q R
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a diagram, labelling all given information. P
M N
Q R

2 State■the■known■facts■about■the■sides■and■angles. MQ■=■NR■(given)
and■PQ■=■PR■(given)
\■PM■=■PN
also■±QPR■is■common.
3 Summarise■the■given■information. Two■sides■and■the■included■angle■in■DMPR■and■
DNPQ■are■equal.
4 State■which■congruency■test■applies. DMPR■@■DNPQ■(SAS)
5 State■the■conclusion. \■MR■=■NQ■(corresponding■sides■in■congruent■
triangles■are■equal)
rememBer
1.■ Many■deductive■geometry■proofs■can■be■completed■using■congruent■triangle■tests.
2.■ In■a■proof,■it■is■important■to■give■reasons■for■all■steps.
exercise
10c congruence and proof
inDiViDual reasoning
pathWays
1 We6 ■Prove■that■if■two■angles■of■a■triangle■are■equal,■the■sides■ A
eBook plus
opposite■those■angles■are■equal.■(See■the■fi■gure■shown■at■right.)
Activity 10-C-1 ■ ■ Hint:■Construct■a■line■perpendicular■to■BC■through■A■
Congruent triangles and■prove■that■DABD■@■DACD.
doc-5101
Activity 10-C-2
Matching congruent
triangles
doc-5102 B C
D
Activity 10-C-3
2 Prove■that■each■angle■of■an■equilateral■triangle■is■60è.
Harder congruent
triangles 3 Prove■that■the■bisector■of■the■vertical■angle■of■an■isosceles■ M
doc-5103 triangle■bisects■the■base.■(See■the■fi■gure■shown■lower■right.)
4 Prove■that■the■intervals■joining■the■midpoints■of■
the■three■sides■of■a■triangle■cut■the■original■triangle■
into■four■congruent■triangles.
N P
O
5 We7 ■Use■congruence■to■prove■that■AB■||■CD. A C
E
B D
6 Prove■that■DWXY■@■DYZW. W X
Z Y

7 Prove that DADO @ DABO. A B
D C
8 Prove that DPTS @ DQTR. P Q
S R
9 DABC is isosceles with AB = AC. D lies on BC so that AD ^ BC. Prove that AD bisects
±BAC and D is the midpoint of BC.
10 PQR is a triangle. M lies on PR so that QM ^ PR. N lies on PQ so that PQ ^ RN. Also
RN = QM. Prove that ±PRQ = ±PQR and hence that DPQR is an isosceles triangle.
(Hint: Prove DQNR @ DRMQ.)
11 Can we prove Pythagoras’ theorem using our B
knowledge of similar triangles? Consider the triangle ■
shown. DABC is a right-angled triangle with
±ABC = 90°. We can construct a perpendicular
from B to AC, meeting AC at D. Let ±BAD = x. x
A C
Our aim is to show that AB2 + BC2 = AC2. D
a Copy the diagram and label the size of all other angles
in the triangle.
b Using the equiangular test, prove that DBAD ~ DCAB.
Hint: Show that ±ABD = 90° - x and ±ACB = 90° - x.
c Copy and complete:
AD
=
AC
\ AB2 =
d Using the equiangular test, prove that DBCD ~ DACB.
e Copy and complete:
CD
=
AC
\ BC2 =
f Combining step c and step e, copy and complete:
AB2 + BC2 = __________
= __________ (by factorising)
= __________ (by simplifying)
\ AB2 + BC2 = AC2
g Challenge: Can you prove the converse of Pythagoras’ theorem? That is, if the square on
one side of a triangle equals the sum of the squares on
the other two sides, then the angle between these other
two sides is a right angle. reflection  
What is the most important
thing to include in a proof?

10D Quadrilaterals: definitions and

properties
■■ There are many important properties of quadrilaterals that can be shown using deductive
eBook plus
geometry.
Interactivity
Quadrilateral
definitions Shape Definition Properties
int-2786
Trapezium A trapezium is a One pair of opposite sides is

quadrilateral with only parallel.
one pair of parallel sides.
Parallelogram A parallelogram is a ■■ Opposite angles are equal.

quadrilateral with both pairs ■■ Opposite sides are equal.
of opposite sides parallel. ■■ Diagonals bisect each
other.
Rhombus A rhombus is a ■■ Diagonals bisect each

parallelogram with four other at right angles.
equal sides. ■■ Diagonals bisect the
angles at the vertex
through which they pass.
Rectangle A rectangle is a Diagonals are equal and

parallelogram whose bisect each other.
interior angles are right
angles.
Square A square is a parallelogram ■■ All angles are right angles.

whose interior angles are ■■ All side lengths are equal.
right angles with four equal ■■ Diagonals are equal in
sides. length and bisect each
other at right angles.
■■ Diagonals bisect the
vertex through which they
pass (45è).

Worked Example 8
Use the definitions and properties of the five special quadrilaterals to answer the following statements
as true or false.
a A parallelogram is a trapezium.
b A trapezium is a rectangle.
c A square is a parallelogram.
Think Write
a 1 Consider the properties of a trapezium. a A trapezium has one pair of parallel sides.
2 Consider the properties of a A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both
parallelogram. pairs of opposite sides parallel.
3 Decide if a parallelogram fits the Statement is false.
definition of a trapezium.
b 1 Consider the definition of a rectangle. b A rectangle is a parallelogram whose interior
angles are right angles and has two pairs of
parallel sides.
2 Consider the definition of a trapezium. A trapezium is a quadrilateral with only
one pair of parallel sides.
3 Decide if a trapezium fits the definition of A trapezium does not necessarily have a right
a rectangle. angle, therefore, the statement is false.
c 1 Consider the definition of a c A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose
parallelogram. appropriate sides are parallel.
2 Consider the definition of a square. A square is a parallelogram whose interior
angles are right angles with four equal sides.
3 Decide if the square fits the definition of A square is a parallelogram; therefore, the
a parallelogram. statement is true.
remember
1. A trapezium is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides.

2. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
3. A rhombus is a parallelogram with four equal sides.
4. A rectangle is a parallelogram whose interior angles are right angles.
5. A square is a parallelogram whose interior angles are right angles with four equal sides.
Exercise
10D Quadrilaterals: definitions and properties
Individual Fluency
Pathways
1 WE 8 Use the definitions of the five special quadrilaterals to decide if the following statements
eBook plus are true or false.
Activity 10-D-1
a A square is a rectangle. b A rhombus is a parallelogram.
Quadrilaterals c A square is a rhombus. d A rhombus is a square.
doc-5104 e A square is a trapezium. f A parallelogram is a rectangle.
g A trapezium is a rhombus. h A rectangle is a square.

inDiViDual unDerstanDing
pathWays 2 Draw■three■different■trapeziums.■Using■your■ruler■and■protractor,■decide■which■of■the■
eBook plus following■properties■are■true■in■a■trapezium.
a Opposite■sides■are■equal. b All■sides■are■equal.
Activity 10-D-2 c Opposite■angles■are■equal. d All■angles■are■equal.
Harder quadrilaterals
doc-5105
e Diagonals■are■equal■in■length. f Diagonals■bisect■each■other.
Activity 10-D-3
g Diagonals■are■perpendicular.
Tricky quadrilaterals h Diagonals■bisect■the■angles■they■pass■through.
doc-5106
3 Draw■three■different■parallelograms.■Using■your■ruler■and■protractor■to■measure,■decide■which■
of■the■following■properties■are■true■in■a■parallelogram.
eBook plus a Opposite■sides■are■equal. b All■sides■are■equal.
c Opposite■angles■are■equal. d All■angles■are■equal.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 10.4
doc-5279 g Diagonals■are■perpendicular.
h Diagonals■bisect■the■angles■they■pass■through.
4 Draw■three■different■rhombuses.■Using■your■ruler■and■protractor■to■measure,■decide■which■of■
the■following■properties■are■true■in■a■rhombus.
5 Draw■three■different■rectangles.■Using■your■ruler■and■protractor■to■measure,■decide■which■of■
the■following■properties■are■true■in■a■rectangle.
6 Draw■three■different■squares.■Using■your■ruler■and■protractor■to■measure,■decide■which■of■the■
following■properties■are■true■in■a■square.
7 Name■two■quadrilaterals■that■have■diagonals■that■bisect■each■other■at■right■angles.
8 Name■two■quadrilaterals■with■all■angles■equal.
9 Name■four■quadrilaterals■that■have■at■least■one■pair■of■opposite■sides■that■are■parallel■and■equal.
10 Name■a■quadrilateral■that■has■equal■diagonals■that■bisect■each■other■and■bisect■the■angles■they■
pass■through.
reasoning
11 Pool■is■played■on■a■rectangular■table.■Balls■are■hit■with■a■cue■
and■bounce■off■the■sides■of■the■table■until■they■land■in■one■of■
the■holes■or■pockets.
a Draw■a■rectangular■pool■table■measuring■5■cm■
by■3■cm■on■graph■paper.
■ Mark■the■four■holes,■one■in■each■corner.

b A■ball■starts■at■A.■It■is■hit■so■that■it■travels■at■
a■45è■diagonal■across■the■grid.■When■it■hits■
the■side■of■the■table,■it■bounces■off■at■a■45è■
diagonal■as■well.■How■many■sides■does■the■
ball■bounce■off■before■it■goes■in■a■hole?
c A■different■size■table■is■7■cm■by■2■cm.■How■
many■sides■does■a■ball■bounce■off■before■it■
goes■in■a■hole■when■hit■from■A?
A
d Complete■the■following■table.
Table size Number of sides hit

5■cm■ì■3■cm
e Can■you■see■a■pattern?■How■many■sides■would■a■
ball■bounce■off■before■going■in■a■hole■when■hit■
from■A■on■an■m■ì■n■table?
f The■ball■is■now■hit■from■B■on■a■5■cm■ì■3■cm■
pool■table.
■ How■many■different■paths■can■a■ball■take■when■
hit■along■45è■diagonals?■Do■these■paths■all■hit■
the■same■number■of■sides■before■going■in■a■hole?■
Does■the■ball■end■up■in■the■same■hole■each■time? B
■ Justify■your■answer.
g The■ball■is■now■hit■from■C■along■the■path■shown.
■ What■type■of■triangles■and■quadrilaterals■
are■formed■by■the■path■of■the■ball■with■
itself■and■the■sides■of■the■table?■Are■any■
of■the■triangles■congruent?
h A■ball■is■hit■from■C■on■a■6■cm■by■3■cm■
table.■What■shapes■are■formed■by■the■path■
of■the■ball■with■itself■and■the■sides■of■the■table?■
Is■there■only■one■path■possible? C
i Challenge:■A■ball■is■hit■from■A■along■45è■
diagonals.■The■table■is■m■ì■n.■Can■you■fi■nd■a■
formula■to■predict■which■hole■the■ball■will■go■in?
j Challenge: What■would■happen■if■the■game■was■played■on■a■trapezoidal■table?
reflection
What is the
eBook plus difference between
the definitions
Digital doc and properties of
WorkSHEET 10.2 shapes?
doc-5283

10E Quadrilaterals and proof

■■ In the previous exercise, we investigated some of the properties of quadrilaterals by
construction and measurement.
■■ It is also important to be able to prove these properties from the definitions of the shapes.
Worked Example 9
Use the definition of a parallelogram to prove that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a diagram. A B
D C
2 State the definition of a parallelogram. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs

of opposite sides parallel.
3 Construct diagonal BD on the diagram.
4 Prove that the two triangles formed are In DBAD and DDCB, BD is common.
congruent. ±ADB = ±DBC (alternate angles equal as
AD || BC)
±ABD = ±BDC (alternate angles equal as
AB || DC)
\ DBAD @ DDCB (AAS)
5 State conclusions. AD = BC and AB = DC (corresponding sides in
congruent triangles are equal)
\ Opposite sides in a parallelogram are equal.
■■ It is also often useful to prove that a particular quadrilateral is a parallelogram, for instance.
If we know that the opposite sides are parallel, then we can use the definition and show
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram. However, there are also other tests for some of the
quadrilaterals as outlined in the table below.
Shape Tests
Parallelogram A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if:
(a) opposite sides are parallel
or (b) opposite sides are equal
or (c) opposite angles are equal
or (d) one pair of sides is both equal and parallel
or (e) the diagonals bisect each other.
Rhombus A quadrilateral is a rhombus if:
(a) all sides are equal
or (b) the diagonals bisect each other at right angles
or (c) the diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
Rectangle A quadrilateral is a rectangle if:
(a) all angles are equal
or (b) the diagonals are equal and bisect each other.

WorkeD example 10
Prove that PQRS is a parallelogram. P Q
S R
think Write
1 State■the■given■information. PS■=■QR
±PSQ■=■±RQS
2 Draw■conclusions■from■the■given■facts. \■PS || QR■(alternate■angles■are■equal)
3 State■reasons■why■PQRS■is■a■parallelogram. \■PQRS■is■a■parallelogram■since■PS■and■QR■are■
both■equal■and■parallel.
rememBer
1.■ A■quadrilateral■is■a■parallelogram■if:
(a)■ opposite■sides■are■parallel■or
(b)■opposite■sides■are■equal■or
(c)■ opposite■angles■are■equal■or
(d)■one■pair■of■sides■is■both■equal■and■parallel■or
(e)■ the■diagonals■bisect■each■other.
2.■ A■quadrilateral■is■a■rhombus■if:
(a)■ all■sides■are■equal■or
(b)■the■diagonals■bisect■each■other■at■right■angles■or
(c)■ the■diagonals■bisect■the■angles■they■pass■through.
3.■ A■quadrilateral■is■a■rectangle■if:
(a)■ all■angles■are■equal
(b)■the■diagonals■are■equal■and■bisect■each■other.
exercise
10e Quadrilaterals and proof
inDiViDual reasoning
pathWays 1 We9 ■Use■congruence■to■prove■that■the■opposite■angles■ W X
eBook plus (±ZWX■and■±XYZ)■are■equal■in■a■parallelogram.
Activity 10-E-1
Quadrilateral proofs
doc-5107 Z Y
Activity 10-E-2
Harder quadrilateral
proofs 2 Use■congruence■on■DADE■and■DCBE■to■prove■that■ A B
doc-5108 the■diagonals■of■a■parallelogram■bisect■each■other.
Activity 10-E-3 E
Tricky quadrilateral
proofs
doc-5109 D C

3 a■ Prove■that■DAED■@■DCED. A B
b Hence,■show■that■±AED■=■±CED■=■90è.■(That■is,■ E
the■diagonals■of■a■rhombus■are■perpendicular.)
c Show■that■BD■bisects■±ADC.■(That■is,■the■diagonals■
of■a■rhombus■bisect■the■angles■they■pass■through.) D C
4 Prove■that■the■diagonals■of■a■rhombus■bisect■each■other.
5 Prove■that■all■angles■in■a■rectangle■are■right■angles. P Q
S R
6 Use■congruence■on■DADC■and■DBCD■to■show■that■ A B
the■diagonals■in■a■rectangle■are■the■same■length.
D C
7 We10 ■ABCD■is■a■parallelogram.■X■is■the■midpoint■of■AB■ X
A B
and■Y■is■the■midpoint■of■DC.■Prove■that■AXYD■is■
also■a■parallelogram.
D Y C
A P B
8 ABCD■is■a■parallelogram.■P,■Q,■R■and■S■are■all■
midpoints■of■their■respective■sides■of■ABCD.
a Prove■DPAS■@■DRCQ. S Q
b Prove■DSDR■@■DPBQ.
c Hence,■prove■that■PQRS■is■also■a■parallelogram. D C
R
9 AC■and■BD■are■diameters■of■a■circle■with■centre■O.■ A
Prove■that■ABCD■is■a■rectangle.
D O
B
10 The■diagonals■of■a■parallelogram■meet■at■right■angles.■ C
Prove■that■the■parallelogram■is■a■rhombus.
11 Two■congruent■right-angled■triangles■are■arranged■ P Q
as■shown.■Show■that■PQRS■is■a■parallelogram.
S R
12 Two■circles,■centred■at■M■and■N,■have■equal■radii■and■ P
eBook plus
intersect■at■P■and■Q.■Prove■that■PNQM■is■a■rhombus.
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 10.3 M N
doc-5284 reflection
How do you know if a

quadrilateral is a rhombus? Q

Summary
Congruence review
■■ Congruent figures are identical in all respects; that is, they have the same shape and the same
size.
■■ Triangles are congruent if any one of the following applies:
(a) corresponding sides are the same (SSS)
(b) two corresponding sides and the included angle are the same (SAS)
(c) two angles and a pair of corresponding sides are the same (ASA)
(d) the hypotenuse and one pair of the other corresponding sides are the same in a right-
angled triangle (RHS).
■■ The symbol used for congruency is @.
Similarity review
■■ Similar figures have the same shape but different size.
■■ Corresponding angles of similar figures are equal in size.
■■ Corresponding sides of similar figures are in the same ratio, called the scale factor.
■■ Triangles can be tested for similarity using the following requirements:
(a) corresponding angles are equal in size (AAA or equiangular)
(b) corresponding sides are in the same ratio (SSS)
(c) two pairs of corresponding sides are in the same ratio, and angles included between those
sides are equal in size (SAS)
(d) one angle in each triangle is right (90è); the hypotenuses and one pair of corresponding
sides are in the same ratio (RHS).
■■ The symbol for similarity is ~.
Congruence and proof

■■ Many deductive geometry proofs can be completed using congruent triangle tests.
■■ In a proof, it is important to give reasons for all steps.
Quadrilaterals: definitions and properties

■■ A trapezium is a quadrilateral with two pairs of equal adjacent angles.
■■ A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
■■ A rhombus is a parallelogram with four equal sides.
■■ A rectangle is a parallelogram whose interior angles are right angles.
■■ A square is a parallelogram whose interior angles are right angles with four equal sides.
tQuadrilaterals and proof

■■ A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if:
(a) opposite sides are parallel or
(b) opposite sides are equal or
(c) opposite angles are equal or
(d) one pair of sides is both equal and parallel or
(e) the diagonals bisect each other.
■■ A quadrilateral is a rhombus if:
(a) all sides are equal or
(b) the diagonals bisect each other at right angles or
(c) the diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.

■■ A■quadrilateral■is■a■rectangle■if:
(a)■ all■angles■are■equal
(b)■the■diagonals■are■equal■and■bisect■each■other.
MaPPINg Your uNderStaNdINg

Homework

Chapter review
Fluency 4 Test whether the following pairs of triangles are
similar. For similar triangles find the scale factor.
1 Select a pair of congruent triangles in each of the
All angles are in degrees and side lengths in cm.
following sets of triangles, giving a reason for your a
answer. All angles are in degrees and side lengths 47è 47è
in cm. (The figures are not drawn to scale.) 2 3
a 4 4 110è
75è 110è
75è 5
40è III 7.5
II 6 65è
4 6 6 b
I
75è 3 5
b
I
6 8
10 6 6 50è 50è
II III
1 2
8
2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each pair of c
congruent triangles. All angles are given in degrees
and side lengths in cm.
a b
2
2
70è
8
4
x
2 5 Find the value of the pronumeral in each pair of
similar triangles. All angles are given in degrees
x and side lengths in cm.
c y z 60è a 5
A B
48è
y
30è 2
x
D x E
A B C 3
3 a Prove that the two
triangles shown in ■
the diagram at right ■ C
are congruent. b A
••
1 50è
D
C z E
b Prove that DPQR S R B 1.5 44è x
is congruent to ■
8
DQPS.
y
P Q D

c d What■does■this■mean■about■AG,■BG■and■CG?
P e A■circle■centred■at■G■is■drawn■through■A.■What■
x other■points■must■it■pass■through?
12 PR■is■the■perpendicular■bisector■of■QS.■Prove■that■
9 y A
DPQS■is■isosceles.
P
Q R 5
z 3
30è
C B
4
6 Prove■that■ A D
DABC ~ DEDC. Q S
R
C
B
E 13 Name■any■quadrilaterals■that■have■diagonals■that■
bisect■the■angles■they■pass■through.
7 Prove■that■ Q
14 State■three■tests■that■can■be■used■to■show■that■a■
DPST ~ DPRQ. S
quadrilateral■is■a■rhombus.
15 Prove■that■WXYZ■is■a■parallelogram.■
P R
T W X
8 Prove■that■the■angles■opposite■the■equal■sides■in■an■ 130è 50è
isosceles■triangle■are■equal.
9 mc ■Note:■There■may■be■more■than■one■correct■
answer. Z Y
■ ■ A■quadrilateral■with■two■adjacent■sides■equal■could■
be■a: 16 Prove■that■the■diagonals■in■a■rhombus■bisect■the■
a rhombus■ B■ square angles■they■pass■through.
C rectangle■ d■ parallelogram 17 Explain■why■the■triangles■shown■below■are■not■
10 True■or■false?■ congruent.
a A■rhombus■is■a■square.
b A■square■is■a■rectangle. 5 cm
c A■rectangle■is■a■trapezium. 80è 80è 25è
25è
5 cm
proBlem solVing
18 Prove■that■DEFO ~ DGHO.
11 ABC■is■a■triangle.■D■is■the■midpoint■of■AB,■E■is■
the■midpoint■of■AC■and■F■is■the■midpoint■of■BC.■ E F
DG■^■AB,■EG■^■AC■and■FG■^■BC.
A O
H G
D E 19 State■the■defi■nition■of■a■rhombus. eBook plus
G 20 Name■any■quadrilaterals■ Interactivities
that■have■equal■diagonals. Test yourself Chapter 10
B C int-2855
F
int-2853
a Prove■that■DGDA■@■DGDB.
Crossword Chapter 10
b Prove■that■DGAE■@■DGCE. int-2854
c Prove■that■DGBF■@■DGCF.

eBook plus actiVities
Chapter opener 10C Congruence and proof
Digital doc Digital docs (page 338)
•■ Hungry■brain■activity■Chapter■10■(doc-5275)■ •■ Activity■10-C-1■(doc-5101):■Congruent■triangles
(page 325) •■ Activity■10-C-2■(doc-5102):■Matching■congruent■
are you ready? triangles
•■ Activity■10-C-3■(doc-5103):■Harder■congruent■triangles
•■ SkillSHEET■10.1■(doc-5276):■Naming■angles,■lines■ 10d Quadrilaterals: definitions and properties
and■fi■gures Interactivity
•■ SkillSHEET■10.2■(doc-5277):■Corresponding■sides■ •■ Quadrilateral■defi■nitions■(int-2786)■(page 340)
and■angles■of■congruent■triangles Digital docs
•■ SkillSHEET■10.3■(doc-5278):■Writing■similarity■ •■ Activity■10-D-1■(doc-5104):■Quadrilaterals■(page 341)
statements •■ Activity■10-D-2■(doc-5105):■Harder■quadrilaterals■
•■ SkillSHEET■10.4■(doc-5279):■Identifying■ (page 342)
quadrilaterals •■ Activity■10-D-3■(doc-5106):■Tricky■quadrilaterals■
10a Congruence review (page 342)
•■ SkillSHEET■10.4■(doc-5279):■Identifying■
Digital docs
quadrilaterals■(page 342)
•■ Activity■10-A-1■(doc-5095):■Review■of■congruent■
•■ WorkSHEET■10.2■(doc-5283):■Deductive■
shapes■(page 329)
geometry■II■(page 343)
•■ Activity■10-A-2■(doc-5096):■Practice■with■congruent■
fi■gures■(page 329) 10e Quadrilaterals and proof
•■ Activity■10-A-3■(doc-5097):■Tricky■congruent■
Digital docs
fi■gures■(page 330)
•■ Activity■10-E-1■(doc-5107):■Quadrilateral■proofs■
•■ SkillSHEET■10.1■(doc-5276):■Naming■angles,■lines■
(page 345)
and■fi■gures■(page 330)
•■ Activity■10-E-2■(doc-5108):■Harder■quadrilateral■
•■ SkillSHEET■10.2■(doc-5277):■Corresponding■sides■
proofs■(page 345)
and■angles■of■congruent■triangles■(page 330)
•■ Activity■10-E-3■(doc-5109):■Tricky■quadrilateral■
•■ SkillSHEET■10.5■(doc-5280):■Angles■and■parallel■
proofs■(page 345)
lines■(page 331)
•■ WorkSHEET■10.3■(doc-5284):■Deductive■
10B Similarity review geometry■III■(page 346)
Digital docs Chapter review
•■ Activity■10-B-1■(doc-5098):■Review■of■similar■
Interactivities(page 350)
shapes■(page 335)
•■ Test■yourself■Chapter■10■(int-2855):■Take■the■end-of-
•■ Activity■10-B-2■(doc-5099):■Similarity■practice■
chapter■test■to■test■your■progress
(page 335)
•■ Word■search■Chapter■10■(int-2853):■an■interactive■word■
•■ Activity■10-B-3■(doc-5100):■Tricky■similarity■
search■involving■words■associated■with■this■chapter
problems■(page 335)
•■ Crossword■Chapter■10■(int-2854):■an■interactive■
•■ SkillSHEET■10.3■(doc-5278):■Writing■similarity■
statements■(page 336)
chapter
•■ SkillSHEET■10.6■(doc-5281):■Calculating■unknown■
side■lengths■in■a■pair■of■similar■triangles■(page 336) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
•■ WorkSHEET■10.1■(doc-5282):■Deductive■geometry■I■
(page 336) www.jacplus.com.au

eBook plus
ict actiVity
Process
■■ Open■the■ProjectsPLUS■application■in■your■
eBookPLUS.■Watch■the■introductory■video■lesson,■
Backyard flood click■the■‘Start■Project’■button■and■then■set■up■
your■project■group.■You■can■complete■this■project■
SearCHLIgHt Id: Pro-0099 individually■or■invite■other■members■of■your■class■
Scenario to■form■a■group.■After■saving■your■settings,■the■
Mrs■Effi■ciency■is■at■home■busy■preparing■for■ project■will■be■launched.
Christmas■and■needs■to■water■the■fruit■trees■in■the■
■■ Navigate■to■your■Research Forum.■Here■you■will■fi■nd■
back■yard.■When■she■goes■to■connect■the■hose■to■the■ a■series■of■topics■to■help■you■complete■your■task.
tap■she■discovers■that■Mr■Effi■ciency■has■taken■the■one■
■■ Research.■Keep■a■journal■of■your■discoveries■as■
she■usually■uses.■Her■only■option■is■to■use■one■twice■ you■proceed■with■the■task.■The■journal■entries■
the■diameter.■She■assumes■this■will■deliver■water■at■ should■be■short■phrases■to■explain■what■you■are■
twice■the■rate■of■the■smaller■hose■and■so■leaves■it■for■ doing/thinking,■similar■to■using■twitter■or■sending■a■
half■her■usual■time■of■20■minutes.■She■returns■to■a■ text■message■to■a■friend■—■do■not■use■abbreviations■
fl■ood■in■the■backyard.■ for■your■words.■Start■each■message■with■the■title■
At■the■evening■meal■she■discusses■the■event■with■ of■the■topic■you■are■reporting■on.■Each■person■in■
the■family.■She■is■really■distressed■because■she■ your■group■should■report■on■at■least■3■different■
realises■that■her■action■has■led■to■a■waste■of■water■(a■ sources■of■information.■You■can■view■and■comment■
very■scarce■resource).■Her■Year■10■daughter■decides■ on■the■other■group■members’■entries■and■rate■the■
to■research■the■situation■and■present■a■summary■to■her■ comments■they■have■made.■When■your■research■is■
mother■to■explain■what■has■happened. complete,■print■your■Research■Report■to■hand■to■
your■teacher.
■■ Go■to■the■Media Centre■in■your■eBookPLUS■and■
open■the■Enlargements■Teaching■Tool.■Complete■
the■table.■Answer■the■questions■provided■in■the■
Enlargements■Teaching■Tool■fi■le■in■the■Media
Centre.■Summarise■your■discoveries■in■200■words■
or■fewer.■Include■screenprints■of■each■enlargement.
■■ Wordle■is■a■site■that■creates■an■image■of■the■words■
in■an■article■according■to■the■frequency■of■their■
usage.■Open■the■Wordle■site.■Select■the■create■tab.■
Copy■the■summary■of■your■article■into■the■text■box.■
Keep■selecting■the■Randomise button■until■you■are■
task happy with■the■result.■Print■your■fi■nal■choice.■Take■
■■ You■will■need■to■look■at■the■Interactive■websites■ a■screenprint■of■your■fi■nal■choice.■Take■it■into■Paint
found■in■your■eBookPLUS■to■summarise■how■ for■use■as■an■image■in■your■presentation.■Save■your■
doubling■and■halving■dimensions■affects■length,■ Paint■fi■le■as■a■jpeg■fi■le.
area■and■volume. ■■ Go■to■the■Media Centre■in■your■eBookPLUS■
■■ You■will■use■Google■Sketchup■to■design■Babushka■ and■open■the■Area■Calculator■site.■Make■sure■the■
solids■to■be■used■as■measures■for■cooking. calculations■are■done■in■metres.■For■each■of■the■
■■ You■will■also■investigate■if■the■weight■gain■of■a■ shapes,■choose■a■number■to■enter■into■the■box■to■
baby■fi■ts■this■same■model. calculate■the■area.■Recalculate■the■area■for■half■
■■ You■will■then■write■up■your■procedure■and■ this■dimension■and■double■it.■How■can■this■be■
conclusions■in■Word■and■present■it■as■a■book■in■ summarised?■Repeat■this■process■for■the■Volume■
Calameo.■You■should■assume■the■role■of■Mrs■ Calculator■site.■Summarise■your■fi■ndings.■Include■
Effi■ciency’s■daughter■who■is■preparing■a■report■for■ this■summary■in■your■report.
her■mother.■Remember■to■provide■some■advice■to■ ■■ Download■Google Sketchup. Watch■the■
Mrs■Effi■ciency■regarding■conservation■of■water. introductory■video■to■get■started.■Use■the■measuring■

tool to help you create a set of nesting solids to be area, surface area and
used instead of babushka (matryoshka) measuring volume in terms of the suggested
cups — look at the photo to see the proportions of scale factor. Discuss software
• ProjectsPLUS
the cups. Take a screenprint of your masterpiece to whether or not the
• Microsoft Word
include in your report. weight gain of a baby • Internet Explorer
Remember: 1 cup is equal to 250 mL. fits this same model. • Google Sketchup
Write a paragraph • Wordle
explaining the error of • Calameo
Mrs Efficiency’s • Enlargements
Teaching Tool
calculations, and why
her backyard flooded.
Assume the role of
Mrs Efficiency’s daughter who is presenting her
research findings to her mother.
■■ Use the Australian Icon weblink in your

eBookPLUS and choose 3 icons to compare with
the real object. Calculate the scale factor (range of
numbers). Give measurements and calculations to
support your conclusion. Calculate the enlargement
factor of the icon from the real object. Calculate
how many times larger the surface area and volume
of the icon is compared with real object.
■■ Go to the Media Centre in your eBookPLUS and ■■ Use Word to develop your presentation. Remember
open the Sydney Harbour Bridge link. Download that you are trying to deliver a comprehensive
the model. Use the measuring tool in Google summary of similarity and clarify why there was
Sketchup to find the length and height of the model. a flood in the backyard. You are also showing
Compare this with the actual measurements of the applications of similarity. Make sure you include
Sydney Harbour Bridge. Comment on its accuracy all the results of your research, and that your
in your report. Take a screen capture, with your presentation will grab the attention of those
measurements visible on the model, to include in listening. Try to limit your report to either 4 or
your report. 8 pages for the most professional delivery. Use
Word to type up your dialogue to present your
report (200–500 words).
■■ Before you present your findings, use the Calameo
weblink in your eBookPLUS and sign up for a
free account. You will need an email address so
ensure you have your teacher’s or your parents’
permission to do this. Take the guided tour to learn
how to prepare a Calameo presentation. Create a
publication and upload your Word report. Choose
■■ Use Microsoft Word when preparing your the radio button for a Private Publication Mode.
presentation. Your Media Centre includes images Click the Start Uploading button. To show your
that can help to liven up your presentation. As you report, click the button Read the publication and
arrange your images on your Word page make them choose full screen view before you commence
appear as they would in the pages of a book. Each your delivery. (If the pagination alters using Word
page of your Word document will be a page in your — and this is a problem — delete your Calameo
Calameo production of your report. Summarise the publication and repeat the process by uploading a
findings of your research. Give formulas for length, pdf of your report.)
ICT Activity — projectsplus 353

probleM solving
11
problem
solving I
m
40 c
60 cm
opening QUesTion
How far does the centre of the racquet

travel if the girl swings through an angle
of 300è?
problem solving
1 A cuboid has dimensions 10 cm by 12 cm by 18 cm. Find the length of the diagonal space.
2 Expand (3x - 2y)4.
3 Sketch a possible graph of y = 2x2 -3x + g. Determine axial intercepts and the coordinates of
the turning point, if any.
4 Find the volume of a right cone with a base diameter of 14 cm and slant height of 25 cm.
5 Consider a right-angled triangle, such that the two shorter sides are 6.4 mm and 8.9 mm in
length. Find the angle between the shortest side and the hypotenuse.
6 The perimeter of a rectangle is 20 cm and its area is 14 cm2. Calculate the dimensions of the
rectangle, correct to 1 decimal place.
7 Solve for x and y.
y = ax - 3b

dx + ey = f
8 When two algebraic fractions are equal, a method known as ‘cross-multiplying’ makes
finding the value of x a lot quicker.
a c
= so, a(x + d) = c(x + b)
x+b x+d
Expand and solve normally.
Use the above method to find x in each of the following.
3 5
a =
x−2 x+2
3x + 4 5x − 4
b =
2 6
2x + 1 4
c =
1 + 3x 5
9 Mary has baked a birthday cake in the shape below.
16 cm
14 cm
18 cm
She has 60 cm of ribbon which she wants to wrap around the sides of the cake. Does she
have enough ribbon? Explain your answer.
10 Find the angle of elevation to the top of a 27.3-m high Norfolk Pine tree that is 83.6 m from
the observer. Assume that the observer’s eye is 1.667 m above ground level.
11 Solve a(x - p)(x + q) í 0 for x if a < 0 and p > -q.
12 A cylinder of length, l m, has both circular ends removed and replaced with hemispheres.
The container now has a length, L m. Determine the volume of the container now in terms of
L and l.
13 Marlon substituted numbers into the equation below until he had a true statement.
x(x - 3) = 10
Marlon’s answer for the problem was 5.
a Is Marlon’s answer right or wrong? Explain.

problem solving
b A friend of Marlon’s showed him another way to solve the problem.

x(x - 3) = 10
x = 10 x - 3 = 10
x = 13
(10, 13)
Is Marlon’s friend correct? If the solution is correct explain why, and if the solution is
incorrect, provide a correct solution.
14 Sketch the graph of y = 2(4)x - 8, showing axial intercepts and asymptotes, if any.
15 A piece of flat pastry is cut in the shape of a right-angled triangle. The longest side is 6b cm
and the shortest is 2b cm
a Find the length of the third side. Give your answer in exact form.
b Find the sizes of the angles in the triangle.
c Prove that the area of the triangle is equal to 4 2b 2 cm2.
16 Cameron purchased 500 tickets for an AFL game so that all of the teachers and students in the
school would be able to attend the match.
Teachers AFL tickets: $15/ticket
Students AFL tickets: $5/ticket
The total cost for the game was $3500.
How many students attended the game?
17 Determine the length of the diagonal x.
x 8 cm
5 cm
7 cm
18 Parallel lines on a Cartesian plain have the same gradient but different y-intercepts. Find the
pairs of parallel lines from the following list and state the gradient and y-intercept for each.
a 3y + 6x = -36
b 4y = -4x + 20
c 3y + 1 = 9x
d 12 = 2x + 2y
1
e 10 y = − x − 8
2
f 12x = -6y + 12
g 2y - 6x - 7 = 0
h 20y = -x + 5
19 The formula that can be used to find the surface area, A cm2, of a solid cylinder with radius
r cm and height h cm is A = 2p r(r + h).
a Find an exact value for A when r = 4, h = 6
b Describe in words the changes that will occur to A if r and h are both halved. Justify
your reasoning mathematically.
20 A rocket is fired from ground level (from an underground concealed bunker) and lands
h kilometres away, across horizontal terrain. If the maximum height the rocket reaches is
k kilometres, find the equation of its path in terms of h and k.
21 The perimeter, P, of a square lies in the range e to f, i.e. e Ç P Ç f. In terms of e and f what is
the range of values for its area, A?
22 Find the equation of the straight line going through (-1, 5), parallel to the line which passes
through (0, 4) and (5, -3).
Chapter 11 Problem solving I 357

problem solving
23 One method of measuring the height of a building (h) is shown in the figure below. This
method is often used when you are not able to measure the distance along the ground (x)
because of a lake or some other obstacle.
q a
D x
Step 1: From a location on ‘your’ side of the lake, measure the angle a, using an angle
measuring device called a transit or an inclinometer. Write an equation involving
x, h and a. Express this equation with x on the LHS and all other terms on the
RHS.
Step 2: Move a further distance, D, away from the building, where D is the known distance
between the first location and the second location. Measure the angle, q, to the top
of the building from the second location.
Write an equation involving x, h, D and q.
Express this formula with x + D on the LHS.
Step 3: Solve the equations from Steps 1 and 2 for x in terms of all other variables. Then
since each of the expressions equals x, equate the expressions.
Step 4: Solve this equation for h, in terms of D, a and q.
Step 5: Use this equation to determine the height of a building where D = 50 m, a = 34.3è
and q = 30.7è.
P2
24 The perimeter of a rectangle is P cm and its area is cm2. Determine the dimensions of the
rectangle in terms of P. 16
25 Warwick was solving a pair of simultaneous equations using the elimination method and
reached the result that 0 = -5. Suggest a solution to the problem, giving a reason for your
answer.
26 A piece of wire 1 m long is cut into two pieces. One piece is used to make a circle, the other
a square. Determine where to cut the wire so that the areas of the square and circle are equal.
27 Translate each of these parabolas by the given amounts, then write the new equation in
standard form.
a y = x2 - 4x + 1 translated 3 units left, 2 units up.
b y = -4x2 + 6x - 2 translated 3 units down and 1 unit right.
c y = (x - 4)2 - 5 translated 2 units left and 5 units up.
28 A cone has a radius (r) of 8 cm and a height (h) of 16 cm, as shown in the figure below. The
‘top’ is sliced off to leave a ‘frustum’ (shaded area).
Cone
h Frustum
a Calculate the total volume of the cone.

b If the volume of the sliced off top is 20% of the total volume, determine the height of the
frustum.

problem solving
29 A movie projector uses 35 mm film (35 mm wide and 24 mm high) with a light source 60 mm
from the film’s surface.
a How far away is the projector’s light source from the screen if the width of the image on
the screen is 16.5 m?
b If the distance between the film and the light source is halved, what happens to the width
of the image on the screen?
30 A landscape gardener wishes to put a fence around a rectangular lawn. The lawn’s width is
3 m shorter than its length and there is to be allowance for a 2-m wide gate.
a Develop a formula for the total length of the fence in terms of the length of the lawn.
b The cost of the fence is $23 per metre plus a $100 additional fixed fee. Modify your
formula to provide the cost of the fence.
c Use your formula to determine the cost of a fence for a lawn whose width is 12 m.
31 The equation of a quadratic can be determined directly from a table of values and differences.
Consider the table below.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 3 -3 -5 -3 3 13 27
Now determine the 1st differences
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 3 -3 -5 -3 3 13 27
1st difference -6 -2 2 6 10 14
Add the 2nd differences to the table
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 3 -3 -5 -3 3 13 27
1st difference -6 -2 2 6 10 14
2nd difference 4 4 4 4 4
Note how the 2nd differences are constant. The theory of differences states that this
constant is equal to 2a in the equation y = ax2 + bx + c.
a Determine the value of a.
b Re-do the table to subtract the term ax2 from each y-value, leaving a table for bx + c.
Use this table to determine b. Note that this equation is now linear and the first
difference gives the value of b.
c Use a similar method to determine c.
d What is the equation of the quadratic? Confirm your result by plotting the graph.
32 A box with a lid is to be constructed with a total surface area of 260 cm2. The box is to have a
square base of side length x and height L.
a Write the equation for total surface area and make L the subject of the equation.
b Write the formula for the volume in terms of L and x. Substitute in your result from
part a to derive a formula for the volume in terms of x.
c By trial-and-error, or another method, determine the values of L and x that make the
volume as large as possible.

problem solving
33 A right-angled triangle is inscribed in a circle of diameter length d cm as shown in the

diagram below.
ø8
d
4
a Show that d = 4 6 cm
2
b Show that the proportion of the area of the triangle to the area of the circle is
6π
34 Develop a formula for the volume of a cone with a radius r and a slant height s.
35 Given the quadratic equation y = x2 - 4x + 7 and a ‘general’ quadratic y = ax2 + bx + c,
determine the conditions on a, b and c such that:
a the two quadratics never intersect
b the two quadratics intersect (or touch) once
c the two quadratics intersect twice.
36 A set of wine bottles is stacked lying down as shown in the diagram below, making a
triangular effect. The radius of each bottle is r cm.
a How many bottles are required if there are 10 bottles on the base and 1 bottle on the top?
b What is the length of the base of the 10-bottle ‘triangle’?
c What is the total height of the triangle?
d Generalise your result for the height of a ‘triangle’ of n bottles on the base.
37 The cost of a return airline ticket to Perth from Sydney varies between airlines. If a ticket
travelling with Virgin Green Airline costs $458 and a ticket travelling with Qintas costs $506,
determine the number of people who travelled by air to Perth from Sydney if there were 20%
more passengers that flew with Virgin Green and the total price for all airline tickets was
$63 336.
38 The diagram below represents the safety ratio for placing ladders against vertical structures.
4 units
1 unit
a Using the values shown in the diagram, determine the value of the angle, q. Write your
answer correct to the nearest minute.
b A 3-metre ladder is placed against a vertical wall. Determine the horizontal distance,
to the nearest centimetre, that the ladder should be placed so that it satisfies the safety
regulations.

problem solving
39 Concentric circles are circles that share a common centre. A circle is drawn with a radius of
x cm. The next circle drawn has a radius of (x + 1) cm. This pattern continues until five circles
are drawn. The diagram below shows the 5 concentric circles.
x+1
a Write down the radii of the 3rd, 4th and 5th circles, in terms of x.
b Write down an expression, in terms of x, that can be used to determine the ratio of the
area of the 2nd circle to the area of the 5th circle. If this ratio is 94 , determine the value
of x.
c What is the percentage increase in circumference, in terms of x, in moving from the
3rd circle to the 4th circle?
40 Carol is celebrating her 16th birthday. In her excitement she cuts the cake into unequal
sections. Her brother takes the largest piece which is twice as much as her mother’s piece.
Her sister takes one of the smaller pieces which is 1 the size of her mother’s piece of cake.
3
Carol and her father each take a piece of cake which is 1 12 times as large as Carol’s mother’s
piece. If Carol had cut the cake into 8 equal slices, each slice would have been the same size
as her mother’s piece of cake.
a What fraction of the cake was eaten by Carol and her family?
b What fraction of the cake remains?
c If the exact amount of cake, in cm2, remaining after Carol and her family have eaten
their one piece of cake is 160p, determine the exact diameter of the cake.
41 Calculate the x-coordinate of the intersection point(s), if any, of:
y = 2x2 - 5x - 3 and y = -x2 - 3x
Give your answer in exact form.
42 A large advertising banner is to be placed on the side of a building. The banner has a diagonal
of length 4 17 m and a height of 5 5m.
a Determine the exact width, in metres, of the banner.
b Determine the exact area, in m2, of the banner.
c To attach the banner to the side of the building, anchor points are attached around the
border. There is an anchor point attached to each corner and anchor points across the
width and the height.
i There are 7 anchor points across the width at the top and 7 at the bottom of the
banner. Determine the exact length, in metres, between these points.
5 5
ii Anchor points are placed metres apart along both sides of the height of the
3
banner. Determine the total number of anchor points needed for the banner.
43 Shane is a coach driver who conducts tours in outback Australia. All tours are based on
twin share at a cost of $x per passenger. For passengers wishing to have their own room, an
additional cost of $385 is added to the overall tour price. Usually on any tour, an average of
75% of passengers choose twin share.
a If there are n passengers, write down an equation, in terms of n and x, that can be used
to determine the total amount, A, in dollars, collected in tour money.

problem solving
b Shane conducts a tour with 50 passengers. On the next tour there are 45 passengers.
The difference in the total amount between the first and second tour is $17 981.25.
Determine the value of x.
44 A section of a stained glass window is shown below.
2
D
1 3
0 B C x
The pattern formed can be modelled using three intersecting parabolas labelled 1, 2 and 3
with equations:
2 10
Parabola 1: y = − x 2 + x [1]
15 3
Parabola 2: y = -0.192x2 + 9.6x - 90 [2]
2 2 500
Parabola 3: y = − x + 10 x − [3]
15 3
a By solving the equation [2] for y = 0 using any method, find the coordinates of points
B and C.
b i Set up an equation, in terms of x, that will determine the point of intersection
between parabolas 1 and 2. Write your values in exact form.
ii Using your calculator, find the coordinates of point A.
c i By finding the turning point format of equations [1] and [3], state the transformation
made to equation [1] so that it maps onto equation [3].
ii Hence, write down the coordinates of point D.
45 Chilly Treats want to remodel their ice snacks packages. Currently frozen fruit juice is sold
in containers in the shape of an equilateral triangular-based prism. The sides of the triangular
base are x cm and the height of the container is 10 cm.
10 cm
x x

problem solving
The total capacity of the container is 250 mL. Chilly Treats’ new design will be in the shape
of a cylinder.
a Find the exact value of x2.
b If the capacity and vertical height of the container is to remain the same, determine the
exact diameter, in centimetres, of the cylinder.
c If the area of one of the side faces of the triangular based prism is approximately
40 cm2, determine the difference in the total surface area, in cm2, between the
two different containers. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places. Clearly
indicate which container has the larger surface area.
46 Jacques is test driving a new model Rocket Roadster. The speed of the car can be modelled
using the equation S(t) = -3t2 + 12t + 27, where S is the speed in metres per second (m/s) and
t is time, in seconds.
a What was the initial speed, in km/h, of the car when the testing began? Write your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
b By converting S(t) into turning point format, determine the maximum speed, in km/h
correct to 1 decimal place, that the Rocket Roadster can reach in this road test and the
time taken, in seconds, to reach that speed.
47 A circular piece of paper has a 90è sector removed as shown in the diagram below.
r
90è
The remaining area is carefully folded to make the shape of a cone.

a What is the slant height of this cone?
b Develop a formula for the radius of the base of this cone.
3
c Show that the volume of the cone is 7 π r 3.
64
48 A ball is thrown upwards in the air. The maximum height of the ball is given by the rule
h = h0 + V0t - 16t2, where h = height (in metres) and t = time (in seconds).
a What is the height at t = 0?
b The ball is thrown up in the air from the edge of a roof 20 m high. It goes up, reaches
a maximum height and returns just past the edge of the roof and hits the ground. The
initial speed of the ball, V0, is 12 m/s (about 43 km/h).
Sketch a graph of this situation.
c What is the maximum height of the ball? Estimate your answer from the graph then
calculate the exact answer.
d How long does it take to reach the maximum height? Estimate your answer from the
graph then calculate the real answer.
e How long is the ball in the air before it hits the ground? Estimate your answer from the
graph then calculate the real answer.
49 Farmer Gordon has two paddocks ready for sowing. One paddock has dimensions (2x - 1)
metres by (3x + 1) metres, and the second paddock has an area of (36x2 - 6x - 6) m2.
a Show that the area ratio of paddock 1 to paddock 2 is 1 : 6.
b The area of paddock 2 is 97 026 m2. Show that the value of x is 52. Hence find a set of
possible dimensions for paddock 2 using your answer from part a.
50 Greg is building a garden shed. He measured out the width and length of the shed to be
(3 m ê 5 cm) by (4.5 m ê 5 cm).
a i Determine the possible range of values for both the width and length.
ii D etermine the percentage error in Greg’s measurement for the width if the actual
width was 2.98 m. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

probleM solving
b The walls of the shed will be 2 metres high and the roof will be a height of 3 metres
from the base. The shed will be constructed entirely from corrugated iron. The diagram
below shows the shed and its dimensions. The shed will be built on a concrete slab.
Using Greg’s measurements of length of 4.5 m and width of 3 m, determine the
minimum amount of iron, in m2, required. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal
places.
1m
2m
4.5 m
3m
c Corrugated iron is sold in lineal metres at $11.80 per metre. The effective width of the
corrugated iron sheet is 762 mm (this is allowing for overlapping of sheets). Determine
the minimum cost for the corrugated iron. Write your answer to the nearest $10.
51 To estimate the length along the side of an inaccessible bushland, a surveyor marks out
a circular path around the bushland so that the four corners of the bushland lie on the
circumference of the circle. She is able to measure three of the four sides of the bushland as
shown in the sketch below. (The diagram is not drawn to scale.)
D
790 m pè
A
2sè xm
3
980 m
3 pè
2 C
sè 850 m
B
a Using one of the theorems of circle geometry, determine the exact values of p and s, in
degrees.
b Describe the shape of the figure ABCD.
52 Explain how you could develop a pattern to determine two consecutive natural numbers
whose squares differ by 75.
53 A certain type of carpet has a width of (x + 2) metres. Customers can purchase the carpet in
any length. Mr Barnes buys (x + 5) m of this carpet for his rumpus room and Mr Snowdon
buys a 4 m length for his family room.
a Write an expression for the area of carpet that each man buys.
b Write an expression for the difference in area if Mr Barnes has the longer piece of carpet.
c Factorise and simplify this expression.
d If Mr Barnes has bought 6 m2 more than Mr Snowdon, find the width of the carpet.
e What area of carpet did each man buy?

problem solving
54 A square is drawn within a semicircle as shown in this diagram. The area of the square is 32 cm2.
A square is drawn inside a circle with the same radius as the semicircle.
Determine the length of the side of the square in the circle.

55 Rebecca and Bethany are participating in a fund raising charity door knock.
In the first hour, each girl collected x number of gold coins.
In the second hour Rebecca collected (x - 1) gold coins and in the third hour she collected
(3x - 4) gold coins.
In the fourth hour, the number of gold coins each girl collected was the product of the
number of coins collected during the second and third hours.
Bethany’s number of gold coins collected in the fourth hour can be expressed as 2x2 + 5x - 7.
a Show that the number of coins Rebecca collected during the fourth hour was 3x2 - 7x + 4.
b Show that the expression, in terms of x, for the combined number of coins both Rebecca
and Bethany collected in the fourth hour is (x - 1)(5x + 3).
56 The shape of this vase be approximated using a truncated cone, as shown in the diagram below.
20 cm
30 cm
15 cm
Show that the total amount of water, in litres, that can be poured into the vase is 2.3p.
57 Consider the diagram below. If the length of AO is one-third the length of AD and the length
of AC is 2 units, explain why the length of BD is 4 units.
C
D
B
A

problem solving
2
58 In an election for Year 10 representatives on the school council, 5
of the votes went to James,
1 1 1
4
to Jennifer, 6 to Raoul, 10 to Amy and the remaining 20 votes went to Diana. How many
students were there in year 10?

59 An Xbox games package comes in a box that has a length 10 cm longer than its width and a
height that is 7 cm greater than its width.
a Using the variable x to represent the width of the box, write an equation for the box’s
volume.
b Find the volume of the box if its width is 30 cm.
c The manufacturer wants to include another controller and decides that the box should
have a volume of 94 000 cm3 but retain the same shape. Using trial and error, find the
width for this volume, if x must be an integer.
60 Find values of k for which the simultaneous equations 2x + y = 6 and 2y = -4x + k have:
a an infinite number of solutions
b no solutions.
Explain how you arrived at your answers.
61 A yacht sails for 25 km on a bearing of 163è20ÅT and then for a further 19 km on a bearing of
121è40ÅT.
a Draw a fully labelled diagram to show the yacht’s course.
b Determine how far east and south the yacht is from its starting point.
c Calculate the true bearing of the yacht from its starting point. Give your answer correct
to the nearest minute.
62 Martha decides to redesign the front cover of her diary which has an area equal to
(x2 - 3x - 10) cm2.
a Factorise this expression to find the dimensions of the diary cover in terms of x.
b Write down the shorter length in terms of x.
c If the shorter sides of the diary cover are 12 cm in length, find the value of x.
d What is the area of the front cover of Martha’s diary?
63 A rectangular hallway rug is five times as long as it is wide. Its diagonal length is 410 cm.
How wide and long is the rug?

probleM solving
64 A circular dining table made of cedar timber is inlaid with glass as shown in the diagram
below. The radius of the glass top is 2r cm with a 20 cm ring of cedar around it.
a State the diameter of the glass (in terms of r).

b Give the radius of the glass and wood (the table top).
c Calculate the area of the glass.
d Determine the area of the top of the table (glass and wood)
e Write an equation to find the area of the wood section only and write it in factorised
form.
f If the radius of the glass is 40 cm, find the area of the wood needed to surround the
glass. Give your answer in m2.
g The manufacturers want to make a slightly larger table in the same design using the
same width cedar ring. If the area of the table top is to be 2 m2, find the size of r
(to the nearest cm).
65 How many solutions can you find for the equation (x - 6)(y - 4) = 24 if x and y are positive
integers?
66 A cross brace (shown in red) has been placed to support the roof of a garage as shown.
Find the length (in mm) of this supporting beam.
1800 mm
5200 mm
3000 mm
67 When the movie The Fellowship of the Ring was shown in the cinema, every seat (550) was
taken. The price of admission for adults was $9.50 and for children $4.50. The takings for one
night were $4275. How many adults and children were present at the movie?
68 A coffee table rectangular cloth is to be decorated by sewing lace onto the edge of the
material. Its length is four times its width.
a If the width of the material is x cm, express the dimensions of the cloth in terms of x.
b Give an equation for the perimeter and the area of the cloth in terms of x.
c Find the length and width of the cloth if its perimeter is 3 m.
d If the width of the lace is 6 cm, what is the outside perimeter of the cloth now, and how
much area does it cover? (Answer in terms of x)
e Given the original perimeter was 3 m, what increase in area of the cloth was achieved by
adding the lace?
69 Solve each of the following.
a Find the value of r if x2 - 4x - r = 0 has one solution.
b Find the value of s if 2x2 - 5x + s = 0 has two solutions.
c Find the value of t when tx2 - 3x - 8 = 0 has one solution.
Chapter 11 problem solving I 367

probleM solving
70 Five years ago Dan was twice as old as he was 15 years ago. What is Dan’s age now?
71 A surveyor measures the angle of elevation to the top of a lighthouse from a point on the
ground 130 m from its base as 37è. When he looks further down the lighthouse, he sees a
large balcony. The angle of elevation to the balcony from the same point is 31è. What is the
distance from the balcony to the top of the lighthouse?
72 Robyn keeps guinea pigs in a small square enclosure with sides measuring x m. The number
of guinea pigs is increasing so she wants to increase the size of the enclosure by 1 m on one
side and 3 m on the adjacent side.
a Draw a labelled diagram of the original square and show the additions to it.
b Write an expression for the area of the new enclosure.
c To satisfy animal safety requirements, the area of the enclosure must be at least 15 m2.
Find the dimensions of the enclosure.
d To make sure the enclosure is big enough, Robyn decides to make the area 17 m2.
Determine the new dimensions of the enclosure (to the nearest cm).
73 During an 8-hour period, an experiment is done in which the temperature of a room follows
the relationship T = h2 - 8h + 21, where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius h hours after
starting the experiment.
a Change the equation into turning point form and hence sketch the graph of this
quadratic.
b What is the initial temperature?
c After three hours, is the temperature increasing or decreasing?
d After five hours is the temperature increasing or decreasing?
e State the minimum temperature and when it occurred.
f What is the temperature after 8 hours?
74 The height of a playground swing above the ground of is 2 3 m. The base of the swing’s pipe
supports must be 5 m apart so that the structure is stable once children start to swing.
5m
2 3m
a Find the length of the struts (use exact values) that make up the supports for the swing.
b If the base of the swing seat is to be 1 m off the ground, how much chain is required for
2 swings? (Use exact values.)
c How much pipe is required to build the swing if the length at the top of the swing is to
be 30 m long?
75 A bike chain is wrapped around 3 gear wheels that are the same size. The radius of each
wheel is 8 cm. How long is the chain?

problem solving
76 The parabola y = x2 + bx + c has x intercepts (2, 0) and (6, 0).

a Find the values of b and c. b State the equation.
c Complete the square and find the turning point. d Sketch the parabola.
77 Two guide wires are used to support a flagpole as shown. One reaches the top of the flagpole
and the other part way down the pole.
Wire
9.5 m
3m
6m
a What is the height of the flagpole (to the nearest metre)?
b What angle (to the nearest degree) does the longer guide wire make with the ground?
c The shorter wire is attached to the flagpole 1 m from the top. How long is this wire?
78 When a drop of water hits the flat surface of a pool, circular ripples are made. One ripple is
represented by the equation x2 + y2 = 9 and 5 seconds later, the ripple is represented by the
equation x2 + y2 = 225, where the lengths of the radii are in cm.
a State the radius of each of the ripples.
b Sketch these equations.
c How fast is the ripple moving outwards?
d If the ripple continues to move at the same rate, when will it hit the edge of the pool
which is 2 m from its centre?
79 Stephie, a tennis player, serves the ball in a tournament. She throws the ball in the air and hits
it over the net. Her arm length is 60 cm and it is 40 cm from her grip on the tennis racquet to
the centre of the racquet. How far does the centre of the racquet travel if she swings through
an angle of 300è?
80 This 8 cm by 12 cm rectangle is cut into two sections as shown.
6 cm 6 cm
8 cm 10 cm
12 cm
a Draw labelled diagrams to show how the two sections can be rearranged to form a:
i parallelogram
ii right-angled triangle
iii trapezium.
b Show that these figures, as well as the original rectangle, all have the same area.
c Comment on the perimeters of the figures.
81 Bridgette is practising her golf drives. The path the golf ball takes is defined by the quadratic
1
equation h = − (d − 6)2 + 6, where h is the height of the ball above the ground for a
6
horizontal distance of d. Both h and d are in metres.
a Find the value of h when d = 0.
1
b State the turning point of the equation h = − (d − 6)2 + 6
6
c Sketch the graph of this relationship.
d What horizontal distance does the golf ball cover in its flight?

problem solving
e What is the maximum height the golf ball reaches?

f At what horizontal distance was the golf ball at its maximum height?
82 A yacht is anchored off an island. It is 2.3 km from the yacht club and 4.6 km from a weather
station. The three points form a right angled triangle at the yacht club.
Weather station
Yacht club
2.3 km
4.6 km
Yacht
a Calculate the angle at the yacht between the yacht club and the weather station.
b Calculate the distance between the yacht club and the weather station.
The next day the yacht travels directly towards the yacht club, but is prevented from
reaching the club because of dense fog. The weather station notifies the yacht that it is now
4.2 km from the station.
c Calculate the new angle at the yacht between the yacht club and the weather station.
d Determine how far the yacht is now from the yacht club.
83 The minute hand in Penny’s watch is 1 cm long. Someone told her that the tip of the hand
travels more than 30 m in 8 hours. Is this true? Show full working to justify your answer.
84 This cable drum has the measurements shown.
10 cm
25 cm
30 cm
10 cm
50 cm
a What volume of wood was used in its construction?

b Determine its surface area.
85 Jan is practising for the World Diving Championships. The path she takes from the diving board
into the water is given by the quadratic equation y = -0.75x2 + 3x + 8, where y metres is the
height above the water level and x metres is the horizontal distance from the edge of the board.
a Using a graphics calculator, sketch the graph of y = -0.75x2 + 3x + 8.
b What is the height of the diving board above the water?
c What was the maximum height Jan reached during her dive?
d What was the horizontal distance Jan covered before she hit the water?
86 A skip bin for waste has been delivered to a building site. Its shape is in the form of a
trapezoidal prism with dimensions as shown in the diagram.
4m
2m
3.5 m
3m

problem solving
a Calculate the volume of material this skip can hold. (Assume that it is not loaded beyond
the top rim.)
b A smaller skip has a volume one-eighth the size of the larger one. If its shape is similar
to that of the larger one, what would its dimensions be?
87 In a children’s play gym, two cylindrical foam shapes are placed on the ground and a board
covered in foam rests on it. The cylinders have radii of 50 cm and 40 cm and their distance
apart on the ground is 1.5 m. Calculate the angle the board makes with the ground.
50 cm
40 cm
1.5 m
88 The small and large triangles in this figure are similar.
25
19
x
15
y
22
Determine the lengths of the pronumerals.

89 The equation (x - 1)2 + (y - 2)2 = 4 describes a circle.
a State the centre of the circle.
b State the radius of the circle.
c Find the x- and y-intercepts of this circle.
d Sketch the circle, clearly marking the centre.
90 The parabola y = ax2 + bx + c has a turning point (-3, 4) and passes through the point
(1, -28).
a Determine its equation.
b State the values of a, b and c.
c Sketch the parabola.
91 Find the sum of the angles at the tips of this regular star.

problem solving
92 Tina is re-covering a footstool in the shape of a cylinder with diameter 50 cm and height
30 cm. She also intends to cover the base of the cushion.
She has 1 m2 of fabric to make this footstool. When calculating the area of fabric required,
allow an extra 20% of the total surface area to cater for seams and pattern placings. Explain
whether Tina has enough material to cover the footstool.
93 The Gold Coast City Council has decided to construct a ceremonial arch at the entrance to
Surfers Paradise beach. The arch is to be in the shape of a parabola. The maximum height is
to be 15 metres and the width at the base is to be 20 metres. A path, 16 metres wide will pass
beneath the arch with its centre immediately beneath the highest point of the arch.
15 m
16 m
20 m
The designers decide to use a mathematical model of the arch in the design process. They
place an origin of coordinates at ground level immediately beneath the highest point of the
arch.
y
14
12
10
-10 -5 0 5 10 x
a Prove that the equation of this curve is y = 15 - 0.15x2

b The designers are concerned that there will not be sufficient clearance for vehicles up to
6 metres in height to pass along the path beneath the arch. Show that the vertical height

problem solving
of this arch above the road level at the edge of the road would not be sufficient to allow
a 6 m high vehicle to pass through.
c How wide must the road be to allow a 6-m high vehicle to pass through the arch?
a−b
94 a Q b is defined as .
a
b
1 1
Θ
What is the value of 2 3 in simplest terms?
1 1
Θ
3 2
95 David has calculated the time, in minutes, it takes him to drive to work in the morning as
m2 - 10m + 50, where m is the number of minutes after 8 am that he leaves home.
a How long does it take David to reach work if he leaves at 8 am.
b At what time can he leave so that the trip takes 30 minutes?
c The trip will take one hour if he leaves at what time?
d When should he leave to take the smallest amount of time.
e How long will it take him if he leaves home at this time?
f If he decides that he cannot take longer than 30 minutes to get to work, between what
times would he have to leave home?
96 There is a theorem which says:
If two distinct numbers are exactly divisible by the difference of the two numbers, the
difference is the HCF of the two numbers.
Explain what this means, illustrating with an example.
97 Matt and his brother Steve start from home in their cars. Matt travels directly east, while
Steve travels directly north at a speed 15 km/h faster than Matt’s speed. After travelling for
1 hour 20 minutes, the two cars are 100 km apart. At what speeds are the two cars travelling?
98 A regular octagon is inscribed inside a circle with all its vertices lying on the circumference
of the circle. The circle has a radius of 10 cm. Determine the perimeter of the octagon.
99 An obtuse-angled isosceles triangle has equal angles of xè and equal side lengths of y cm.
xè
y cm
xè
y cm
There is not enough information about the triangle to use a traditional formula
1
A = ( 2 base ì height) to find its area.
Show how you could use trigonometry to develop the following formula to calculate its
area.
1
Area = y2sin (2xè)
2
100 Farmer Max has a rectangular field 150 m by 100 m. His son offers to help him mow the
field, but says he will do only half. The ride-on mower cuts a strip 1 m wide. Max starts
mowing at a corner, and mows around the field towards the centre. He stops and hands over to
his son when he has done n circuits of the field. Construct an algebraic equation involving n,
and solve to find its value. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

problem solving
101 Pulsars are rapidly spinning stars. They spin at incredible rates when they are first formed —
about 30 times every second. As they age, they slow down. Astronomers have represented the
spinning rates of two pulsars (Crab Nebula and AP 2016 + 28) by two simple equations.
Crab Nebula: P = 0.033 + 0.000 013T
AP 2016 + 28: P = 0.558 + 0.000 000 004 7T
P is the time (in seconds) it takes for the pulsar to spin once on its axis, and T is the number
of years since today.
In approximately how many years from now will the two pulsars be spinning at the same rate?
102 The two arches of the Sydney Harbour Bridge can both be modelled as parabolas.
Using the reference point (0, 0) as the bottom of the left side of the lower arch, the two
equations are:
Lower arch: y = -0.001 92x2 + 0.96x
Upper arch: y = -0.001 28x2 + 0.64x + 60
Note: The measurements are in metres.
Write a description of the two arches, giving as much information as you can. Remember to
support your information with mathematical evidence.
1 1 1 1
103 The unit fraction can be expressed as = + where a and b are natural
numbers. 12 12 12 + a 12 +b
Use this equation to find the product of a and b, then list the 8 different representations for
1
the unit fraction .
12
104 Explain why all perfect squares have an odd number of factors. Give an example to support
your explanation.
105 A cone is formed from a sector of a circle with a central angle of 72è. The radius of the base
of the cone is 3.18 cm. What is the radius of the circle from which the sector was taken?
106 This tile pattern is made using congruent triangular tiles. There is 1 tile in row 1, 3 in row 2,
and so on.
Develop a formula to determine the number of tiles needed to complete a pattern of this
type with r rows.

problem solving
107 The school cafeteria sells apples at one price, and bananas at a different price. Six apples and
4 bananas cost $7, while 1 apple and 9 bananas cost $4.50.
a Show how you can determine how much more an apple costs, compared with a banana,
without actually finding the cost of each.
b What is this difference in price?
108 When children are sick, it’s important they’re given the correct dosage of medicine. If adult
medicines are the only ones available, you need to convert the adult dosage into a safe dose
for young children. One rule which can be used is:
Age in years + 1
Child’s dose = ì adult dose
24
a For an adult dose of 5 mL, how many mL would you give a 5-year old?
Another rule commonly used is:
Age in years
Child’s dose = ì adult dose
age + 12
b How many mL of a 5-mL adult dose would you administer to a 5-year old using this
formula?
c Your two answers should be different. Comment on this difference.
d Is there any age for which these two formulae give the same dosage?
109 Ben’s teacher shows him a graph of a quadratic equation. It is not labelled, except for three
points (-2, 19), (0, 1) and (3, 4) on the curve. His task is to find the equation of the quadratic.
What is the equation of the curve?
110 Draw two straight lines across the face of this clock, so that the sum of the numbers in each
region formed is the same.
11 12 1
10 2
9 3
8 4
7 6 5
111 A group of four people out bushwalking comes across a suspension bridge as the last obstacle
they need to cross to reach their campsite. They can’t all cross at once, because the bridge can
only support a maximum of 2 people at a time. Unfortunately it is approaching dark, and they
only have 1 torch among the 4 of them.
When walking alone, the four people would take 1, 2, 5 and 10 minutes to cross one way.
With 2 people walking together, because they need the flashlight for safety reasons, they
must travel at the speed of the slower person. One person must then travel back across the
bridge each time to bring the flashlight back.
How can the group arrange themselves for the bridge-crossing to take the minimum time?
What is this minimum time?

problem solving
112 Tennis balls are stacked in the shape of a triangular pyramid, with 5 balls on each side of the
base. How many balls are in the whole stack?
113 Timber railings are manufactured to be 100 cm long, with a possible error of 4%. Dana’s
deck is 55 m long, and she plans to place the railings end-to-end. How many of these railings
should she order to ensure she can cover the whole length?
114 Suppose you had some ‘blue-tack’ in the shape of a cylinder. How could you cut through the
cylinder to expose a surface in the shape of a parabola? Explain any restrictions.
115 Prove that the set of numbers represented by:
2n, (n2 - 1) and (n2 + 1)
produces Pythagorean triples for all values of n greater than 1. Explain the restriction on the
value of n.
116 The Jackson family wants to put an L-shaped deck on one corner of their house. It is to be
symmetrical around the corner, as shown.
Deck
House
They have 30 m of a specially designed hand railing to use around the perimeter of the
deck. What dimensions of the deck will give them the maximum area, using the whole
30 m of the handrail?
117 A palimage of a number is the number that has the same digits as the given number, but in the
reverse order. For example, the palimage of 476 is 674.
If the sum of a number and its palimage is 968, what could the original number have been?
There is more than one answer. See how many you can find.
118 Consider this question on a test paper.
Solve the equation x = −3.

Here is Kelly’s solution.
( x )2 = (−3)2
x=9
Comment on the solution.
119 A domino is a 2 dimensional figure formed by two congruent squares that share a common
side.
A tetromino is a 2 dimensional figure formed by four congruent squares that share common
sides.
a Draw the shape of all the different tetrominoes.
b Compare their perimeters.
120 A motor boat leaves a ship at sea and travels north at 80 km/h. The ship precedes 30è south of
east at 32 km/h. The motor boat only has fuel for 4 hours. How far north can the motor boat
travel, so it can safely return to the ship in time?

problem solving
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
121 You are familiar with the quadratic formula x =
2a
2c
An alternative form of the quadratic formula is x =
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Choose a quadratic equation and show that the two formulae give the same answers.
122 Consider the number 234 written in words.
TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY FOUR
The letters of each word are cycled separately as shown below, and placed in a numbered
vertical list.
1 TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY FOUR
2 WOT UNDREDH NDA HIRTYT OURF
3 OTW NDREDHU DAN IRTYTH URFO
..
..
..
n TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY FOUR
If n > 500, what is its smallest value?
123 You will be familiar with the following unit fraction additions.
1 1 1
= +
2 3 6
1 1 1
= +
3 4 12
1 1 1
= +
5 6 30
Write a general equation involving n of the type
1
= . . . . . . . .
n
to represent unit fraction additions of this type.
124 A puzzle company prides itself on its unique designs. The following design of a map when
folded flat is printed on one piece of paper.
3 4 2 7
6 5 1 8
The numbers represent the page numbers of the map. How can the map be folded so that its
pages are in the correct order?
125 Trains travel along two straight parallel tracks between Allensville and Bentley, with the
journey taking 4 h 15 min each way. The trains leave both towns on the hour every hour.
If I leave Allensville at 12 noon and travel towards Bentley, how many trains will pass by
me coming in the opposite direction?
126 It has been said that if you multiply the y-coordinates for a particular x-value of two
straight lines, then plot this y2-value against the particular x-value, a parabola will result. To
investigate this claim, consider the two straight lines y = -2x + 4 and y = x - 3.
Complete the following tables.
y = -2x + 4
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y

problem solving
y=x-3
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
y
What is your conclusion regarding the claim?

127 A small company manufactures and sells muesli bars. The set-up cost to make the bars
themselves was $5400, and the cost for ingredients is 45c per bar. The set-up cost to package
them was $7500, and the cost of materials for each bar is 35c. The bars are sold in a multi-
pack at 5 for $6.
How many multi-packs would the manufacturer need to sell in order to break even?
128 Consider the following puzzle.
■■ Take a calendar displaying the dates row by row of any month in the year.
■■ Choose 4 days that form a square on the calendar.
■■ Find the total of those 4 dates.
Explain how, from the total, you can determine which 4 dates have been selected.
129 The hour and the minute hand of a clock each trace a circular path as they sweep around the
clock’s face. How many times will they lie on top of each other in a 12-hour period?
130 You are familiar with the equation of the parabola with its vertical axis of symmetry. It is also
possible to get a horizontal parabola. Its shape is similar to that of a vertical parabola, but its
axis of symmetry is horizontal.
A horizontal parabola can be represented by the following general equation.
x - h = a(y - k)2
Where (h, k) is the vertex of the parabola, and a is a constant.
Investigate this general equation with particular values for h, k and a, then complete the
following.
a How can you distinguish a vertical parabola from a horizontal parabola, simply from its
equation?
b What is the effect of the value of a?
c A horizontal parabola has the equation x + 4 = (y + 1)2. Draw a sketch of its shape,
labelling its vertex and all x- and y-intercepts.

STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY • CHANCE
12
12A Review of probability
12B Complementary and mutually
exclusive events
12C Two-way tables and tree diagrams
12D Independent and dependent events
12E Conditional probability
12F Subjective probability
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?

1 List what you know about chance. Create
a concept map to show your list
Probability then with a small group

chance.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 12
doc-5285
OPENING QUESTION
Blackjack (or 21) is a popular card game.

What is the chance of being dealt two
cards whose total is 21?
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Are you ready?

eBook plus Set notation

1 Three different sets are identified as follows:
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 12.1
A = {1, 4, 9}
doc-5286 B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
C = {2, 3, 5, 7}.
Use these sets to answer the following.
a How many numbers appear in each set?
b Which number is common to set A and set B?
c Which number is common to set B and set C?
eBook plus Simplifying fractions

2 Write each of the following fractions in simplest form.
Digital doc
13 4 8
SkillSHEET 12.2 a b c
52 36 12
doc-5287
eBook plus Determining complementary events

3 Two events which have nothing in common, but when added together form the sample
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 12.3
space, are called complementary events. Determine the complementary event for each of the
doc-5288 following.
a Drawing an ace from a standard deck of playing cards.
b Drawing a black card from a standard deck of playing cards.
c Obtaining a factor of 6 when a six-sided die is rolled.
eBook plus Addition and subtraction of fractions

Digital doc
1 1 1 5 1 1 1
SkillSHEET 12.4 a + b + c + −
2 6 52 6 13 2 26
doc-5289
eBook plus Multiplying fractions for calculating probabilities

Digital doc
1 1 1 5 1 1 1
SkillSHEET 12.5 a × b × c × ×
2 6 52 6 2 2 2
doc-5290
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■■ This chapter, investigates such things as the probability of selecting 3 hearts from a deck of
eBook plus
cards and the probability of tossing two heads when a coin has been tossed twice.
Interactivity ■■ Probability deals with the likelihood or chance of an event occurring.
Random ■■ The probability of an event is represented by a number in the range 0 to 1 inclusive, which
number
generator can be expressed as a fraction, decimal or percentage.
int-0089 ■■ There are times when it is certain that an event will not occur; for example, it is certain that
an athlete will not complete a 100 m race in less than 5 seconds. Therefore, the probability
for the event ‘an athlete completes 100 m in less than 5 seconds’ is 0. Alternatively, it can be
certain that an event will occur. For instance, it is certain that the day following Saturday is
Sunday. The probability of such an event is 1.
■■ In the range 0 to 1 inclusive there is an infinite set of numbers giving the probabilities of
various events, where the chance of an event occurring increases as the probability gets closer
to 1.
■■ The probability scale shown below displays the range of probabilities in the range 0 to 1
inclusive.
Chances decrease
Highly Unlikely Even Likely Highly

unlikely chance likely
Impossible Very Less than Better than Very Certain
unlikely even chance even chance likely
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0% 50% 100%
Chances increase
■■ A probability of 0.5 indicates that there is an equal chance of an event occurring as there is for
the event not occurring.
■■ The probability of an event can also be described by words and phrases, such as impossible,
highly unlikely, very unlikely, less than even chance, even chance, better than even chance,
very likely, highly likely, certain and so on.
■■ Some terms that are used in the study of probability are defined below.
Definitions
■■ Trial: the number of times a probability experiment is conducted.
■■ Outcome: the result of an experiment. For example, if a die is rolled, the outcome is a
number in the range 1 to 6 inclusive.
■■ Event: a desired or favourable outcome.
■■ Equally-likely outcomes: outcomes that have the same chance of occurring. For example,
if a coin is tossed, then the chance of tossing a Head is equal to the chance of tossing a Tail.
Hence, they are equally-likely outcomes.
■■ Sample space, S: the set of all possible outcomes for an experiment. For example, in rolling a
die, the sample space, S, is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
■■ Frequency: the number of times an outcome occurs.
Experimental probability
■■ The experimental probability of an event is based on past experience.
number of times an event has occurred
Experimental probability =
total number of trials
Chapter 12 Probability 381
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
A discus thrower has won 7 of her last 10 competitions.

a What is the probability that she will win the next competition?
b What is the probability that she will not win the next competition?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the number of wins and the total a Number of wins = 7

number of competitions. Total number of competitions = 10
number of times this event occurred
2 Write the rule for probability. P(event) =
7
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(she wins) = 10
4 Write your answer. The probability she will win the next competition
7
is 10 .
b 1 Write the number of losses and the total b Number of losses = 3

number of competitions. Total number of competitions = 10
3
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(she loses) = 10
4 Write your answer. The probability she will lose the next competition
3
is 10 .
■■ The event ‘she will win the next competition’ and the event ‘she will not win the next
competition’ are called complementary events. Complementary events will be discussed in
more detail in the next section.
Relative frequency
frequency of the score f
■■ Relative frequency of a score = or
total sum of frequencies S f
■■ The symbol S (sigma) means ‘the sum of’.
■■ The relative frequency of a score is the same as the experimental probability of that score
and is useful when analysing tabulated results.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A Year 10 class has the following composition.

a Calculate the relative frequency of 16-year-old girls in the class.
b If a student is selected at random, determine the probability that the student is a boy.
Frequency ( f )
15-year-olds 16-year-olds Total (S f )
Boys 7 9 16
Girls 6 8 14
Total (S f ) 13 17 30
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THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the number of 16-year-old girls and a Number of 16-year-old girls ( f ) = 8
the total number of students in the class. Total number in the class (S f ) = 30
f
2 Write the rule for relative frequency. Relative frequency =
S f
8
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. Relative frequency = 30
4
4 Simplify and evaluate. = 15
5 Write your answer. The relative frequency of 16-year-old girls in the

class is 4 .
15
b 1 Write the number of boys in the class and b Number of boys = 16

the total number of students in the class. Total number in the class = 30
16
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(boy selected) = 30
8
5 Write your answer. The probability of a boy being chosen is 8 .
15
Theoretical probability
■■ The theoretical probability of an event, P(E), depends on the number of favourable
outcomes and the total number of possible outcomes (that is, the sample space).
■■ The theoretical probability of an event is given by the rule:
number of favourable outcomes
P(event) =
number of possible outcomes
■■ This may be simplified to:
n(E)
P(E) =
n(S)
where n(E) = number of times or ways an event, E, can occur and n(S) = number of elements
in the sample space or number of ways all outcomes can occur, given all the outcomes are
possible.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
A card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 cards. Determine the probability that the card chosen is:
a a heart
b a king.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Define the events and write the number of a H is the event that a heart is chosen.
favourable outcomes and the total number of S is the sample space.
possible outcomes. n(H ) = 13
Note: There are 13 cards in each of the 4 suits. n(S ) = 52
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n(E )
2 Write the rule for probability. Using P(E) =
n(S)
n(H)
P(H) =
n(S)
13
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(H) = 52
1
5 Write your answer. The probability of choosing a heart is 1 .

4
b 1 Define the event and write the number of b K is the event that a king is chosen.
favourable outcomes and the total number of S is the sample space.
possible outcomes. n(K) = 4
n(S) = 52
n(E )
2 Write the rule for probability. Using P(E ) =
n(S)
n(K)
P(K) =
n(S)
4
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(K) = 52
1
5 Write your answer. The probability of choosing a king is 1 .

13
Venn diagrams
■■ Venn diagrams provide a means of representing outcomes diagrammatically.
■■ A common way of drawing Venn diagrams is to use a rectangle which represents the sample
space and a series of circles representing other smaller, sorted sets.
■■ In Venn diagrams, overlapping circles represent the intersection of, or common elements in,
those sets.
■■ The sample space is also known as the universal set, x .
eBook plus
Definitions
Terminology associated with Venn diagrams is defined below.
Digital doc
1. A set is a collection of similar elements.
SkillSHEET 12.1
doc-5286 2. The universal set, x , is the largest set that contains all the possible outcomes for that
experiment and is represented by the rectangle of the Venn diagram. Consider all the
outcomes from an experiment where a die is rolled. The sample space, S, for this experiment
is also known as the universal set, x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
3. The intersection of sets (symbol ¶) is x = Universal set
represented by the common elements in two
(or more) sets. A B
The shaded region is A ¶ B.
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4. The union (symbol ß) of the sets A and B is x = Universal set

given by the combined set of A and B. It is the set
of elements that are in set A or set B or in both. A B
The shaded region is A ß B.
Note: Common elements are written only once.
5. The complement of a set, A (written AÅ), is the x = Universal set

set of elements that are in x but not in A. The
shaded region represents the complement of A. A B
The definitions of set, universal set, intersection, union and complement are illustrated in the
following example.
Example 1
Consider when rolling a die the two events:
event A: rolling an even number
event B: rolling a multiple of 3.
The universal set is written as, x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and sets A and B are, A = {2, 4, 6} and
B = {3, 6}. These are represented in the Venn diagram below.
x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A B
2 3
6
4
1 5
Also,
Intersection of sets A and B Union of sets A and B
x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A B A B
2 3 2 3
6 6
4 4
1 5 1 5
A ¶ B = {6} A ß B = {2, 3, 4, 6}
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Complement of set A
x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A B
2 3
6
4
1 5
AÅ = {1, 3, 5}
6. The subset (symbol ´) of a set is a smaller set from within the set. The shaded region in
the diagram shows that A is a subset of x ; that is, A ´ x .
The definition, subset, is illustrated in the example below.

If M = {2, 3, 4} and N = {2, 3}, then N is a subset of M, written as N ´ M.
x
M
N
3
2
7. Disjoint sets are sets that have nothing in common with each other. That is, A ¶ B = { } = f
It can be argued that the intersection of disjoint sets has nothing in it.
The set {} or f is known as the empty set, or null set.
x
A
B
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
a Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets. Show the position
of all the elements in the Venn diagram.
x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
b Determine:
i P(A) ii P(B) iii P(A ¶ B) iv P(A ß B) v P(AÅ ¶ BÅ).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a rectangle with two partly intersecting a n(x ) = 20

circles labelled A and B.
A B
2 Analyse sets A and B and place any common
elements in the central overlap. 6 2 4
3 9
12 8 10
3 Place the remaining elements of set A in circle A. 15
18 14 16
4 Place the remaining elements of set B in circle B. 20
11 13
5 Place the remaining elements of the universal set x
1 5 7 17 19
in the rectangle.
b i 1 Write the number of elements that belong to b i n(A) = 6, n(x ) = 20

set A and the total number of elements.
n(A)
2 Write the rule for probability. P(A) =
n(x )
6
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(A) = 20
3
4 Evaluate and simplify. = 10
ii 1 Write the number of elements that belong to ii n(B) = 10, n(x ) = 20

set B and the total number of elements.
n(B)
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(B) =
n(x )
10
P(B) = 20
1
= 2
iii 1 Write the number of elements that belong to iii n(A ¶ B) = 3, n(x ) = 20
set A ¶ B and the total number of elements.
n(A ¶ B)
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(A ¶ B) =
n(x )
3
P(A ¶ B) = 20
iv 1 Write the number of elements that belong to i v n(A ß B) = 13, n(x ) = 20

set A ß B and the total number of elements.
n(A ß B)
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(A ß B) =
n(x )
13
P(A ß B) = 20
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v 1 Write the number of elements that belong to v n(AÅ ¶ BÅ) = 7, n(x ) = 20

set AÅ ¶ BÅ and the total number of elements.
n(AÅ ¶ BÅ)
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b i. P(AÅ ¶ BÅ) =
n(x )
7
P(AÅ ¶ BÅ) = 20
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
In a class of 35 students, 6 students like all three subjects: PE, Science and Music. Eight of the
students like PE and Science, 10 students like PE and Music, and 12 students like Science and Music.
Also, 22 students like PE only, 18 students like Science only and 17 like Music only. Two students
don’t like any of the subjects.
a Display this information on a Venn diagram.
b Determine the probability of selecting a student who:
i likes PE only ii does not like Music.
c Find P[(Science ß Music) ¶ PEÅ].
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a rectangle with three partly a n(x ) = 35

intersecting circles, labelled PE, Science PE Science
and Music.
Music
2 Extract the information relating to students n(x ) = 35

liking all three subjects. PE Science
Note: The central overlap is the key to
solving these problems. Six students like all
three subjects, so place the number 6
into the section corresponding to the 6
intersection of the three circles.
Music
3 Extract the relevant information from n(x ) = 35

the second sentence and place it into the
PE Science
appropriate position.
Note: Eight students like PE and Science; 2
however, 6 of these students have already
been accounted for in step 2. Therefore, 6
4 6
2 will fill the intersection of only PE and
Science. Similarly, 4 of the 10 who like PE
and Music will fill the intersection of only PE
and Music, and 6 of the 12 students will fill Music
the intersection of only Science and Music.
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the third sentence and place it into the
PE Science
appropriate position. Note: Twenty-two
students like PE and 12 have already 2
10 4
been accounted for in the set. Therefore,
10 students are needed to fill the circle 6
4 6
corresponding to PE only. Similarly,
4 students are needed to fill the circle
1
corresponding to Science only to make
a total of 18 for Science. One student is Music
needed to fill the circle corresponding
to Music only to make a total of 17 for
Music.
the final sentence and place it into the PE Science
appropriate position.
Note: Two students do not like any of the 10 2 4
subjects, so they are placed in the rectangle
outside the three circles. 6
4 6
6 Check that the total number in all positions
is equal to the number in the universal set. 1
10 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 6 + 6 + 1 + 2 = 35 Music 2
b i 1 Write the number of students who like PE b i n(students who like PE only) = 10
only and the total number of students in the n(x ) = 35
class.
n(likes PE only)
2 Write the rule for probability. P(likes PE only) =
n(x )
10
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(likes PE only) = 35
2
5 Write your answer. The probability of selecting a student who

2
likes PE only is 7 .
ii 1 Write the number of students who do not ii n(students who do not like Music) = 18
like Music and the total number of students n(x ) = 35
in the class. Note: Add all the values that
do not appear in the Music circle as well as
the two that sit in the rectangle outside the
circles.
2 Write the rule for probability. P(does not like Music)
n(does not like Music)
=
n(x )
18
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(does not like Music) = 35
4 Write your answer. The probability of selecting a student who

does not like Music is 18
35
.
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c 1 Write the number of students who like c n[(Science ß Music) ¶ PEÅ] = 11

Science and Music but not PE. Note: Add n(x ) = 35
the values that appear in the Science and
Music circles but do not overlap with the
PE circle.
2 Repeat steps 2 to 4 of part b ii. P[(Science ß Music) ¶ PEÅ]
n[(Science ß Music) ¶ PEÅ]
=
n(x )
11
P[(Science ß Music) ¶ PEÅ] = 35
The probability of selecting a student who
likes Science or Music but not
PE is 11
35
.
Odds
■■ Probabilities in gambling can be expressed as odds.
5
■■ This is very common in racing, where odds are given as ratios; for example 5–1 (or 1 or 5 : 1).
■■ In the odds of a–b,
a–b
a is the chance b is the chance for

against the event the event
■■ If the odds for a horse to win are given as 5–1, then from 6 races the horse is expected to lose
5 and win 1. The probability that the horse wins or loses can be calculated from the odds
given. These calculations are shown below.
n(expected wins) n(expected losses)
P(win) = P(lose) =
n(races) n(races)
1 5
= 6 = 6
■■ If given odds of a–b, then:
n(E) b
ñ P(the event occurs), P(E) = =
n(x ) a + b
ñ P(the event does not occur), P(EÅ) = n(EÅ) = a
n(x ) a+b
Payouts
■■ The payout in races is based on the odds given.
a
■■ If the odds given are a–b, you can win $ for every $1 bet, and alternatively stated, $a for
b
every $b bet. The bookmaker will pay out your win plus the initial bet.
■■ The TAB quotes a whole payout figure for a horse, made up of the winnings and the initial
bet.
For example:
Odds Bet Winnings Payout figure

5
5–1 $10 $5 for every $1 bet: ì $10 = $50
1
$60 ($50 + $10)
7
7–2 $14 $7 for every $2 bet: 2 ì $14 = $49 $63 ($49 + $14)
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WORKED EXAMPLE 6
The odds given for the horse Gunnawin to win the Melbourne Cup are 9–4.
a Determine the probability of Gunnawin winning the Melbourne Cup.
b Tony decides to bet $12 on Gunnawin to win. If the horse does win, what is Tony’s payout?
c In the same race, the probability that the horse ‘Can’t Lose’ wins is given as 5 . What are the odds
17
that this horse will win?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the number of ways Gunnawin can win a n(Gunnawin wins) = 4

(4) and the total number of outcomes n(x ) = 13
(9 + 4 = 13).
2 Write the rule for probability. P(Gunnawin wins)
n(Gunnawin wins)
=
n(x )
4
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(Gunnawin wins) = 13
4 Write your answer. The probability of Gunnawin winning the

4
Melbourne Cup is 13 .
9
b 1 Explain what the ratio means and relate it to b In the odds 9–4 the punter can win $ 4 for
the bet. every $1 that is bet (or for every $4 bet the
punter will win $9). Therefore, if Tony bets
9
$12 he will win 4 ì $12 = $27.
2 Add the original amount invested to the Payout = $27 + $12
amount returned. = $39
3 Write your answer. Tony’s payout will be $39.
c 1 Look at the given fraction. The numerator c This horse has been given the chance of
5
corresponds to the ‘win’ component (second winning as 17 . Therefore its chance of losing
12
number) of the ratio. is 17 .
2 The lose component of the ratio is always the Therefore the lose–win ratio is 12–5.
first number.
3 Write your answer. The odds of Can’t Lose winning the
Melbourne Cup are 12–5.
REMEMBER
1. Probabilities can be expressed as a percentage, fraction or decimal in the range 0 to 1,

inclusive.
2. Experimental probability =
3. Relative frequency of a score = or
n(E)
4. Theoretical probability that an event, E, will occur is P(E) = where
n(x )
n(E) = number of times or ways an event, E, can occur and n(x ) = the total number of
ways all outcomes can occur.
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5. P(x ) = 1
6. Venn diagrams provide a diagrammatic representation of sample spaces.
7. If given odds of a – b, then:
n(E) b
■■ P(the event occurs) P(E) = =
n(x ) a + b
n(EÅ) a
■■ P(the event does not occur) P(EÅ) = = .
n(x ) a + b
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 Complete the relative frequency column in the given table.
eBook plus
x f Relative frequency
Activity 12-A-1
1 2
Review of probability
doc-5110 2 5
Activity 12-A-2
3 6
General probability
problems 4 3
doc-5111
Activity 12-A-3
5 4
Tricky probability S f =
problems
doc-5112 2 For the table of values in question 1, what is the probability of selecting the following numbers
if a number is chosen at random?
a 5 b 1 c 3
eBook plus
3 a WE 4 Draw a Venn diagram representing the relationship between the following sets.
Digital doc Show the position of all the elements in the Venn diagram.
SkillSHEET 12.2 x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
doc-5287
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
B = {1, 4, 9, 16}
b Calculate:
eBook plus i P(A) ii P(B) iii P(A ¶ B) iv P(A ß B) v P(AÅ ¶ BÅ).
4 Using the given Venn diagrams, indicate the set each of the following shaded areas represents.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 12.6 a b
doc-5291
A B x X Y
x
c d
A B x A B x
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5 Write the following odds as probabilities.

a 5–1 b 13–4 c 7–1
2
6 MC The probability of written as odds is:
9
A 7–2 B 2–7 C 2–9 D 9–2 E 11–9
UNDERSTANDING
7 WE 1 Terry has kicked 9 goals of the 10 attempts he made during a football match.
a What is the probability that he will kick a goal on his next attempt?
b What is the probability that he will not kick a goal on his next attempt?
8 Rachel attended 12 meetings in December. She was elected as the chairperson in 10 of those
meetings. What is the probability that she will be elected as the chairperson in the next meeting
she attends?
9 For a survey, a student counted the vehicles driving out of a sports complex at the end of
day 1 of a sports carnival. She recorded the results in a table as shown below.
Vehicle type Bus Car Motorbike 4-wheel drive

Number 3 17 4 6
Assuming that on day 2 there is a similar traffic movement, what is the probability that a
randomly selected vehicle will be:
a a car b a bus c not a 4-wheel drive?
10 WE 2 Visitors to the Queen Victoria market were interviewed. The composition of this survey
group is given by the following table.
Females Males Total
NSW 7 9 16
Qld 5 7 12
Tasmania 3 2 5
Europe 16 17 33
Asia 10 4 14
Total 41 39 80
a Calculate the relative frequency of:

i visitors from Queensland
ii European female visitors
iii male visitors from New South Wales
iv Asian visitors.
b If a person is selected at random from this group, find the probability that the person is:
i a Tasmanian visitor
ii a European male visitor
iii a female visitor from Queensland.
11 MC Which statement is true for the information given in the table in question 10?
A The probability of selecting a European visitor from this group is higher than that of
selecting a person from any other visitor group.
B The probability of selecting a European visitor from this group is the same as that of
selecting a person from any other visitor group.
C The probability of selecting a European male visitor from this group is the same as that of
selecting a European female visitor.
D The probability of selecting an Asian visitor is the lowest.
E The probability of selecting a visitor from New South Wales is the same as the probability
of selecting a visitor from Queensland.
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12 WE 3 A card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that the card
drawn is:
a an ace b a club
c a red card d not a jack
e a green card f not a red card.
13 A bag contains 4 blue marbles, 7 red marbles and 9 yellow marbles. All marbles are of the
same size. A marble is selected at random. What is the probability that the marble is:
a blue b red
c not yellow d black?
14 MC Fifty Year 10 students on an excursion were
asked to indicate their preference for an evening
activity. It was concluded that, if a student is selected
at random, the probability that he or she has chosen
ice-skating is 15.
a The number of students who chose ice-skating is:
A 5 B 1 C 10
D 40 E 8
b The probability that a randomly selected student
did not choose ice-skating is:
1 2 3
A 5
B 5
C 5
4
D 5
E 1
c The probability that a randomly selected student
chose tenpin bowling is:
1 4
A 5
B 5 C 0
D 1 E not able to be determined
15 A sporting club has members who play different sports, as shown by the given Venn diagram.
Volleyball Walking x
15 10 38
8
2 17
6
Tennis
a Copy the given Venn diagram and shade the areas that represent:
i members playing tennis only
ii members walking only
iii members playing both tennis and walking but not playing volleyball.
b How many members belong to the sporting club?
c Determine the probability of members who:
i play volleyball
ii are involved in all three activities.
d Determine the probability of members who do not:
i play tennis
ii walk.
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16 WE5 Thirty students were asked which lunchtime sports they enjoyed — volleyball, soccer or
tennis. Five students chose all three sports. Six students chose volleyball and soccer, 7 students
chose volleyball and tennis while 9 chose soccer and tennis. Fifteen students chose volleyball,
14 students chose soccer and 18 students chose tennis.
a Copy the Venn diagram shown and enter the given information.
n(x ) = 30
Volleyball Soccer
Tennis

b If a student is selected at random, determine the probability of selecting a student who:
i chose volleyball
ii chose all three sports
iii chose both volleyball and soccer but not tennis
iv did not choose tennis
v chose soccer.
c Determine:
i P[(Soccer ß Tennis) ¶ VolleyballÅ]
ii P[(Volleyball ß Tennis) ¶ SoccerÅ].
17 Thirty-five Year 10 students were required to bring a calculator and a graph book to a maths
lesson. On checking, it was found that 18 students had brought both, 7 students had the
calculator only and 5 students had the graph book only. Five students had neither the calculator
nor the graph book.
a Show this information on a Venn diagram.
b How many students had:
i a calculator
ii a graph book?
c If a student is selected at random, determine the probability that the student:
i had both the calculator and the graph book
ii had a calculator
eBook plus iii had neither
iv did not have a graph book.
Digital docs
d Calculate:
SkillSHEET 12.7
doc-5292 i P(calculator only)
SkillSHEET 12.8 ii P(calculator or graph book or both)
doc-5293 iii P(graph book only).
18 WE 6 The odds given for the greyhound ‘Dog’s Breakfast’ to win its race are 7–3.
a Determine the probability of Dog’s Breakfast winning its race.
b Maria decides to bet $15 on Dog’s Breakfast to win the race. If Dog’s Breakfast wins,
calculate Maria’s payout.
4
c The dog ‘Zoom Top’ is also in the race. If the probability of Zoom Top winning is 13 ,
what odds should be given for Zoom Top?
3
19 The probability of a horse winning a race is given as . What are the horse’s chances, given as
7
odds?
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REASONING
20 Azi and Robyn are playing a dice game. Azi has an eight-sided die (faces numbered 1 to 8
inclusive) and Robyn has a six-sided die (faces numbered 1 to 6 inclusive). They both roll their
die.
a The person who rolls the number 5 wins. Is this game fair?
b The person who rolls an even number wins. Is this game fair?
21 A six-sided die has three faces numbered 1 and the other three faces numbered 2. Are the
events ‘rolling a 1’ and ‘rolling a 2’ equally likely?
22 Using a six-sided die, an eight-sided die, a twelve-sided die and a sixteen-sided die (all faces
numbered consecutively beginning with 1):
a analyse and comment on the fairness of a game that constitutes a win by rolling a
multiple of 4.
b devise rolling games where:
i the game is fair regardless of the die used.
ii it is more probable to win using a die with a smaller number of faces.
iii it is more probable to win using a die with a larger number of faces.
23 Alex places a $5 bet on a horse to win at 4–1 and Rene
bets $10 on another horse. The pay-out figure for both bets
REFLECTION  
is $25. What is the probability that Rene’s horse wins?
What basic formula must
24 Are the odds 10–6 the same as 5–3? Explain.
be remembered in order to
25 With the use of diagrams, show that calculate simple probabilities?
P(AÅ ¶ BÅ) = P(A ß B)Å.
12B Complementary and mutually

exclusive events
Complementary events
■■ The complement of a given set is made up of all the elements that belong to the universal set,
x , but not to the particular given set.
■■ This is illustrated in the Venn diagram below, where the complement of set M, denoted as MÅ,
will constitute all the elements outside set M; that is {5, 6, 7, 8}.
n(x ) = 8
M N
1
5
3 7
4
6
2
■■ Consider sets M and MÅ

They have no elements in common and make up the universal set, x .
Using set notation
ñ M ¶ MÅ = f , the null or empty set (indicating no elements)
ñ M ß MÅ = x .
■■ If A and AÅ are complementary events then P(A) + P(AÅ) = 1. This may be rearranged to
P(AÅ) = 1 - P(A) or P(A) = 1 - P(AÅ).
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WORKED EXAMPLE 7
A card is drawn from a pack of 52 playing cards. Determine:

a the probability of drawing a spade
b the probability of not drawing a spade.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the number of favourable outcomes; that a n(drawing a spade) = 13

is, the number of ways a spade may be drawn n(x ) = 52
and the total number of possible outcomes.
n(drawing a spade)
2 Write the rule for probability. P(spade) =
n(x )
13
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(spade) = 52
1
1
5 Write your answer. The probability of drawing a spade is 4 .
b 1 Write the rule for obtaining the complement of b P(AÅ) = 1 - P(A)

drawing a spade.
2 Substitute the known values into the given rule. P(not a spade) = 1 - P(spade)
1
=1- 4
3
3 Evaluate. = 4
4 Write your answer. The probability of not drawing a spade is 43 .
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
A player is chosen from a cricket team. Are the events ‘selecting a batsman’ and ‘selecting a bowler’
complementary events if a player can have more than one role? Give a reason for your answer.
THINK WRITE
Explain the composition of a cricket team. Players No, the events ‘selecting a batsman’ and ‘selecting a
who can bat and bowl are not necessarily the only bowler’ are not complementary events. These events
players in a cricket team. There is a wicket-keeper may have common elements; that is, the all rounders
as well. Some players (all rounders) can bat and in the team who can bat and bowl. The cricket team
bowl. also includes a wicket-keeper.
Mutually exclusive events

■■ Two events that have no common elements and that cannot occur simultaneously are defined
as mutually exclusive events. That is A ¶ B = { } or f .
■■ Using set notation, if two events A and B are mutually exclusive then P(A ¶ B) = 0 since
n(A ¶ B) 0
P(A ¶ B) = = =0
n(x ) n(x )
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■■ Some examples of mutually exclusive events are listed below.

1. A die is rolled. Let event A = obtaining an even n(x ) = 5
number = {2, 4, 6} and event B = obtaining a factor
of 3 = {1, 3}.
2. In the given Venn diagram, event A = {1, 7, 10} and A B
event B = {2, 3}. 1
2
3. Two coins are tossed. Let event A = obtaining 7
2 Heads and event B = obtaining 2 Tails. 3
■■ Complementary events are mutually exclusive; their 10
union forms the universal set.
■■ The union of mutually exclusive events do not always
form the universal set and as such, mutually exclusive
events are not necessarily complementary events.
Complementary events, Mutually exclusive events,

A and AÅ A and B
Common elements A ¶ AÅ = • A¶B=•
Union of sets A ß AÅ = x AßBòx
The Addition Law of probability

■■ Consider the shaded region in the Venn diagram shown.
1. Counting the number of elements in the shaded region gives, n(A ß B) = 12.
2. For sets A and B, n(A) = 7 and n(B) = 8.
3. Sets A and B have three common elements, n(A ¶ B) = 3.
4. Adding together the number of elements in sets A and B, counts the common
elements twice and hence does not give the number of elements in the shaded region,
n(A) + n(B) = 15 ò 12 = n(A ß B).
5. Adding together the number of elements in sets A and B and subtracting the number of
common elements gives the number of elements in the shaded region,
n(A) + n(B) - n(A ¶ B) = 7 + 8 - 3
= 12
= n(A ß B)
■■ Therefore the number of elements in A ß B is n(A ß B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ¶ B)
So,
n(A ß B) x
P(A ß B) =
n(x ) A B
n(A) + n(B) - n(A ¶ B)
=
n(x )
n(A) + n(B) - n(A ¶ B)
=
n(x ) n(x ) n(x )
= P(A) + P(B) - P(A ¶ B)
This is known as the Addition Law of probability.
■■ If events A and B are not mutually exclusive, the Addition Law of probability states that:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B) or P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ¶ B)
■■ If events A and B are mutually exclusive, the Addition Law of probability states that:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) or P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) since P(A ¶ B) = 0
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WORKED EXAMPLE 9
A card is drawn from a pack of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that the card is a heart or
a club?
THINK WRITE
1 Determine whether the given events are The two events are mutually exclusive as they have
mutually exclusive. no common elements.
13 13
2 Determine the probability of drawing a heart P(heart) = 52
P(club) = 52
and of drawing a club. 1 1
= = 4
4
3 Write the Addition Law for two mutually P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
exclusive events. where A = drawing a heart
and B = drawing a club
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(heart or club) = P(heart) + P(club)
1
= 4 + 14
2
= 4
6 Write your answer. The probability of drawing a heart or a club is 2 .

1
n(heart or club)
Note: Alternatively, we can use the formula for P(heart or club) =
theoretical probability. n(x )
26
= 52
1
= 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
A die is rolled. Determine:

a P(an odd number)
b P(a number less than 4)
c P(an odd number or a number less than 4).
THINK WRITE
3
a 1 Determine the probability of obtaining an a P(odd) = 6
odd number; that is, {1, 3, 5}. 1
= 2
1
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining an odd number is 2 .
3
b 1 Determine the probability of obtaining a b P(less than 4) =
6
number less than 4; that is, {1, 2, 3}. 1
= 2
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining a number less

1
than 4 is 2 .
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c 1 Determine whether the given events are c The two events are not mutually exclusive as they
mutually exclusive. have common elements; that is, 1 and 3.
2 Write the Addition Law for two P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B) where
non-mutually exclusive events. A = selecting an odd number and B = selecting a
number less than 4.
3 Substitute the known values into the rule. P[odd number ß (number < 4)]
( )
Note: P(A and B) = 62 = 13 since the = P(odd number) + P[(number < 4)]
- P[odd number ¶ (number < 4)]
events have two elements in common. 1 1 1
= + −
2 2 3
2
5 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining an odd number or a

2
number less than 4 is 3 .
Note: Alternatively, we can use the formula for The set that has elements that are odd numbers or
theoretical probability. numbers less than 4 is {1, 2, 3, 5}.
P[odd number ß (number < 4)]
n[odd number ß (number less than 4)]
=
n(x )
4
=6
2
= 3
REMEMBER
1. Complementary events have no common elements and together make up the universal set.
2. If A and AÅ are complementary events then P(A) + P(AÅ) = 1. This may be rearranged to:
P(AÅ) = 1 - P(A) or P(A) = 1 - P(AÅ).
3. Mutually exclusive events have no common elements and cannot occur simultaneously.
4. If events A and B are not mutually exclusive then:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
or
P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ¶ B) where P(A ¶ B) is the probability of the
intersection of sets A and B or the common elements in sets A and B.
5. If events A and B are mutually exclusive then:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
or
P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) since P(A ¶ B) = 0.
6. Mutually exclusive events may or may not be complementary events.
7. Complementary events are always mutually exclusive.
EXERCISE
12B Complementary and mutually exclusive events
FLUENCY
1 Consider complementary events, A and B.

3
a 1 - P(B) = ? b If P(A) = 7 , then P(B) = ?
c If P(B) = 0.65, then P(A) = ? d P(A ß B) = ?
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2 Events M and N are not mutually exclusive events.

INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS a Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate events M and N.
b P(M ß N) = ?
eBook plus
c State if the following statements are true, false or cannot be determined?
Activity 12-B-1 i P(M ¶ N) = •
Complementary and ii P(M ¶ N) > 0
mutually exclusive iii P(M ß N) = 1
events
doc-5113
UNDERSTANDING
Activity 12-B-2
Harder
3 WE 7 A card is drawn from a pack of 52 playing cards. Determine:
complementary and
mutually exclusive a the probability of obtaining an ace
events b the probability of not obtaining an ace.
doc-5114
4 The weather bureau announced that there is an 80% probability of having a rain shower on
Activity 12-B-3
Tricky
Friday. What is the probability of not having a rain shower on that day?
complementary and 5 A number is selected from the set {1, 2, 3 . . . 20}. Let E1 be the event of selecting an even
mutually exclusive number and E2 be the event of selecting an odd number.
events
a Determine:
doc-5115
i P(E1) ii P(E2).
b Are E1 and E2 complementary?
eBook plus
6 A bag contains 50 balls, of which there are 10 blue balls, 5 red balls and 3 yellow balls. What
Digital doc is the probability of picking a ball that is not blue, red or yellow?
SkillSHEET 12.3
Questions 7 and 8 refer to the following information.
doc-5288
A number is selected from 1 to 100, inclusive.
Let: E1 = a multiple of 10 is picked
E2 = a factor of 20 is picked
E3 = a multiple of 2 is picked
E4 = an odd number is picked.
7 MC Which of the following represents a pair of complementary events?
A E1 and E2 B E2 and E3 C E3 and E4
D E2 and E4 E E1 and E3
8 Calculate:
a P(multiple of 10)
b P(not a multiple of 10)
c P(not a factor of 20).
Questions 9 and 10 refer to the following information.
The ages of 50 Year 10 students are shown in the following table.
Age (years)
15 16 17 Total
Girls 7 10 9 26
Boys 9 8 7 24
Total 16 18 16 50
9 MC Which of the following represent a pair of complementary events?

A Selecting a 15-year-old boy and selecting a 15-year-old girl
B Selecting a 15-year-old student and selecting a 16-year-old student
C Selecting a 17-year-old student and selecting a 15-year-old student
D Selecting a 15- or 16-year-old student and selecting a 17-year-old student
E Selecting a 17-year-old student and selecting a 15- or 16-year-old girl
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10 Calculate:
a P(selecting a 15-year-old boy)
b P(not selecting a 15-year-old boy)
c P(selecting a boy)
d P(selecting a girl).
1
11 a When a coin is tossed 4 times, the probability of getting 4 Heads is 16 . What is the
probability of not getting 4 Heads?
2
b The probability that a horse will win a race is . What is the probability that one of the
9
other horses will win the race?
12 Are the events ‘getting 2 Tails’ and ‘getting 0 Tails’ complementary when a coin is tossed
twice?
13 In a school raffle, 200 tickets were sold. Margaret and Julie bought 25 tickets between them.
a What is the probability that Margaret or Julie will win?
b What is the probability that neither of them will win?
14 WE 8 A die is rolled. What is the probability that the outcome is an even number or a 5?
eBook plus
15 A number is chosen from the set {1, 2, 3 . . . 25}. What is the probability that the number is:
Digital doc
a a multiple of 4 or a multiple of 7
SkillSHEET 12.4
doc-5289 b a multiple of 4 or an odd number
c less than 5 or more than 20?
16 A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. Calculate:
a P(a spade or ace of hearts is drawn)
b P(a king or a queen is drawn)
c P(a jack or a king or an ace is drawn).
17 MC Which of the following represents a pair of mutually exclusive events when a die is
rolled?
A Obtaining an even number or obtaining a 4
B Obtaining an odd number or obtaining a 3
C Obtaining a number less than 3 or obtaining a number more than 5
D Obtaining a multiple of 2 or obtaining a multiple of 3
E Obtaining a factor of 6 or obtaining a multiple of 6
18 In a 3-horse race, the probability for each of the horses to win is given as:
4 8
Our Lady: 37 Shaka: 9 Speedy: 63
.
Determine the probability that:
a either Our Lady or Speedy wins
b either Shaka or Speedy wins.
19 Christine’s teaching timetable for Monday and Tuesday is given below.
Period and class
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Monday 10B 8B 8A 9A
Tuesday 8B 8A 10A 9B
She is organising a music tuition class for a lesson when she is not teaching, but she cannot
use the first lesson on any day because of her responsibility as a senior teacher. Determine
the probability that:
a she cannot take music tuition because she is teaching
b she cannot take music tuition because it is the first lesson
c she cannot take music tuition.
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20 WE 9 A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 52 playing cards. Calculate:

a P(a king is drawn)
b P(a heart is drawn)
c P(a king or a heart is drawn).
21 Two coins are tossed. Event 1 is obtaining 2 Heads and event 2 is obtaining 2 Tails.
a Are events 1 and 2 mutually exclusive?
b What is P(event 1 or event 2)?
REASONING
22 WE 10 For each of the following pairs of events:
i state, giving justification, if the pair are complementary events
ii alter the statements, where applicable, so that the events become complementary events.
a Having Weet Bix or having Strawberry Pops for breakfast
b Walking to a friend’s place or driving there
c Watching TV or reading as a leisure activity
d Rolling a number less than 5 or rolling a number greater than 5 with a ten-sided die
with faces numbered 1 to 10
e Passing a maths test or failing a maths test
23 Pat suggests that for a single roll of a die, getting a factor of 4 and getting a factor of 6 are
mutually exclusive. Is he right? Why or why not?
24 Two tetrahedral dice (4-sided) are rolled and the sum of the outcome on each is taken.
eBook plus
(Note: The outcome is the number on the bottom face.)
Digital doc Let: Event 1 = the sum is 6
SkillSHEET 12.9 Event 2 = the sum is 3
doc-5294
Event 3 = the sum is more than 4
Event 4 = the sum is less than 4.
a Decide whether the following statements are true or false.
i Events 1 and 2 are mutually exclusive.
ii Events 2 and 4 are mutually exclusive.
iii Events 2 and 3 are mutually exclusive.
iv Events 1 and 2 are complementary events.
v Events 2 and 4 are complementary events.
vi Events 2 and 3 are complementary events.
b Determine:
i P(event 1)
ii P(event 2)
eBook plus iii P(event 3) REFLECTION  
Digital doc
iv P(event 4).
How are the differences between
WorkSHEET 12.1 c Determine: mutually exclusive events and
doc-5295 i P(event 1 or event 2) complementary events reflected
ii P(event 2 or event 4) in the addition law of probability?
iii P(event 2 or event 3).

■■ When more than one event has to be considered, a diagrammatic representation of the sample
space is helpful in calculating the probabilities of various events.
■■ Two-way tables and tree diagrams may be used.
Two-way tables
■■ A two-way table (sometimes referred to as a lattice diagram) is able to represent two events in
a 2-dimensional table.
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■■ With the help of the information in each row and each column, all the pairs of outcomes are
listed and the diagram ensures that none of the pairs is omitted.
■■ A two-way table for the experiment of tossing a coin and rolling a die simultaneously is
shown in the following table.
Die outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6
outcomes
H (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4) (H, 5) (H, 6)
Coin
T (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4) (T, 5) (T, 6)
■■ Two-way tables can be used to display the combined outcomes of only two events.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Two dice are rolled. The outcome is the pair of numbers shown uppermost.
a Show the results on a two-way table.
b Calculate the probability of obtaining an identical ordered pair; that is,
P[(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)].
THINK WRITE
a 1 Rule a two-way table. a Die 2 outcomes

2 Label the first row as ‘Die 2’ and write all 1 2 3 4 5 6
the outcomes.
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
3 Label the first column as ‘Die 1’ and
write all the outcomes. 2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
Die 1 outcomes
4 Write each ordered pair in its respective 3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
position. 4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
b 1 Look at the two-way table from part a b Die 2 outcomes

and highlight the identical pairs. 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)

Die 1 outcomes
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
2 Write the number of identical pairs and n(identical pairs) = 6

the total number of possible pairs. n(x ) = 36
n(identical pairs) n(E)
3 Since each outcome is equally likely, P(identical pairs) = =
write the rule for probability. n(x ) n(S)
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6
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. P(identical ordered pairs) = 36
1
5 Simplify and evaluate. =6
6 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining an identical ordered
pair is 16 .
■■ Two-way tables are limited to displaying two events occurring simultaneously. Alternative
representations are used to display more than two events.
Tree diagrams
■■ Another way of representing the sample space is to construct a tree diagram. This is a
branching diagram that helps list all the outcomes.
■■ Tree diagrams are very helpful when there are multiple
Coin 1 Coin 2
1– H
events; for example, when a coin is tossed twice. Each stage 2
eBook plus
of a multiple event experiment produces a part of a tree. 1– H
■■ The first stage of the experiment is tossing coin 1. The two 2 1–
eLesson T
2
Games at possible results that can be obtained are Heads or Tails and
Wimbledon 1– H
eles-1032 these are listed at the end of each branch. The probability of 1– 2
obtaining the result listed is written along the branches. 2 T
■■ The second stage of the experiment is tossing coin 2, for 1–
2 T
which the possible results are also Heads or Tails. A pair
of branches is attached to each of the ends of the existing branches. Again, the branches are
labelled with the appropriate outcomes and probabilities.
■■ After the diagram has been completed, the outcomes are listed at the right-hand side of the
tree diagram. This is done by beginning at the starting point and following along each set
of branches, then listing the combinations. The possible results or outcomes obtained by
following along the combined branches are (H, H), (H, T), (T, H) and (T, T).
■■ The probability for each outcome is calculated by taking the product of the probabilities
associated with the respective branches. For example, the probability of (H, H) is obtained by
multiplying the individual probabilities of the two H branches; that is
P(H, H) = P(H) ì P(H)
1 1
=2ì2
1
= 4
■■ The completed tree diagram is illustrated below.
Coin 1 Coin 2 Outcomes Probability
1– 1– 1– 1–
2
H HH 2 ì 2 = 4
1– H
2 1– 1– 1– 1–
2 T HT 2 ì 2 = 4
1– 1– 1– 1–
2
H TH 2 ì 2 = 4
1–
2 T
1– 1– 1– 1–
2 T TT 2 ì 2 = 4
—
1
■■ When added together, all the probabilities should sum to 1. If more than one outcome is
included in a particular event, then the respective probabilities are added. For example:
P(1 Head) = P(H, T) + P(T, H)
1 1
=4+ 4
1
= 2
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■■ Tree diagrams may be extended to display three or more events occurring simultaneously.
■■ Tree diagrams are useful in working out the sample space and calculating probabilities of
various events. On each branch of a tree diagram, the probability associated with the branch
is listed. The products of the probabilities given on the branches are taken to calculate the
probability for a particular outcome.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Three coins are tossed simultaneously. Draw a tree diagram for the experiment. Calculate the
following probabilities.
a P(3 Heads)
b P(2 Heads)
c P(at least 1 Head)
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Use branches to show the individual

outcomes for the first part of the
experiment (tossing the first coin).
Place a 1 above the coin toss
outcomes. Label the ends of the
branches H and T and place the
probabilities along the branches.
2 Link each outcome of the first toss
with the outcomes of the second part
of the experiment (tossing the second
coin). Place a 2 above the second
toss outcomes. Label the ends of
the branches H and T and place the
3 Link each outcome from the second
toss with the outcomes of the third
part of the experiment (tossing the
third coin). Place a 3 above the third
toss outcomes. Label the ends of
the branches H and T and place the
4 List each of the possible outcomes on
the right-hand side of the tree diagram.
5 Determine the 1 2 3 Outcomes Probability
1– 1– 1– 1– 1–
probability of each 2 H HHH 2 ì 2 ì 2 = 8
result. Note: The H 1– 1– 1– 1–
1– 1– T HHT 2 ì 2 ì 2 = 8
probability of each 2 2 1–
1– 1– 1– 1–
result is found by 1– H 2 H HTH 2 ì 2 ì 2 = 8
1– T
multiplying along the 2 2 1– T HTT 1–
ì 1–
ì 1–
= 1–
2 2 2 8
branches and in each 2 1–
H THH 1– 1– 1– 1–
case this will be 1–
2
2 ì 2 ì 2 = 8
1 1 1 1 1– H
2
ì 2 ì 2 = 8. 2 T
2
1– T THT 1–
2 ì 1–
2 ì 1–
2 = 1–
8
2 1–
1– 2 1– 1– 1– 1–
2 T
H TTH 2 ì 2 ì 2 = 8
1– 1– 1– 1– 1–
2
T TTT 2 ì 2 ì 2 = 8
—
1
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6 Place calculations and results next to

the respective outcomes. Note that in
this example, each of the outcomes has
the same probability, therefore each
outcome is equally likely.
a Refer to the listed outcomes and a The probability of obtaining 3 Heads is 1 .
8
calculations next to the tree diagram and
write your answer.
b 1 Refer to the listed outcomes and b P(2 Heads)
calculations next to the tree diagram. = P(H, H, T) + P(H, T, H) + P(T, H, H)
1 1 1
Note: This combination occurs three =8+8+8
times. 3
=8
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining exactly 2 Heads is 83 .

c 1 Refer to the listed outcomes and c P(at least 1 Head)
calculations next to the tree diagram. = 1 - P(T, T, T)
Note: At least 1 Head means any 1
=1-8
outcome that contains one or more 7
=8
Head. This is every outcome except 3
Tails. That is, it is the complementary
event to obtaining 3 Tails.
2 Write your answer. 7
The probability of obtaining at least 1 Head is 8 .
■■ As can be seen from the tree diagram in Worked example 12, the probabilities of all outcomes
add up to 1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Two dice are rolled simultaneously. Draw a tree diagram for the experiment and find:
a P(two 6s) b P(one 6)
c P(no 6s) d P(at least one 6).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw the tree diagram using two

outcomes — S (getting a 6) and SÅ
(not getting a 6).
Note: Recall for complementary
events, P(S) + P(SÅ) = 1.
2 List each of the possible outcomes 1 2 Outcomes Probability
1– 1– 1– 1
on the right-hand side of the tree 6 S SS 6 ì 6 = 36
—
diagram. 1– S
6 5– 1– 5– 5
6 S' SS' 6 ì 6 =—
36
1– 5– 1– 5
6 S S'S 6 ì 6 =—
36
5–
6 S'
5– 5– 5– 25
6 S' S'S' 6 ì 6 =—
36
—
1
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3 Determine the probability of each

possible result by multiplying along
the branches.
4 Place the calculations and results
next to the respective outcomes.
a 1 Refer to the listed outcomes and a P(two 6s) = P(S, S)
1
calculations next to the tree diagram. = 36
1
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining two 6s is 36 .
b 1 Refer to the listed outcomes and b P(one 6) = P(S, SÅ) + P(SÅ, S)

calculations next to the tree diagram. 5 5
= 36 + 36
Note: This combination occurs 10
twice. = 36
= 185
5
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining one 6 is 18 .
c 1 Refer to the listed outcomes and c P(no 6s) = P(SÅ, SÅ)
calculations next to the tree diagram. 25
= 36
25
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining no 6s is 36 .
d 1 Refer to the listed outcomes and d P(at least one 6) = 1 - P(SÅ, SÅ).
calculations next to the tree diagram. 25
= 1 - 36
Note: P(at least one 6) means any
outcome that contains one or more = 11
36
six. This includes every outcome
except for the (SÅ, SÅ) combination.
That is, it is the complementary event
to obtaining the (SÅ, SÅ) combination.
11
2 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining at least one 6 is 36.
Alternatively, part d of Worked example 13 could have been a calculated in the following
manner.
P(at least one 6) = P(one or more 6s)
= P(S, S) + P(S, SÅ) + P(SÅ, S)
1 5 5
= 36
+ 36
+ 36
11
= 36
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
The letters A, B, C and D are written on identical pieces of card and placed in a box. A letter is
drawn at random from the box. Without replacing the first card, a second one is drawn. Use a tree
diagram to find:
a P(first letter is A)
b P(second letter is B)
c P(both letters are the same).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 408 15/05/12 12:30 PM

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a tree diagram of the

situation. There are four
letters to choose as the first
letter of the pair of letters.
Each has a probability of 14
of being chosen.
2 For each letter chosen as the
first letter, there are three
letters remaining to choose
from. Each has a probability
1
of 3 of being chosen.
3 Write the sample space and Outcomes Probability
calculate the probability of 1–
3 1–
B AB 1–
4 ì –3 = —
1 1
12
1– 1 1
each outcome. A 3 C AC 4 ì –3 = — 12
1– 1– 1
1–
3 D AD 4 ì 3 = —
12
1– 1– 1– 1
4 ì 3 = 12
1–
4 3 1–
A BA —
1– 1 1
1–
B 3 C BC 4 ì –3 = — 12
4 1– 1– 1
D BD 4 ì 3 = 12
1– —
3
1– 1– 1
4 ì 3 = 12
1–
1–
4 3 1–
A CA —
1– 1– 1
C 3 B CB 4 ì 3 = —
12
1– 1– 1– 1
D CD 4 ì 3 = 12
4 1– —
3
1– 1– 1
4 ì 3 = 12
1–
3 1–
A DA —
1– 1– 1
D 3 B DB 4 ì 3 = —
12
1– 1– 1
C DC 4 ì 3 = 12
1– —
3
—
1
a 1 Refer to the listed outcomes a P(first letter A) = P(A, B) + P(A, C) + P(A, D)

1 1 1
and calculations next to the P(first letter A) = 12 + 12 + 12
tree diagram. 3
= 12
= 14
1
2 Write your answer. The probability that the first letter is A is 4 .
b 1 Refer to the listed outcomes b P(second letter B) = P(A, B) + P(C, B) + P(D, B)

and calculations next to the 1 1 1
P(second letter B) = 12 + 12 + 12
tree diagram. 3
= 12
1
= 4
2 Write your answer. The probability that the second letter is B is 14 .

c 1 Refer to the listed outcomes c P(both letters are the same) = 0
and calculations next to the
tree diagram.
2 Write your answer. As the first card is not replaced before the second is drawn, the
probability that both letters are the same is 0.
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REMEMBER
1. Two-way tables give a clear diagrammatic representation of the sample space; however,
they are limited to displaying two events.
2. Tree diagrams are useful in working out the sample space and calculating probabilities
of various events, especially if there is more than one event. On each branch of a
tree diagram, the probability associated with the branch is listed. The products of
the probabilities given on the branches are taken to calculate the probability for an
outcome.
3. The probabilities of all outcomes add to 1.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 For the tree diagram below, calculate the following probabilities:
eBook plus
0.5 H
Activity 12-C-1 R
Review of two-way 0.4
tables and tree
0.5 T
diagrams 0.5 H
doc-5116 0.4
G
Activity 12-C-2
Practice with 0.5 T
two-way tables and
tree diagrams 0.2 0.5 H
doc-5117 B
Activity 12-C-3 0.5 T
Tricky two-way
tables and tree
diagrams a P(R, H) b P(B, H) c P(B)
doc-5118 d P(H) e P(R, H or G, T) f P(BÅ)
2 i Copy and complete the two-way table below.
Card outcomes
Club, Ü Spade, â Diamond, á Heart, à
H H, Ü H, á
outcomes
Coin
T T, Ü T, à
ii Calculate the following probabilities.

a P(T, Ü) b P(T) c P(red card)
UNDERSTANDING
3 WE 11 Two dice are rolled. The outcome is the pair of numbers shown on each die.
eBook plus
a Show the results on a two-way table.
Digital doc b Calculate the probability of obtaining an ordered pair where the second digit is half the
SkillSHEET 12.5 value of the first.
doc-5290
4 A 10-sided die is rolled at the same time that a coin is tossed.
a Show the outcomes on a two-way table.
b Calculate the probability of event (H, n), where n is a factor of 10.
c Calculate P(T, even number).
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5 A green octahedron (a 3-dimensional shape with 8 regular faces) is rolled simultaneously with
a yellow octahedron. Both figures have the faces numbered 1, 2, 3 . . . 8.
a Show the sample space on a two-way table.
b On the diagram, highlight the event (n, n), where n is a number in the range 1 to 8
inclusive.
c What is the probability of getting (n, n) as described in part b above?
6 WE 12 A circular spinner is divided into two equal halves, coloured red and blue, and spun
3 times. Draw a tree diagram for the experiment. Calculate the following probabilities.
a P(3 red sectors)
b P(2 red sectors)
c P(1 red sector)
d P(0 red sectors)
e P(at least 1 red sector)
f P(at least 2 red sectors)
7 A bag contains 6 identical marbles, 2 of which are red,
1 green and 3 blue. A marble is drawn, the colour is noted,
the marble is replaced and another marble is drawn.
a Show the possible outcomes on a tree diagram.
b List the outcomes of the event ‘the first marble
is red’.
c Calculate P(the first marble is red).
d Calculate P(2 marbles of the same colour are drawn).
8 Assuming that it is equally likely that a boy or a girl will be born, answer the following.
a Show the possibilities of a 3-child family on a tree diagram.
b In how many ways is it possible to have exactly 2 boys in the family?
c What is the probability of getting exactly 2 boys in the family?
d Which is more likely, 3 boys or 3 girls in the family?
e What is the probability of having at least 1 girl in the family?
9 A tetrahedron (prism with 4 identical triangular faces) is numbered 1, 1, 2, 3. It is rolled twice.
The outcome is the number facing downwards.
a Show the results on a tree diagram.
b Are the outcomes 1, 2 and 3 equally likely?
c Find the following probabilities:
i P(1, 1)
ii P(1 is first number)
iii P(both numbers equal)
iv P(both numbers are odd).
10 WE 13 A die is rolled twice to check whether a 3 occurs. Draw a tree diagram for the
experiment and calculate:
a P(two 3s) b P(one 3)
c P(no 3s) d P(at least one 3).
11 A card is drawn from a pack of 52 playing cards and checked to see whether a spade has been
selected. The card is replaced, the pack reshuffled and another card is selected.
a Draw a tree diagram for the activity and list the sample space.
b What is the probability that both cards are spades?
c What is the probability that neither of the cards is a spade?
d What is the probability that one of the cards is a spade?
12 WE 14 The letters X, Y, W and Z are written on identical pieces of card and placed in a box. A
letter is drawn at random from the box. Without replacing the first card, a second one is drawn.
Use a tree diagram to find:
a P(first letter is W) b P(second letter is Z)
c P(both letters are different).
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13 A group of students is made up of 6 girls and 4 boys. Two students are to be selected to
represent the group on the student representative council. They decide to write all names on
identical pieces of paper, put them in a hat and choose two names randomly. They want to
check the composition (boys or girls) of the two-person team.
a Show the selections on a tree diagram (note that the probabilities for the second selection
change).
b Determine the probability of 2 boys being selected.
c Determine the probability of 2 girls being selected.
d Determine the probability of selection of 1 boy and 1 girl.
e Are the events ‘0 boys’, ‘1 boy’ and ‘2 boys’ equally likely?
REASONING
14 Robyn is planning to watch 3 footy
games on one weekend. She has a
choice of two games on Friday
night; (A) Carlton vs West Coast
and (B) Collingwood vs Western
Bulldogs. On Saturday, she can
watch one of the three games;
(C) Geelong vs Brisbane Lions,
(D) Melbourne vs Fremantle and
(E) Kangaroos vs Adelaide. On
Sunday, she also has a choice of
three games; (F) St Kilda vs
Sydney, (G) Essendon vs Port
Adelaide and (H) Richmond vs
Hawthorn.
a To determine the different combinations of games Robyn can watch, she draws a tree
diagram using codes A, B, . . . H. Suggest a sample space for Robyn’s selections.
b Robyn’s favourite team is Carlton. What is the probability that one of the games Robyn
watches involves Carlton?
c Robyn has a good friend that plays for St Kilda. What is the probability that Robyn
watches both the matches involving Carlton and St Kilda?
15 A small hospital awaits the arrival of four children showing symptoms of a particular virus.
The virus has two different strands, strand A and strand B. A child suffering from strand A
cannot share a room with a child suffering from strand B. Given a room can fit at most two
children and that there is an equal chance that a child has strand A or B, decide if 2 or 3 rooms
need to be made up in order to house the children.
16 To pass an exam Susan must answer two of the last three multiple choice questions correctly.
As Susan is running out of time she decides to guess the answers to these three questions.
Susan notes that two of the questions give six possible answers rather than the usual standard
four choices. Analyse and comment on how the inclusion of six possible answers (as opposed
to 4) for two of these questions will affect her chances of passing the exam?
17 i Four identical counters, 2 red and 2 green, are
placed in a bag. One counter is drawn, its colour
recorded, it is replaced in the bag and a second REFLECTION  
one is drawn. When calculating probabilities,
eBook plus
a Show the sample space on a tree diagram. what is the significance of an item
Digital doc b Calculate P(2 counters of the same colour). being replaced, or not replaced,
WorkSHEET 12.2 c Calculate P(2 counters of different colours). before a second event occurs?
doc-5296
ii Suppose the first counter is not replaced. Analyse
and explain how this will affect the probabilities?
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■■ If a coin is tossed the outcome is a Head or a Tail. The outcome of the first toss does not
eBook plus
affect the outcome of the next toss of the coin. The second toss will still yield a Head or a Tail
Interactivity irrespective of the outcome of the first toss. Similarly, the outcome on the roll of a die will not
Independent
affect the outcome of the next roll.
and dependent
events ■■ If successive events have no effect on each other, they are called independent events.
int-2787 ■■ If events A and B are independent then the Multiplication Law of probability states that:
P(A and B) = P(A) ì P(B) or P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B)
■■ The reverse is also true. If:
P(A and B) = P(A) ì P(B) or P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B)
is true then event A and event B are independent events.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Adam is one of the 10 young golfers to represent his state. Paz is one of the 12 netball players
to represent her state. All the players in their respective teams have an equal chance of being
nominated as captains.
a Are the events ‘Adam is nominated as captain’ and ‘Paz is nominated as captain’ independent?
b Determine:
i P(Adam is nominated as captain) ii P(Paz is nominated as captain).
c What is the probability that both Adam and Paz are nominated as captains of their respective
teams?
THINK WRITE
a Determine whether the given events are a Adam’s nomination has nothing to do with Paz’s
independent and write your answer. nomination and vice versa. Therefore, the events are
independent.
b i 1 Determine the probability of Adam b i P(Adam is nominated) = P(A)
being nominated as captain. He is n(Adam is nominated)
=
one of 10 players. n(x )
1
P(Adam is nominated) = 10
2 Write your answer. The probability that Adam is nominated as

1
captain is 10 .
ii 1 Determine the probability of Paz ii P(Paz is nominated) = P(P)
being nominated as captain. She is n(Paz is nominated)
=
one of 12 players. n(x )
1
P(Paz is nominated) = 12
2 Write your answer. The probability that Paz is nominated as

1
captain is 12 .
c 1 Write the Multiplication Law of c P(A and P)

probability for independent events. = P(A ¶ P)
= P(A) ì P(P)
P(Adam and Paz are nominated)
= P(Adam is nominated) ì P(Paz is nominated)
1 1
2 Substitute the known values into = 10 × 12
the rule.
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1
3 Evaluate. = 120
4 Write your answer. The probability that both Adam and Paz are
1
nominated as captains is 120 .
■■ Sometimes one event affects the outcome of another. For example, if a card is drawn from a
13 1
pack of playing cards, the probability that its suit is hearts, P(hearts), is 52 (or 4 ). If this card
is not replaced, then this will affect the probability of subsequent draws. The probability that
12
the second card drawn is a heart will be 51 while the probability that the second card is not a
39
heart will be 51 .
■■ When one event affects the occurrence of another, the events are called dependent events.
■■ If two events are dependent, then the probability of occurrence of one event affects that of the
other.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
A bag contains 5 blue, 6 green and 4 yellow marbles. The marbles are identical in all respects
except in their colours. Two marbles are picked in succession without replacement. Determine the
probability of picking 2 blue marbles.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
n(B)
1 Determine the probability of picking P(picking a blue marble) =
the first blue marble. n(x )
5
P(picking a blue marble) = 15
1
=3
n(B)
2 Determine the probability of picking the second P(picking second blue marble) =
blue marble. n(x )
4
Note: The two events are dependent since P(picking second blue marble) = 14
marbles are not being replaced. Since we have 2
=7
picked a blue marble this leaves 4 blue marbles
remaining out of a total of 14 marbles.
3 Calculate the probability of obtaining P(2 blue marbles) = P(1st blue) ì P(2nd blue)
2 blue marbles. 1 2
= × 3 7
2
= 21
2
4 Write your answer. The probability of obtaining 2 blue marbles is 21.
Note: Alternatively, a tree diagram could be used to —4
14
Blue
solve this question.
The probability of selecting 2 blue marbles 5 Blue
—
15
successively can be read directly from the first branch 10
—
14 Not blue
of the tree diagram.
—5 Blue
14
10
—
15 Not blue
—9
14 Not blue
5 4
P(2 blue marbles) = 15 × 14
1 2
=3×7
2
= 21
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REMEMBER
1. Events are independent if the occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of
the other.
2. If events A and B are independent, then P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B). This is the
Multiplication Law of probability. Conversely, if P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B) then events
A and B are independent.
3. Dependent events affect the probability of occurrence of one another.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 If A and B are independent events and P(A) = 0.7 and P(B) = 0.4, calculate:
eBook plus a P(A and B)
b P(AÅ and B) where AÅ is the complement of A
Activity 12-D-1
Simple independent c P(A and BÅ) where BÅ is the complement of B
and dependent d P(AÅ and BÅ).
events
doc-5119 UNDERSTANDING
Activity 12-D-2
Independent and 2 WE 15 A die is rolled and a coin is tossed.
dependent events
a Are the outcomes independent?
doc-5120
b Determine:
Activity 12-D-3
Tricky independent i P(Head) on the coin
and dependent ii P(6) on the die.
events c Determine P(6 on the die and Head on the coin).
doc-5121
3 A tetrahedron (4-faced) die and a 10-sided die are rolled simultaneously. What is the
probability of getting a 3 on the tetrahedral die and an 8 on the 10-sided die?
eBook plus
4 A blue die and a green die are rolled. What is the probability of getting a 5 on the blue die and
Interactivity not a 5 on the green die?
Random 4
numbers
5 Dean is an archer. The experimental probability that Dean will hit the target is 5 .
int-0085
a What is the probability that Dean will hit the target on two successive attempts?
b What is the probability that Dean will hit the target on three successive attempts?
c What is the probability that Dean will not hit the target on two successive attempts?
d What is the probability that Dean will hit the target on the first attempt but miss on the
second attempt?
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6 MC A bag contains 20 apples, of which 5 are bruised.

Peter picks an apple and realises that it is bruised. He puts the
apple back in the bag and picks another one.
a The probability that Peter picks 2 bruised apples is:
1 1 1 3 15
A 4 B 2 C 16
D 4
E 16
b The probability that Peter picks a bruised apple first but a
good one on his second attempt is:
1 1 3 3 1
A 4
B 2
C 4 D 16 E 16
7 The probability that John will be late for a meeting is 1 andthe probability that Phil will be late
3 7
for a meeting is 11 . What is the probability that:
a John and Phil are both late b neither of them is late
c John is late but Phil is not late d Phil is late but John is not late?
8 On the roulette wheel at the casino there are 37 numbers, 0 to 36 inclusive. Bidesi puts his chip
on number 8 in game 20 and on number 13 in game 21.
a What is the probability that he will win in game 20?
b What is the probability that he will win in both games?
c What is the probability that he wins at least one of the games?
9 Based on her progress through the year, Karen was given a probability of 0.8 of passing
the Physics exam. If the probability of passing both Maths and Physics is 0.72, what is her
probability of passing the Maths exam?
10 Suresh found that, on average, he is delayed 2 times out of 7 at Melbourne airport. Rakesh
made similar observations at Brisbane airport, but found he was delayed 1 out of every 4 times.
Find the probability that both Suresh and Rakesh will be delayed if they are flying out of their
respective airports.
11 Bronwyn has 3 pairs of Reebok and 2 pairs of Adidas running shoes. She has 2 pairs of
Reebok, 3 pairs of Rio and a pair of Red Robin socks. Preparing for an early morning run,
she grabs at random for a pair of socks and a pair of shoes. What is the probability that she
chooses:
a Reebok shoes and Reebok socks
b Rio socks and Adidas shoes
c Reebok shoes and Red Robin socks
d Adidas shoes and socks that are not Red Robin?
12 WE 16 Two cards are drawn successively and without replacement from a pack of playing
cards. Determine the probability of drawing:
a 2 hearts b 2 kings c 2 red cards.
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13 In a class of 30 students there are 17 girls. Two students are picked randomly to represent the
class in the Student Representative Council. Determine the probability that:
a both students are boys b both students are girls c one of the students is a boy.
REASONING
14 Greg has tossed a tail on each of 9 successive coin tosses. He believes that his chances of
tossing a Head on his next toss must be very high. Is Greg correct? Justify your answer.
15 The multiplication law of probability relates to
independent events. Tree diagrams can illustrate the REFLECTION  
sample space of successive dependent events and How are dependent events,
the probability of any one combination of events can independent events and the
be calculated by multiplying the stated probabilities multiplication law of probability
along the branches. Is this a contradiction to the reflected on a tree diagram?
multiplication law of probability? Explain.

■■ Conditional probability is when the probability of an event is conditional (depends) on
another event occurring first.
■■ The effect of conditional probability is to reduce the event space and thus increase the
probability of the desired outcome.
■■ For two events, A and B, the conditional probability of event B, given that event A occurs, is
denoted by P(B| A) and can be calculated using the formula:
P ( A ∩ B)
P(B| A) = , P( A) ≠ 0
P( A)
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
A group of students was asked to nominate their favourite food,

spaghetti (S) or lasagne (L). The results are illustrated in the Venn x
S L
diagram at right. Use the Venn diagram to calculate the following
probabilities relating to a student’s favourite food. 11 9 15
a What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers
spaghetti?
5
b What is the probability that a randomly selected student likes
lasagne given that they also like spaghetti?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 From 40 students surveyed, shown in a

x
blue, 20 nominated their favourite food S L
as ‘spaghetti’ or ‘spaghetti and lasagne’
as shown in red. 11 9 15
2 The probability that a randomly number of favourable outcomes

P(event) =
selected student prefers spaghetti is total number of possible outcomes
found by substituting these values into 20
the probability formula. P(spaghetti) =
40
1
=
2
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b 1 The condition imposed ‘given they b

x
also like spaghetti’ alters the sample S L
space to the 20 students described in
part a, as shaded in blue. 11 9 15
Of these 20 students, 9 stated their
favourite foods as lasagne and 5
spaghetti, as shown in red.
2 The probability that a randomly P ( A ∩ B)
P(B| A) =
selected student likes lasagne, given P( A)
that they like spaghetti, is found by 9
substituting these values into the 40
P(L| S) =
probability formula for conditional 1
probability. 2
9
=
20
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
If P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ß B) = 0.6, calculate:

a P(A ¶ B) b P(B | A)
THINK WRITE
a 1 State the addition law for probability to a P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ¶ B)
determine P(A ß B).
2 Substitute the values given in the 0.6 = 0.3 + 0.5 - P(A ¶ B)
question into this formula and simplify. P(A ¶ B) = 0.3 + 0.5 - 0.6
= 0.2
P ( A ∩ B)
b 1 State the formula for conditional b P(B| A) = , P(A) ò 0
probability. P( A)
0.2
2 Substitute the values given in the P(B| A) = 0.3
question into this formula and simplify. 2
= 3
■■ It is possible to transpose the formula for conditional probability to calculate P(A ¶ B):
P ( A ∩ B)
P(B | A) = , P(A) ò 0
P( A)
P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B| A)
This is called the multiplication rule for probability.
REMEMBER
1. Conditional probability is when the probability of an event is conditional (depends) on

2. For two events, A and B, the conditional probability of event B, given that event A
occurs, is denoted by P(B| A) and can be calculated using the formula:
P ( A ∩ B)
P(B| A) = , P( A) ≠ 0
P( A)
3. The multiplication rule for probability gives P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B| A)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 418 15/05/12 12:30 PM

EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS
1 WE 17 A group of students was asked to nominate their favourite form of dance, hip hop (H)
eBook plus or jazz (J ). The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram below. Use the Venn diagram given
to calculate the following probabilities relating to a student’s favourite form of dance.
Activity 12-E-1
Introducing
conditional x
probability H J
doc-5122
Activity 12-E-2 35 12 29
Practice with
conditional
probability 14
doc-5123
Activity 12-E-3 a What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers jazz?
Tricky conditional b What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers hip hop, given that they
probability problems
doc-5124
prefer jazz?
2 A group of students was asked which seats they found most comfortable, the seats in the
computer lab or the science lab. The results are illustrated in the Venn diagram below. Use the
Venn diagram given to calculate the following probabilities relating to the most comfortable
seats.
x
C S
15 8 5
a What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers the science lab?
b What is the probability that a randomly selected student prefers the science lab, given
that they might prefer the computer lab or the science lab?
3 WE 18 If P(A) = 0.7, P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ß B) = 0.9, calculate:
a P(A ¶ B) b P(B | A).
4 If P(A) = 0.65, P(B) = 0.75 and P(A ¶ B) = 0.45, calculate:
a P(B | A) b P(A | B).
UNDERSTANDING
5 A medical degree requires applicants to participate in two tests, an aptitude test and an
emotional maturity test. 52% passed the aptitude test, while 30% passed both tests. Use the
conditional probability formula to calculate the probability that a student who passed the
aptitude test also passed the emotional maturity test.
6 At a school classified as a ‘Music school for excellence’ the probability that a student elects to
study Music and Physics is 0.2. The probability that a student takes Music is 0.92. What is the
probability that a student takes Physics, given that the student is taking Music?
7 The probability that a student is well and misses a work shift the night before an exam is 0.045,
while the probability that a student misses a work shift is 0.05. What is the probability that a
student is well, given they miss a work shift the night before an exam?
8 Two marbles are chosen, without replacement, from a jar containing only red and green
marbles. The probability of selecting a green marble and then a red marble is 0.67. The
probability of selecting a green marble on the first draw is 0.8. What is the probability of
selecting a red marble on the second draw, given the first marble drawn was green?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 419 15/05/12 12:30 PM

9 Consider rolling a red and a black die and the probabilities of the following events:
Event A the red die lands on 5
Event B the black die lands on 2
Event C the sum of the dice is 10.
a MC The initial probability of each event described is:
1 5 5
A P(A) = 6
B P(A) = 6
C P(A) = 6
1 2 2
P(B) = 6
P(B) = 6
P(B) = 6
1 7 5
P(C) = 6
P(C) = 36
P(C) = 18
1 1
D P(A) = 6
E P(A) = 6
1 2
P(B) = P(B) = 6
6
1 1
P(C) = 12 P(C) = 12
b Calculate the following probabilities.
i P(A | B) ii P(B | A) iii P(C | A) iv P(C | B)
10 MC A group of 80 schoolgirls consists of 54 dancers and 35 singers. Each member of the
group is either a dancer or a singer, or both. The probability that a randomly selected student is
a singer given that she is a dancer is:
A 0.17 B 0.44 C 0.68 D 0.11 E 0.78
REASONING
11 Explain how imposing a condition alters probability calculations.
12 At your neighbouring school, 65% of the students are male and 35% are female. Of the male
students, 10% report that dancing is their favourite activity; of the female students, 25% report
that dancing is their favourite activity.
Find the probability that:
a a student selected at random prefers dancing and is female
b a student selected at random prefers dancing and is male.
13 Using the information presented in Question 12 above, construct a tree diagram. From your
diagram, calculate:
a the probability that a student is male and does not REFLECTION  
prefer dancing How does imposing a condition
b the overall percentage of students who prefer alter the probability of an event?
dancing.

■■ Consider the following claims:
‘I feel the Australian cricket team will win this year’s Test cricket series because, in my
opinion, they have a stronger side than the opposition.’ Claims like this are often made by
people who may not have all the facts, and may also be biased.
‘I think this summer will be a cold one.’ A statement like this will have merit if it comes
from an individual with relevant knowledge, such as a meteorologist or a scientist. However,
often people make these remarks with limited observation.
■■ Subjective probability is usually based on limited mathematical evidence and may involve
one or more of the following: judgements, opinions, assessments, estimations and conjectures
by individuals. It can also involve beliefs, sentiments and emotions that may result in a certain
amount of bias.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 19
On Anzac Day Peter plays two-up, which involves tossing two coins. Heads win if both coins land
Heads, while Tails win if both coins land Tails. If the coins land with one Head and one Tail they are
called ‘odd’, and the coins are tossed again until either Heads or Tails wins.
After observing for a while, Peter notices that the last five tosses had either Tails winning or were
odd. This leads Peter to believe that Heads will win the next game, so he places $50 on Heads and
loses. Peter questions the fairness of the game and states that the game is biased and favours Tails.
Discuss the accuracy of Peter’s statement.
THINK WRITE
Discuss the statement made and comment on the Each game is independent and so five Tails or odd
probability of obtaining Heads or Tails in this outcomes in the previous games have no effect on
particular game. the outcome of the current game. The game is not
biased. Peter took a risk and paid for it. He is wrong in
suggesting that the game is not fair.
REMEMBER
Subjective probability is based on judgements and opinions. It can also involve beliefs,
emotions and bias.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL UNDERSTANDING
PATHWAYS
1 WE19 Discuss the accuracy of these statements.
eBook plus a The team batting last can never win a cricket match at the MCG.
b The Australian cricket team is so good that not even bad weather can stop it from winning.
Activity 12-F-1
Subjective probability c Two children in John’s family are girls so the third one will be a girl, too.
doc-5125 d The Wallabies defeated the All Blacks three times last year so they will win the first game
Activity 12-F-2 this year.
Harder subjective e It rained heavily on the last three consecutive Fridays so do not organise sport on a
probability
doc-5126
Friday.
Activity 12-F-3
f According to the weather report only three in every twenty houses were damaged by the
In-depth subjective cyclone, so my house will not be damaged.
probability g New Zealand lost its cricket match against Australia because their team uniform looked
doc-5127 boring.
h This coin is biased because we obtained six Heads in a row.
i The USA topped the medal tally in the last Olympics so they will do the same again in
the next Olympics.
j Australian Rules football is the best sport in the world.
2 Comment on the accuracy of these statements.
a I have bought only one ticket for the raffle, therefore I cannot win.
b This particular horse has odds of 1–2. It is certain to win.
c If you keep on betting on Heads, you cannot lose.
d If you want to win at all times, bet on the favourites.
e It is no use betting on the favourites as you cannot win a great deal of money, therefore
you should bet on the outsiders.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 421 15/05/12 12:30 PM

3 Assign a probability to each of the following, based on your experience or judgement.

a The probability that you will be late for a class this week
b The probability that your favourite sporting team will win its next match
c The probability that two traffic lights in a row will be red when you approach successive
intersections
d The probability that you will see a dog some time today
REASONING
4 Comment on the contradictions involved in the following statements.

a That job was hers but she did not do well in the interview.
b The team had won the match but they became a little complacent towards the end.
eBook plus
c ‘Makybe Diva’ was certain to win. I cannot believe she lost the race.
Digital doc
5 Compare and contrast experimental probability,
WorkSHEET 12.3
doc-5297 theoretical probability and subjective probability. REFLECTION  
6 Describe a situation where subjective probability may
Is subjective probability reliable?
endanger people.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 422 15/05/12 12:30 PM

Summary
Review of probability
■■ Probabilities can be expressed as a percentage, fraction or decimal in the range 0 to 1, inclusive.
■■ Experimental probability =
■■ Relative frequency of a score = or
n(E )
■■ Theoretical probability that an event, E, will occur is P(E ) = where n(E ) = number of
n(x )
times or ways an event, E, can occur and n(x ) = the total number of ways all outcomes can
occur.
■■ P(x ) = 1
■■ Venn diagrams provide a diagrammatic representation of sample spaces.
b
■■ If the odds for an event are given as a–b, then P(the event occurs) = and
a a + b
P(the event does not occur) = .
a+b
Complementary and mutually exclusive events
■■ Complementary events have no common elements and together make up the universal set.
■■ If A and AÅ are complementary events then P(A) + P(AÅ) = 1. This may be rearranged to:
P(AÅ) = 1 - P(A) or P(A) = 1 - P(AÅ).
■■ Mutually exclusive events have no common elements and cannot occur simultaneously.
■■ If events A and B are not mutually exclusive then:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
or
P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ¶ B) where P(A ¶ B) is the probability of the intersection of
sets A and B or the common elements in sets A and B.
■■ If events A and B are mutually exclusive then:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
or
P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) since P(A ¶ B) = 0.
■■ Mutually exclusive events may or may not be complementary events.
■■ Complementary events are always mutually exclusive.
Two-way tables and tree diagrams

■■ Two-way tables give a clear diagrammatic representation of the sample space; however, they
are limited to displaying two events.
■■ Tree diagrams are useful in working out the sample space and calculating probabilities of
various events, especially if there is more than one event. On each branch of a tree diagram,
the probability associated with the branch is listed. The products of the probabilities given on
the branches are taken to calculate the probability for an outcome.
■■ The probabilities of all outcomes add to 1.
Independent and dependent events

■■ Events are independent if the occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of the
other.
■■ If events A and B are independent, then P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B). This is the Multiplication
Law of probability. Conversely, if P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B) then events A and B are
independent.
■■ Dependent events affect the probability of occurrence of one another.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 423 15/05/12 12:30 PM

Conditional probability
■■ Conditional probability is when the probability of an event is conditional (depends) on
■■ For two events, A and B, the conditional probability of event B, given that event A occurs, is
denoted by P(B| A) and can be calculated using the formula:
P ( A ∩ B)
P(B| A) = , P( A) ≠ 0
P( A)
■■ The multiplication rule for probability gives P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B| A)
Subjective probability
■■ Subjective probability is based on judgements and opinions. It can also
involve beliefs, emotions and bias.

Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 424 15/05/12 12:30 PM

Chapter review
FLUENCY b AÅ ¶ BÅ
A B x
1 Which of the following is always true for an event,
M, and its complementary event, MÅ?
A P(M) + P(MÅ) = 1
B P(M) - P(MÅ) = 1
C P(M) + P(MÅ) = 0
D P(M) - P(MÅ) = 0 c AÅ ¶ BÅ ¶ C
A x
E P(M) ì P(MÅ) = 1 B
2 A number is chosen from the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10}. Which of the following pairs of events
is mutually exclusive?
A {2, 4, 6} and {1, 2, 3} C
B {1, 2, 3, 5} and {4, 6, 7, 8}
C {0, 1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5, 6} 8 Convert the following odds to probabilities.
D {multiples of 2} and {factors of 8} a 3–7
E {even numbers} and {multiples of 3} b 5–2
3 Which of the following states the Multiplication c 12–5
Law of probability correctly? 9 Convert the following probabilities to odds.
A P(A ¶ B) = P(A) + P(B) a 7
b 6
c 25
11 7 33
B P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B)
C P(A ß B) = P(A) ì P(B)
PROBLEM SOLVING
D P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B)
E P(A) = P(A ß B) ì P(B) 1 From past experience, it is concluded that there
4 The odds 3-2 expressed as a probability are: is a 99% probability that July will be a wet
A
1
B
3 month in Launceston (it has an average rainfall of
5 5
1 2
approximately 80 mm). The probability that July
C D will not be a wet month next year in Launceston is:
2 5
1 1
E A 99% B 0.99 C 100
3
D 1 E 0
The following information relates to questions 5 and 6.
x = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {2, 3, 4} and 2 A card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of
B = {3, 4, 5, 8} 52 cards. What is the theoretical probability of not
5 A ¶ B equals: selecting a red card?
3 1
A {2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 8} B {3, 4} A B
4 4
C {2, 3, 4} D {2, 3, 4, 5, 8} 1 1
C D
E {2, 5, 8} 13 2
6 A ¶ BÅ equals: E 0
A {3, 4} B {2} 3 Which of the following events is not equally likely?
C {2, 3, 4, 5, 8} D {2, 3, 4} A Obtaining a 5 or obtaining a 1 when a die is
E {1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10} rolled
7 Shade the region stated for each of the following B Obtaining a club or obtaining a diamond when
Venn diagrams. a card is drawn from a pack of cards
a AÅ ß B A B x
C Obtaining 2 Heads or obtaining 2 Tails when a
coin is tossed
D Obtaining 2 Heads or obtaining 1 Head when a
coin is tossed twice
E Obtaining a 3 or obtaining a 6 when a die is
rolled
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 425 15/05/12 12:30 PM

4 The Australian cricket team has won 12 of the 13 The Venn diagram below shows the results of a
last 15 Test matches. What is the experimental survey completed by a Chinese restaurateur to find
probability of Australia losing its next Test match? out the food preferences of his regular customers.
4 1
A B
5 5
Fried x
1 3
C D rice
4 4
7 5 12
E 1
5 A card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack of 3
10 5
52 cards. What is the theoretical probability of Chicken
drawing: wings
a an ace b a spade 8
c a queen or a king d not a heart? Dim sims
6 The odds for a horse to win a race are 4–3.

a Determine the number of customers:
a What is the probability that this horse will win i surveyed
the race? ii showing a preference for fried rice only
b What is the probability that this horse will not iii showing a preference for fried rice
win the race? iv s howing a preference for chicken wings and
c Charlie bets $12 that this horse will win. If the dim sims.
horse wins, what is Charlie’s payout? b A customer from this group won the draw for
7 A die is rolled five times. a lucky door prize. Determine the probability
a What is the probability of rolling five 6s? that this customer:
b What is the probability of not rolling five 6s? i likes fried rice
8 Alan and Mary own 3 of the 8 dogs in a race. What ii likes all three — fried rice, chicken wings
is the probability that: and dim sims
a one of Alan’s or Mary’s dogs will win? iii prefers chicken wings only.
b none of Alan’s or Mary’s dogs will win? c A similar survey was conducted a month
later with another group of 50 customers.
9 A die is rolled. Event A is obtaining an even
This survey yielded the following results:
number. Event B is obtaining a 3. 2 customers liked all three foods; 6 preferred
a Are events A and B mutually exclusive? fried rice and chicken wings; 7 preferred
b Calculate P(A) and P(B). chicken wings and dim sims; 8 preferred fried
c Calculate P(A ß B). rice and dim sims; 22 preferred fried rice;
10 A card is drawn from a shuffled pack of 52 playing 23 preferred chicken wings; and 24 preferred
cards. Event A is drawing a club and event B is dim sims.
drawing an ace. i Display this information on a Venn diagram.
a Are events A and B mutually exclusive? ii What is the probability of selecting a
b Calculate P(A), P(B) and P(A ¶ B). customer who prefers all three foods, if a
c Calculate P(A ß B). random selection is made?
11 Discuss the accuracy of the following statements. 14 A pair of dice is rolled and the sum of the numbers
a It did not rain on Monday, Tuesday or shown is noted.
Wednesday, so it will not rain on Thursday. a Show the sample space in a two-way table.
b A cricket team lost because two of its batsmen b In how many different ways can the sum of
scored ducks. 7 be obtained?
c The Rams family had a boy, then a girl and c Are all outcomes equally likely?
then another boy. They must have a girl next. d Complete the given table.
12 Comment on the contradictions involved in these Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12
statements. Frequency
a I was defeated by a loser.
b The slowest motocross racer in the competition e What are the relative frequencies of the
won the race. following sums?
c The most popular person did not get elected. i 2 ii 7 iii 11
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 426 15/05/12 12:30 PM

f What is the probability of obtaining the 19 Determine the probability of drawing 2 aces from a
following sums? pack of cards if:
i 2 ii 7 iii 11 a the first card is replaced before the second one
g If a pair of dice is rolled 300 times, how many is drawn
times do you expect to obtain the sum of 7? b the first card drawn is not replaced.
15 A tetrahedral die is numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Two of 20 On grandparents day at a school a group of
these dice are rolled and the sum of the numbers grandparents was asked where they most like
(the number on the face that the die sits on) is to take their grandchildren — the beach (B) or
taken. shopping (S). The results are illustrated in the
a Show the possible outcomes in a two-way Venn diagram below. Use the Venn diagram given
table. to calculate the following probabilities relating
b Are all the outcomes equally likely? to the place grandparents most like to take their
c Which total has the least chance of being grandchildren.
rolled?
d Which total has the best chance of being ξ
rolled? B S
e Which sums have the same chance of being
5 8 2
rolled?
16 An eight-sided die is rolled three times to see
whether 5 occurs. 10
a Draw a tree diagram to show the sample space.
a What is the probability that a randomly
b Calculate:
i P(three 5s)
selected grandparent preferred to take their
ii P(no 5s)
grandchildren to the beach or shopping?
b What is the probability that a randomly
iii P(two 5s)
iv P(at least two 5s).
selected grandparent preferred to take their
grandchildren to the beach, given that they
17 A tetrahedral die (four faces labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4) preferred to take their grandchildren shopping?
is rolled and a coin is tossed simultaneously.
21 Two marbles are chosen, without replacement,
a Show all the outcomes on a two-way table.
b Draw a tree diagram and list all outcomes and
from a jar containing only red and green marbles.
their respective probabilities. The probability of selecting a green marble and
c Calculate the probability of getting a Head on
then a red marble is 0.72. The probability of
the coin and an even number on the die. selecting a green marble on the first draw is 0.85.
What is the probability of selecting a red marble
18 A bag contains 20 pears, of which 5 are bad. Cathy on the second draw if the first marble drawn was
picks 2 pears (without replacement) from the bag. green?
What is the probability that:
a both pears are bad?
eBook plus
b both pears are good?
c one of the two pears is good? Interactivities
int-2858
int-2856
int-2857
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 427 15/05/12 12:30 PM

Digital docs
Chapter opener
• Activity 12-C-1 (doc-5116): Review of two-way tables
Digital doc and tree diagrams (page 410)
• Hungry brain activity (doc-5285): Chapter 12 • Activity 12-C-2 (doc-5117): Practice with two-way
(page 379) tables and tree diagrams (page 410)
Are you ready? • Activity 12-C-3 (doc-5118): Tricky two-way tables and
tree diagrams (page 410)
Digital docs (page 380) • SkillSHEET 12.5 (doc-5290): Multiplying fractions for
• SkillSHEET 12.1 (doc-5286): Set notation calculating probabilities (page 410)
• SkillSHEET 12.2 (doc-5287): Simplifying fractions • WorkSHEET 12.2 (doc-5296): Tree diagrams
• SkillSHEET 12.3 (doc-5288): Determining (page 412)
complementary events
• SkillSHEET 12.4 (doc-5289): Addition and subtraction 12D Independent and dependent events
of fractions Interactivities
• SkillSHEET 12.5 (doc-5290): Multiplying fractions for • Independent and dependent events (int-2787) (page 413)
calculating probabilities • Random numbers (int-0085) (page 415)
12A Review of probability Digital docs (page 415)
• Activity 12-D-1 (doc-5119): Simple independent and
Interactivity
dependent events
• Random number generator (int-0089) (page 381)
• Activity 12-D-2 (doc-5120): Independent and
Digital docs
dependent events
• Activity 12-A-1 (doc-5110): Review of probability • Activity 12-D-3 (doc-5121): Tricky independent and
(page 392) dependent events
• Activity 12-A-2 (doc-5111): General probability
problems (page 392) 12E Conditional probability
• Activity 12-A-3 (doc-5112): Tricky probability
problems (page 392)
• Activity 12-E-1 (doc-5122): Introducing conditional
• SkillSHEET 12.1 (doc-5286): Set notation
probability
(page 384)
• Activity 12-E-2 (doc-5123): Practice with conditional
• SkillSHEET 12.2 (doc-5287): Simplifying fractions
probability
(page 392)
• Activity 12-E-3 (doc-5124): Tricky conditional
• SkillSHEET 12.6 (doc-5291): Working with Venn
probability problems
diagrams (page 392)
• SkillSHEET 12.7 (doc-5292): Writing odds as 12F Subjective probability
probabilities (page 395)
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 12.8 (doc-5293): Writing probabilities as
odds (page 395) • Activity 12-F-1 (doc-5125): Subjective probability
(page 421)
12B Complementary and mutually exclusive • Activity 12-F-2 (doc-5126): Harder subjective
events probability (page 421)
• Activity 12-F-3 (doc-5127): In-depth subjective
Digital docs
probability (page 421)
• Activity 12-B-1 (doc-5113): Complementary and • WorkSHEET 12.3 (doc-5297): Subjective probability
mutually exclusive events (page 401) (page 422)
• Activity 12-B-2 (doc-5114): Harder complementary
and mutually exclusive events (page 401) Chapter review
• Activity 12-B-3 (doc-5115): Tricky complementary and Interactivities (page 427)
mutually exclusive events (page 401) • Test yourself Chapter 12 (int-2858): Take the end-of-
• SkillSHEET 12.3 (doc-5288): Determining chapter test to test your progress
complementary events (page 401) • Word search Chapter 12 (int-2856): an interactive word
• SkillSHEET 12.4 (doc-5289): Addition and subtraction search involving words associated with this chapter
of fractions (page 402) • Crossword Chapter 12 (int-2857): an interactive
• SkillSHEET 12.9 (doc-5294): Distinguishing between crossword using the definitions associated with the
complementary and mutually exclusive events chapter
(page 403)
• WorkSHEET 12.1 (doc-5295): Introducing probability To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
elesson
• Games at Wimbledon (eles-1032) (page 405)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_12.indd 428 15/05/12 12:30 PM

statistics aND probability • Data represeNtatioN aND iNterpretatioN
13
13A Measures of central tendency
13B Measures of spread
13C Box-and-whisker plots
13D The standard deviation [suitable for 10A]
13E Comparing data sets
13F Skewness
What Do yoU kNoW ?

1 List what you know about data. Create a
concept map to show your list.
Univariate data 3 As a class, create a large concept map

that shows your class’s knowledge of data.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 13
doc-5298
opeNiNG QUestioN
A new drug for the relief of cold symptoms has been developed. To test the drug,
40 people were exposed to a cold virus. Twenty patients were then given a dose of the
drug while another 20 patients were given a placebo. (In medical tests a control group
is often given a placebo drug. The subjects in this group believe that they have been
given the real drug but in fact their dose contains no drug at all.) All participants were
then asked to indicate the time when they first felt relief of symptoms. The number of
hours from the time the dose was administered to the time when the patients first felt
relief of symptoms are detailed below.
Group A (drug)
25 29 32 45 18 21 37 42 62 13
42 38 44 42 35 47 62 17 34 32
Group B (placebo)
25 17 35 42 35 28 20 32 38 35
34 32 25 18 22 28 21 24 32 36
Does the drug work? How do drug companies analyse these results?
are you ready?

completing■the■matching■SkillSHEET.■Either■click■on■the■SkillSHEET■icon■next■to■the■question■
on■the■Maths■Quest■eBookPLUS■or■ask■your■teacher■for■a■copy.
eBook plus Finding the mean of a small data set

1 Find■the■mean■of■the■following■data■sets.
Digital doc
a 4,■6,■2,■6,■4,■3,■7,■3,■2,■9
SkillSHEET 13.1
doc-5299 b 10.4,■10.5,■10.7,■10.4,■10.1,■10.2,■10.4,■10.0
c 164,■136,■171,■144,■128,■130,■165,■170,■120,■124,■124,■143
eBook plus Finding the median of a small data set

2 Find■the■median■of■each■of■the■following■data■sets.
Digital doc
a 2,■6,■8,■4,■5,■6,■7
SkillSHEET 13.2
doc-5300 b 13,■10,■15,■12,■18,■17,■12,■12
c 52,■45,■23,■83,■9,■45,■71,■84,■90,■183
d 9.2,■9.3,■9.4,■9.3,■9.4,■9.5,■9.9,■9.4,■9.7,■9.8,■9.0,■10.0,■9.4,■9.2,■9.9
eBook plus Finding the mode of a small data set

3 Find■the■mode■of■each■of■the■following■data■sets.
Digital doc
a 2,■4,■3,■1,■6,■7,■3,■4,■3,■2,■7
SkillSHEET 13.3
doc-5301 b 34,■82,■94,■81,■70,■45,■32,■46,■48
c 1,■2,■4,■3,■5,■2,■6,■7,■3,■3,■2
eBook plus Finding the mean, median and mode from a stem-and-leaf plot
4 Find■the■mean,■median■and■mode■of■the■data■presented■in■ Key:■ 3■■|■■4■=■34
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 13.4
the■stem-and-leaf■plot■shown■at■right. Stem Leaf
doc-5302 2 1■ 4■ 5■
3 0■ 6
4 2■ 3■ 3■ 7
5 9
eBook plus Presenting data in a frequency distribution table

5 Place■the■following■set■of■scores■into■a■frequency■distribution■table■including■a■column■
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 13.5
for■f■■ì■x■and■cumulative■frequency.
doc-5303 8■ 7■ 4■ 9■ 6■ 7■ 9■ 6■ 5■ 4
7■ 9■ 8■ 6■ 5■ 8■ 9■ 4■ 5■ 8
eBook plus Drawing statistical graphs

6 Use■the■data■from■question■5■to■draw■a■combined■frequency■histogram■and■polygon.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 13.6
doc-5304
430 Maths Quest 10 for the australian curriculum

statistics AND probability • data representation and interpretation

■■ Measures of central tendency are summary statistics that measure the middle (or centre) of
the data. These are known as the mean, median and mode.
•• The mean is the average of all observations in a set of data.
•• The median is the middle observation in an ordered set of data.
•• The mode is the most frequent observation in a data set.
Ungrouped data
Mean
To obtain the mean of a set of ungrouped data, all numbers (scores) in the set are added
■■
together and then the total is divided by the number of scores in that set.
sum of all scores
Mean =
number of scores
∑x
■■ Symbolically this is written x = .
n
Median
■■ The median is the middle value of any set of data arranged in numerical order. In the set of n
numbers, the median is located at the n + 1 th score. The median is:
2
•• the middle score for an odd number of scores arranged in numerical order
•• the average of the two middle scores for an even number of scores arranged in numerical
order.
Mode
■■ The mode is the score that occurs most often in a set of data. Sets of data may contain:
1. no mode; that is, each score occurs once only
2. one mode
3. more than one mode.
Worked Example 1
For the data set 6, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, find the:

a mean
b median
c mode.
Think Write
a 1 Calculate the sum of the scores; that a S x = 6 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 5

is, S x. = 33
2 Count the number of scores; that is, n. n=8
∑x
3 Write the rule for the mean. x=
n
33
4 Substitute the known values into the =
rule. 8
5 Evaluate. = 4.125
6 Answer the question. The mean is 4.125.
Chapter 13 Univariate data 431

b 1 Check that scores are arranged in b 23444556

numerical order.
n+1
2 Locate the position of the median using Median = th score
n +1 2
the rule , where n = 8. This places 8+1
2 = 2
th score
the median as the 4.5th score; that is,
= 4.5th score
between the 4th and 5th score.
23444556
4+4
3 Obtain the average of the two middle Median = 2
scores. 8
= 2
=4
4 Answer the question. The median is 4.
éé
c 1 Systematically work through the set c 23444556
and make note of any repeated values å å å
(scores).
2 Answer the question. The mode is 4.
Calculating mean, median and mode from a frequency distribution table

■■ If data are presented in a frequency distribution table, the formula used to calculate the mean
∑( f × x )
is x = .
n
■■ Here, each value (score) in the table is multiplied by its corresponding frequency; then all the
f ì x products are added together and the total sum is divided by the number of observations
in the set.
■■ To find the median we find the position of each score from the cumulative frequency column.
■■ The mode is the score with the highest frequency.
Worked Example 2
For the table at right find the: Score (x) Frequency ( f )
a mean
4 1
b median
c mode. 5 2
6 5
7 4
8 3
Total 15
Think Write
1 Rule up a table with four columns titled Frequency Cumulative

Score (x), Frequency ( f ), Score Frequency ì score frequency
Frequency ì score ( f ì x) and ( x) ( f ) ( f ì x) (cf )
Cumulative frequency (cf ). 4 1 4 1
2 Enter the data and complete both the■ 5 2 10 1+2=3
f ì x and cumulative frequency columns. 6 5 30 3+5=8
7 4 28 8 + 4 = 12
8 3 24 12 + 3 = 15
n = 15 S( f ì x) = 96

∑( f × x )
a 1 Write the rule for the mean. a x=
n
96
2 Substitute the known values into the x=
rule and evaluate. 15
= 6.4
3 Answer the question. The mean of the data set is 6.4.
15 + 1
b 1 Locate the position of the median b The median is the th or 8th score.
n +1 2
using the rule , where n = 15.
2
This places the median as the 8th
score.
2 Use the cumulative frequency column The median of the data set is 6.
to find the 8th score and answer the
question.
c 1 The mode is the score with the highest c The score with the highest frequency is 6.
frequency.
2 Answer the question. The mode of the data set is 6.
Grouped data
Mean
When the data are grouped into class intervals, the actual values (or data) are lost. In such
■■
cases we have to approximate the real values with the midpoints of the intervals into which
these values fall. For example, when measuring heights of students in a class, if we found
that 4 students had a height between 180 and 185 cm, we have to assume that each of those
4 students is 182.5 cm tall. The formula used for calculating the mean is the same as for data
presented in a frequency table:
∑( f × x )
x=
n
Here x represents the midpoint (or class centre) of each class interval, f is the corresponding
frequency and n is the total number of observations in a set.
Median
The median is found by drawing a cumulative frequency polygon (ogive) of the data and
■■
estimating the median from the 50th percentile.
Modal class
We do not find a mode because exact scores are lost. We can, however, find a modal class.
■■
This is the class interval that has the highest frequency.
Worked Example 3
For the given data: Class interval Frequency

a estimate the mean
60 – < 70 5
b estimate the median
c find the modal class. 70 – < 80 7
80 – < 90 10
90 – <100 12
100 – <110 8
110 – <120 3
Total 45

Think Write
1 Draw up a table with 5 columns Class Fre- Frequency Cumulative

headed Class interval, Class Class centre quency ì class centre frequency
centre (x), Frequency ( f ), interval (x) ( f ) ( f ì x) (cf )
Frequency ì class centre ( f ì x)
60– <70 65 5 325 5
and Cumulative frequency (cf ).
70– <80 75 7 525 12
2 Complete the x, f ì x and cf
80– <90 85 10 850 22
columns.
90– <100 95 12 1140 34
100– <110 105 8 840 42
110– <120 115 3 345 45
n = 45 S(f ì x) = 4025
∑( f × x )
a 1 Write the rule for the mean. a x=
n
4025
2 Substitute the known values x=
into the rule and evaluate. 45
≈ 89.4
3 Answer the question. The mean for the given data is approximately 89.4.
b 1 Draw a combined cumulative b
45
frequency histogram and ogive,
40
labelling class centres on the
Cumulative frequency
35
horizontal axis and cumulative 30
frequency on the vertical axis. 25
Join the end-points of each 20
class interval with a straight 15
line to form the ogive. 10
5
0
65 75 85 95105115
Data
2 Locate the middle of the
45
cumulative frequency axis,
40
which is 22.5, and label it. 35
3 Draw a horizontal line from 30
this point to the ogive and then 25
20
vertically to the horizontal axis.
15
10
5
0
65 75 85 95105115
Data
4 Read off the value of the The median for the given data is approximately 90.
median from the x-axis and
answer the question.
c 1 The modal class is the class c
interval with the highest
frequency.
2 Answer the question. The modal class is the 90 – <100 class interval.

reMeMber
For■ungrouped■data■the■following■measures■of■central■tendency■are■used.
1.■ The■mean■is■the■sum■of■scores■in■a■given■set■of■data■divided■by■the■number■of■scores■in■
the■set.
∑x
x= ■ ■ is■used■when■a■list■of■scores■is■given.
n
∑( f × x )
x= ■ ■ is■used■when■a■frequency■distribution■table■is■given.
n
2.■ The■median■is:
(a)■the■middle■score■for■an■odd■number■of■scores■arranged■in■numerical■order
(b)■the■average■of■the■two■middle■scores■for■an■even■number■of■scores■arranged■in■
numerical■order.
n +1
Its■location■is■determined■by■fi■nding■the■score■in■the■ th■position.
2
3.■ The■mode■is■the■score■that■occurs■most■often■in■a■set■of■data.
For■grouped■data■the■following■measures■of■central■tendency■are■used.
∑( f × x )
4.■ The■mean■is■ x = ,■where■x■represents■the■midpoint■of■a■class■interval.
n
5.■ The■median■can■be■estimated■from■the■ogive■by■fi■nding■the■50th■percentile.
6.■ The■modal■class■is■given■by■the■class■interval■with■the■highest■frequency.
exercise
13a Measures of central tendency
iNDiviDUal flUeNcy
pathWays 1 We1 ■For■each■of■the■following■sets■of■data■fi■nd■the:
eBook plus i mean■ ii■ median■ iii mode.
a 3,■5,■6,■8,■8,■9,■10
Activity 13-A-1
b 4,■6,■7,■4,■8,■9,■7,■10
Mean, median and
mode c 17,■15,■48,■23,■41,■56,■61,■52
doc-5128 d 4.5,■4.7,■4.8,■4.8,■4.9,■5.0,■5.3
Activity 13-A-2 1 1 1 1 1
e 7 2 ,■10 4 ,■12,■12 4 ,■13,■13 2 ,■13 2 ,■14
Practice with mean,
median and mode 2 The■back-to-back■stem-and-leaf■plot■at■right■shows■
doc-5129
the■test■results■of■25■Year■10■students■in■Mathematics■
Activity 13-A-3
Mean, median and and■Science.■Find■the■mean,■median■and■mode■for■
mode in depth each■of■the■two■subjects.
doc-5130
Key:■ 3■■|■■2■=■32
Leaf Stem Leaf
Science Mathematics
8■7■3 3 2■9
9■6■2■2■1 4 0■6■8
8■7■6■1■1■0 5 1■3■5
9■7■4■3■2 6 2■6■7■9
eBook plus 8■5■1■0 7 3■6■7■8
7■3 8 0■4■4■6■8■9
Digital doc
9 2■5■8
SkillSHEET 13.1
doc-5299
chapter 13 Univariate data 435

eBook plus
3 We2 ■For■the■data■shown■in■each■of■the■following■frequency■distribution■tables,■fi■nd■the:
i mean■ ii■ median■ iii mode.
Digital doc
a b
SkillSHEET 13.2 Score (x) Frequency ( f ) Score (x) Frequency ( f )
doc-5300
4 ■3 12 ■4
5 ■6 13 ■5
eBook plus 6 ■9 14 10
Digital doc
7 ■4 15 12
SkillSHEET 13.3 8 ■2 16 ■9
doc-5301
Total 24 Total 40
4 The■following■data■show■the■number■of■
eBook plus
bedrooms■in■each■of■the■10■houses■in■a■
Digital doc particular■neighbourhood:■2,■1,■3,■4,■2,■3,■2,■
SkillSHEET 13.4 2,■3,■3.
doc-5302 a Calculate■the■mean■and■median■number■
of■bedrooms.
b A■local■motel■contains■20■rooms.■Add■
this■observation■to■the■set■of■data■and■
recalculate■the■values■of■the■mean■and■
median.
c Compare■the■answers■obtained■
in■parts■a■and■b■and■complete■the■
following■statement:■When■the■
set■of■data■contains■an■unusually■
large■value(s),■called■an■outlier,■the■
■(mean/median)■is■the■
better■measure■of■central■tendency,■as■it■
is■less■affected■by■this■extreme■value.
5 We3 ■For■the■given■data:
a estimate■the■mean b estimate■the■median c fi■nd■the■modal■class.
Class interval Frequency

40■–■<50 ■2
50■–■<60 ■4
60■–■<70 ■6
70■–■<■80 ■9
80■–■<■90 ■5
90■–■<100 ■4
Total 30
6 Calculate■the■mean■of■the■grouped■data■shown■in■the■table■below.

100■–■109 ■3
110■–■119 ■7
120■–■129 10
130■–■139 ■6
140■–■149 ■4
Total 30

7 Find■the■modal■class■of■the■data■shown■in■the■table■below.

50–■<55 ■1
55■–■<60 ■3
60–■<65 ■4
65■–■<70 ■5
70–■<75 ■3
75■–■<80 ■2
Total 18
8 Mc ■The■number■of■textbooks■sold■by■various■bookshops■during■the■second■week■of■
December■was■recorded.■The■results■are■summarised■in■the■table■below.
Number of books sold Frequency

220■–■229 ■2
230■–■239 ■2
240■–■249 ■3
250■–■259 ■5
260■–■269 ■4
270■–■279 ■4
Total 20
a The■modal■class■of■the■data■is■given■by■the■class■interval(s):
A 220■–■229■and■230■–■239 B 250■–■259
C 260■–■269■and■270■–■279 D of■both■A■and■C
b The■class■centre■of■the■fi■rst■class■interval■is:
A 224 B 224.5 C 224.75 D 225
c The■median■of■the■data■is■in■the■interval:
A 230■–■239 B 240■–■249 C 250■–■259 D 260■–■269
d The■estimated■mean■of■the■data■is:
A 251 B 252 C 253 D 254
UNDerstaNDiNG
eBook plus
9 A■random■sample■was■taken,■composed■of■30■people■shopping■at■a■Coles■supermarket■on■a■
Tuesday■night.■The■amount■of■money■(to■the■nearest■dollar)■spent■by■each■person■was■recorded■
Digital doc as■follows:
SkillSHEET 13.5
doc-5303
6,■32,■66,■17,■45,■1,■19,■52,■36,■23,■28,■20,■7,■47,■39■
6,■68,■28,■54,■9,■10,■58,■40,■12,■25,■49,■74,■63,■41,■13
a Find■the■mean■and■median■amount■of■money■spent■at■the■checkout■by■the■people■in■this■
sample.
b Group■the■data■into■class■intervals■of■10■and■complete■the■frequency■distribution■table.■
Use■this■table■to■estimate■the■mean■amount■of■money■spent.
c Add■the■cumulative■frequency■column■to■your■table■and■fi■ll■it■in.■Hence,■construct■the■
ogive.■Use■the■ogive■to■estimate■the■median.
d Compare■the■mean■and■the■median■of■the■original■data■from■part■a■with■the■mean■and■the■
median■obtained■for■grouped■data■in■parts■b■and■c.■Were■the■estimates■obtained■in■parts■b■
and■c■good■enough?■Explain■your■answer.

eBook plus
10 a■ ■Add■one■more■number■to■the■set■of■data■3,■4,■4,■6■so■that■the■mean■of■a■new■set■is■equal■to■
its■median.
Digital doc b Design■a■set■of■fi■ve■numbers■so■that■mean■=■median■=■mode■=■5.
SkillSHEET 13.6
c In■the■set■of■numbers■2,■5,■8,■10,■15,■change■one■number■so■that■the■median■remains■
doc-5304
unchanged■while■the■mean■increases■by■1.
11 Thirty■men■were■asked■to■reveal■the■number■of■hours■they■spent■doing■housework■each■week.■
The■results■are■detailed■below.
1 5 2 12 2 6 2 8 14 18
0 1 1 8 20 25 3 0 1 2
7 10 12 1 5 1 18 0 2 2
a Present■the■data■in■a■frequency■distribution■table.■(Use■class■intervals■of■0–4,■5–9■etc.)
b Use■your■table■to■estimate■the■mean■number■of■hours■that■the■men■spent■doing■housework.
c Find■the■median■class■for■hours■spent■by■the■men■at■housework.
d Find■the■modal■class■for■hours■spent■by■the■men■at■housework.
reasoNiNG
12 The■data■at■right■give■the■age■of■25■patients■ 18 16 ■6 75 24
admitted■to■the■emergency■ward■of■a■hospital. 23 82 75 25 21
a Present■the■data■in■a■frequency■distribution■ 43 19 84 76 31
table.■(Use■class■intervals■of■0–<15, 78 24 20 63 79
15–<30■and■so■on.) 80 20 23 17 19
b Draw■a■histogram■of■the■data.
c What■word■could■you■use■to■describe■the■
pattern■of■the■data■in■this■distribution?
d Use■your■table■to■estimate■the■mean■age■of■
patients■admitted.
e Find■the■median■class■for■age■of■patients■
admitted.
f Find■the■modal■class■for■age■of■patients■
admitted.
g Draw■an■ogive■of■the■data.
h Use■the■ogive■to■determine■the■median■age.
i Do■any■of■your■statistics■(mean,■median■or■
mode)■give■a■clear■representation■of■the■
typical■age■of■an■emergency■ward■patient?
j Give■some■reasons■which■could■explain■the■
pattern■of■the■distribution■of■data■in■this■
question.
13 The■batting■scores■for■two■cricket■players■over■6■innings■are■as■follows:
Player■A■ 31,■34,■42,■28,■30,■41
Player■B■ 0,■0,■1,■0,■250,■0
a Find■the■mean■score■for■each■player.
b Which■player■appears■to■be■better,■based■upon■mean■result?
c Find■the■median■score■for■each■player.
d Which■player■appears■to■be■better■when■the■decision■is■based■on■the■median■result?
e Which■player■do■you■think■would■be■the■most■useful■to■have■in■a■cricket■team■and■why?■
How■can■the■mean■result■sometimes■lead■to■a■misleading■conclusion?
14 The■resting■pulse■rate■of■20■female■athletes■was■measured.■The■results■are■detailed■below.
50■ 52■ 48■ 52■ 71■ 61■ 30■ 45■ 42■ 48
43■ 47■ 51■ 62■ 34■ 61■ 44■ 54■ 38■ 40
a Construct■a■frequency■distribution■table.■(Use■class■sizes■of■1–<10,■10–<20■etc.)
b Use■your■table■to■estimate■the■mean■of■the■data.

c Find the median class of the data.

d Find the modal class of the data.
e Draw an ogive of the data. (You may like to use a graphics calculator for this.)
f Use the ogive to determine the median pulse rate.
15 MC In a set of data there is one score that is extremely small when compared to all the others.
This outlying value is most likely to:
A have greatest effect upon the mean of the data
B have greatest effect upon the median of the data
C have greatest effect upon the mode of the data
D have very little effect on any of the statistics as we are told that the number is extremely
small.
16 The following frequency table gives the number of employees in different salary brackets for a
small manufacturing plant.
Number of
Position Salary ($) employees
Machine operator 18 000 50
Machine mechanic 20 000 15
Floor steward 24 000 10
Manager 62 000 4
Chief executive officer 80 000 1
a Workers are arguing for a pay rise but the management of the factory claims that
workers are well paid because the mean salary of the factory is $22 100. Are they
being honest?
b Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to write a short
submission in support of the pay rise. How could you explain the management’s claim?
Quote some other statistics in favour of your case.
17 Design a set of five numbers with: reflection  
a mean = median = mode Under what circumstances might
b mean > median > mode the median be a more reliable
c mean < median = mode. measure of centre than the mean?
13B Measures of spread

■■ A music store proprietor has stores in Newcastle and Wollongong. The number of CDs sold
each day over one week is recorded below.
Newcastle: 45, 60, 50, 55, 48, 40, 52
Wollongong: 20, 85, 50, 15, 30, 60, 90
In each of these data sets consider the measures of central tendency.
Newcastle: Mean = 50 Wollongong: Mean = 50
Median = 50 Median = 50
No mode No mode
With these measures being the same for both data sets we could come to the conclusion that
both data sets are very similar; however, if we look at the data sets, they are very different. We
can see that the data for Newcastle are very clustered around the mean while the Wollongong
data spread out more.
■■ As well as using measures of central tendency to analyse a data set, we use measures of
spread to look at how spread out a data set is.

Range
■■ The most basic measure of spread is the range. It is defined as the difference between the
highest and the lowest values in the set of data.
Range = highest score - lowest score or
Range = Xmax - Xmin
Worked Example 4
Find the range of the given data set: 2.1, 3.5, 3.9, 4.0, 4.7, 4.8, 5.2.
Think Write
1 Identify the lowest score of the data set. Lowest score = 2.1
2 Identify the highest score of the data set. Highest score = 5.2
3 Write the rule for the range. Range = highest score - lowest score
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. = 5.2 - 2.1
5 Evaluate. = 3.1
Interquartile range
■■ Now let us consider another two sets of scores. Which of these two data sets has the greater
spread of scores?
Set A: 40, 42, 46, 48, 50, 54, 100
Set B: 32, 34, 45, 52, 66, 75, 89
I n Set A the range equals 60, while in Set B the range equals 57. However, when the scores
are examined closely, there is only one score in Set A (100) that makes the range so large. All
other scores are relatively close together.
■■ It takes only one large or small score to increase the range of a whole data set. For this reason,
the interquartile range is considered a more reliable measure of spread than the range.
■■ Another way of measuring the difference in spread is by dividing the data set into quarters.
■■ The number that marks the end of the first quarter of an ordered data set is called the lower
quartile and is denoted by Q1 (or the 25th percentile).
■■ The number that marks the end of the third quarter is called the upper quartile and is denoted
by Q3 (or the 75th percentile).
■■ The difference between the upper and lower quartiles is called the interquartile range (IQR). It
considers the middle 50% of the data.
IQR = Q3 - Q1
■■ The lower quartile, upper quartile and the interquartile range of a set of data may be
calculated using the following steps.
1. Order the set of data.
2. Locate the median that divides the set of data into two halves.
(a) For an odd number of scores, the median will be one of the original scores. It should
not be included in either the lower or upper half of the scores.
(b) For an even number of scores the median will lie halfway between two scores. It will
divide the data into two equal sets.
3. Locate and calculate Q1, the median of the lower half of the data.
4. Locate and calculate Q3, the median of the upper half of the data.
5. Obtain the interquartile range by calculating the difference between the upper and lower
quartiles; that is, IQR = Q3 - Q1.

Worked Example 5
Calculate the interquartile range (IQR) of the following set of data: 3, 2, 8, 6, 1, 5, 3, 7, 6.

Think Write
1 Arrange the scores in order. 123356678

2 Locate the median and use it to divide the 1 2 3 3 5 6 6 7 8
data into two halves. Note: The median is the
5th score in this data set and should not be
included in either half of the data.
2+3
3 Find Q1, the median of the lower half of the Q1 =
data. 2
5
=
2
= 2.5
6+7
4 Find Q3, the median of the upper half of the Q3 =
data. 2
13
=
2
= 6.5
5 Calculate the interquartile range. IQR = Q3 - Q1
= 6.5 - 2.5
=4
■■ When data are presented in a frequency distribution table, either ungrouped or grouped, the
best way to find the interquartile range is to use the ogive as done earlier when finding the
median. In this case, however, we find Q1 and Q3 by dividing the data into quarters as shown
in the worked example that follows.
Worked Example 6
The following frequency distribution table gives the number of customers who order different
volumes of concrete from a readymix concrete company during the course of a day. Find the
interquartile range of the data.
Volume (m3) Frequency Volume (m3) Frequency
0.0 –<0.5 15 1.5 –<2.0 8
0.5 –<1.0 12 2.0 –<2.5 2
1.0 –<1.5 10 2.5 –<3.0 4
Think Write
1 To find the 25th and 75th percentiles from the Class

ogive, first add a class centre column and a Volume centre f cf
cumulative frequency column to the frequency
0.0 –<0.5 0.25 15 15
distribution table and fill them in.
0.5 –<1.0 0.75 12 27
1.0 –<1.5 1.25 10 37
1.5 –<2.0 1.75 8 45
2.0 –<2.5 2.25 2 47
2.5 –<3.0 2.75 4 51

2 Draw■the■ogive.■A■percentage■axis■will■be■
Cumulative frequency (%)

useful. 50 100%
40 75%
30
50%
20
10 25%
0 5 75 25 5 5 75
0.2 0. 1. 1.7 2.2 2.
Volume (m3)
3 Find■the■upper■quartile■(75th■percentile)■and■ Q3■=■1.6■m3
lower■quartile■(25th■percentile)■from■the■ogive. Q1■=■0.4■m3
4 The■interquartile■range■is■the■difference■ IQR■=■Q3■-■Q1
between■the■upper■and■lower■quartiles. =■1.6■-■0.4
=■1.2■m3
reMeMber
1.■ Range■=■highest■score■-■lowest■score
or
Range■=■Xmax■-■Xmin
2.■ The■difference■between■the■upper■and■lower■quartiles■is■called■the■interquartile■range,■
IQR.■IQR■=■Q3■-■Q1.■The■IQR■considers■the■middle■50%■of■the■data.
3.■ For■continuous■data,■the■quartiles■can■be■estimated■from■the■ogive.
exercise
13b Measures of spread
iNDiviDUal flUeNcy
pathWays 1 We4 ■Find■the■range■for■each■of■the■following■sets■of■data.
eBook plus a 4,■3,■9,■12,■8,■17,■2,■16
b 49.5,■13.7,■12.3,■36.5,■89.4,■27.8,■53.4,■66.8
Activity 13-B-1 1 3 1 2 1 3
Range and quartiles c 7 2 ,■12 4 ,■5 4 ,■8 3 ,■9 6 ,■3 4
doc-5131
2 We5 ■Calculate■the■interquartile■range■(IQR)■for■the■following■sets■of■data.
Activity 13-B-2
Practice with range
a 3,■5,■8,■9,■12,■14
and quartiles b 7,■10,■11,■14,■17,■23
doc-5132 c 66,■68,■68,■70,■71,■74,■79,■80
Activity 13-B-3 d 19,■25,■72,■44,■68,■24,■51,■59,■36
Range and quartiles
in depth 3 The■following■stem-and-leaf■plot■shows■the■mass■of■newborn■babies■(rounded■to■the■nearest■
doc-5133 100■g).■Find■the:
a range■of■the■data Key:■ 1* | 9■=■1.9■kg
b IQR■of■the■data. Stem Leaf
1* 9
2 2■4
2* 6■7■8■9
3 0■0■1■2■3■4
3* 5■5■6■7■8■8■8■9
4 0■1■3■4■4
4* 5■6■6■8■9
5 0■1■2■2

4 Use the ogive at right to determine the

interquartile range of the data. 50 100%
40
30
50%
20
10
100 120 140 160 180

Height (cm)
5 WE 6 The following frequency distribution table gives the amount of time spent by 50 people
on shopping for Christmas presents. Estimate the IQR of the data.
Time (h) 0 –<0.5 0.5 –<1 1–<1.5 1.5 –<2 2–<2.5 2.5 –<3 3 –<3.5 3.5 –<4
Frequency 1 2 7 15 13 8 2 2
6 MC Calculate the interquartile range of the following data:

17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21, 23, 25
A 8 B 18 C 4 D 20
Understanding
7 The following frequency distribution table shows the life expectancy of 40 household batteries.
Life (hours) 50 – <55 55 – <60 60 – <65 65 – <70 70 – <75 75 – <80

Frequency 4 10 12 8 5 1
a Draw an ogive curve which represents the data in the table above.
b Use the ogive to answer the following questions.
i What is the median score?
ii What are the upper and lower quartiles?
iii What is the interquartile range?
iv How many batteries lasted less than 60 hours?
v How many batteries lasted 70 hours or more?
8 Calculate the IQR for the following data.

120 – <130 2
130 – <140 3
140 – <150 9
150 – <160 14
160 – <170 10
170 – <180 8
180 – <190 6
190 – <200 3
9 For each of the following sets of data, state: i the range and ii the IQR of each set.
a 6, 9, 12, 13, 20, 22, 26, 29
b 7, 15, 2, 26, 47, 19, 9, 33, 38
c 120, 99, 101, 136, 119, 87, 123, 115, 107, 100

reasoNiNG
10 As■newly■appointed■coach■of■Terrorolo’s■Meteors■netball■team,■Kate■decided■to■record■each■
player’s■statistics■for■the■previous■season.■The■number■of■goals■scored■by■the■leading■goal■
shooter■was:
1,■3,■8,■18,■19,■23,■25,■25,■25,■26,■27,■28,■
28,■28,■28,■29,■29,■30,■30,■33,■35,■36,■37,■40.
a Find■the■mean■of■the■data.■ b■ Find■the■median■of■the■data.
c Find■the■range■of■the■data.■ d■ Find■the■interquartile■range■of■the■data.
e There■are■three■scores■that■are■much■lower■than■most.■Explain■the■effect■these■scores■have■
on■the■summary■statistics.
11 The■following■back-to-back■stem-and-leaf■plot■shows■the■ages■of■30■pairs■of■men■and■women■
when■entering■their■fi■rst■marriage.
Key:■ 1■■|■■6■=■16■years■old
Leaf Stem Leaf
Men Women
9■9■8 1 6■7■7■8■9
eBook plus
9■9■8■8■7■6■4■4■3■2■0 2 0■0■1■2■3■4■5■6■7■7■8■9 reflectioN
Digital doc 9■8■8■8■6■5■5■4■3■2 3 0■1■2■2■3■4■7■9 What do measures of spread
WorkSHEET 13.1 6■3■0■0 4 1■2■4■8 tell us about a set of data?
doc-5311
6■0 5 2
a Find■the■mean,■median,■range■and■interquartile■range■of■each■set.
b Write■a■short■paragraph■comparing■the■two■distributions.
13c box-and-whisker plots

five-point summary
■■ A■fi■ve-point■summary■is■a■list■consisting■of■the■lowest■score,■lower■quartile,■median,■upper■
quartile■and■greatest■score■of■a■set■of■data.
■■ A■fi■ve-point■summary■gives■information■about■the■spread■of■a■set■of■data,■as■shown■in■the■
example■below.
Xmin Q1 Median■(Q2) Q3 Xmax
4 15 21 23 28
WorkeD exaMple 7
From the following five-point summary: 29 37 39 44 48

find: a the median b the interquartile range c the range.
thiNk Write
The■fi■gures■are■presented■in■the■order■of■lowest■score,■ Xmin■=■29,■Q1■=■37,■median■=■39,■Q3■=■44,■
lower■quartile,■median,■upper■quartile,■greatest■score. Xmax■=■48
a The■median■is■39. a Median■=■39
b The■interquartile■range■is■the■difference■between■ b IQR■=■Q3■-■Q1
the■upper■and■lower■quartiles. =■44■-■37
=■7
c The■range■is■the■difference■between■the■greatest■ c Range■=■Xmax■-■Xmin
score■and■the■lowest■score. =■48■-■29
=■19

Box-and-whisker plots
■■ A box-and-whisker plot (or boxplot) is a graph of the five-point summary. It is a powerful
way to show the spread of data.
■■ Box-and-whisker plots consist of a central divided box with attached whiskers.
■■ The box spans the interquartile range.
■■ The median is marked by a vertical line inside the box.
■■ The whiskers indicate the range of scores:
Indicates the Indicates the Indicates the Indicates the Indicates the
lowest score lower quartile median upper quartile greatest score
Xmin Q1 Med. Q3 Xmax
■■ Box-and-whisker plots are always drawn to scale. 4 15 21 23 28

■■ They are presented either with the five-point
summary figures attached as labels (diagram at
right) or with a scale presented alongside the box-and-whisker plot like the diagram below.
They can also be drawn vertically.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Scale
Identification of extreme values

■■ Extreme values (outliers) often make the whiskers appear longer than they should and hence
give the appearance that the data are spread over a much greater range than they really are.
■■ If an extreme value or outlier occurs in a set of data it can be denoted by a small cross on the
box-and-whisker plot. The whisker is then shortened to the next largest (or smallest) figure.
The box-and-whisker plot below shows that the lowest score was 5. This was an extreme
value as the rest of the scores were located within the range 15 to 42.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Scale
Worked Example 8
The following stem-and-leaf plot gives the speed of 25 cars caught by a roadside speed camera.
Key: 8 | 2 = 82 km/h, 8* | 6 = 86 km/h
Stem Leaf
8 2 2 4 4 4 4
8* 5 5 6 6 7 9 9 9
9 0 1 1 2 4
9* 5 6 9
10 0 2
10*
11 4
a Prepare a five-point summary of the data.
b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. (Identify any extreme values.)
c Describe the distribution of the data.

Think Write
25+1
1 First identify the positions of the median The median is the 2
th score — that is, the13th score.
and upper and lower quartiles. There are
The Q1 is the 12 +1 th score in the lower half — that is,
25 pieces of data. The median is the 2
n +1 the 6.5th score. That is, halfway between the 6th and 7th
th score. The lower quartile is the scores.
2
median of the lower half of the data. The Q3 is halfway between the 6th and 7th scores in the
The upper quartile is the median of the upper half of the data.
upper half of the data (each half contains
12 scores).
2 Mark the position of the median and Key: 8 | 2 = 82 km/h

upper and lower quartiles on the stem- 8* | 6 = 86 km/h
and-leaf plot.
Stem Leaf Q1
8 2 2 4 4 4 4| Median
8* 5 5 6 6 7 9 9 9
9 0 1 1 2 4|
9* 5 6 9
10 0 2 Q3
10*
11 4
a Write the five-point summary: a Five-point summary: 82, 84.5, 89, 94.5, 114
The lowest score is 82.
The lower quartile is between 84 and 85;
that is, 84.5.
The median is 89.
The upper quartile is between 94 and 95;
that is, 94.5.
The greatest score is 114.
b Start by ruling a suitable scale. b 80 90 100 110 km/h
Remember to include the units of
measurement. The box represents the ì
interquartile range and thus runs from
84.5 to 94.5. The median is a vertical
line in the box at 89. The whiskers
should extend to the lowest score
(82) and the highest score (114). But
the score 114 is a great deal higher
than any of the others in the set and
might be regarded as an extreme
value. It should be indicated by a
cross and the whisker will extend
only as far as 102 (the second largest
number in the set).
c Even when the extreme value is excluded c The data are skewed (positively) and include one
the data appear to be skewed with high extremely high value.
values being spread over a much greater
range.

reMeMber
1.■ A■fi ve-point summary■is■a■list■consisting■of■the■lowest■score,■lower■quartile,■median,■
upper■quartile■and■greatest■score■of■a■set■of■data.
2.■ A■box-and-whisker plot■is■a■graphical■representation■of■a■fi■ve-point■summary■and■is■a■
powerful■tool■to■show■the■spread■of■data.
3.■ The■box■spans■the■interquartile■range;■the■median■is■marked■by■a■vertical■line■inside■the■
box■and■the■whiskers■extend■to■the■lowest■and■greatest■scores.
4.■ Box-and-whisker■plots■are■always■drawn to scale.
5.■ If■an■extreme■value■(outlier)■occurs■in■a■set■of■data,■it■can■be■denoted■by■a■small■cross;■
the■whisker■is■then■shortened■to■the■next■largest■(or■smallest)■value.
exercise
13c box-and-whisker plots
iNDiviDUal flUeNcy
pathWays 1 We7 ■From■the■following■fi■ve-point■summary■fi■nd:
eBook plus 6,■11,■13,■16,■32
a the■median
Activity 13-C-1
b the■interquartile■range
Constructing
boxplots c the■range.
doc-5134 2 From■the■following■fi■ve-point■summary■fi■nd:
Activity 13-C-2 101,■119,■122,■125,■128
Boxplots and outliers
doc-5135
a the■median
Activity 13-C-3
Boxplots with c the■range.
decimals 3 From■the■following■fi■ve-point■summary■fi■nd:
doc-5136
39.2,■46.5,■49.0,■52.3,■57.8
a the■median
c the■range.
4 The■box-and-whisker■plot■ 50 70 90 110 130 150 Points
at■right■shows■the■distribution■
of■fi■nal■points■scored■by■a■
football■team■over■a■season’s■
roster.
a What■was■the■team’s■greatest■points■score?
b What■was■the■team’s■least■points■score?
c What■was■the■team’s■median■points■score?
d What■was■the■range■of■points■scored?
e What■was■the■interquartile■range■of■points■scored?
5 The■box-and-whisker■plot■at■right■shows■ Number of
the■distribution■of■data■formed■by■counting■ 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 honey bears
the■number■of■honey■bears■in■each■of■a■
large■sample■of■packs.
a What■was■the■largest■number■of■honey■
bears■in■any■pack?
b What■was■the■smallest■number■of■honey■bears■in■any■pack?
c What■was■the■median■number■of■honey■bears■in■any■pack?
d What■was■the■range■of■numbers■of■honey■bears■per■pack?
e What■was■the■interquartile■range■of■honey■bears■per■pack?

Questions 6 to 8 refer to the following box-and-whisker plot.

5 10 15 20 25 30 Score
6 MC The median of the data is:

A 20 B 23 C 25 D 31
7 MC The interquartile range of the data is:
A 23 B 26 C 5 D 20 to 25
8 MC Which of the following is not true of the data represented by the box-and-whisker
plot?
a One-quarter of the scores are between 5 and 20.
b Half of the scores are between 20 and 25.
c The lowest quarter of the data is spread over a wide range.
d Most of the data are contained between the scores of 5 and 20.
Understanding
9 The number of sales made each day by a salesperson is recorded over a 2-week period:
25, 31, 28, 43, 37, 43, 22, 45, 48, 33
a Prepare a five-point summary of the data. (There is no need to draw a stem-and-leaf plot
of the data. Just arrange them in order of size.)
b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
10 The data below show monthly rainfall in millimetres.
J F M A M J J A S O N D
10 12 21 23 39 22 15 11 22 37 45 30

11 WE 8 The stem-and-leaf plot at right details the age Key: 1 | 8 = 18 years
of 25 offenders who were caught during ■ Stem Leaf
random breath testing. 1 8 8 9 9 9
a Prepare a five-point summary of the data. 2 0 0 0 1 1 3 4 6 9
b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. 3 0 1 2 7
c Describe the distribution of the data. 4 2 5
5 3 6 8
6 6
7 4
12 The following stem-and-leaf plot details the price at which 30 blocks of land in a particular
suburb sold for.
Key: 12 | 4 = $124 000
Stem Leaf
12 4 7 9
13 0 0 2 5 5
14 0 0 2 3 5 5 7 9 9
15 0 0 2 3 7 7 8
16 0 2 2 5 8
17 5
(You might like to use a calculator for this question.)

Reasoning
13 The following data detail the number of hamburgers
sold by a fast food outlet every day over a 4-week ■
period.
M T W T F S S
125 144 132 148 187 172 181
134 157 152 126 155 183 188
131 121 165 129 143 182 181
152 163 150 148 152 179 181
a Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data.
(Use a class size of 10.)
c What do these graphs tell you about hamburger sales?
14 The following data show the ages of 30 mothers upon the birth of their first baby.
22 21 18 33 17 23 22 24 24 20
25 29 32 18 19 22 23 24 28 20
31 22 19 17 23 48 25 18 23 20
a Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data. (Use a class size of 5.)
b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. Indicate any extreme values appropriately.
c Describe the distribution in words. What does the distribution say about the age that
mothers have their first baby?
15 MC Match the box-and-whisker plot at right with its most likely
histogram.
A f B f
Size Size
C f D f
reflection  
What advantages and

disadvantages do
box-and-whisker plots
have as a visual form
of representing data?
Size Size
13d The standard deviation

■■ The standard deviation is the most useful measure of the spread of a data set. This is
because every score in the data set is used to calculate the standard deviation.
■■ The standard deviation shows how much dispersion there is from the mean.
■■ A low standard deviation indicates that the data values tend to be close to the mean.
■■ A high standard deviation indicates that the data values tend to be spread out over a large range.
■■ How the standard deviation is calculated is beyond this course; however, for our purposes we
can obtain the result using either a scientific or graphics calculator.

■■ The standard deviation (s ) can be found using the statistics function of your calculator. Enter
the scores into the calculator using the statistics function. The standard deviation can be
obtained using the sx function. This will vary between different models of calculator and you
may need to check with your teacher to find out how to retrieve the standard deviation on your
calculator.
Worked Example 9
For each of the following data sets find the standard deviation.
a 7, 5, 6, 3, 4, 8, 2, 3, 7, 8
b
Score Frequency
1 2
2 13
3 14
4 20
5 1
Think Write
a 1 Enter the scores into the statistics mode a

or spreadsheet page of your scientific
or graphics calculator.
2 Write the answer from your calculator. s = 2.1
b 1 Enter the scores into the statistics mode b
or spreadsheet page of your scientific
or graphics calculator.
2 Write the answer from your calculator. s = 0.94
■■ Standard deviation can be used to measure consistency.

■■ When the standard deviation is low we are able to say that the scores in the data set are more
consistent with each other.
Worked Example 10
The price of a fertiliser spray, in cents per litre, is recorded at 8 independent outlets in two different
suburbs.
Suburb A: 93.9 97.9 92.4 93.9 98.5 92.3 97.9 99.9
Suburb B: 95.9 94.9 96.9 93.9 97.9 93.5 96.9 98.9
In which suburb is the price of the fertiliser spray more consistent?
Think Write
1 Enter the statistics for Suburb A into your s = 3.02

calculator and retrieve the standard deviation.
2 Enter the statistics for Suburb B into your s = 1.91
calculator and retrieve the standard deviation.
3 Make a conclusion based on which Suburb has The price of the fertiliser spray is more consistent
the lower standard deviation. in Suburb B.

reMeMber
1.■ The■standard■deviation■is■the■most■useful■measure■of■spread.
2.■ The■standard■deviation■is■found■by■entering■the■data■set■into■the■statistics■function■of■
your■scientifi■c■or■graphics■calculator.
3.■ A■lower■standard■deviation■indicates■that■the■data■are■more■bunched■or■clustered■while■
a■higher■standard■deviation■indicates■that■the■data■are■more■spread■out.
4.■ Standard■deviation■can■be■used■to■measure■consistency■(a■low■standard■deviation■
indicating■greater■consistency.)
exercise
13D the standard deviation
iNDiviDUal flUeNcy
pathWays 1 We9a ■Find■the■standard■deviation■of■each■of■the■following■data■sets.
eBook plus a 3,■5,■8,■2,■7,■1,■6,■5 b 11,■8,■7,■12,■10,■11,■14
c 25,■15,■78,■35,■56,■41,■17,■24 d 5.2,■4.7,■5.1,■12.6,■4.8
Activity 13-D-1
Standard deviation 2 We9b ■Find■the■standard■deviation■of■each■of■the■following■data■sets.
doc-5137 a b
Activity 13-D-2
Score Frequency Score Frequency
Practice with 1 1 16 15
standard deviation
doc-5138 2 5 17 24
Activity 13-D-3
3 9 18 26
Standard deviation
in depth 4 7 19 28
doc-5139
5 3 20 27
c d Score Frequency
Score Frequency
■8 15 65 15
10 19 66 15
12 18 67 16
14 ■7 68 17
16 ■6 69 16
18 ■2 70 15
71 15
72 12
3 Complete■the■following■frequency■distribution■table■and■use■the■table■to■fi■nd■the■standard■
deviation■of■the■data■set.
Class Class centre Frequency

■ 1–10 ■6
11–20 15
21–30 25
31–40 ■8
41–50 ■6

4 First-quarter profit increases for 8 leading companies are given below as percentages.
2.3 0.8 1.6 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.9
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and express your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
5 The heights in metres of a group of army recruits are given below.
1.8 1.95 1.87 1.77 1.75 1.79 1.81 1.83 1.76 1.80 1.92 1.87 1.85 1.83
2 decimal places.
6 Times (to the nearest tenth of a second) for the heats in Key: 11 | 0 = 11.0 s
the open 100 m sprint at the school sports are given at right. Stem Leaf
Calculate the standard deviation for this set of data and ■ 11 0
express your answer correct to 2 decimal places. 11 2 3
11 4 4 5
11 6 6
11 8 8 9
12 0 1
12 2 2 3
12 4 4
12 6
12 9
7 The number of outgoing phone calls from an office each day over a 4-week period is shown on
the stem plot below.
Key: 1 | 3 = 13 calls
Stem Leaf
0 8 9
1 3 4 7 9
2 0 1 3 7 7
3 3 4
4 1 5 6 7 8
5 3 8
2 decimal places.
8 MC A new legal aid service has been operational for only 5 weeks. The number of people
who have made use of the service each day during this period is set out below.
Key: 1 | 6 = 16 people
Stem Leaf
0 2 4
0 7 7 9
1 0 1 4 4 4 4
1 5 6 6 7 8 8 9
2 1 2 2 3 3 3
2 7
The standard deviation (to 2 decimal places) of these data is:
A 6.00 B 6.34 C 6.47 D 15.44

UNDerstaNDiNG
9 We10 ■The■following■data■represent■the■scores■of■2■golfers■on■10■rounds■of■golf■at■the■same■
course.
Greg:■ 65■ 74■ 76■ 68■ 72■ 77■ 66■ 69■ 74■ 70
Adam:■ 72■ 71■ 72■ 73■ 74■ 70■ 71■ 68■ 69■ 71
Which■golfer■is■the■more■consistent■player?
10 Mc ■The■data■given■below■represent■Anna’s■marks■in■each■of■fi■ve■tests■in■four■different■
subjects.■In■which■subject■does■Anna■achieve■the■most■consistent■results?
A English:■■ 60■ 82■ 75■ ■ 47■ 90
B Maths:■ 72■ 74■ 35■ 100■ 89
C Science:■ 50■ 57■ 65■ ■ 46■ 50
D Geography:■ 60■ 70■ 65■ ■ 85■ 79
reasoNiNG
11 Two■classes■of■students,■each■with■30■students,■sit■for■a■short■quiz.■The■results■of■the■quiz■are■
shown■in■the■tables■below.■Each■mark■is■out■of■10.
Class■A Class■B
Mark Frequency Mark Frequency

■5 ■4 ■5 8
■6 ■9 ■6 7
■7 12 ■7 6
■8 ■3 ■8 3
■9 ■1 ■9 1
10 ■1 10 5
a For■each■class■fi■nd■the■standard■deviation■of■the■marks.
b Which■class■had■the■more■consistent■results?■Justify■your■answer.
12 A■company■that■makes■batteries■needs■to■test■a■batch■of■batteries■to■determine■if■they■are■of■
satisfactory■quality.■The■results■of■the■testing■are■shown■below.
Life of battery
(hours) Class centre Frequency
0–<5 ■6
5–<10 16
10–<15 18
15–<20 15
20–<25 ■5
25–<30 ■5
a Complete■the■class■centre■column■of■the■frequency■distribution■table.
b Find■the■mean■and■standard■deviation■of■the■data.
c For■the■batch■to■be■considered■satisfactory,■the■
eBook plus
mean■of■the■distribution■must■be■greater■than■ reflectioN
Digital doc 13■hours■and■the■standard■deviation■must■be■less■ What does the standard deviation
WorkSHEET 13.2
than■6■hours.■Determine■if■this■is■a■satisfactory■ tell us about a set of data?
doc-5318
batch■and■explain■your■answer.

13e comparing data sets

eBook plus
■■ When■multiple■data■displays■are■used■to■display■similar■sets■of■data,■comparisons■and■
conclusions■can■then■be■drawn■about■the■data.
Interactivity ■■ We■can■use■back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots■and■multiple■or■parallel■box-and-whisker■plots■
Parallel
boxplots
to■help■compare■statistics■such■as■the■median,■range■and■interquartile■range.
int-2788
WorkeD exaMple 11
A shop compares the number of customers on Key:1 | 2 = 12 customers

weekdays and weekends. Twenty weekdays and Leaf Stem Leaf
twenty weekend days are chosen for the sample. Weekday Weekend
The back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot at right shows 7 0 788
the result. 86311 1 1124456667
a Find the median number of customers on 9666554331 2 2558
weekdays and weekends. 952 3 16
b Calculate the range of customer numbers on 5 4
weekdays and weekends. 5 7
c What conclusions can be made from the display
about the average number of customers on
weekdays and weekends?
thiNk Write
24 + 25
a There■are■20■scores■in■each■set■and■so■the■median■ a Weekdays:■Median■=■
will■be■the■average■of■the■10th■and■11th■scores. 2
=■24.5■
16 + 16
Weekends:■Median■=■
2
=■16
b For■each■data■set,■subtract■the■lowest■score■from■ b Weekdays:■Range■=■45■-■7
the■highest■score. =■38■
Weekends:■Range■=■57■-■7
=■50
c Write■your■conclusion■from■observing■that■there■ c There■are■generally■fewer■customers■
are■generally■fewer■customers■on■weekends■and■the■ on■weekends.■There■is■one■outlier■in■
results■are■more■consistent■except■for■one■outlier. the■weekend■scores,■causing■the■range■
to■be■larger.■However,■apart■from■this■
outlier,■the■weekend■scores■are■less■
spread■out.
■■ In■the■above■worked■example■we■could■have■found■the■interquartile■range■as■further■evidence■
that■the■scores■on■weekends■are■generally■less■spread■out.
■■ The■most■common■method■for■comparing■data■sets■is■to■compare■the■summary■statistics■from■
the■data■sets.
■■ The■measures■of■centre■such■as■mean■and■median■are■used■to■compare■the■typical■score■in■a■
data■set.
■■ Measures■of■spread■such■as■range,■interquartile■range■and■standard■deviation■are■used■to■make■
assessments■about■the■consistency■of■scores■in■the■data■set.

WorkeD exaMple 12
Below are the scores for two students in eight mathematics tests throughout the year.
John: 45, 62, 64, 55, 58, 51, 59, 62
Penny: 84, 37, 45, 80, 74, 44, 46, 50
a Use the statistics function on a calculator to find the mean and standard deviation for each student.
b Which student had the better overall performance on the eight tests?
c Which student was more consistent over the eight tests?
thiNk Write
a Enter■the■statistics■into■a■calculator■and■use■the■x■ a John:■ x■=■57,■s ■=■6

function■for■the■mean■and■the■s■function■for■the■ Penny:■ x■=■57.5,■s ■=■17.4
standard■deviation.
b Compare■the■mean■for■each■student.■The■student■ b Penny■performed■slightly■better■overall■as■
with■the■higher■mean■performed■better■overall. her■mean■mark■was■higher■than■John’s.
c Compare■the■standard■deviation■for■each■student.■ c John■was■the■more■consistent■student■
The■student■with■the■lower■standard■deviation■ because■his■standard■deviation■was■much■
performed■more■consistently. lower■than■Penny’s.
reMeMber
1.■ When■multiple■displays■are■used■for■two■or■more■sets■of■data,■we■can■compare■and■
contrast■the■data■sets■and■determine■whether■any■relationship■exists■between■them.■
2.■ A■multiple■stem-and-leaf■plot■allows■for■a■quick■comparison■of■the■data■from■which■we■
can■easily■compare■medians,■ranges■and■interquartile■ranges.
3.■ The■summary■statistics■from■two■data■sets■can■be■compared■quickly■on■a■box-and-
whisker■plot.
4.■ The■most■commonly■used■comparisons■are■summary■statistics■to■compare■what■is■a■
typical■score■and■what■the■spread■of■the■data■is.
exercise
13e comparing data sets
iNDiviDUal UNDerstaNDiNG
pathWays
1 We11 ■The■back-to-back■stem-and-leaf■plot■drawn■below■shows■the■number■of■days■that■both■a■
eBook plus group■of■boys■and■girls■were■absent■from■school■over■a■two-year■period.
Activity 13-E-1 Key:■ 2■■|■■1■=■21■days
Comparing data 1
Leaf Stem Leaf
doc-5140
Activity 13-E-2
Boys Girls
Comparing data 2 0 1■7■
doc-5141 7■4■1■0 1 2■4■7■9■9■
Activity 13-E-3 9■9■7■6■6■5■3■1■1■0 2 1■3■3■4■6■6
Comparing data 3 8■7■7■5■2 3 4■4■4■8
doc-5142
2 4 3■6■
5 4
a Calculate■the■median■number■of■days■absent■for■both■boys■and■girls.
b Calculate■the■range■for■both■boys■and■girls.
c Comment■on■the■distribution■of■days■absent■for■each■group.

2 A bank surveys the average morning and afternoon waiting times for customers. The figures
were taken each Monday to Friday in the morning and afternoon for one month. The stem-and-
leaf plot below shows the results.
Key: 1 | 2 = 1.2 minutes
Leaf Stem Leaf
Morning Afternoon
7 0 788
86311 1 1124456667
9666554331 2 2558
952 3 16
5 4
5 7
a Find the median morning waiting time and the median afternoon waiting time.
b Calculate the range for morning waiting times and the range for afternoon waiting times.
c What conclusions can be made from the display about the average waiting time at the
bank in the morning compared with the afternoon?
3 In a class of 30 students there are 15 boys and 15 girls. Their heights are measured (in metres)
and are listed below.
Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69, 1.72, 1.66, ■
1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59, 1.60
Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64, 1.69, ■
1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68, 1.67
Display this information in a back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot.
4 The stem-and-leaf plot at right is used to display the Key: 1 | 5 = 15 vehicles
number of vehicles sold by the Ford and Holden Leaf Stem Leaf
dealerships in a Sydney suburb each week for a three- Ford Holden
month period. 74 0 39
a State the median of both distributions. 952210 1 111668
b Calculate the range of both distributions. 8544 2 2279
c Calculate the interquartile range of both distributions. 0 3 5
d Show both distributions on a box-and-whisker plot.

5 The box-and-whisker plot drawn below displays statistical data for two AFL teams over a
season.
Sydney Swans
Brisbane Lions
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Points
a Which team had the higher median score?

b What was the range of scores for each team?
c For each team calculate the interquartile range.
6 Tanya measures the heights (in m) of a group of Year 10 boys and girls and produces the
following five-point summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.45, 1.56, 1.62, 1.70, 1.81
Girls: 1.50, 1.55, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a Draw a box-and-whisker plot for both sets of data and display them on the same scale.
b What is the median of each distribution?
c What is the range of each distribution?
d What is the interquartile range for each distribution?
e Comment on the spread of the heights among the boys and the girls.
7 The box-and-whisker plots at right
Summer
show the average daily sales of cold
drinks at the school canteen in summer
and winter. Winter
a Calculate the range of sales in
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Daily sales
both summer and winter. of cold
drinks
b Calculate the interquartile range
of the sales in both summer and
winter.
c Comment on the relationship between the two data sets, both in terms of measures of
centre and measures of spread.
8 MC Andrea surveys the age of people at
Movie A
two movies being shown at a local cinema.
The box-and-whisker plot at right shows the Movie B
results.
Which of the following conclusions could 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Age
be drawn based on the above information?
A Movie A attracts an older audience than Movie B.
B Movie B attracts an older audience than Movie A.
C Movie A appeals to a wider age group than Movie B.
D Movie B appeals to a wider age group than Movie A.
9 MC Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
The figures below show the age of the first 10 men and women to finish a marathon.
Men: 28, 34, 25, 36, 25, 35, 22, 23, 40, 24
Women: 19, 27, 20, 26, 30, 18, 28, 25, 28, 22
Which of the following statements is correct?
A The mean age of the men is greater than the mean age of the women.
B The range is greater among the men than among the women.
C The interquartile range is greater among the men than among the women.
D The standard deviation is greater among the men than among the women.

reasoNiNG
10 We12 ■Cory■recorded■his■marks■for■each■test■that■he■did■in■English■and■Science■throughout■the■
year.
English:■ 55,■64,■59,■56,■62,■54,■65,■50
Science:■ 35,■75,■81,■32,■37,■62,■77,■75
a In■which■subject■did■Cory■achieve■the■better■average■mark?
b In■which■subject■was■Cory■more■consistent?■Explain■your■answer.
11 The■police■set■up■two■radar■speed■checks■on■a■back■street■of■Sydney■and■on■a■main■road.■In■
both■places■the■speed■limit■is■60■km/h.■The■results■of■the■fi■rst■10■cars■that■have■their■speed■
checked■are■given■below.
Back■street:■ 60,■62,■58,■55,■59,■56,■65,■70,■61,■64
Main■road:■ 55,■58,■59,■50,■40,■90,■54,■62,■60,■60
a Calculate■the■mean■and■standard■deviation■of■the■readings■taken■at■each■point.
b On■which■road■are■drivers■generally■driving■faster?
c On■which■road■is■the■spread■of■the■reading■taken■greater?■Justify■your■answer.
12 Nathan■and■Timana■are■wingers■in■their■local■rugby■league■team.■The■number■of■tries■they■have■
scored■in■each■season■are■listed■below.
Nathan:■ 25,■23,■13,■36,■1,■8,■0,■9,■16,■20
Timana:■ 5,■10,■12,■14,■18,■11,■8,■14,■12,■19
a Calculate■the■mean■number■of■tries■scored■by■each■player.
b What■is■the■range■of■tries■scored■by■each■player?
c What■is■the■interquartile■range■of■tries■scored■by■each■player?
d Which■player■would■you■consider■to■be■the■more■consistent■player?■Justify■your■answer.
13 In■boxes■of■Smarties■it■is■advertised■that■there■are■50■Smarties■in■each■box.■Two■machines■
are■used■to■distribute■the■Smarties■into■the■boxes.■The■results■from■a■sample■taken■from■each■
machine■are■shown■in■the■stem-and-leaf■plot■below.
Key:■ 5■■|■■1■=■51■ ■ 5*■■|■■6■=■56
Leaf Stem Leaf
Machine A Machine B
4 4
9■9■8■7■7■6■6■5 4* 5■7■8■9■9■9■9■9■9■9■9
4■3■2■2■2■1■1■1■0■0■0■0■0■0 5 0■0■0■0■0■1■1■1■1■1■2■2■3■
5■5 5* 9
a Display■the■data■from■both■machines■on■parallel■box-and-whisker■plots.
b Calculate■the■mean■and■standard■deviation■of■the■number■of■matches■distributed■from■
both■machines.
c Which■machine■is■the■more■dependable?■Justify■your■answer.

14 a Go to the internet or some other information source and find the maximum daily
temperature in two cities each day over a period of one month.
b Enter the results into a spreadsheet.
c Use the AVERAGE function to find the mean daily temperature in each location.
d Use the STDEV function to find the standard deviation of the daily temperature in each
location.
e Draw a line graph to show the maximum daily reflection  
temperature in each location. What statistical values should be
f Describe the similarities and differences of the used when comparing data sets?
temperature pattern in each location.
13f Skewness
■■ When comparing data sets, it is advisable to consider the ■
10
distribution of the data within the sets.
9
■■ Consider the graph that has been drawn at right. 8
This graph is symmetrical, and we can see that the mean, median 7
Frequency
and mode are all equal to 3. The majority of scores are clustered 6
around the mean. This is an example of a normal distribution. 5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5
Score
■■ The second graph shows a data set in which the scores are not
clustered and there are two modes at either end of the distribution. 10
9
In this example, although it is still symmetrical there are two 8
modes, 1 and 5, while the mean and median are still 3. This graph Frequency 7
can be described as bi-modal. 6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5
Score
Worked Example 13
The figure at right shows the distribution of a set of scores on an exam.

10
a Is the graph symmetrical?
9
b What is the mode? 8
c Can the mean and median be seen from the graph and, if so, what are 7
Frequency
their values? 6
5
4
3
2
1
1617 18 19 20
Score

Think Write
a Consider the columns either side of the middle. If a The graph is symmetrical.
they are equal, then the graph is symmetrical.
b Look for the score or scores that occur the most b Mode = 17 and 19
often.
c Since the graph is symmetrical, the middle score c Mean = 18
will be the mean and the median. Median = 18
■■ When a graph is not symmetrical, the mean and median cannot

10
be easily seen from the graph. 9
■■ Consider the graph at right where the scores are gathered to the
8
lower end of the distribution. 7
Frequency
■■ The way in which the data are gathered to one end of the 6
distribution is called the skewness. 5
■■ When a greater number of scores is distributed at the lower end 4
3
of the distribution, the data are said to be positively skewed.
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Score
■■ Similarly, when most of the scores are distributed at the
upper end, the data are said to be negatively skewed, as ■ 10
9
shown at right.
8
7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Score
Worked Example 14
The distribution at right shows the results of a Mathematics exam at

a certain school. 20
Frequency
16
a What is the modal class?
12
b Describe the skewness of the data set. 8
4
91–100
51–60
61–70
71–80
81–90
Exam score
Think Write
a Locate the modal class by considering which class a Modal class = 81 - 90

occurs most often. Which column is the largest?
b Observe where the majority of data are located. In b The data are negatively skewed.
this case it is at the upper end of the distribution.

■■ There■are■many■reasons■why■a■data■set■may■be■skewed.■In■the■case■of■an■exam,■an■easier■exam■
may■lead■to■negatively■skewed■data■with■more■students■obtaining■a■higher■mark,■while■a■more■
diffi■cult■exam■may■lead■to■more■students■at■the■lower■end■of■the■distribution■and■hence■the■
data■will■be■positively■skewed.
reMeMber
1.■ A■distribution■is■symmetrical■when■the■data■are■equally■distributed■around■the■mean.
2.■ When■the■data■are■symmetrical,■the■median■and■mean■will■both■be■the■middle■score.
3.■ When■the■data■are■clustered■around■the■mean,■the■standard■deviation■is■smaller.
4.■ When■the■majority■of■scores■are■at■the■lower■end■of■a■distribution,■it■is■said■to■be■
positively■skewed.
5.■ When■the■majority■of■scores■are■at■the■upper■end■of■the■distribution,■it■is■said■to■be■
negatively■skewed.
exercise
13f skewness
iNDiviDUal flUeNcy
pathWays 1 We13 ■The■fi■gure■at■right■shows■the■distribution■of■a■set■of■scores.
5
eBook plus a Is■the■graph■symmetrical?
Frequency
4
b What■is■the■mode? 3
Activity 13-F-1
Skewed data
c Can■the■mean■and■median■be■seen■from■the■graph■and,■ 2
doc-5143 if■so,■what■are■their■values? 1
Activity 13-F-2
More skewed data
6 7 8 9 10
Score
doc-5144
Activity 13-F-3 2 Consider■the■distribution■shown■at■right.
Tricky skewed data 30
a Are■the■data■symmetrical?
doc-5145
Frequency
b What■is■the■modal■class? 25
20
c Can■the■mean■and■median■be■seen■from■the■graph■and,■
15
if■so,■what■are■their■values? 10
5
1–10
11–20
21–30
31–40
41–50
Score
3 The■table■below■shows■the■number■of■goals■scored■by■a■soccer■team■throughout■a■season.
Number of goals Frequency

0 5
1 7
2 7
3 7
4 7
5 5
a Show■this■information■in■a■frequency■histogram.
b Are■the■data■symmetrical?
c What■is■the■mode?
d Can■the■mean■and■median■be■seen■for■this■distribution■and,■if■so,■what■are■their■values?■

Understanding
4 WE 14 Consider the distribution shown at right.
a What is the modal class? 70
b Describe the skewness of the distribution. 60
Frequency
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5
Score
5 The table below shows the number of goals scored by a netball team throughout a season.
Number of goals Frequency

1-10 13
11–20 16
21–30 27
31–40 33
41–50 31
a Draw a frequency histogram of the data.
b Describe the data set in terms of its skewness.
6 MC The distribution represented by the graph at right is:
10
A positively skewed
9
B negatively skewed 8
C symmetrical 7
Frequency
D normally distributed 6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Score
Reasoning
7 A movie is shown at 30 cinemas across Sydney on its opening day. The number of people
attending at each cinema is shown in the table below.
Number of people Frequency

1–50 3
51–100 2
101–150 6
151–200 9
201–250 10
a Present the data in a frequency histogram.

b Are the data symmetrical?
c What is the modal class?
d Describe the skewness of the distribution and explain possible reasons for the skewness.

8 Year■10■students■at■Merrigong■High■School■sit■exams■in■Science■and■Maths.■The■results■are■
shown■in■the■table■below.
Number of students Number of students

Mark Science Maths
51–60 ■7 ■6
61–70 10 ■7
71–80 ■8 12
81–90 ■8 ■9
91–100 ■2 ■6
a Is■either■distribution■symmetrical?
b If■either■distribution■is■not■symmetrical,■state■whether■it■is■positively■or■negatively■
skewed.
c Discuss■the■possible■reasons■for■any■skewness.
d State■the■modal■class■of■each■distribution.
e In■which■subject■is■the■standard■deviation■greater?■Explain■your■answer.
9 Draw■an■example■of■a■graph■that■is:
a symmetrical
b positively■skewed■with■one■mode
c negatively■skewed■with■two■modes.
10 A■new■drug■for■the■relief■of■cold■symptoms■has■been■developed.■To■test■the■drug,■40■people■
were■exposed■to■a■cold■virus.■Twenty■patients■were■then■given■a■dose■of■the■drug■while■another■
20■patients■were■given■a■placebo.■(In■
medical■tests■a■control■group■is■often■
given■a■placebo■drug.■The■subjects■in■
this■group■believe■that■they■have■been■
given■the■real■drug■but■in■fact■their■dose■
contains■no■drug■at■all.)■All■participants■
were■then■asked■to■indicate■the■time■
when■they■fi■rst■felt■relief■of■symptoms.■
The■number■of■hours■from■the■time■the■
dose■was■administered■to■the■time■when■
the■patients■fi■rst■felt■relief■of■symptoms■
are■detailed■below.
Group A (drug)
25 29 32 45 18 21 37 42 62 13
42 38 44 42 35 47 62 17 34 32
Group B (placebo)
25 17 35 42 35 28 20 32 38 35
34 32 25 18 22 28 21 24 32 36
a Detail■the■data■on■a■back-to-back■stem-and-leaf■plot.
b Display■the■data■for■both■groups■on■a■box-and-whisker■
plot.
c Make■comparisons■of■the■data.■Use■statistics■in■your■ reflectioN
answer.
eBook plus What is a quick way to
d Does■the■drug■work?■Justify■your■answer.
remember the shape of
Digital doc e What■other■considerations■should■be■taken■into■account■ positively and negatively
WorkSHEET 13.3
when■trying■to■draw■conclusions■from■an■experiment■of■ skewed graphs?
doc-5325
this■type?

Summary
Measures of central tendency
For ungrouped data the following measures of central tendency are used.
■■ The mean is the sum of scores in a given set of data divided by the number of scores in
the set.
∑x
x= is used when a list of scores is given.
n
∑( f × x )
x= is used when a frequency distribution table is given.
n
■■ The median is:
(a) the middle score for an odd number of scores arranged in numerical order
(b) the average of the two middle scores for an even number of scores arranged in numerical
order.
n +1
Its location is determined by finding the score in the th position.
2
■■ The mode is the score that occurs most often in a set of data.
For grouped data the following measures of central tendency are used.
∑( f × x )
■■ The mean is x = , where x represents the midpoint of a class interval.
n
■■ The median can be estimated from the ogive by finding the 50th percentile.
■■ The modal class is given by the class interval with the highest frequency.
Measures of spread
■■ Range = highest score - lowest score or range = Xmax - Xmin
■■ The difference between the upper and lower quartiles is called the interquartile range, IQR.
IQR = Q3 - Q1. The IQR considers the middle 50% of the data.
■■ For continuous data, the quartiles can be estimated from the ogive.
Box-and-whisker plots
■■ A five-point summary is a list consisting of the lowest score, lower quartile, median, upper
quartile and greatest score of a set of data.
■■ A box-and-whisker plot is a graphical representation of a five-point summary and is a
powerful tool to show the spread of data.
■■ The box spans the interquartile range; the median is marked by a vertical line inside the box
and the whiskers extend to the lowest and greatest scores.
■■ Box-and-whisker plots are always drawn to scale.
■■ If an extreme value (outlier) occurs in a set of data, it can be denoted by a small cross; the
whisker is then shortened to the next largest (or smallest) value.
The standard deviation

■■ The standard deviation is the most useful measure of spread.
■■ The standard deviation is found by entering the data set into the statistics function of your
scientific or graphics calculator.
■■ A lower standard deviation indicates that the data are more bunched or clustered while a
higher standard deviation indicates that the data are more spread out.
■■ Standard deviation can be used to measure consistency (a low standard deviation indicating
greater consistency.)
Comparing data sets

■■ When multiple displays are used for two or more sets of data, we can compare and contrast
the data sets and determine whether any relationship exists between them.

■■ A■multiple■stem-and-leaf■plot■allows■for■a■quick■comparison■of■the■data■from■which■we■can■
easily■compare■medians,■ranges■and■interquartile■ranges.
■■ The■summary■statistics■from■two■data■sets■can■be■compared■quickly■on■a■box-and-whisker■
plot.
■■ The■most■commonly■used■comparisons■are■summary■statistics■to■compare■what■is■a■typical■
score■and■what■the■spread■of■the■data■is.
Skewness
■■ A■distribution■is■symmetrical■when■the■data■are■equally■distributed■around■the■mean.
■■ When■the■data■are■symmetrical,■the■median■and■mean■will■both■be■the■middle■score.
■■ When■the■data■are■clustered■around■the■mean,■the■standard■deviation■is■smaller.
■■ When■the■majority■of■scores■are■at■the■lower■end■of■a■distribution,■it■is■said■to■be■positively■
skewed.
■■ When■the■majority■of■scores■are■at■the■upper■end■of■the■distribution,■it■is■said■to■be■negatively■
skewed.

Homework

Chapter review
Fluency Key: 2 | 6 = 26 wpm
Leaf Stem Leaf
1 Find the mean, median and mode for each of the
Year 8 Year 10
following sets of data: 99 0
a 7, 15, 8, 8, 20, 14, 8, 10, 12, 6, 19 9865420 1 79
b Key: 1 | 2 = 12 988642100 2 23689
Stem Leaf 9776410 3 02455788
1 26 86520 4 1258899
2 178 5 03578
3 033468 6 003
4 01159
5 136 a Using a calculator or otherwise, construct
c a pair of parallel box-and-whisker plots to
Score (x) Frequency ( f )
represent the two sets of data.
70 2
b Find the mean, median, range, interquartile
71 6 range and standard deviation of each set.
72 9 c Compare the two distributions, using your
73 7 answers to parts a and b.
74 4 5 Consider the box-and-whisker plot drawn
below.
2 For each of the following data sets, find the range.
a 4, 3, 6, 7, 2, 5, 8, 4, 3
b
x 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Score
f 3 6 7 12 6 7 8
c Key: 1 | 8 = 18
a Find the median.
Stem Leaf b Find the range.
1 7889 c Find the interquartile range.
2 12445777899
3 0001347 6 The following data give the amount of cut meat
(in kg) obtained from each of 20 lambs.
3 For each of the following data sets, find the
interquartile range. 4.5 6.2 5.8 4.7 4.0 3.9 6.2 6.8 5.5 6.1
a 18, 14, 15, 19, 20, 11, 16, 19, 18, 19 5.9 5.8 5.0 4.3 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.3 4.2 4.8
b Key: 9 | 8 = 9.8 a Detail the data on a stem-and-leaf plot. (Use a
Stem Leaf class size of 0.5 kg.)
8 7889 b Prepare a five-point summary of the data.
9 02445777899 c Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
10 0 1 1 1 3 7 Find the standard deviation of each of the following
4 The following back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot data sets.
shows the typing speed in words per minute (wpm) a 58, 12, 98, 45, 60, 34, 42, 71, 90, 66
of 30 Year 8 and Year 10 students. b
x 1 2 3 4 5
f 2 6 12 8 5
c Key: 1 | 4 = 14
Stem Leaf
0 1344578
1 00012245789
2 022357

8 MC The Millers obtained a number of quotes on The standard deviation for this set of data, to
the price of having their home painted. The quotes, the nearest whole number is:
to the nearest hundred dollars, were: A 12
4200 5100 4700 4600 ■ B 14
4800 5000 4700 4900 C 17
D 35
10 Each week, varying amounts of a chemical are
added to a filtering system. The amounts required
(in mL) over the past 20 weeks are shown in the
stem-and-leaf plot below.
Key: 3 | 8 represents 0.38 mL

Stem Leaf
2 1
2 2 2
2 4 4 4 5
2 6 6
2 8 8 9 9
3 0
3 2 2
3 4 5
3 6
3 8
Calculate to 2 decimal places the standard

deviation of the amounts used.
problem solving
11 A sample of 30 people was selected at random

from those attending a local swimming pool. ■
Their ages (in years) were recorded as ■
follows:
19 7 58 41 17 23 62 55
The standard deviation for this set of data, to the 40 37 32 29 21 18 16 10
nearest whole dollar, is: 40 36 33 59 65 68 15 9
A 260 20 29 38 24 10 30
B 278
a Find the mean and the median age of the
C 324
people in this sample.
D 325
b Group the data into class intervals of
9 MC The number of Year 12 students who, during 10 (0–9 etc) and complete the frequency
semester 2, spent all their spare periods studying in distribution table.
the resource centre is shown on the stem-and-leaf c Use the frequency distribution table to estimate
plot below. the mean age.
Key: 2 | 5 = 25 students d Calculate the cumulative frequency and, hence,
Stem Leaf plot the ogive.
0 8 e Estimate the median age from the ogive.
1 f Compare the mean and median of the original
2 5 6 6 7 data in part a with the estimates of the mean
3 0 2 3 6 9 and the median obtained for the grouped data
4 7 9 in parts c and e.
5 6 g Were the estimates good enough? Explain your
6 1 answer.

12 Consider the box-and-whisker plot below which 15 The table below shows the number of cars that
shows the number of weekly sales of houses by two are garaged at each house in a certain street each
real estate agencies. night.
HJ Looker
Number of cars Frequency
Hane & Roarne
1 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of
weekly sales
2 6
a What is the median number of weekly sales for
each real estate agency? 3 2
b Which agency had the greatest range of sales?
c Which agency had the greatest interquartile 4 1
range of sales?
d Which agency performed better? Explain your 5 1
answer.
13 Kloe compares her English and Maths marks. The
results of eight tests in each subject are shown
below.
English: 76, 64, 90, 67, 83, 60, 85, 37
Maths: 80, 56, 92, 84, 65, 58, 55, 62
a Calculate Kloe’s mean mark in each subject.
b Calculate the range of marks in each subject.
c Calculate the standard deviation of marks in
each subject.
d Based on the above data, in which subject
would you say that Kloe has performed more
consistently?
14 Consider the data set represented by the frequency
histogram below.
10
9
8
7
6
Frequency
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5
Score a Show these data in a frequency histogram.
b Are the data positively or negatively skewed?
a Are the data symmetrical? Justify your answer.
b Can the mean and median of the data be seen? 16 Find the mean, median and mode of this data set:
If so, what are their values? 2, 5, 6, 2, 5, 7, 8. Comment on the shape of the
c What is the mode of the data? distribution.

17 Mc ■A■data■set■has■a■mean■of■75■and■a■standard■ 18 Mc ■Note:■There■may■be■more■than■one■correct■
deviation■of■5.■Another■score■of■50■is■added■to■the■ answer.
data■set.■Which■of■the■following■will■occur? A■data■set■has■a■mean■of■60■and■a■standard■
A The■mean■will■increase■and■the■standard■ deviation■of■10.■A■score■of■100■is■added■to■the■
deviation■will■increase. data■set.■This■score■becomes■the■highest■score■in■
B The■mean■will■increase■and■the■standard■ the■data■set.■Which■of■the■following■will■increase?
deviation■will■decrease. A Mean
C The■mean■will■decrease■and■the■standard■ B Standard■deviation■
deviation■will■increase. C Range
D The■mean■will■decrease■and■the■standard■ D Interquartile■range
deviation■will■decrease.
eBook plus
Interactivities
int-2861
int-2859
int-2860

eBook plus activities
Chapter opener 13C Box-and-whisker plots
(page 429)
Digital doc Digital docs (page 447)
•■ Hungry■brain■activity■(doc-5298):■Chapter■13 •■ Activity■13-C-1■(doc-5134):■Constructing■
Are you ready? boxplots
Digital docs(page 430) •■ Activity■13-C-2■(doc-5135):■Boxplots■and■outliers
•■ SkillSHEET■13.1■(doc-5299):■Finding■the■mean■of■a■ •■ Activity■13-C-3■(doc-5136):■Boxplots■with■
small■data■set decimals
•■ SkillSHEET■13.2■(doc-5300):■Finding■the■median■of■ 13D The standard deviation
a■small■data■set
Digital docs
•■ SkillSHEET■13.3■(doc-5301):■Finding■the■mode■of■a■
small■data■set •■ Activity■13-D-1■(doc-5137):■Standard■deviation■
•■ SkillSHEET■13.4■(doc-5302):■Finding■the■mean,■ (page 451)
median■and■mode■from■a■stem-and-leaf■plot •■ Activity■13-D-2■(doc-5138):■Practice■with■standard■
•■ SkillSHEET■13.5■(doc-5303):■Presenting■data■in■a■ deviation■(page 451)
frequency■distribution■table •■ Activity■13-D-3■(doc-5139):■Standard■deviation■in■
•■ SkillSHEET■13.6■(doc-5304):■Drawing■statistical■ depth■(page 451)
graphs •■ WorkSHEET■13.2■(doc-5318):■Univariate■data■II■
(page 453)
13E Comparing data sets
Digital docs
Interactivity (page 454)
•■ Activity■13-A-1■(doc-5128):■Mean,■median■and■
mode■(page 435) •■ Parallel■boxplots■(int-2788)
•■ Activity■13-A-2■(doc-5129):■Practice■with■mean,■
median■and■mode■(page 435) •■ Activity■13-E-1■(doc-5140):■Comparing■data■1
•■ Activity■13-A-3■(doc-5130):■Mean,■median■and■ •■ Activity■13-E-2■(doc-5141):■Comparing■data■2
mode■in■depth■(page 435) •■ Activity■13-E-3■(doc-5142):■Comparing■data■3
•■ SkillSHEET■13.1■(doc-5299):■Finding■the■mean■of■a■ 13F Skewness
small■data■set■(page 435) Digital docs
•■ SkillSHEET■13.2■(doc-5300):■Finding■the■median■of■ •■ Activity■13-F-1■(doc-5143):■Skewed■data■(page 461)
a■small■data■set■(page 436) •■ Activity■13-F-2■(doc-5144):■More■skewed■data■
•■ SkillSHEET■13.3■(doc-5301):■Finding■the■mode■of■a■ (page 461)
small■data■set■(page 436) •■ Activity■13-F-3■(doc-5145):■Tricky■skewed■data■
•■ SkillSHEET■13.4■(doc-5302):■Finding■the■mean,■ (page 461)
median■and■mode■from■a■stem-and-leaf■plot■ •■ WorkSHEET■13.3■(doc-5325):■Univariate■data■III■
(page 436) (page 463)
•■ SkillSHEET■13.5■(doc-5303):■Presenting■data■in■a■
frequency■distribution■table■(page 437) Chapter review
•■ SkillSHEET■13.6■(doc-5304):■Drawing■statistical■ Interactivities (page 468)
graphs■(page 438) •■ Test■yourself■Chapter■13■(int-2861):■Take■the■end-of-
13B Measures of spread chapter■test■to■test■your■progress
•■ Word■search■Chapter■13■(int-2859):■an■interactive■
Digital docs
word■search■involving■words■associated■with■this■
•■ Activity■13-B-1■(doc-5131):■Range■and■quartiles■ chapter
(page 442) •■ Crossword■Chapter■13■(int-2860):■an■interactive■
•■ Activity■13-B-2■(doc-5132):■Practice■with■range■and■ crossword■using■the■defi■nitions■associated■with■the■
quartiles■(page 442) chapter
•■ Activity■13-B-3■(doc-5133):■Range■and■quartiles■in■
depth■(page 442) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
•■ WorkSHEET■13.1■(doc-5311):■Univariate■data■I■

stAtistiCs AND probAbility • DAtA represeNtAtioN AND iNterpretAtioN
14
14a Identifying related pairs of variables
14b Graphing bivariate data
14c Scatterplots
WhAt Do yoU kNoW ?

1 List what you know about data that
shows relationships between two
variables (such as height and mass data
for a group of people). Create a concept
map to show your list.
bivariate data 3 As a class, create a large concept map

data of this type.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 14
doc-5326
opeNiNg QUestioN
If you graphed the height against the

mass for all the people in this group,
would the result be a straight line?
Are you ready?

eBook plus Distinguishing qualitative from quantitative data

1 State■whether■the■following■pieces■of■data■are■numerical■or■non-numerical.
Digital doc
a The■monthly■temperatures
SkillSHEET 14.1
doc-5327 b The■brands■of■soft■drinks
c The■types■of■dogs
d The■balance■in■a■bank■account
eBook plus Distinguishing discrete from continuous data

2 State■whether■the■following■pieces■of■data■are■discrete■or■continuous.
Digital doc
a The■daily■temperature
SkillSHEET 14.2
doc-5328 b Your■height
c The■time■taken■to■swim■100■■m
d The■number■of■children■in■your■family
eBook plus Determining independent and dependent variables

3 For■each■of■the■following,■state■the■independent■and■the■dependent■variables.
Digital doc
a The■number■of■kilograms■of■potatoes■purchased■and■the■total■cost.
SkillSHEET 14.3
doc-5329 b The■number■of■swimmers■in■a■public■swimming■pool■and■the■temperature■for■that■day.
c The■height■and■age■of■a■student.
eBook plus Reading scales (how much is each interval worth?)

4 For■the■scales■shown,■how■much■is■each■interval■worth?
Digital doc
a 20 30
SkillSHEET 14.4
doc-5330
b 5 6
eBook plus Reading a column graph
Digital doc Cost of grapes (per kg) between January and May
SkillSHEET 14.5
4.40
doc-5331
4.20
4.00
3.80
Price ($)
3.60
3.40
3.20
3.00
January February March April May
Month
5 Use■the■above■column■graph■to■answer■the■following■questions.
a What■was■the■price■of■grapes■in■March?
b In■which■month■did■grapes■cost■the■least?
c During■how■many■months■was■the■cost■of■grapes■recorded?
d In■which■month■was■the■cost■of■grapes■the■highest,■and■what■was■this■cost?

eBook plus Reading line graphs

6 The■line■graph■at■right■shows■the■height■ Increase in Timmy’s height
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 14.6
of■a■child■(Timmy)■over■5■years. 170 between 2005 and 2010
doc-5332 a How■tall■was■Timmy■at■the■start■of■the■
160
measurement■period?
b How■much■did■Timmy■grow■in■the■ 150
Height (cm)
fi■rst■year? 140
c How■much■did■Timmy■grow■over■the■
130
fi■ve■years?
d How■many■years■did■it■take■for■Timmy■ 120
to■grow■10■■cm? 110
100
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Years
eBook plus Plotting coordinate points
7 State■the■size■and■the■direction■of■the■moves■from■the■origin■of■a■Cartesian■plane■needed■to■
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 14.7
locate■each■of■the■following■points.
doc-5333 a A(3,■2)
b B(5,■0)
c C(0,■7)
d D(2.5,■1.5)
Chapter 14 bivariate data 473

statistics AND probability • Data representation and interpretation
14A Identifying related pairs of variables

Univariate and bivariate data
■■ Univariate data have only one variable for each piece of data.
This is the type of data we have considered so far. For example, we have looked at data
like the heights of a group of students and the number of children per family in a group of
families.
■■ Bivariate data have pairs of variables for each piece of data; for example, a person’s height
and weight.
Variables
■■ Variables (like height and weight) are shown as symbols, that can take the place of a range of
numbers or pieces of data. For example, we might let the height of a tree be represented by
the variable h, or the length of the shadow of the tree by the variable l.
■■ By using variables and their symbols in this way, we are able to write relationships between
variables in terms of an equation.
■■ Data can be qualitative (nominal, ordinal) or quantitative (discrete, continuous). In this
chapter we deal mainly with quantitative data.
Worked Example 1
Classify the following types of data.

a Time b Shoe size c Eye colour
Think Write
a Time can be measured in various units, such as years, a Time measurements give quantitative,
days, minutes and seconds. It is recorded in numbers; continuous data.
that is, how many there are of these units (and any of
their fractions, so it is continuous).
b Shoes come only in set sizes. You cannot get sizes in b Shoe sizes are quantitative, discrete
between these. data.
c Eye colour does not measure how much or how many. It c Eye colour is qualitative, nominal data.
represents a description of the colour of the eye.
Dependent and independent variables

■■ Bivariate data consist of two variables.
■■ One variable is generally the dependent variable, and the other the independent variable.
■■ The dependent variable, as the name suggests, is the one whose value depends on the other
variable. The independent variable takes on values that do not depend on the value of the
other variable.
■■ When data are expressed in the form of a table, generally the independent variable is written
in the first row or the first column.
■■ The independent variable is placed on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis.
Worked Example 2
State the dependent and the independent variable in each of the following pairs of data.
a Age and height of a child
b Cost of bus fare and distance travelled in the bus
c Number of people at a football match and the number of drinks sold there.

Think Write
a Generally, a child grows taller with increasing a Height is the dependent variable, and age the
age (height depends on age). independent variable.
b The fare is more when you travel further (fare b Cost is the dependent variable, and distance the
depends on distance). independent variable.
c More drinks will be sold if more people are c Number of drinks sold is the dependent variable,
there (number of drinks sold depends on while number of people at the match is the
number of people). independent variable.
Identifying a relationship
■■ The options we have when considering two variables are as follows.
•• There is a relationship between them.
•• There is no relationship between them.
■■ If there is a relationship, it can be classified as being strong, moderate or weak. The
relationship can also be regarded as positive or negative.
•• If one variable increases as the other increases, the relationship is positive.
•• If one variable increases as the other decreases, the relationship is negative.
Worked Example 3
For each of the following pairs of variables, indicate:

i whether you think there is a relationship between them, and if so
ii whether the relationship is positive or negative, and
iii the strength of the relationship.
a A person’s height (h) and mass (m)
b The length of a song (l ) and its position on a CD ( p)
c The speed of travel (s) and the time taken to reach a destination (t).
Think Write
a i Generally as a person grows taller, their a There is a relationship between h and m.

mass changes.
ii With increasing height, generally mass also The relationship is positive.
increases.
iii This change tends to be quite consistent. The relationship is quite strong.
b Short songs are not put at the beginning, and b There is no relationship between the l and p.
long songs at the end. There is no particular
order to the songs.
c i As speed changes, the time taken to reach a c There is a relationship between s and t.
destination also changes.
ii With a faster speed it takes less time to The relationship is negative.
reach a destination.
iii The change tends to be consistent since There is a strong negative relationship.
travelling at twice the speed will halve the
time.
Chapter 14 Bivariate data 475

reMeMber
1.■ Data■can■be■qualitative■(nominal,■ordinal)■or■quantitative■(discrete,■continuous).
2.■ The■dependent■variable■is■the■one■whose■value■depends■on■the■other■variable.■The■
independent■variable■takes■on■values■which■do■not■depend■on■the■value■of■the■other■
variable.■The■independent■variable■is■recorded■in■the■fi■rst■row■or■column■of■a■table,■and■
placed■on■the■x-axis■of■a■graph.
3.■ If■there■is■a■relationship■between■two■variables:
•■ it■can■be■positive■or■negative
•■ it■can■be■strong,■moderate■or■weak.
exerCise
14A Identifying related pairs of variables
iNDiViDUAl flUeNCy
pAthWAys
1 We1 ■Classify■the■following■types■of■data,■using■two■words■from■the■following:■qualitative,■
eBook plus quantitative,■nominal,■ordinal,■discrete■and■continuous.
a The■number■of■children■in■your■school
Activity 14-A-1
Pairs of variables b The■types■of■bicycles■students■ride■to■school
doc-5146 c The■heights■of■students■in■your■class
Activity 14-A-2 d The■mass■of■your■textbooks
More pairs of
variables e The■languages■you■speak■at■home
doc-5147 f The■time■it■takes■you■to■travel■to■school
Activity 14-A-3 g The■number■of■cousins■each■person■in■your■class■has
Advanced pairs of
h The■time■it■takes■you■to■run■100■■m.
variables
doc-5148 2 Explain■the■difference■between■discrete■and■continuous■data.
3 Explain■whether■data■can■be:
a nominal■and■discrete
b ordinal■and■continuous.
4 We2 ■State■the■dependent■and■the■independent■variable■in■each■of■the■following■pairs■of■
data.
a Time■spent■travelling■to■school■and■distance■to■school
b The■heart■rate■of■a■runner■and■the■running■speed
c The■value■of■a■CD■collection■and■the■number■of■CDs■in■the■collection
d The■amount■of■computer■memory■used■by■a■fi■le■and■the■length■of■the■fi■le
e The■cost■of■a■second-hand■car■and■the■age■of■the■car.
5 We3 ■For■each■of■the■following■pairs■of■variables,■indicate:
i whether■you■think■there■is■a■relationship■between■them■and,■if■so,
ii whether■the■relationship■is■positive■or■negative,■and
iii the■strength■of■the■relationship.
a Length■of■your■foot■(f )■and■length■of■your■hair■(h)
b Cost■of■a■TV■set■(c)■and■the■size■of■its■screen■(s)
c Length■of■a■race■(l)■and■the■time■taken■(t)
d Size■of■an■animal’s■paw■(p)■and■the■size■of■the■animal■(a)
e Height■of■a■person■(h)■and■their■arm■span■(a)
f Time■it■takes■a■train■to■travel■from■A■to■B■(t)■and■the■time■it■takes■a■bus■to■travel■from■
A■to■B■(b).

Understanding
6 It was a hot day at the beach. The lifesavers
noticed there was an increase of 20% in the
number of people seeking help with
sunburn. On the same day, the café also
recorded an increase of 20% in their
ice-cream sales. Since both of these
variables increased, explain whether there is
a relationship between the two, and if so,
the strength of the relationship.
reflection  
How can we know if there
is a relationship between
two variables?
14B Graphing bivariate data

■■ When a set of bivariate data is collected, it is generally first organised into a table.
■■ A graph is then drawn to display the trends in the data.
■■ This visual representation shows at a glance whether there is a relationship between the
two variables and, if so, the strength of the relationship.
Drawing column graphs from data tables

■■ When we dealt previously with column graphs for univariate data, we used qualitative data
with a frequency distribution table.
■■ When we draw column graphs from bivariate data, both variables are quantitative data.
■■ As mentioned previously, when drawing a graph we must make sure we place the independent
variable on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis.
Worked Example 4
1
This table shows data collected by measuring the length of the shadow of a stick every 2 hour from
noon until 4.00 pm.
Time (t) Length of shadow (l) (cm)
12.00 pm 20
12.30 pm 32
1.00 pm 48
1.30 pm 60
2.00 pm 76
2.30 pm 88
3.00 pm 100
3.30 pm 112
4.00 pm 128
Draw a column graph to display the data.

Think Write/DRAW
1 The length of the shadow Draw up axes with time on the x-axis and length of shadow on
depends on the time of day, so the y-axis.
time is the independent variable,
so it must be placed on the
x-axis. Choose a suitable scale.
2 Draw columns for each reading. Shadow length over time
130
120
110
Length of shadow (cm)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12.00 12.30 1.00 1.30 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.30 4.00
Noon pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm
Time
Using a column graph to create a scatterplot

■■ Once a column graph has been drawn, the height of each column can be used to plot points of
the bivariate data.
■■ These types of graphs are called scatterplots.
Worked Example 5
a Use the column graph showing length of a shadow over time from Worked example 4 to create a
scatterplot of the bivariate data.
b Comment on the trend shown by the scatterplot.
Think Write/DRAW
a 1 Place dots at the tops of a Shadow length over time

130
the columns to represent
120
the length of the shadow 110
at that time.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12.00 12.30 1.00 1.30 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.30 4.00
Time

2 Erase the columns, Shadow length over time

130
leaving the dots on the
120
graph. 110

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12.00 12.30 1.00 1.30 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.30 4.00
Time
b Examine the points on the b The scatterplot shows a strong, positive relationship between the
graph, looking for trends. As the time of the reading and the length of the shadow.
time increases, the length of the
shadow increases.
■■ Note that this trend applies only to the data shown. It is obvious that the trend in this case ■
will not continue much longer, as the sun will soon set and there will be no shadow. Would ■
the trend be the same if the experiment was conducted in the morning? It is important to
understand that the trends of data collected from an experiment may change under different
circumstances.
■■ Even when we do not know what the particular variables represent, we can still determine the
type of relationship between them.
Worked Example 6
This column graph shows the relationship between two variables, p and m.
a Produce a scatterplot from the column graph.
b Comment on the trend shown by the scatterplot.
m
0
p

Think Write/DRAW
a Place dots at the tops of a

the columns then erase the
columns, leaving the dots on
the graph.
m 0
p
b Examine the points on the b The scatterplot shows a negative relationship. As the value of p
graph, looking for trends. increases, the value of m generally decreases. The points do not
As the value of p increases, all lie on a straight line. The negative relationship is fairly strong.
the value of m generally
decreases.
■■ When working with bivariate data, it is a good idea to examine the data and consider the
questions that could be posed about the data.
Worked Example 7
Consider this scatterplot, which shows the number of sick days taken
Number of sick days
in a year by 10 employees, and relates this to the number of children

12
they have. 8
Write two questions which an employer may be hoping to answer from 4
this data. 0
0 2 4 6
Number of children
Think Write
Think of questions that an Do those employees with more children have more sick days?
employer would like to know If the staff allocation is 5 sick days a year, which staff members
about the number of sick days are taking more than their allocation?
taken by her staff. Which employees need assistance with regard to the number of
sick days they take?
remember
1. Scatterplots can be drawn from column graphs.

2. The position of the points on a scatterplot indicates the relationship between the two
variables.
3. Examine collected bivariate data and consider the questions that could be answered.

exerCise
14b graphing bivariate data
iNDiViDUAl flUeNCy
pAthWAys 1 We 4 ■This■table■shows■the■number■of■goals■scored■in■a■ball■game.
eBook plus
Time after start (min) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Activity 14-B-1
Scatterplots
Number of goals 0 ■5 12 17 19 25 28 30 35 38 ■ 42
doc-5149 Draw■a■column■graph■to■display■the■data.
Activity 14-B-2
2 We 5 ■a■ Use■the■column■graph■you■created■in■Question■1■to■create■a■scatterplot.
More scatterplots
doc-5150 b Comment■on■the■trend■shown■by■the■scatterplot.
Activity 14-B-3 3 We 6 ■This■column■graph■shows■the■relationship■between■two■variables■r■and■b.
Advanced
scatterplots
doc-5151 70
60
50
40
b
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
r
a Produce■a■scatterplot■from■the■column■graph.
b Comment■on■the■trend■shown■by■the■scatterplot.
4 We 7 ■Write■one■question■that■could■be■asked■for■each■of■the■following■sets■of■bivariate■
data■collected.
a Length■of■newborn■baby■and■height■of■father
b Length■of■formal■education■and■income■in■a■job
c Age■and■exercise■performed.
UNDerstANDiNg
5 Each■point■on■the■scatterplot■at■right■shows■the■time■
(in■weeks)■spent■by■a■person■on■a■healthy■diet■and■the■
Loss in mass (kg)
corresponding■mass■lost■(in■kg).
Study■the■scatterplot■and■state■whether■each■of■the■
following■is■true■or■false.
a The■number■of■weeks■that■the■person■stays■on■a■diet■is■
the■independent■variable.
b The■y-coordinates■of■the■points■represent■the■time■
Number of weeks
spent■by■a■person■on■a■diet.
c There■is■evidence■to■suggest■that■the■longer■the■person■
stays■on■a■diet,■the■greater■the■loss■in■mass.
d The■time■spent■on■a■diet■is■the■only■factor■that■
contributes■to■the■loss■in■mass.

e The relationship between

the number of weeks on ■
the diet and the number ■
of kilograms lost is ■
positive.
6 MC The scatterplot that best
represents the relationship between
the amount of water consumed
daily by a certain household for a
number of days in summer and the
daily temperature is:
a
Temperature (èC)
Water usage (L)
b
Water usage (L)
Temperature (èC)
c d e
Temperature (èC)
Water usage (L)
Water usage (L)
Temperature (èC) Water usage (L) Temperature (èC)
7 MC The scatterplot at right shows the number

1300
of sides and the sum of interior angles for a 1200
number of polygons.■ 1100
Which of the following statements is not
Sum of angles (è)
1000
true? 900
a The relationship between the number of 800
700
sides and the angle sum of the polygon is 600
perfectly linear. 500
b The increase in the number of sides causes 400
the increase in the size of the angle sum. 300
c The number of sides depends on the sum 200
of the angles. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d The angle sum is the dependent variable. Number of sides
e The relationship between the two variables
is positive.

8 MC ■After■studying■a■non-linear■scatterplot,■it■was■concluded■that■there■was■evidence■that■the■
greater■the■level■of■one■variable,■the■smaller■the■level■of■the■other■variable.■The■scatterplot■must■
have■shown■a:
a strong,■positive■relationship b strong,■negative■relationship
c moderate,■positive■relationship d moderate,■negative■relationship
e weak,■positive■relationship.
9 MC ■In■which■of■the■following■is■no■relationship■evident■between■the■variables?
a y b y c y
x
x x
d y e y
x x
eBook plus
10 Give■an■example■of■a■situation■where■the■scatterplot■may■look■like■the■ones■below.
a y b y
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 14.1
doc-5334
0 x 0 x
refleCtioN
Why is a scatterplot an important
tool for analysing data?
14C scatterplots
■■ An■ideal■way■to■determine■whether■there■is■a■relationship■between■two■variables■is■through■
eBook plus
the■use■of■scatterplots.■
Interactivity ■■ As■we■saw,■the■position■of■the■points■shows■the■direction■and■strength■of■the■relationship.■
Scatterplots ■■ The■direction■shows■whether■the■relationship■is■positive■or■negative,■while■the■strength■
int-2789
indicates■whether■the■relationship■is■strong,■medium■or■weak.■
Consider■two■variables,■x■and■y.
y y y
x x x
Perfectly linear Strong positive Moderate positive
positive relationship relationship relationship

y y
x x
Weak positive No relationship
relationship
The scattering of the points can also slope in a y y
downwards direction, indicating a negative
relationship.
The first graph shows a perfectly linear negative
relationship, while the second one shows a
moderate negative relationship. x x
Worked Example 8
Data were collected to investigate whether the outside
temperature is related to the number of people preferring to
spend time in a recreation room at an island resort.
Temperature (èC) 25 33 30 22 15 18 27 22 28 20
People in room 26 18 19 31 46 40 20 36 31 42
a Propose a question that this set of data might be able
to answer.
b Draw a scatterplot of the data.
c Describe the trend shown by the scatterplot.
d What advice would you give the management regarding the use of the room?
Think Write/DRAW
a Look at the data and consider a a Does the outside temperature have an influence on the number
question it could answer. of people spending time in the recreation room?
b The temperature outside is the b Outside temperature and
independent variable, so it should people in room
50
be placed on the x-axis. Choose
a suitable scale for both axes and
People in room
40
plot the points.
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50
Temperature outside (èC)
c Look at the direction and strength c The general trend is a negative one. As the temperature
of the plotted points. increases, fewer people spend time in the recreation room. The
relationship between the two variables is moderate to strong.
d Provide useful tips for the d It seems that as the temperature increases, more people prefer to
management. spend their time outside. A suggestion could then be to provide
more activities outside for the guests to enjoy at these times.

Making predictions
■■ After a scatterplot has been drawn, it is possible to draw a straight line which is a reasonable
estimation of the trend of the data.
■■ Unless we have a perfectly linear relationship, there is no single straight line that would go
through all the points.
■■ A line can be drawm which is as close as possible to all the data points.
■■ This line is called the line of best fit and is positioned by eye so that there is an equal number
of points above and below the line. Alternative methods for fitting this line will be explained
in chapter 23.
■■ Using this line, we are then able to make predictions about values of data within the data set.
■■ It is important to remember that predictions made outside the data set are not considered
reliable, as the trend may not continue in the same manner.
■■ The data graphed in the previous worked example were quantitative and discrete on the
y-axis, while the x-axis data were quantitative and continuous.
■■ Since both axes represent quantitative data, we can use the line of best fit to make predictions
about the temperature of the room with a particular number of people present, or the number
of people present when the temperature was at a particular value.
■■ It must be remembered that values predicted in this way are simply estimations, unless the
relationship is perfectly linear.
Worked Example 9
Consider the scatterplot from Worked example 8. Outside temperature and

a Draw the line of best fit. people in room
50
b Use the line of best fit to predict:
i the temperature outside when 22 people are in the
People in room
40
room
ii the number of people in the room when the outside 30
temperature is 17 èC
iii the number of people in the room when the outside 20
temperature is 50 èC.
c Comment on your answers from part b. 10
0
10 20 30 40 50
Think Write/DRAW
a Align a ruler to draw a a Outside temperature and
line with roughly the same people in room
50
number of points above and
below the line. The line does
People in room
40
not necessarily have to pass
Line of best fit
through any of the points. 30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50

b Note that these answers are only b Outside temperature and

estimates. people in room
50
i Rule a horizontal line from
42
22 on the y-axis to meet the
People in room
40
line of best fit. From that
Line of best fit
point, draw a line vertically 30
to the x-axis and read this (i) 22
value. 20
ii Rule a vertical line from (ii) 17èC
17 èC on the x-axis to meet 10
31èC
the line of best fit. From
that point, draw a line 0
10 20 30 40 50
horizontally to the y-axis Temperature outside (èC)
and read this value. Note
that because this variable i When 22 people are in the room, the outside temperature is
represents discrete data, the about 31 èC.
answer must be rounded to ii When the temperature is 17 èC outside, about 42 people are
the nearest whole number, if in the room.
necessary. iii A temperature of 50 èC is probably not possible. Even if a
iii It seems not possible to draw line could be drawn from 50 èC to the line of best fit, the
a line from 50 èC to the line answer would not be appropriate.
of best fit (even if the line
was extended).
c Examine the answers for c The answers to parts i and ii are estimates only. Part iii sends a
appropriateness. warning to always check for the appropriateness of an answer.
■■ One of our previous worked examples looked at the length of the shadow of a stick during
part of the day. Both of these data values are quantitative and continuous. In this case we
can therefore use the line of best fit to make predictions from one variable to the other for a
continuous set of values. After all, the shadow length doesn’t just jump from one recorded
value to the next; it grows continuously in length, even while recording is not taking place.
Worked Example 10
This scatterplot from Worked

130 Shadow length over time
example 5 shows the recorded shadow
length of a stick over a time period 120
110
from noon to 4 pm.
100
a Draw the line of best fit.
90
b Use this line to predict: 80
i the length of the shadow at 70
2.15 pm. 60
ii the time when the shadow length 50
would be 50 cm. 40
iii the time when there is no shadow. 30
c Comment on your answers to part b. 20
10
0
Noon 12.30 1.00 1.30 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.30 4.00
pm pm pm pm pm pm pm pm
Time

Think Write/Draw
a Draw a line that is as close as a 130 Shadow length over time

possible to all the points. 120
110

100
90
80
70 Line of
best fit
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Noon 12.30 1.00 1.30 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.30 4.00
Time
b i Locate the position of b Shadow length over time

130
2.15 pm on the x-axis. 120
(It is half way between 2 pm 110
and 2.30 pm.) From here, draw 100

a vertical line until it meets the 90 81 cm Line of
line of best fit. From this point, 80 best fit
draw a horizontal line to the 70
60
y-axis. Read the shadow length (ii) 50 cm
50
on the y-axis. (Note that since 40
length is a continuous data (i) 2.15 pm
30
variable, the answer does not 20 1.06 pm
have to be a whole number.) 10
0
Noon 12.30 1.00 1.30 2.00 2.30 3.00 3.30 4.00
Time
ii Locate 50 cm on the y-axis. i The shadow is about 81 cm long at 2.15 pm.
From here, draw a horizontal ii The shadow length would be 50 cm at about 1.06 pm.
line until it meets the line of
best fit. From this point, draw
a vertical line to the x-axis.
Read the time on the x-axis.
(Note that since time is a
continuous data variable, the
answer does not have to be a
whole number.)
iii Look at the graph to see when iii At no time within the range of the data is there no shadow.
the shadow length is 0.
c Examine the answers to part b c The answers to parts i and ii are estimated answers. You would
and make a comment. think that there would be no shadow at noon. However, this is
only the case when the sun is directly overhead. This depends on
the season and on latitude.

■■ In■providing■answers■for■questions■posed■about■bivariate■data,■it■is■important■to■be■able■to■
justify■why■a■particular■conclusion■is■reached.■It■is■not■advisable■to■simply■state■an■answer■
without■also■providing■a■reason.
reMeMber
1.■ Scatterplots■can■be■used■to■observe■the■direction■and■strength■of■a■relationship.
2.■ A■line■of■best■fi■t■can■be■drawn■by■eye,■with■approximately■an■equal■number■of■points■
above■and■below■the■line.
3.■ Predictions■made■from■the■line■of■best■fi■t■within■the■data■set■are■considered■reliable.■
Those■made■beyond■the■data■set■are■not■reliable.
exerCise
14C scatterplots
iNDiViDUAl flUeNCy
pAthWAys 1 We8 ■The■table■below■shows■the■marks■obtained■by■nine■students■in■English■and■History.
eBook plus
English 55 20 27 33 73 18 37 51 79
Activity 14-C-1
Types of History 72 37 53 74 73 44 59 55 84
relationships
doc-5152
Activity 14-C-2 a Draw■a■scatterplot■of■the■data.
More relationships b Describe■the■trend■shown■by■the■scatterplot.
doc-5153 2 The■table■below■shows■the■daily■temperature■and■the■number■of■hot■pies■sold■at■the■school■
Activity 14-C-3
canteen.
Advanced
relationships
doc-5154 Temperature (èC) 24 32 28 23 16 ■ 14 26 20 29 21
No. of pies sold 56 20 24 60 84 120 70 95 36 63
a Draw■a■scatterplot■of■the■data.
b Describe■the■trend■shown■by■the■scatterplot.
c What■advice■could■you■give■the■managers■of■the■school■canteen?■
3 Draw■a■line■of■best■fi■t■for■the■following■scatterplots,■which■show■relationships■between■the■
variables■x■and■y.■Remember■to■try■to■place■an■approximately■equal■number■of■points■above■
and■below■the■line.
a y b y c y
x x x
d y e y
x x

4 WE9 Use the given scatterplot and line of best y

fit to predict: 70
a the value of y when x = 45 60
50
b the value of x when y = 15.
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x
5 Analyse the graph at right and use the line of y
best fit to predict: 600
a the value of y when the value of x is: 500
i 7 ii 22 iii 36 400
b the value of x when the value of y is: 300
200
i 120 ii 260 iii 480 100
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 x
6 WE 10 A random sample of ten Year 10 students who have part-time jobs was selected. Each
student was asked to state his/her average number of hours worked per week and average
weekly earnings (to the nearest dollar). The results are summarised in the table below.
Hours worked 4 8 15 18 10 5 12 16 14 6
Weekly earnings ($) 23 47 93 122 56 33 74 110 78 35
a Draw a scatterplot of the data.
b Draw the line of best fit.
c Use your line of best fit to determine:
i how many hours per week would
return $100
ii how much would be earned by
working 9 hours per week
iii the average rate of pay for the students.
7 The data in this table show the distance
travelled by 10 cars, and the amount of fuel
(to the nearest litre) used for their journeys.
Distance travelled (km) 52 36 83 12 44 67 74 23 56 95
Petrol used (L) 7 5 9 2 7 9 12 3 8 14
a Construct a scatterplot of the data.
b Draw the line of best fit.
c Use your line of best fit to determine:
i how much petrol would be used on a 60-km journey
ii how far a car could travel on 10 L of petrol
iii the average petrol consumption in km/L.
Understanding
8 As a part of her project Rachel is growing a crystal. Every day she measures the crystal’s mass
using special laboratory scales and notes it in her book. The table below shows the results of
her experiment.
Day number 1 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 11 12 15 16
Mass (g) 2.5 3.7 4.2 5.0 6.1 8.4 8.9 11.2 11.6 12.8 16.1 17.3

Measurements■on■days■6,■7,■13■
and■14■are■missing,■since■these■
were■2■consecutive■weekends■
and,■hence,■Rachel■did■not■have■a■
chance■to■measure■her■crystal,■
which■is■kept■in■the■school■
laboratory.
a Construct■a■scatterplot■of■the■
data,■and■draw■in■the■line■of■
best■fi■t.
b For■her■report,■Rachel■would■
like■to■fi■ll■in■the■missing■
measurements■for■days■
6,■7,■13■and■14.■Give■
an■estimate■of■these■
measurements.
c Rachel■fell■sick■and■couldn’t■
record■the■mass■of■the■crystal■
for■the■last■two■days■of■the■
experiment■(days■17■and■18).■
What■would■you■predict■these■
masses■to■be?
d What■is■the■average■daily■
increase■in■mass■of■the■
crystal?
reAsoNiNg
9 Consider■this■scatterplot■and■line■of■best■fi■t.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x
The■line■of■best■fi■t■is■used■to■predict■values■of■y■when■x■=■15,■x■=■40■and■when■x■=■60.■
Comment■on■these■predictions.
eBook plus
10 This■scatterplot■is■used■to■predict■the■value■of■y■when■x■=■300.
y
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 14.2 500
doc-5335
400
300
200 refleCtioN
100 Since lines of best fit are not really
0 accurate, why should we use them
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 x at all?
Comment■on■the■prediction

summary
Identifying related pairs of variables
■■ Data■can■be■qualitative■(nominal,■ordinal)■or■quantitative■(discrete,■continuous).
■■ The■dependent■variable■is■the■one■whose■value■depends■on■the■other■variable.■The■
independent■variable■takes■on■values■which■do■not■depend■on■the■value■of■the■other■variable.■
The■independent■variable■is■recorded■in■the■fi■rst■row■or■column■of■a■table,■and■placed■on■the■
x-axis■of■a■graph.
■■ If■there■is■a■relationship■between■two■variables:
•■ it■can■be■positive■or■negative
•■ it■can■be■strong,■moderate■or■weak.
Graphing bivariate data

■■ Scatterplots■can■be■drawn■from■column■graphs.
■■ The■position■of■the■points■on■a■scatterplot■indicates■the■relationship■between■the■two■
variables.
■■ Examine■collected■bivariate■data■and■consider■the■questions■that■could■be■answered.
Scatterplots
■■ Scatterplots■can■be■used■to■observe■the■direction■and■strength■of■a■relationship.
■■ A■line■of■best■fi■t■can■be■drawn■by■eye,■with■approximately■an■equal■number■of■points■above■
and■below■the■line.
■■ Predictions■made■from■the■line■of■best■fi■t■within■the■data■set■are■considered■reliable.■Those■
made■beyond■the■data■set■are■not■reliable.
MaPPING YOUR UNdeRSTaNdING

Homework
book your■Maths Quest 10 Homework Book?

Chapter review
flUeNCy 5 This■table■shows■the■maximum■and■minimum■daily■
temperatures■in■a■city■over■a■one-week■period.
1 MC ■The■classifi■cation■of■data■describing■the■
number■of■iPods■sold■during■the■year■is: Day ■1 ■2 ■3 ■4 5 ■6 7
a quantitative,■discrete.
b qualitative,■nominal. Maximum (èC) 12 13 10 11 9 10 8
c qualitative,■ordinal.
Minimum (èC) ■3 ■3 ■2 ■1 0 ■4 2
d quantitative,■continuous.
e none■of■these.
Use■the■table■to■answer■the■following■questions.
2 MC ■The■classifi■cation■of■data■which■describe■a■ a What■was■the■maximum■temperature■on■day■3?
person’s■mass■is: b Which■day■had■the■lowest■minimum■
a quantitative,■discrete. temperature?
b qualitative,■nominal. c Which■day■was■the■coldest?
c qualitative,■ordinal. d Which■day■had■the■warmest■overnight■
d quantitative,■continuous. temperature?
e none■of■these. e What■was■the■temperature■range■(variation)■on■
3 MC ■The■data■which■describe■sandwich■types■at■a■ day■2?
takeaway■outlet■are: f Which■day■had■the■smallest■range■of■
a qualitative,■nominal. temperatures?
b quantitative,■discrete. 6 Consider■this■table■showing■the■age■and■height■of■a■
c qualitative,■ordinal. child■over■6■years.
d quantitative,■continuous.
e none■of■these. Age (years) Height (cm)
1 ■ 80
2 ■ 85
3 ■ 88
4 ■ 93
5 ■ 99
6 104
■ a Which■variable■is■the■dependent■variable?
b Which■variable■should■be■graphed■on■the■
4 For■each■of■the■following■pairs,■decide■which■of■the■
variables■is■independent■and■which■is■dependent. x-axis?
c Draw■a■column■graph■to■display■the■data
a Number■of■hours■spent■studying■for■a■
d Describe■the■relationship■between■the■
Mathematics■test■and■the■score■on■that■test.
b Daily■amount■of■rainfall■(in■mm)■and■daily■
two■variables.
attendance■at■the■Botanical■Gar■dens. 7 Look■at■the■following■graph,■showing■the■change■in■
c Number■of■hours■per■week■spent■in■a■gym■and■ size■of■an■iceblock■over■time.
the■annual■number■of■visits■to■the■doctor.■
Size of iceblock over a period of 11 minutes
d Amount■of■computer■memory■taken■by■an■
essay■and■the■length■of■the■essay■(in■words). 1000
e The■cost■of■care■in■a■childcare■centre■and■
Size (mm3)
800
attendance■in■the■childcare■centre. 600
f The■cost■of■the■property■(real■estate)■and■the■
age■of■the■property. 400
g The■cut-off■ENTER■score■for■a■certain■course■ 200
and■the■number■of■applications■for■that■course.
h The■heart■rate■of■a■runner■and■the■running■ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
speed. Time (min)

9 MC ■Which■of■the■following■graphs■best■
depicts■a■strong■negative■relationship■between■
the■two■variables?
a y b y
x x
c y d y
x x
e y

x
a What■are■the■units■on■the■x-axis? 10 MC ■What■type■of■relationship■is■shown■by■the■
b What■are■the■units■on■the■y-axis? graph■on■the■right?
c Which■variable■is■the■independent■ a Strong■positive■relationship y
variable? b Moderate■positive■relationship
d What■is■the■scale■on■the■y-axis? c Moderate■negative■relationship
e What■type■of■data■is■shown■on: d Strong■negative■relationship
i the■x-axis e None■of■the■above x
ii the■y-axis? 11 State■the■type■of■relationship■between■x■and■y■for■
f How■long■did■it■take■for■half■the■iceblock■ each■of■the■following■scatterplots.■
to■melt?
a y b y
g Describe■the■relationship■between■
the■two■variables.
8 MC ■A■researcher■administers■different■amounts■
of■fertiliser■to■a■number■of■trial■plots■of■potato■
crop.■She■then■measures■the■total■mass■of■potatoes■ x x
harvested■from■each■plot.■When■drawing■the■ c y y
d
scatterplot,■the■researcher■should■graph:
a mass■of■harvest■on■the■x-axis■because■it■is■the■
independent■variable,■and■amount■of■fertiliser■
on■the■y-axis■because■it■is■the■dependent■
variable. x x
b mass■of■harvest■on■the■y-axis■because■it■is■the■ e y y
f
independent■variable,■and■amount■of■fertiliser■
on■the■x-axis■because■it■is■the■dependent■
variable.
c mass■of■harvest■on■the■x-axis■because■it■is■the■
dependent■variable,■and■amount■of■ferti■liser■on■ x x
the■y-axis■because■it■is■the■independent■variable. g y y
h
d mass■of■harvest■on■the■y-axis■because■it■is■the■
dependent■variable,■and■amount■of■fertiliser■
on■the■x-axis■because■it■is■the■independent■
variable.
e none■of■the■above. x x

i y j y c Draw■a■scatterplot■of■the■data.
d What■type■of■relationship■exists■between■the■
variables?
e What■advice■would■you■give■Eugene■after■
examining■his■records■of■sales?
x x
2 The■relationship■between■two■variables■x■and y■is■
k y l y
shown■in■this■scatterplot.
y
50
45
x x
40
m y n y 35
30
25
20
x x 15
o y 10
5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 x
■ ■
x
a Use■the■line■of■best■fi■t■to■predict■the■value■of■y■
when■the■value■of■x■is:
probleM solViNg
i 10
1 Eugene■is■selling■handbags■at■the■local■market.■ ii 35.
During■the■day■he■keeps■records■of■his■sales.■The■ b Use■the■line■of■best■fi■t■to■predict■the■value■of■x■
table■below■shows■the■number■of■bags■sold■over■ when■the■value■of■y■is:
one■weekend■and■their■corresponding■prices■(to■the■ i 15
nearest■dollar). ii 30.
3 This■table■shows■the■gestation■time■and■the■birth■
mass■of■10■babies.
Gestation
time 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(weeks)
Birth
mass 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.1 3.4
(kg)
a What■type■of■data■is■this?
b Which■is■the■dependent■variable?
c Suggest■a■question■that■could■be■answered■by■
■ ■
this■data.
Price ($) d Construct■a■scatterplot■of■the■data■and■draw■in■
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
of a bag the■line■of■best■fi■t.
e Full■term■of■gestation■is■considered■to■be■
Number of
10 12 ■ 8 ■ 6 ■ 4 ■ 3 ■ 4 ■ 2 ■ 2 ■ 1 ■ 1 40■weeks,■although■some■pregnancies■last■
bags sold
longer.■Use■your■line■of■best■fi■t■to■predict■the■
a Which■is■the■dependent■variable? mass■of■a■baby■born■after:
b What■would■be■a■relevant■question■that■could■ i 41■weeks
be■answered■upon■examination■of■the■data? ii 42■weeks.

f Many■babies■are■born■prematurely.■Use■your■ 5 For■his■birthday,■Ari■was■given■a■small■white■rabbit.■
line■of■best■fi■t■to■predict■the■mass■of■a■baby■ To■monitor■the■rabbit’s■development,■Ari■decided■to■
born■at■30■weeks. measure■it■once■a■week.■The■table■below■shows■the■
g What■was■the■gestation■time■(to■the■nearest■ length■of■the■rabbit■for■various■weeks.
week)■of■a■baby■born■with■a■birth■mass■of■
Week
2.4■kg? 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 13 14 17 20
number
h Consider■your■question■from■part■c.■Supply■
an■answer,■indicating■how■you■came■to■this■ Length
20 21 23 24 25 30 32 35 36 37 39
conclusion. (cm)
4 As■preparation■for■a■Mathematics■test,■a■group■of■ a Construct■a■scatterplot■of■the■data,■and■draw■
22■students■was■given■a■revision■sheet■containing■ the■line■of■best■fi■t.
60■questions.■The■table■below■shows■the■number■ b As■can■be■seen■from■the■table,■Ari■did■not■
of■questions■from■the■revision■sheet■successfully■ measure■his■rabbit■on■weeks■5,■7,■9,■11,■12,■
completed■by■each■student■and■the■mark,■out■of■ 15,■16,■18■and■19.■Use■your■line■of■best■fi■t■to■
100,■of■that■student■on■the■test. predict■the■length■of■the■rabbit■for■those■weeks.
c Predict■the■length■of■the■rabbit■for■the■next■
Number of 3■weeks.
■ 9 12 37 60 ■ 55 40 10 25 50 48 60
questions d Comment■on■your■predictions■for■parts■b■and■c.
Test result 18 21 52 95 100 67 15 50 97 85 89
Number of
50 48 35 29 ■ 19 44 49 20 16 58 52
questions
Test result 97 85 62 54 ■ 30 70 82 37 28 99 80
a Which■of■these■variables■is■the■dependent■
variable■and■which■is■the■independent■variable?
b Suggest■a■question■that■could■be■answered■by■
this■set■of■data.
c Draw■a■scatterplot■of■the■data.
d What■type■of■relationship■exists■between■the■
two■variables?
e What■answer■would■you■give■to■the■question■
you■suggested■in■part■b?■Provide■evidence■to■
support■your■answer.
eBook plus
Interactivities
int-2864
int-2862
int-2863

eBook plus ACtiVities
chapter opener •■ Activity■14-B-3■(doc-5151):■Advanced■scatterplots■
Digital doc (page 481)
•■ Hungry■brain■activity■Chapter■14■(doc-5326)■ •■ WorkSHEET■14.1■(doc-5334):■Bivariate■data■I■
(page 471) (page 483)
are you ready? 14c Scatterplots
Digital docs (pages 472–3) Digital docs
•■ SkillSHEET■14.1■(doc-5327):■Distinguishing■ •■ Activity■14-C-1■(doc-5152):■Types■of■relationships■
qualitative■from■quantitative■data (page 488)
•■ SkillSHEET■14.2■(doc-5328):■Distinguishing■ •■ Activity■14-C-2■(doc-5153):■More■relationships■
discrete■from■continuous■data (page 488)
•■ SkillSHEET■14.3■(doc-5329):■Determining■ •■ Activity■14-C-3■(doc-5154):■Advanced■relationships■
independent■and■dependent■variables (page 488)
•■ SkillSHEET■14.4■(doc-5330):■Reading■scales■(how■ •■ WorkSHEET■14.2■(doc-5335):■Bivariate■data■II■
much■is■each■interval■worth?) (page 490)
•■ SkillSHEET■14.5■(doc-5331):■Reading■a■column■ Interactivity
graph •■ Scatterplots■(int-2789)■(page 483)
•■ SkillSHEET■14.6■(doc-5332):■Reading■line■graphs
•■ SkillSHEET■14.7■(doc-5333):■Plotting■coordinate■ chapter review
points Interactivities (page 495)
14a Identifying related pairs of variables •■ Test■yourself■Chapter■14■(int-2864):■Take■the■end-of-
chapter■test■to■test■your■progress.
•■ Word■search■Chapter■14■(int-2862):■an■interactive■
•■ Activity■14-A-1■(doc-5146):■Pairs■of■variables word■search■involving■words■associated■with■this■
•■ Activity■14-A-2■(doc-5147):■More■pairs■of■variables chapter
•■ Activity■14-A-3■(doc-5148):■Advanced■pairs■of■ •■ Crossword■Chapter■14■(int-2863):■an■interactive■
variables crossword■using■the■defi■nitions■associated■with■the■
14b Graphing bivariate data chapter
Digital docs
•■ Activity■14-B-1■(doc-5149):■Scatterplots■(page 481)
•■ Activity■14-B-2■(doc-5150):■More■scatterplots■ www.jacplus.com.au
(page 481)

15
15A Populations and samples
15B Primary and secondary data
15C Evaluating inquiry methods and
statistical reports
15D Statistical investigations
What Do you kNoW ?

1 List what you know about how the media
reports data. Create a concept map to
statistics in the show your list.

media 3 As a class, create a large concept map

how the media reports data.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 15
doc-5336
opeNiNg QuestioN
When scientists conduct experiments and

tests in laboratories, how are their reports
released to the public?
are you ready?

eBook plus Determining suitability of questions for a survey

1 Lauren■was■preparing■a■questionnaire■for■a■survey■on■graphics■calculator■usage■in■the■
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 15.1
classroom.■Would■the■following■be■suitable■questions?
doc-5337 a Do■you■own■(or■have■access■to)■a■graphics■calculator?
b Do■you■agree■that■graphics■calculators■are■too■expensive?
c How■frequently■(on■average)■would■you■use■a■graphics■calculator■in■a■maths■lesson?
eBook plus Finding proportions

2 A■school■has■430■students■in■the■junior■school,■260■in■the■middle■school■and■170■in■the■senior■
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 15.2
school.■Determine■the■proportion■of■students■in■each■of■the■three■sections.
doc-5338
eBook plus Distinguishing between types of data

3 Decide■whether■the■following■data■are■categorical■or■numerical.■For■categorical■data,■state■
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 15.3
whether■they■are■ordinal■or■nominal.■For■numerical■data,■state■whether■they■are■continuous■or■
doc-5339 discrete.
a Height■of■students■in■Year■10
b Pets■owned■by■students
c Position■in■the■under-15■cross-country■race
eBook plus Reading bar graphs Favourite television shows

4 The■graph■at■right■represents■the■ Comedy
Digital doc
favourite■television■shows■of■ Soaps
Television shows
SkillSHEET 15.4
500■teenagers. Police Drama
doc-5340
News
a What■are■the■most■popular■and■
Documentaries
least■popular■television■shows? Cartoons
b How■many■teenagers■prefer■ Science Fiction
watching■comedy■television■ Lifestyle
shows? Thriller
c How■many■more■teenagers■
0 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
prefer■soaps■to■thriller■ Percentage favouring
television■shows?
eBook plus Determining independent and dependent variables

5 For■each■of■the■following,■state■the■independent■and■the■dependent■variables.
Digital doc
a The■number■of■kilograms■of■potatoes■purchased■and■the■total■cost.
SkillSHEET 15.5
doc-5341 b The■number■of■swimmers■in■a■public■swimming■pool■and■the■day■temperature.
c The■height■and■age■of■a■student.

15A Populations and samples

Populations
■■ The term population refers to a complete set of individuals, objects or events belonging to
some category.
■■ When data are collected from a whole population, the process is known as a census.
■■ It is often not possible, nor cost-effective, to conduct a census.
■■ For this reason, samples have to be selected carefully from the population. A sample is a
subset of its population.
Worked Example 1
List some of the problems you might encounter in trying to collect data on the following populations.
a The life of a mobile phone battery
b The number of possums in a local area
c The number of males in Australia
d The average cost of a loaf of white bread
Think write
For each of these scenarios, consider how the

data might be collected, and the problems in
obtaining this data.
a The life of a mobile phone battery a The life of a mobile phone battery can not be measured
until it is dead. The battery life also depends on how
the phone is used, and how many times it has been
recharged.
b The number of possums in a local area b It would be almost impossible to find all the possums
in a local area in order to count them. The possums also
may stray into other areas.
c The number of males in Australia c The number of males in Australia is constantly
changing. There are births and deaths every second.
d The average cost of a loaf of white d The price of one particular loaf of white bread varies
bread widely from one location to another. Sometimes
the bread is on ‘Special’ and this would affect the
calculations.
■■ Since collecting data from a population is sometimes not an option, sampling provides a
viable alternative.
■■ Many methods for obtaining appropriate samples have been discussed previously.
Samples
■■ Surveys are conducted on samples. Ideally the sample should reveal generalisations about the
population.
■■ A random sample is generally accepted as being an ideal representation of the population
from which it was drawn. However, it must be remembered that different random samples
from the same population can produce different results. This means that we must be cautious
about making predictions about a population from surveys conducted on samples.
■■ A sample size must be sufficiently large. As a general rule, the sample size should be about
N , where N is the size of the population. It is a misconception that a larger sample will
produce a more reliable prediction of the characteristics of its population.
Chapter 15 Statistics in the media 499

Worked Example 2
A die was rolled 50 times and the following results were obtained.
6 5 3 1 6 2 3 6 2 5 3 4 1 3 2 6 4 5 5 4 3 1 2 1 6 4 5 2
3 6 1 5 3 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 2 6 3 4 6 2 1 2 4 2.
a Determine the mean of the population (to 1 decimal place).
b A suitable sample size for this population would be 7( 50 ö 7.1).
i Select a random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these scores.
ii Select a second random sample of 7 scores, and determine the mean of these.
iii Select a third random sample of 20 scores, and determine the mean of these.
c Comment on your answers to parts a and b.
Think write
a Calculate the mean by first finding the a Population mean

sum of all the scores, then dividing by the ∑x
number of scores (50). =
n
169
=
50
= 3.4
b i Use a calculator to randomly generate b The 7 scores randomly selected are numbers 17, 50,
7 scores from 1 to 50 11, 40, 48, 12, 19 in the set of 50 scores.
Relate these numbers back to the These correspond to the scores 4, 2, 3, 3, 2, 4, 5.
scores, then calculate the mean. 23
The mean of these scores = 7 = 3.3
ii Repeat bi to obtain a second set of Ignore the second and third attempts to select
7 randomly selected scores. 7 random numbers because of repeated numbers.
This second set of random numbers The second set of 7 scores randomly selected is
produced the number 1 twice. Try numbers 16, 49, 2, 42, 31, 11, 50 of the set of 50.
again. These correspond to the scores 6, 4, 5, 6, 1, 3, 2.
27
Another attempt produced the number The mean of these scores = 7 = 3.9
14 twice. Try again.
A third attempt produced 7 different
numbers. This set of 7 random
numbers will then be used to, again,
calculate the mean of the scores.
iii Repeat for a randomly selected The set of 20 randomly selected numbers produced a
20 scores. total of 68.
68
Mean of 20 random scores = 20 = 3.4
c Comment on the results. c The population mean is 3.4.

The means of the two samples of 7 are 3.3 and 3.9.
This shows that, even though the samples are randomly
selected, their calculated means may be different.
The mean of the sample of 20 scores is 3.4. This indicates
that by using a bigger sample the result is more accurate
than those obtained with the smaller samples.
Note: This example deals with quite small numbers. It does, however, illustrate the fact that
randomly selected samples provide an estimate of population statistics, but different random
samples often produce different results.

To sample or to conduct a census?

■■ The particular circumstances determine whether data are collected from a population, or from
a sample of the population. For example, suppose you collected data on the height of every
Year 10 student in your class. If your class was the only Year 10 class in the school, your class
would be the population. If, however, there were several Year 10 classes in your school, your
class would be a sample of the Year 10 population.
■■ In the previous worked example, it was seen that different random samples can produce
different results. For this reason, it is important to acknowledge that there could be some
uncertainty when using sample results to make predictions about the population.
Worked Example 3
For each of the following situations, state whether the information was obtained by census or survey.
Justify why that particular method was used.
a A roll call is conducted each morning at school to determine which students are absent.
b TV ratings are collected from a selection of viewers to discover the popular TV shows.
c Every hundredth light bulb off an assembly production line is tested to determine the life of that
type of light bulb.
d A teacher records the examination results of her class.
Think write
a Every student is recorded as a This is a census. If the roll call only applied to a sample of the
being present or absent at the students, there would not be an accurate record of attendance at
roll call. school. A census is essential in this case.
b Only a selection of the TV b This is a survey. To collect data from the whole viewer
audience contributed to this data. population would be time-consuming and expensive. For this
reason, it is appropriate to select a sample to conduct the survey.
c Only 1 bulb in every 100 is c This is a survey. Light bulbs are tested to destruction (burn-out)
tested. to determine their life. If every bulb was tested in this way, there
would be none left to sell! A survey on a sample is essential.
d Every student’s result is d This is a census. It is essential to record the result of every
recorded. student.
remember
1. The term population refers to a complete set of individuals, objects or events belonging
to some category.
2. When data are collected from a whole population, the process is known as a census.
3. Surveys are conducted on samples. Ideally the sample should reveal generalisations
about the population.
4. Different random samples from the same population can produce different results.
5. As a general rule, the sample size should be about N , where N is the size of the
population.
6. It is a misconception that a larger sample will produce a more reliable prediction of the
characteristics of its population.
7. The particular circumstances determine whether data are being collected from the
population, or from a sample of the population.
8. It is important to acknowledge that there could be some uncertainty when using sample
results to make predictions about the population.

exercise
15a populations and samples
iNDiviDual flueNcy
pathWays 1 We1 ■List■some■of■the■problems■you■might■encounter■in■trying■to■collect■data■from■the■
eBook plus following■populations.
a The■life■of■a■laptop■computer■battery.
Activity 15-A-1
b The■number■of■dogs■in■your■neighbourhood
Populations and
samples c The■number■of■fi■sh■for■sale■at■the■fi■sh■markets
doc-5155 d The■average■number■of■pieces■of■popcorn■in■a■bag■of■popcorn
Activity 15-A-2 2 We2 ■The■data■below■show■the■results■of■the■rolled■die■from■Worked■example■2.
More populations
and samples 6■ 5■ 3■ 1■ 6■ 2■ 3■ 6■ 2■ 5■ 3■ 4■ 1■ 3■ 2■ 6■ 4■ 5■ 5■ 4■ 3■ 1■ 2■ 1■ 6■ 4■ 5■
doc-5156
2■ 3■ 6■ 1■ 5■ 3■ 3■ 2■ 4■ 1■ 4■ 2■ 3■ 2■ 6■ 3■ 4■ 6■ 2■ 1■ 2■ 4■ 2.
Activity 15-A-3
In depth populations The■mean■of■the■population■is■3.4.■Select■your■own■samples■for■the■following■questions.
and samples a Select■a■random■sample■of■7■scores,■and■determine■the■mean■of■these■scores.
doc-5157
b Select■a■second■random■sample■of■7■scores,■and■determine■the■mean■of■these.
c Select■a■third■random■sample■of■20■scores,■and■determine■the■mean■of■these.
d Comment■on■your■answers■to■parts■a,■b■and■c.
3 We3 ■In■each■of■the■following■scenarios,■state■whether■the■information■was■obtained■by■
census■or■survey.■Justify■why■that■particular■method■was■used.
a Seating■for■all■passengers■is■recorded■for■each■aeroplane■fl■ight.
b Movie■ratings■are■collected■from■a■selection■of■viewers■to■discover■the■best■movies■for■
the■week.
c Every■hundredth■soft■drink■bottle■off■an■assembly■production■line■is■measured■to■
determine■the■volume■of■its■contents.
d A■car■driving■instructor■records■the■number■of■hours■each■learner■driver■has■spent■driving.
4 For■each■of■the■following,■state■whether■a■census■or■a■survey■has■been■used.
a Two■hundred■people■in■a■shopping■centre■are■asked■to■nominate■the■supermarket■where■
they■do■most■of■their■grocery■shopping.
b To■fi■nd■the■most■popular■new■car■on■the■road,■500■new■car■buyers■are■asked■what■make■
and■model■they■purchased.
c To■fi■nd■the■most■popular■new■car■on■the■road,■data■are■obtained■from■the■transport■
department.
d Your■Year■10■Maths■class■completed■a■series■of■questions■on■the■amount■of■maths■
homework■for■Year■10■students.
uNDerstaNDiNg
5 To■conduct■a■statistical■investigation,■Gloria■needs■to■obtain■information■from■630■students.
a What■size■sample■would■be■appropriate?
b Describe■a■method■of■generating■a■set■of■random■numbers■for■this■sample.
6 A■local■council■wants■the■opinions■of■its■residents■regarding■its■endeavours■to■establish■a■new■
sporting■facility■for■the■community.■It■has■specifi■cally■requested■all■residents■over■10■years■of■
age■to■respond■to■a■set■of■on-line■questions.
a Is■this■a■census■or■a■survey?
b What■problems■could■you■encounter■collecting■data■this■way?
7 A■poll■was■conducted■at■a■school■a■few■days■before■the■election■for■Head■Boy■and■Head■Girl.■
After■the■election,■it■was■discovered■that■the■polls■were■completely■misleading.■Explain■how■
this■could■have■happened.
8 A■sampling■error■is■said■to■occur■when■results■of■a■sample■are■different■from■those■of■the■
population■from■which■the■sample■was■drawn.■Discuss■some■factors■which■could■introduce■
sampling■errors.

9 Since■1961,■a■census■has■been■conducted■in■Australia■every■5■years.■Some■people■object■to■the■
census■on■the■basis■that■their■privacy■is■being■invaded.■Others■say■that■the■expense■involved■
could■be■directed■to■a■better■cause.■Others■say■that■a■sample■could■obtain■statistics■which■are■
just■as■accurate.■What■are■your■views■on■this?■Justify■your■statements.
reasoNiNg
10 Australia■has■a■very■small■population■compared■with■other■countries■like■China■and■India.■
These■are■the■world’s■most■populous■nations,■so■the■problems■we■encounter■in■conducting■a■
census■in■Australia■would■be■insignifi■cant■compared■with■those■encountered■in■those■countries.■
What■different■problems■would■authorities■come■across■when■conducting■a■census■there?
11 The■game■of■Lotto■involves■picking■the■same■6■numbers■in■the■range■1■to■45■as■has■been■
randomly■selected■by■a■machine■containing■45■numbered■balls.■The■balls■are■mixed■
thoroughly,■then■8■balls■are■selected■representing■the■6■main■numbers,■plus■2■extra■numbers,■
called■supplementary■numbers.
Here■is■a■list■of■the■number■of■times■each■number■had■been■drawn■over■a■period■of■time,■and■
also■the■number■of■weeks■since■each■particular■number■has■been■drawn.
NUMBER OF WEEKS SINCE NUMBER OF TIMES EACH NUMBER

EACH NUMBER DRAWN DRAWN SINCE DRAW 413
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 5 2 1 1 7 - 4 246 238 244 227 249 241 253 266

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
3 3 1 5 5 7 - 4 228 213 250 233 224 221 240 223

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
9 - 9 2 2 12 10 8 217 233 240 226 238 240 253 228

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
5 11 17 2 3 3 - 22 252 239 198 229 227 204 230 226

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
4 3 - 1 12 - 6 - 246 233 232 251 222 221 219 259

41 42 43 44 45 41 42 43 44 45
6 1 7 - 31 245 242 237 221 224
If■these■numbers■are■randomly■chosen,■explain■the■
eBook plus reflectioN
differences■shown■in■the■tables.
Digital doc A well-known saying about
WorkSHEET 15.1 statistics is: Statistics means never
doc-5342 having to say you’re certain. What
does this saying mean?
15b primary and secondary data

primary data
■■ Primary data■collection■involves■collecting■data■yourself.
■■ This■means■that■you■have■ownership■of■the■data,■and■no■one■else■has■access■to■the■data■until■it■
is■released■or■published.
■■ A■variety■of■methods■of■collecting■primary■data■is■available.■These■include■observation,■
measurement,■survey,■experiment■or■simulation.
chapter 15 statistics in the media 503

Observation
■■ This involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic
manner.
■■ The data can be collected as a disguised observation (respondents are unaware they are being
observed) or undisguised observation (the respondent is aware). CCT cameras are an example
of people knowing that their movements are being recorded, but are not always aware of
where the recording takes place.
■■ Observations can be in a natural environment (for example, in a food hall), or a contrived
environment (a food-tasting session for a food company).
■■ Mechanical devices (video cameras, closed circuit television, counting devices across a road)
can also be used.
Measurement
■■ Measurement involves using some measuring device to collect data.
■■ This generally involves conducting an experiment of some type.
•• The height of everyone in your class can be measured.
•• The mass of all new-born babies can be collected.
•• A pedometer measures the number of paces the wearer takes.
Surveys
■■ Surveys involve designing a questionnaire to interview people. Often the questionnaire
requires many rewrites to obtain one which is clear and unbiased.
■■ The interview can be in person — face to face or by telephone. The advantage of this method
is that you are able to see the reactions of those you are interviewing, and explain particular
questions, if necessary.
■■ Most frequently these days, email is used; however, there are advantages and disadvantages to
using this type of survey.
•• Advantages
–– Can cover a large number of people or organisations
–– A wide geographic coverage is possible
–– It avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent
–– There is no interviewer bias
–– The respondent has time to consider responses
–– It’s relatively cheap
•• Disadvantages
–– The questions have to be relatively simple
–– The response rate is often quite low (inducements often given as an incentive to return)
–– The reliability of the answers is questionable
–– No control over who actually completes the questionnaire
–– Problems with incomplete questionnaires
Experiment
■■ Generally, when conducting an experiment the data collected are quantitative.
■■ Particular care should be taken to ensure that the experiment is conducted in a manner which
would produce similar results if repeated.
■■ Care must be taken with the recording of results.
■■ The results must be in a form which can readily be analysed.
■■ All results need to be recorded, including the weird or unexpected outcomes
Simulation
■■ Experiments such as rolling a die, tossing a coin or drawing a card from a deck may be
conducted to model some real-life situation.
■■ Simulations occur in areas such as business, engineering, medical and scientific research.
■■ They are often used to imitate real-life situations which may be dangerous, impractical or too
expensive to explore by other means.

Worked Example 4
It is widely believed that there is equal chance of having a boy or girl with each birth. Genetics and
the history of births in a family sometimes have a great influence on the sex of the child as well.
Ignore those factors in this question.
a Design an experiment to simulate the chance of giving birth to a boy or a girl.
b Describe how your experiment could be conducted to determine the number of children a couple
should have, on average, to ensure they have offspring of both sexes.
Think write
a Use a device that can simulate two a A fair coin will be tossed with a Head representing ■
outcomes which are equally likely. a boy (B), and a Tail representing a girl (G).
This could be a random number generator to
generate two integers, say a 0 (representing
a boy) and 1 (representing a girl).
A fair coin could be tossed, such that, a Head
represents a boy, and a Tail represents a girl.
b 1 Describe how the experiment will b The experiment will be conducted 50 times, and a
be conducted. record kept of each experiment.
For each experiment, the coin will be tossed until both
sexes result. This may mean that there could be 7 trials
in an experiment (GGGGGGB) before both sexes are
represented.
2 Display the table of results. The table below shows the results of the 50 experiments.
Exp. No. of Exp. No. of
no. Results trials no. Results trials
1 BG 2 26 GGGB 4
2 GGB 3 27 GGGGB 5
3 BG 2 28 GGGB 4
4 GGGGB 5 29 BG 2
5 BBBBBBG 7 30 BBBG 4
6 GGGB 4 31 BG 2
7 BBG 3 32 GB 2
8 BBG 3 33 GGGB 4
9 BBBBG 5 34 BG 2
10 GB 2 35 GGGGGGB 7
11 BG 2 36 BBBBBBG 7
12 GGGB 4 37 GB 2
13 BBG 3 38 BG 2
14 BBG 3 39 GGB 3
15 GB 2 40 GGGGB 5
16 BG 2 41 BBG 3
17 GGB 3 42 BBBBBG 6
18 GB 2 43 GGB 3
19 GGB 3 44 GGB 3
20 BBBG 4 45 BBBG 4
21 BG 2 46 BBG 3
22 GB 2 47 GGGGGGB 7
23 GGGGB 5 48 BG 2
24 BG 2 49 BBG 3
25 GGGGB 5 50 GGGGGB 6
Total 175
This table shows that 175 trials were undertaken in
50 experiments where each experiment resulted in both
sexes.

175
3 Determine the average number Average number of children = = 3.5
50
of children required to produce
offspring of both sexes.
4 Write a conclusion. The average number of children a couple should have to
reach the goal of having both sexes is 4.
■■ Before collecting any primary data, it must be clear what data are to be collected.
■■ A decision must be made as to the method of collection.
■■ The advantages and disadvantages of the collection method must be acknowledged.
■■ The reason for the data collection should be clear from the outset.
Worked Example 5
You have been asked to obtain primary data to determine the methods of transport used to travel
to school by the students at your school. The data collected are to provide support for the Student
Council’s proposal for a school bus.
a What data should be collected?
b Outline possible methods which could be used to collect this data.
c Decide which method you consider to be the best option, and discuss its advantages and
disadvantages.
Think write
a Outline the various forms of transport a The modes of transport available to students at the
available to the students. school are:
car, bus, train, bicycle and walking
b Consider all the alternatives for collecting b Several methods could be used to collect the data.
the data. •• C ould stand at the school gate one morning and
ask students as they arrive
•• A questionnaire could be designed
•• Students could be asked to write their mode
of transport on a piece of paper and place in a
collection tin.
c 1 Decide on best option. c The first option of standing at the school gate is
very time-consuming, and students could arrive at
the back gate.
The third option does not seem reliable, as some
students may not comply, and other students may
place multiple pieces of paper in the collection tin.
The second option seems the best of the three.
2 Discuss advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of a questionnaire include:
•• There is a permanent record on paper.
•• It is not time-consuming to distribute or collect.
•• Students can complete it at their leisure.
Disadvantages include:
•• Students may not return it.
•• Expense involved in producing copies.
Note: This example does not represent the views of all those collecting such data. It merely
serves to challenge students to explore and discuss available options.

■■ Sometimes the primary data required are not obvious at the outset of the investigation.
■■ For example, you are asked to investigate the claim:
Most students do not eat a proper breakfast before school.
What questions would you ask to prove or refute this claim?
Secondary data
■■ Secondary data are data which have already been collected by someone else.
■■ The data can come from a variety of sources:
•• Paper — books, journals, magazines, company reports
•• Electronic — online databases, internet, broadcasts, DVDs
•• Government sources — ABS provides a wealth of statistical data
•• General business sources — academic institutions, stockbroking firms, sporting clubs
•• Media — newspapers, TV reports.
■■ Secondary data sources often provide data which would not be possible for an individual to
collect.
■■ The data can be qualitative or quantitative.
■■ The accuracy and reliability of the data sometimes needs to be questioned, depending on its
source.
■■ The age of the data should always be considered.
■■ Often the data which surrounds us passes by unnoticed.
■■ It is important to learn the skills to be able to critically analyse secondary data.
Worked Example 6
Subway advertises the energy and fat content of some of their

subs on their napkins.
a What information can you gain from this data?
b Subway advertise that they have a range of subs with less
than 6 grams of fat. Comment on this claim.
c This could be the starting point of a statistical investigation.
How could you proceed from here?
d Investigations are not conducted simply for the sake of
investigating. Suggest some aims for investigating further.
Think write
a Look at the data on the napkin to gain as a The napkin reveals the following information:
much information as possible. •• A higher energy content of a sub does not
necessarily mean that its fat content is higher.
•• As the fat content of a sub increases, generally
the saturated fat content also increases.
•• The addition of some types of protein (ham,
turkey, beef, chicken) increases the energy
content of the sub.
•• These data are only for those subs on white or
wheat bread with salads and meat.
•• The addition of condiments (sauces) or cheese
will alter these figures.
•• An apple slice has much less energy and fat ■
than a sub.

b Examine the data to discover if there is b All the subs displayed have less than 6 grams of
evidence to support the claim. Make further fat, so Subway’s claim is true.
comment. It must be remembered that the addition of cheese
and sauce to these subs would increase their fat
content. Also, if the sub was on any bread other
than white or wheat, the fat content could go
beyond 6 grams.
c What would be the next step in the c The napkin displays a toll-free phone number for
investigation? further information.
Their web site also contains additional detailed
information.
d What are some interesting facts which could d Suggested aims for investigating further could be:
be revealed through a deeper investigation? •• How much extra fat is added to a sub by the
addition of cheese and/or sauce?
•• What difference does a different type of bread
make to the fat content of the sub?
•• Which sub contains the highest fat content?
•• What is the sugar content of the subs?
remember
1. Primary data collection

•• This involves collecting data yourself.
•• You have ownership of the data, and no one else has access to the data until it is
released or published.
•• A variety of methods of collecting the data is available including observation,
measurement, survey, experiment or simulation.
2. Secondary data collection
•• This is data which has already been collected by someone else.
•• The data can come from a variety of sources including: paper, electronic,
government sources, general business sources and the media.
•• Secondary data sources often provide data which would not be possible for an
individual to collect.
•• The data can be qualitative or quantitative.
•• The accuracy and reliability of the data sometimes needs to be questioned,
depending on its source.
•• The age of the data should always be considered.
•• It is important to learn the skills to be able to critically analyse secondary data.
Exercise
15b Primary and secondary data
fluency
1 WE 4 Devise an experiment to simulate each of the following situations and specify the device
used to represent the outcomes.
a A true/false test in which answers are randomly distributed.
b A casino game with outcomes grouped in colours of either red or black.

c Breakfast■cereal■boxes■containing■4■different■types■of■plastic■toys.
iNDiviDual
pathWays d In■a■group■of■six■people,■one■person■is■to■be■chosen■as■the■leader.
e A■choice■of■three■main■meals■on■a■restaurant’s■menu,■all■of■which■are■equally■popular.
eBook plus
f Five■possible■holiday■destinations■offered■by■a■travel■agent;■such■that■all■destinations■are■
Activity 15-B-1 equally■available■and■equally■priced.
Data collection g Five■types■of■takeaway■fast■foods■available■in■one■area,■where■one■pizza■is■twice■
doc-5158 as■popular■as■each■of■the■others■types■of■takeaway■food■(the■other■4■are■equally■
Activity 15-B-2 popular).
Further data
collection 2 We5 ■You■have■been■asked■to■obtain■primary■data■from■students■at■your■school■to■determine■
doc-5159 internet■access■students■have■at■home.■The■data■collected■are■to■provide■support■for■opening■the■
Activity 15-B-3 computer■room■for■student■use■at■night.
Advanced data a What■data■should■be■collected?
collection
doc-5160
b Outline■possible■methods■which■could■be■used■to■collect■this■data.
c Decide■which■method■you■consider■to■be■the■best■option,■and■discuss■its■advantages■and■
disadvantages.
3 We6 ■This■label■shows■the■nutritional■information■of■Brand■X■rolled■oats.
Nutrition Information
Servings Per Package: 25 Serving Size 30g
Per Serving 30g %Dl* Per Serving Per 100g
Energy 486kJ 6% 1620kJ
Protein 4.3g 9% 14.3g
Fat - Total 2.8g 4% 9.3g
- Saturated 0.5g 2% 1.7g
- Trans Less than 0.1g - Less than 0.1g
- Polyunsaturated 1.0g - 3.2g
- Monounsaturated 1.3g - 4.4g
Carbohydrate 16.8g 5% 56g
- Sugars 0.9g 1% 3.0g
Dietary Fibre 3.1g 10% 10.4g
Sodium 0.7mg 0.1% 2mg
* % DI = Percentage daily intake
a What■information■can■you■gain■from■this■data?
b This■could■be■the■starting■point■of■a■statistical■investigation.■How■could■you■proceed■from■
here?
c Suggest■some■aims■for■investigating■further.
4 a■ Provide■a■list■of■methods■you■could■use■to■collect■primary■data.
b Describe■which■method■you■would■use■to■collect■the■following■primary■data.
i Heights■of■trees■along■the■footpaths■of■a■tree-lined■street
ii Number■of■buses■that■transport■students■to■your■school■in■the■morning
iii Sunrise■times■during■summer
iv Student■opinion■regarding■length■of■lessons
uNDerstaNDiNg
For■questions■5■and■6,■design■an■experiment■to■simulate■the■situation,■carry■out■the■experiment■
and■give■the■results■of■the■experiment.
5 A■mouse■in■a■maze■can■make■left■or■right■turns■at■each■junction.■Assuming■each■turn■is■equally■
likely,■how■many■junctions■on■average■must■the■mouse■go■through■before■each■type■of■turn■will■
have■been■made?
6 A■restaurant■menu■features■4■desserts■which■are■assumed■to■be■equally■popular.■How■many■
dessert■orders■must■be■fi■lled■(on■average)■before■the■owner■can■be■sure■all■types■will■have■been■
ordered?

7 This label shows the nutritional information of Brand Y rolled oats.
nutrition information
Servings per package: 30
Serving size: 30g
Avg. Quantity Avg. Quantity
Per serving 30g Per 100g
Energy 480kJ (115Cal) 1600kJ (383Cal)
Protein 3.2g 10.5g
Fat, total 2.4g 8.0g
- saturated LESS THAN 1g 1.5g
Carbohydrate 18.3g 61.0g
- sugars 0.0g 0.0g
Dietary Fibre, total 3.3g 10.0g
Sodium LESS THAN 5mg LESS THAN 5mg
ingredients
Oats (100%)
attention
THIS PRODUCT CONTAINS

GLUTEN.
storage
Store in a cool, dry place.
Compare the nutritional information with that on the Brand X label on page 509.
8 Comment on this claim.
We did a survey on 100 people regarding eating chocolate.

60 of these people said they regularly ate chocolate.
We then measured the heights of all 100 people.
**** The result ****
Eating chocolate makes you taller!!
9 Russel operates a computer software sales outlet. He keeps a log of all complaints from
customers. Suggest how he could organise his log.
10 The following claim has been made regarding secondary data.
There’s a lot more secondary data than primary data, it’s a lot cheaper and it’s easier to
acquire.
Comment on this statement.
Reasoning
11 The local Bed Barn was having a sale on selected beds by Sealy
and Sleepmaker. Four of the beds on sale were:
reflection  
Sealy Posturepremier on sale for $1499 a saving of $1000
Sealy Posturepedic on sale for $2299 a saving of $1600 When using
secondary data from
Sleepmaker Casablanca on sale for $1199 a saving of $800
other countries,
Sleepmaker Umbria on sale for $2499 a saving of $1800 what different unit
The store claimed that all these beds had been discounted by classifications could
40%. Comment on whether this statement is true, supporting you encounter?
your comments with sound mathematical reasoning.

15c evaluating inquiry methods and

statistical reports
■■ Data■investigations■involve■collecting■data,■recording■the■data,■analysing■the■data■then■
eBook plus
reporting■the■data.
Interactivity
Compare Data collection methods
statistical
reports ■■ Collection■methods■involve■gathering■primary■data,■or■using■secondary■data■from■stored■records.
int-2790 ■■ Primary■data■can■be■collected■by■observation,■measurement,■survey,■experiment■or■simulation■
as■discussed■earlier.
■■ Secondary■data■can■be■collected■electronically■or■via■a■hard■copy.
■■ It■is■important■to■be■able■to■justify■the■particular■method■chosen■for■each■of■these■processes.
■■ Sometimes■alternative■methods■are■just■as■appropriate.
WorkeD example 7
You have been given an assignment to investigate which year level uses the school library, after
school, the most.
a Explain whether it is more appropriate to use primary or secondary data in this case. Justify your
choice.
b Describe how the data could be collected. Discuss any problems which might be encountered.
c Explain whether an alternative method would be just as appropriate.
thiNk Write
a No■records■have■ a Since■records■are■not■kept■on■the■library■use,■secondary■data■is■not■an■option.
been■kept■on■library■ Primary■data■collection■could■be■either■sampling■or■census.■A■suffi■ciently■
use. large■sample■size■could■be■chosen;■this■would■take■less■time■than■conducting■
a■census,■although■it■would■not■be■as■accurate.
Sampling■would■be■considered■appropriate■in■this■case.
b The■data■can■be■ b A■questionnaire■could■be■designed■and■distributed■to■a■randomly-chosen■
collected■via■a■ sample.■The■problem■here■would■be■the■non-return■of■the■forms.
questionnaire■or■in■ Observation■could■be■used■to■personally■interviewed■students■as■they■entered■
person. the■library.■This■would■take■more■time,■but■random■interview■times■could■be■
selected.
c A■census■is■the■other■ c A■census■could■be■conducted,■either■by■questionnaire■or■observation.■This■
option. should■yield■a■more■accurate■outcome.
WorkeD example 8
Which method would be the most appropriate to collect the following data? Suggest an alternative
method in each case.
a The number of cars parked in the staff car park each day.
b The mass of books students carry to school each day.
c The length a spring stretches when weights are added to it.
d The cost of mobile phone plans with various network providers.
thiNk Write
a Observation a The■best■way■would■probably■be■observation■by■visiting■the■staff■car■park■to■
count■the■number■of■cars■there.
An■alternative■method■would■be■to■conduct■a■census■of■all■workers■to■ask■if■
they■parked■in■the■staff■car■park.■This■is■probably■not■as■good.

b Measurement b The mass of the books could be measured by weighing each student’s pack
on scales.
A random sample would probably yield a reasonably accurate result.
c Experiment c Conduct an experiment and measure the extension of the spring with various
weights.
There is probably no alternative to this method.
d Internet search d An internet search would enable data to be collected.
Alternatively, a visit to mobile phone outlets would yield similar results.
Analysing the data

■■ Once the data have been collected and collated, a decision must be made with regard to the
best methods for analysing the data.
■■ A measure of central tendency should be chosen — mean, median or mode
■■ A measure of spread (range, interquartile range) indicates how the data is distributed.
■■ An appropriate graph gives a visual representation of the data.
Graphing statistical data

■■ Statistical data can be graphed in a variety of ways — line graphs, bar graphs, histograms,
stem plots, box plots, etc. These have all been discussed in detail previously.
■■ In media reports it is common to see line and bar graphs.
■■ Because graphs give a quick visual impression, the temptation is to not look at them in great
detail. Often these graphs can be quite misleading.
■■ It is easy to manipulate a graph to give an impression which is supported by the creator of the
graph. This is achieved by careful choice of scale on the horizontal and vertical axes.
•• Shortening the horizontal axis tends to highlight the increasing/decreasing nature of the
trend of the graph. Lengthening the vertical axis tends to have the same effect.
•• Lengthening the horizontal and shortening the vertical axes tends to level out the trends.
Worked Example 9
This report shows the annual change in

median house prices in the local HOUSES
Suburb/locality Median house price Annual
government areas (LGA) of Queensland 2009–10 2008–09 change
from 2008–09 to 2009–10.
a Draw a bar graph which would give Brisbane (LGA) $530,000 $475,000 11.6%
Ipswich City (LGA) $323,000 $310,000 4.2%
the impression that the percentage
Redland City (LGA) $467,500 $435,000 7.5%
annual change was much the same Logan City (LGA) $360,000 $340,000 5.9%
throughout the whole state. Moreton Bay (LGA) $399,000 $372,000 7.3%
b Construct a bar graph to give the Gold Coast City (LGA) $505,000 $465,000 8.6%
impression that the percentage Toowoomba (LGA) $289,500 $269,000 7.6%
annual change in Brisbane was far Sunshine Coast (LGA) $470,000 $445,000 5.6%
greater than that in the other local Fraser Coast (LGA) $307,400 $297,750 3.2%
government areas. Bundaberg (LGA) $282,000 $275,000 2.5%
Gladstone (LGA) $370,000 $370,000 0.0%
Rockhampton (LGA) $315,250 $300,000 5.1%
Mackay (LGA) $398,000 $383,000 3.9%
Townsville City (LGA) $375,000 $359,000 4.5%
Cairns (LGA) $365,000 $355,000 2.8%

Think Write/draw
a To flatten out trends, a
% house price changes in QLD 2008–9 to 2009–10
Annual % change
lengthen the horizontal
axis and shorten the 10
vertical axis.
5
Brisbane
Ipswich
Redland
Logan
Moreton Bay
Gold Coast
Toowoomba
Sunshine Coast
Fraser Coast
Bundaberg
Gladstone
Rockhampton
Mackay
Townsville
Cairns
Area
b To accentuate trends, b
12 % house price changes in QLD
shorten the horizontal 2008–9 to 2009–10
axis and lengthen the 11
vertical axis. 10
Annual % change
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
Brisbane
Ipswich
Redland
Logan
Moreton Bay
Gold Coast
Toowoomba
Sunshine Coast
Fraser Coast
Bundaberg
Gladstone
Rockhampton
Mackay
Townsville
Cairns
Area
Worked Example 10
Consider the data displayed in the table of Worked example 9. Use the data collected for the median
house prices in 2009–10.
a Explain whether this data would be classed as primary or secondary data.
b Why does this data show median house prices rather than the mean or modal house price?
c Calculate a measure of central tendency for the data. Explain the reason for this choice.
d Give a measure of spread of the data, giving a reason for the particular choice.
e Display the data in a graphical form, explaining why this particular form was chosen.
Think Write
a This is data which has been collected a This is secondary data because it has been collected by
by someone else. someone else.
b Median is the middle price, mean is the b The median price is the middle one. It is not affected by
average price, and mode is the most outliers as the mean is. The modal house price may only
frequently-occurring price. occur for two house sales with the same value. On the
other hand, there may not be any mode.
The median price is the most appropriate in this case.

c Which measure of central tendency is c The measures of central tendency are the mean, median
the most appropriate one? and mode.
The mean is affected by high values (i.e. $530 000) and
low values (i.e. $282 000). These are not typical values,
so the mean would not be appropriate.
There is no modal value, as all the house prices are
different.
The median house price is the most suitable measure
of central tendency to represent the house prices in the
Queensland local government areas. The median value
is $370 000.
d Consider the range and the interquartile d The five-number summary values are:
range as measures of spread. Lowest score = $282 000
Lower quartile = $315 250
Median = $370 000
Upper quartile = $467 500
Highest score = $530 000
Range = $530 000 - $282 000
= $248 000
Interquartile range = $467 500 − $315 250
= $152 250
The interquartile range is a better measure for the range
as the house prices form a cluster in this region.
e Consider the graphing options. e Of all the graphing options, the box plot seems the most
appropriate as it shows the spread of the prices as well
as how they are grouped around the median price.
280000 340000 400000 460000 520000

Median house price 2009-10 ($)
■■ Secondary sources of data provide a great starting point for investigations.
Worked Example 11
The Australian women’s national basketball team, the Opals, competed at the 2008 Olympic Games
in Beijing, winning a silver medal. These are the heights (in metres) of the 12 team members:
1.73, 1.65, 1.8, 1.83, 1.96, 1.88, 1.63, 1.88, 1.83, 1.88, 1.8, 1.96
Provide calculations and explanations as evidence to verify or refute the following statements.
a The mean height of the team is greater than their median height.
b The range of the heights of the 12 players is almost 3 times their interquartile range.
c Only 5 players are on the court at any one time. A team of 5 players can be chosen such that their
mean, median and modal heights are all the same.

Think Write
∑ x 21.83
a 1 Calculate the mean height of the a Mean = = = 1.82 m
12 players. n 12
2 Order the heights to determine the The heights of the players, in order, is:
median. 1.63, 1.65, 1.73, 1.8, 1.8, 1.83, 1.83, 1.88, ■
1.88, 1.88, 1.96, 1.96
There are 12 scores, so the median is the average of the
6th and 7th scores.
1.83 + 1.83
Median = = 1.83 m
2
3 Comment on the statement. The mean is 1.82 m, while the median is 1.83 m. This
means that the mean is less than the median, so the
statement is not true.
b 1 Determine the range and the b Range = 1.96 - 1.63 = 0.33 m
interquartile range of the ■ Lower quartile is the average of 3rd and 4th scores.
12 heights. 1.73 + 1.8
Lower quartile = = 1.765 m
2
Upper quartile is average of 3rd and 4th scores from the
end.
1.88 + 1.88
Upper quartile = = 1.88 m
2
Interquartile range = 1.88 - 1.765 = 0.115 m
2 Compare the two values. Range = 0.33 m
Interquartile range = 0.115 m
Range 0.33
= = 2.9
Interquartile range 0.115
3 Comment on the statement. Range = 2.9 ì interquartile range
This is almost 3 times, so the statement is true.
c 1 Choose 5 players whose mean, c Three players have a height of 1.88 m. If a player
median and modal heights are all shorter and one taller are chosen both the same
equal. measurement from 1.88 m, this would make the mean,
Trial and error is appropriate here. median and mode all the same.
There may be more than one Choose players with heights:
answer. 1.8, 1.88, 1.88, 1.88, 1.96
9.4
Mean = = 1.88 m
5
Median = 3rd score = 1.88 m
Mode = Most frequent score = 1.88 m
2 Comment on the statement. The 5 players with heights 1.8 m, 1.88 m, 1.88 m, ■
1.88 m, 1.96 m have a mean, median and modal height
of 1.88 m.
It is true that a team of 5 such players can be chosen.
Statistical reports
■■ Reported data must not be simply taken at face value; all reports should be examined with a
critical eye.

Worked Example 12
This is an excerpt from an article which appeared in a newspaper on Father’s Day. It was reported
to be a national survey findings of a Gallup Poll of data from 1255 fathers of children aged 17 and
under.
The great Aussie

dads survey
Thinking about all aspects of your life, how %
happy would you say you are? Bullying or cyber-bullying.................................50
% Teenage violence...............................................50
I am very happy.................................................26 Their ability to afford a home...........................50
I am fairly happy................................................49 Alcohol consumption and binge drinking........47
Totally happy.....................................................75 Achieving academic success..............................47
Some days I’m happy and some days Feeling pressured into sex.................................41
I’m not...............................................................21 Being able to afford the lifestyle they
I am fairly unhappy.............................................3 expect to have....................................................38
I am very unhappy...............................................1 Climate change..................................................23
Total unhappy.....................................................4 Having them living with you in their
mid 20s..............................................................14
How often, if ever, do you regret having None of the above...............................................3
children?
Every day.............................................................1 What is the best thing about being a dad?
Most days............................................................2 The simple pleasures of family life....................61
Some days.........................................................18 Enjoying the successes of your kids.................24
Never.................................................................79 The unpredictability it brings.............................9
Which one of these best describes the impact The comfort of knowing that you will be
of having children on your relationship with looked after in later life.......................................3
your partner? None of the above...............................................3
We’re closer than ever.......................................29
We don’t spend as much time together
as we should . ...................................................40
Key findings
75%
We’re more like friends now than lovers..........21 of Aussie dads are totally
We have drifted apart..........................................6 happy
None of the above...............................................4
79%
have never regretted
Which one of these best describes the having children
allocation of cooking and cleaning duties in
67%
your household? are worried about their
My partner does nothing/I do everything...........1 children being exposed
I do most of it....................................................11 to drugs
57%
We share the cooking and cleaning..................42 would like more
My partner does most of it................................41 intimacy with their
I do nothing/my partner does everything............4 partner
None of the above...............................................1
Which of these aspects of your children’s “Work-life balance is definitely
future do you have concerns about? an issue for dads in 2010.”
Their safety........................................................70
Being exposed to drugs.....................................67 David Briggs
Their health.......................................................54 Galaxy principal
Source: The Sunday Mail, 5 Sept. 2010, pp. 14–15.
a Comment on the sample chosen.

b Discuss the percentages displayed.
c Comment on the claim that 57% of dads would like more intimacy with their partner.

Think Write
a How is the sample chosen? a The results of a national survey such as this should reveal the
Is it truly representative of outlook of the whole nation’s dads. There is no indication of how
the population of Australian the sample was chosen, so without further knowledge we tend
dads? to accept that it is representative of the population. A sample of
1255 is probably large enough.
b Look at the percentages in b For the first question regarding happiness, the percentages total
each of the categories. more than 100%. It seems logical that, in a question such as this,
the respondents would tick only one box, but obviously this has
not been the case.
In the question regarding aspects of concern of ‘your children’s
future’, these percentages also total more than 100%. It seems
appropriate here that dads would have more than one concerning
area, so it is possible for the percentages to total more than 100%.
In each of the other three questions, the percentages total 100%,
which is appropriate.
c Look at the tables to try to c Examining the reported percentages in the question regarding
find the source of this figure. ‘relationship with your partner’, there is no indication how a
figure of 57% was determined.
■■ Frequently media reports make claims where the reader has no hope of confirming their truth.
Worked Example 13
This article appeared in a newspaper. Read the article, then answer the following questions.
Sponges are toxic

Washing dishes can pose a serious health risk, Microbiologist Craig Andrew-Kabilafkas
with more than half of all kitchen sponges of Australian Food Microbiology said
containing high levels of dangerous bacteria, the Westinghouse study of more than
research shows. 1000 households revealed germs can spread
A new survey dishing the dirt on washing up easily to freshly washed dishes.
shows more than 50 per cent of kitchen sponges The only way to safeguard homes from
have high levels of E coli, which can cause severe sickness was to wash utensils at very high
cramps and diarrhoea, and staphylococcus temperatures in a dishwasher.
aureus, which releases toxins that can lead to
food poisoning or toxic shock syndrome.
Source: The Sunday Mail, 5 Sept. 2010, p. 36.
a Comment on the sample used in this survey.

b Comment on the claims of the survey.
c Is the heading of the article appropriate?
Think Write
a Look at sample size and a The report claims that the sample size was more than 1000.
selection of sample. There is no indication how the sample was selected.
The point to keep in mind is whether this sample is truly
representative of the population consisting of all households. We
have no way of knowing.

b What■are■the■results■of■the■ b The■survey■claims■that■50%■of■kitchen■sponges■have■high■levels■
survey? of■E. coli■which■can■cause■severe■medical■problems.
The■study■was■conducted■by■Westinghouse,■so■it■is■not■surprising■
they■recommend■using■a■dishwasher.
c Examine■the■heading■in■the■ c The■heading■is■sensational,■designed■to■catch■the■attention■of■
light■of■the■contents■the■article. readers.
remember
1.■ Collecting■data
•■ Primary■data■can■be■gathered■in■a■variety■of■ways.
•■ The■particular■method■chosen■for■a■statistical■investigation■should■be■justifi■ed.
•■ Secondary■data■are■gathered■from■stored■records.
2.■ Analysing■data
•■ A■measure■of■central■tendency■should■be■chosen■—■mean,■median■or■mode
•■ A■measure■of■spread■(range,■interquartile■range)■indicates■how■the■data■is■distributed.
•■ An■appropriate■graph■gives■a■visual■representation■of■the■data.
3.■ Evaluating■reported■data
•■ The■data■should■be■examined■with■a■critical■eye.
•■ Often■graphs■can■be■misleading.
–■ ■Shortening■the■horizontal■axis■and■lengthening■the■vertical■axis■tends■to■highlight■
the■increasing/decreasing■nature■of■the■trend■of■the■graph.■
–■ ■Lengthening■the■horizontal■and■shortening■the■vertical■axes■tends■to■level■out■the■
trends.
exercise
15c evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports
iNDiviDual flueNcy
pathWays 1 We7,8 ■You■have■been■given■an■assignment■to■investigate■which■Year■level■has■the■greatest■
eBook plus number■of■students■who■are■driven■to■school■each■day■by■car.
a Explain■whether■it■is■more■appropriate■to■use■primary■or■secondary■data■in■this■case.■
Activity 15-C-1
Collecting and
Justify■your■choice.
analysing data b Describe■how■the■data■could■be■collected.■Discuss■any■problems■which■might■be■
doc-5161 encountered.
Activity 15-C-2 c Explain■whether■an■alternative■method■would■be■just■as■appropriate.
More collecting and
analysing data
2 We9 ■You■run■a■small■company■that■is■listed■on■the■Australian■Stock■Exchange■(ASX).■During■
doc-5162 the■past■year■you■have■given■substantial■rises■in■salary■to■all■your■staff.■However,■profi■ts■have■
Activity 15-C-3 not■been■as■spectacular■as■in■the■year■before.■This■table■gives■the■fi■gures■for■the■salary■and■
Detailed collecting profi■ts■for■each■quarter.
and analysing data
doc-5163 1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter 4th quarter
Profi■ts
6 5.9 6 6.5
$’000■■000
Salaries
4 5 6 7
$’000■■000
Draw■two■graphs,■one■showing■profi■ts,■the■other■showing■salaries,■which■will■show■you■in■
the■best■possible■light■to■your■shareholders.

3 WE 10 The data below were collected from a real estate agent and show the sale prices of ten
blocks of land in a new estate.
$150 000, $190 000, $175 000, $150 000, $650 000, $150 000, $165 000, ■
$180 000, $160 000, $180 000
a Calculate a measure of central tendency for the data. Explain the reason for this
choice.
b Give a measure of spread of the data, giving a reason for the particular choice.
c Display the data in a graphical form, explaining why this particular form was chosen.
d The real estate agent advertises the new estate land as:
Own one of these amazing blocks of land for only $150 000 (average)!
Comment on the agent’s claims.
4 WE 11 Use the data for the heights of the Opal players in Worked example 11 (page 514) to
answer the following question.
Provide calculations and explanations as evidence to verify or refute the following
statements.
a The mean height of the team is closer to the lower quartile than it is to the median.
b Half the players have a height within the interquartile range.
c Which 5 players could be chosen to have the minimum range in heights?
5 This table below shows the number of shoes of each size that were sold over a week at a shoe
store.
Size Number sold
4 5
5 7
6 19
7 24
8 16
9 8
10 7
a Calculate the mean shoe size sold.

b Determine the median shoe size sold.
c Determine the modal shoe size sold.
d Explain which measure of central tendency has the most meaning to the store
proprietor.
6 The resting pulse of 20 female athletes was measured and is shown below.
50 62 48 52 71 61 30 45 42 48 43 47 51 52 34 61 44 54 38 40
a Represent the data in a distribution table using appropriate groupings.
b Find the mean, median and mode of the data.
c Comment on the similarities and differences between the three values.
Understanding
7 The batting scores for two cricket players over six innings were recorded as follows.
Player A 31, 34, 42, 28, 30, 41
Player B 0, 0, 1, 0, 250, 0
Player B was hailed as a hero for his score of 250.
Comment on the performance of the two players.

8 A small manufacturing plant employs 80 workers. This table below shows the structure of
the plant.
Position Salary ($) Number of employees
Machine operator 18 000 50
Machine mechanic 20 000 15
Floor steward 24 000 10
Manager 62 000 4
Chief Executive Officer 80 000 1
a Workers are arguing for a pay rise, but the management of the factory claims that workers
are well paid because the mean salary of the factory is $22 100. Explain whether this is a
sound argument.
b Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to write a short
submission in support of the pay rise. How could you explain the management’s claim?
Provide some other statistics to support your case.
9 WE 12,13 This report from Woolworths appeared in a newspaper.
It’s a record
■■ Woolworths posted 10.1% gain in ■■ Wants to increase its share of the fresh
annual profit to $2.02b food market
■■ 11th consecutive year of double-digit ■■ Announced $700m off-market share
growth buyback
■■ Flags 8% to 11% growth in the ■■ Final fully franked dividend 62¢ a
current financial year share
■■ Sales rose 4.8% to $51.2b
SHARES REBOUND NET PROFIT

$
28.40
28.10 2.4% $b +$2.02b
27.70 Yesterday +10.1%
2 +12.8%
27.40 +25.7%
27.10 1.5 +27.5%
20.80
+24.3%
26.50 1
26.20
0.5
25.90
25.60
Aug 26 0
May 26 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Source: IRESS
Source: The Courier Mail, 27 Aug. 2010, pp. 40–1.
Comment on the report.

Reasoning
10 This graph at right shows the fluctuation in the Australian dollar in terms of the US dollar
during the period 13 July to 13 September 2010.
The higher the Australian dollar, the cheaper it is for AUSSIE
Australian companies to import goods from overseas, and
the cheaper they should be able to sell their goods to the US¢ US 93.29¢
Australian public. 92.8
The manager of Company XYZ produced a graph 90.9
to support his claim that, because there hasn’t been much 88.8
change in the Aussie dollar over that period, there hasn’t
been any change in the price he sells his imported goods to 86.8
the Australian public. Draw a graph which would support his 84.8
claim. Explain how you were able to achieve this effect. 82.8
80.8
reflection   Jul 13 Sep 13
What is the point of drawing a Source: IRESS
misleading graph in a report? Source: The Courier Mail,
14 Sept. 2010, p. 25.

Using primary data
■■ This section deals with the steps involved in carrying out a statistical investigation with
primary data collection.
■■ For this exercise we will assume you have been given this task.
Which pizza on the market is the best value for money?
■■ This is a very broad investigation, and each stage of the investigation must be carefully
planned.
•• Collecting the data
•• Organising the data
•• Performing calculations
•• Analysing the data
•• Reporting the results
Collecting the data
■■ At this initial stage, questions should be posed with regard to the data.
•• What data should be collected?
–– Best value for money involves the price and size of the pizza. Data on both of these need
to be collected.
–– Stores have different prices for different sizes.
–– Would size best be measured as area or mass?
–– Not all pizzas are round; some are rectangular.
–– What about the variety of toppings? A standard one should be chosen.
–– Should frozen pizzas be included?
•• How should the data be collected?
–– It is not possible to buy every pizza on the market, so what alternatives are there?
–– A store is probably not willing to allow their pizzas to be weighed, so mass is most likely
out of the question.
–– Will the store allow their pizzas to be measured?
•• What problems are likely to be encountered?
–– How many different companies market pizza?

Organising the data

■■ The data should be organised into some sort of table format.
•• What format is appropriate for this investigation?
•• A table with column headings Price and Measurements will organise this data.
■■ Take time to design the table so figures required for calculation are readily visible.
•• What calculations are required at this stage?
•• Measurements are required to calculate the area of each pizza.
■■ Think forward and add extra columns for future calculations.
•• What further calculations are needed?
•• Area and Value for money need to be calculated. Provide two extra columns for these.
Performing calculations
■■ What calculations need to be performed?
■■ The Area and Value for money are required in this case. How should this be calculated?
Dividing price by area gives ($/cm2), while dividing area by price gives (cm2/$).
Analysing the data
■■ Are there any anomalies, or obvious calculation errors?
■■ Do the calculated results ‘make sense’?
■■ In this case, if Value for money is calculated in units of $/cm2, the pizza with the smallest of
these values is the best value for money. Using units of cm2/$, the pizza with the highest of
these values gives the best value for money.
■■ Would the inclusion of graphs be appropriate?
Reporting the results
■■ The results should be reported in a clear, concise manner.
■■ Justify any conclusions.
■■ Are there any anomalies or exceptions to mention?
Using secondary data

■■ The procedure for undertaking a statistical investigation using secondary data is similar to that
for primary data, the difference being that you sometimes have to search for data in several
areas before you find the appropriate source.
Suppose you were given this assignment.
There have been __________ Prime Ministers of Australia since 1901 until this day.
There have been _________ elections.
__________ Prime Ministers have been defeated at a general election.
There have been ________ changes of Prime Minister without an election.
The average length these Prime Ministers served in office is ____________ .
Undertake a statistical investigation to complete the details.
■■ Collecting the data
•• What data should be collected?
•• Where can this data be found? The internet is probably a good starting point, but not all
sites are reliable.
•• If there are multiple sources for the data, are they all in agreement?
•• How many of these statements require calculations?
■■ Organising the data
•• Design a table to record all the data.
•• Consider how many columns are necessary.
•• Leave columns for calculations.
■■ Performing calculations
•• There is at least one calculation here — to determine the average length of time served in
office. Are there any more?

■■ Analysing the data

•• Do all the calculated values make sense?
•• Would a graph be appropriate?
■■ Reporting the results
•• Complete the details.
•• Acknowledge the source of the secondary data.
Investigating media reports

■■ Frequently reports in the media provide a good starting point for an interesting investigation.
Here are a few suggestions.
Media report 1
Here is an article on an analysis of the speech habits of two high-profile parliamentarians —
Julia Gillard and Tony Abbott. It was written by Roly Sussex, a professor of English.
Word Limit
Roly Sussex Compared to the PM, Opposition Leader
[email protected] Tony Abbott is a less fluent speaker. He is an
“um”, “look” and “ah” man. His sentences
We all have individual features in the way
contain pauses, sometimes for reflection,
we speak. Our tone of voice, an intonation,
sometimes for emphasis, sometimes both.
a rhythm, a favourite word or phrase — the
He is somewhat less given to mantra, and
things that make us quickly recognised
greetings-wise he is more a man of the
even on bad telephone connections. But
people: he says “G’day”. But Gillard and
if you are a public figure, and especially
Abbott share three features which are now
a political leader, your speech habits will
so ingrained under the fingernails of our
be picked up, criticised, satirised and
pollies that they won’t scrub off.
caricatured. As I discussed in previous
One feature is repetition. “As I said in
weeks, our current political leaders show a
my speech . . .” says the PM, “. . . as I said
wide variety of habits and idiosyncrasies.
in my speech”. Well, yes, we know that.
Our new PM, Julia Gillard is a very
We heard the speech. Abbott, on the other
consecutive speaker. Like Kevin Rudd
hand, repeats repeated negatives about the
before her, she speaks in long complete
Government: “Spin . . . contradiction . . .
sentences. But unlike Rudd, her sentences
incompetent . . . disarray . . .”. It’s like
contain a fair number of pre-programmed
swearing — the more you use these
mantras and phrases: “happy to be judged”,
words, the less meaning they convey.
“enhanced the capacity”, “regional
The second shared feature is the pre-
neighbours”. Her pronunciation is also
programmed response. A trigger in the
distinctive. She grew up in South Australia,
question presses a specific answer-button.
and so says W instead of L at the end of
“Asylum seekers”, “deficit”, “mining
a syllable. Her “milk” is MIWK, and her
super-tax”, “health” and similar key issues
“football” is FOOTBAW. And she is our
prompt the automatic rehearsed rejoinder.
first Prime Minister to have high rising
You know it’s pre-programmed because
tone, the rising intonation at the end of a
you’ll always hear the same words,
clause (rising pitch).
whenever the trigger is pressed.
Her favourite word is “obviously” and
The third thing they share is that they
she has also quickly assumed the leader’s
won’t say “yes” or “no”. Both respond to a
“I”. The closer you get to the top job, the
“can you tell us, yes or no?” with streams
more the ego asserts itself in grammar.
of verbal flimflam. Interviewers should
Especially in answer to a probing
give up trying to prise a clear yea/nay out
question: “I’m not going to be . . .”.
of either of them. But the public does
Former PM John Howard perfected this
have a right to know, yes or no, where
technique, and it is piously observed by
they stand on issues, and we aren’t getting
our current leaders. Treasurer Wayne
what we crave.
Swan is acquiring it. Aha.
Source: The Courier Mail, 14–15 Aug. 2010, p. 25.
There is no doubt that these comments are true. How could you find evidence of this?

Media report 2
Single Women Earn More

WASHINGTON: The income of one work full-time earn about 80 per cent of
group of US women is catching up what men earn.
to and even overtaking men, a study The report says that one reason for the
shows. finding is that girls are “going to college in
They are single women in their 20s droves”.
without children, who live in large cities Nearly three-quarters of girls who
and work full-time, according to a study complete high school go on to university,
of census data by Reach Advisors, a compared with two-thirds of boys.
New York–based strategy and research 1
Women are 1 2 times more likely than
firm focused on emerging shifts in the men to graduate from university and to
consumer landscape. obtain a masters degree or higher.
These young women earn on average Census data released in April showed
8 per cent more than men in their age that 58 per cent of all US masters degrees
group, but in some cities, such as Atlanta or PhDs were awarded to women. As
in Georgia and Memphis, Tennessee, women go further in their education,
women earn about one-fifth more than they are also delaying getting married and
men. On average, American women who starting a family.
Source: The Weekend Australian, 4–5 Sept. 2010, p. 20.
Is this report really true? Is it perhaps only true in America? (The heading seems to suggest
that it is universally true.) What is the status of women in other parts of the world? Further
investigation could reveal interesting comparisons.
Media report 3
Egg shortage is no yolk

Producers lay plan to to revised Heart Foundation guidelines
raising the number of eggs recommended
meet need for a healthy diet from two a week to six.
Peddy Hintz But, Mr O’Hara said, cooking shows
such as MasterChef had also led to a rise in
Blame MasterChef or the Heart demand.
Foundation, but it’s getting harder Current estimates have Australians
to find the right kind of eggs at the eating 203–205 eggs per person a year,
supermarket — and it’s likely to stay that compared with 195 last year, 156 the year
way until Christmas. before and a low of 132 10 years ago.
Queensland egg producers are struggling
UNSCRAMBLING EGGS
to keep up with demand but the boom in
sales has also been matched by the recent Annual egg consumption (per person)
interest in keeping backyard chickens. Australia: 205
The winter shortage of eggs on Japan: 320
Australian supermarket shelves will mean US: 230
that instead of sitting in a coolroom for a UK: 230
week, eggs are being transferred to shelves NZ: 214
almost straight from the supplier. Egg sales
“It’s currently taking only about 48 hours 65% caged
from being laid to getting onto the shelves 24–25% free range
so the eggs that people do buy will be a 10% cage free
really good, fresh product,” chief executive Fresh is best
of Sunny Queen, one of the country’s The most effective way to test if an egg
biggest suppliers, John O’Hara said. is fresh is to put it in water. The more it
The Australian Egg Corporation has sinks, the fresher the egg. If it floats, it’s
put the increased demand for eggs down nearly off.
Source: The Courier Mail, 28–9 Aug. 2010, p. 13.

Note■the■catchy■heading■on■this■article.■Does■the■advice■from■the■Heart■Foundation■or■
cooking■shows■like■Master■Chef■really■have■that■much■effect■on■egg■sales?■How■does■egg■
consumption■in■Australia■compare■with■that■in■the■other■countries■mentioned?■This■is■worthy■
of■further■investigation.
remember
1.■ The■following■steps■are■involved■in■a■statistical■investigation.
•■ Collecting■the■data
•■ Organising■the■data
•■ Performing■calculations
•■ Analysing■the■data
•■ Reporting■the■results
2.■ Media■reports■provide■a■starting■point■for■further■investigations.
exercise
15D statistical investigations
iNDiviDual uNDerstaNDiNg
pathWays This■section■has■guided■you■through■undertaking■a■statistical■investigation.■Apply■this■
eBook plus knowledge■in■answering■these■questions.
1 a■ ■Write■a■plan■detailing■how■you■would■collect■primary■data■to■undertake■an■investigation■to■
Activity 15-D-1
Analysing reports determine■which■pizza■on■the■market■is■the■best■value■for■money.
doc-5164 b Undertake■your■investigation.
Activity 15-D-2 c Report■on■the■results■of■your■fi■ndings.
Analysing reports in
depth 2 Undertake■the■investigation■on■the■history■of■Prime■Ministers■in■Australia.■Report■your■
doc-5165 fi■ndings.
Activity 15-D-3 3 Find■evidence■from■speeches■of■Julia■Gillard■and■Tony■Abbott■to■support■Roly■Sussex’s■report■
Analysing reports in
greater depth
on■the■speech■habits■of■these■two■politicians.
doc-5166 4 Do■single■women■really■earn■more?■Investigate.
5 What’s■the■story■on■egg■consumption■in■Australia?
6 Search■for■a■media■article■you■would■like■to■investigate.■Provide■a■full■report■on■your■
fi■ndings.
reasoNiNg
7 Below■are■a■few■statistics■on■Facebook■users.■These■fi■gures■are■those■reported■in■the■
Year■2010.
■■ There■are■more■than■400■million■active■users.
■■ 70%■of■Facebook■users■are■outside■the■US.
■■ 50%■of■active■users■log■on■to■Facebook■in■any■given■day.
■■ More■than■60■million■updates■are■posted■each■day.
■■ More■than■3■billion■photos■are■uploaded■to■the■site■each■month.
■■ The■average■user■has■130■friends■on■the■site.
■■ The■average■user■spends■more■than■55■minutes■per■day■on■Facebook.
The■top■10■countries■on■Facebook■represent■just■a■little■over■half■of■the■Facebook■users.■
China■(population■1.3■billion)■and■India■(1.2■billion)■do■not■appear■in■the■top■10■list.■Write■
a■report■summarising■the■usage■of■Facebook■throughout■the■world.■(See■overleaf■for■some■
statistics.)

These■are■the■top■10■countries■on■Facebook.
Country Population (millions) % of world population Users (millions)

1 USA 310.3 4.5 111.2
2 UK 62 0.9 23.5
3 Indonesia 237.6 3.5 19.5
4 Turkey 72.6 1.1 18.7
5 France 65.4 1.0 15.9
6 Italy 60.4 0.9 14.9
7 Canada 34.3 0.5 13.4
8 Philippines 94 1.4 10.6
eBook plus
Digital doc 9 Spain 46.1 0.7 8.9

WorkSHEET 15.2
doc-5343 10 Mexico 108.4 1.6 8.2
reflectioN
What would you consider to

be the most important factor in
reporting the results of a statistical
investigation?

Summary
Populations and samples
■■ The term population refers to a complete set of individuals, objects or events belonging to
some category.
■■ When data are collected from a whole population, the process is known as a census.
■■ Surveys are conducted on samples. Ideally the sample should reveal generalisations about the
population.
■■ Different random samples from the same population can produce different results.
■■ As a general rule, the sample size should be about N , where N is the size of the population.
■■ It is a misconception that a larger sample will produce a more reliable prediction of the
characteristics of its population.
■■ The particular circumstances determine whether data are being collected from the population,
or from a sample of the population.
■■ It is important to acknowledge that there could be some uncertainty when using sample
results to make predictions about the population.
Primary and secondary data

■■ Primary data collection
•• This involves collecting data yourself.
•• You have ownership of the data, and no one else has access to the data until it is released or
published.
•• A variety of methods of collecting the data is available including observation,
measurement, survey, experiment or simulation.
■■ Secondary data collection
•• This is data which has already been collected by someone else.
•• The data can come from a variety of sources including: paper, electronic, government
sources, general business sources and the media.
•• Secondary data sources often provide data which would not be possible for an individual to
collect.
•• The data can be qualitative or quantitative.
•• The accuracy and reliability of the data sometimes needs to be questioned, depending on its
source.
•• The age of the data should always be considered.
•• It is important to learn the skills to be able to critically analyse secondary data.
Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports

■■ Collecting data
•• Primary data can be gathered in a variety of ways.
•• The particular method chosen for a statistical investigation should be justified.
•• Secondary data are gathered from stored records.
■■ Analysing data
•• A measure of central tendency should be chosen — mean, median or mode
•• A measure of spread (range, interquartile range) indicates how the data is distributed.
•• An appropriate graph gives a visual representation of the data.
■■ Evaluating reported data
•• The data should be examined with a critical eye.
•• Often graphs can be misleading.
– Shortening the horizontal axis and lengthening the vertical axis tends to highlight the
increasing/decreasing nature of the trend of the graph.
– Lengthening the horizontal and shortening the vertical axes tends to level out the trends.

Statistical investigations
■■ The■following■steps■are■involved■in■a■statistical■investigation.
•■ Collecting■the■data
•■ Organising■the■data
•■ Performing■calculations
•■ Analysing■the■data
•■ Reporting■the■results
■■ Media■reports■provide■a■starting■point■for■further■investigations.

Homework

Chapter review
Fluency 6 The table below shows the number of students in
each year level from Years 7 to 12.
1 List some problems you might encounter in trying
to collect data from the following populations.
a The average number of mL in a can of soft Year Number of students
drink.
b The number of fish in a dam. 7 230
c The number of workers who catch public
transport to work each weekday morning. 8 200
2 a Calculate the mean of the integers 1 to 100.
b i Randomly select 10 numbers in the range 9 189
1 to 100.
ii Calculate the mean of these numbers. 10 175
c i Randomly select 20 numbers in the range
1 to 100. 11 133
ii Calculate the mean of these numbers.
d Comment on the similarities/differences 12 124
between your means calculated in parts a, b
and c.
Draw two separate graphs to illustrate the
3 For each of the following investigations, state following.
whether a census or a survey has been used. a The principal of the school claims a high
a The average price of petrol in Canberra was retention rate in Years 11 and 12 (that is, most
estimated by averaging the price at 30 petrol of the students from Year 10 continue on to
stations in the area. complete Years 11 and 12).
b The performance of a cricketer is measured by b The parents claim that the retention rate of
looking at his performance in every match he students in Years 11 and 12 is low (that is, a
has played. large number of students leave at the end of
c Public opinion on an issue is sought by a Year 10).
telephone poll of 2000 homes.
7 Records from a school were examined to determine
4 Traffic lights (red, amber, green) are set so that the number of absent days of both boys and girls
each colour shows for a set amount of time. over the two years of Year 9 and Year 10. The result
Describe how you could use a spinner to simulate is shown in this stem-and-leaf plot.
the situation so that you could determine (on
average) how many sets of lights you must Key: 2 | 1 = 21 days
encounter in order to get two green lights in Leaf■ Stem Leaf■
succession. Boys Girls
5 MC John and Bill play squash each week. In any 0 17
given game they are evenly matched. A device 7410 1 24799
which could not be used to represent the outcomes 9976653110 2 133466
of the situation is: 87752 3 4448
A a die 2 4 36
B a coin 5 4
C a circular spinner divided into 2 equal
sectors a Calculate the median number of days absent
D a circular spinner divided into 5 equal for both boys and girls.
sectors b Calculate the range for both boys and girls.
E a circular spinner divided into 4 equal c Comment on the distribution of days absent for
sectors each group.

8 15 boys and 15 girls were randomly chosen from

a group of 900 students. Their heights (in metres)
were measured as shown below.
Boys: 1.65, 1.71, 1.59, 1.74, 1.66, 1.69, 1.72,
1.66, 1.65, 1.64, 1.68, 1.74, 1.57, 1.59,
1.60
Girls: 1.66, 1.69, 1.58, 1.55, 1.51, 1.56, 1.64,
1.69, 1.70, 1.57, 1.52, 1.58, 1.64, 1.68, 1.67
a State the median of both distributions.

b Calculate the range of both distributions.
c Calculate the interquartile range of both
distributions.
d Show both distributions on a parallel box plot.
10 The box plots drawn below display statistical data
for two AFL teams over a season.
Sydney Swans
Brisbane Lions
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Points
a Which team had the higher median score?

b What was the range of scores for each team?
c For each team calculate the interquartile range.
11 Tanya measures the heights (in m) of a group of
Year 10 boys and girls and produces the following
five-point summaries for each data set.
Boys: 1.45, 1.56, 1.62, 1.70, 1.81
Girls: 1.50, 1.55, 1.62, 1.66, 1.73
a Draw a box plot for both sets of data and
display them on the same scale.
b What is the median of each distribution?
c What is the range of each distribution?
a Comment on the size of the sample. d What is the interquartile range for each
b Display the data as a back-to-back stem plot. distribution?
c Compare the heights of the boys and girls. e Comment on the spread of the heights among
9 The stem plot below is used to display the number the boys and the girls.
of vehicles sold by the Ford and Holden dealerships 12 The box plots below show the average daily sales
in a Sydney suburb each week for a three-month of cold drinks at the school canteen in summer and
period. winter.
Key: 1 | 5 = 15 vehicles
Leaf■ Stem Leaf■ Summer
Ford Holden
74 0 39 Winter
952210 1 111668
8544 2 2279 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Daily sales
of cold
0 3 5 drinks

a Calculate the range of sales in both summer

and winter.
b Calculate the interquartile range of the sales in
both summer and winter.
c Comment on the relationship between the two
data sets, both in terms of measures of location
and measures of spread.
13 A movie theatre has taken a survey of the ages of
people at a showing of two of their movies. The
results are shown in these box plots.
Movie A
Movie B
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Age
a Find the mean and the median age of the

people in this sample.
b Group the data into class intervals of
10 (0–9 etc) and complete the frequency
distribution table.
c Use the frequency distribution table to estimate
the mean age.
d Calculate the cumulative frequency and, hence,
plot the ogive.
e Estimate the median age from the ogive.
f Compare the mean and median of the original
data in part a with the estimates of the mean
and the median obtained for the grouped data
in parts c and e.
g Were the estimates good enough? Explain your
Which of the following conclusions could be
answer.
drawn based on the above information?
A Movie A attracts an older audience than 2 The typing speed (words per minute) was
Movie B. recorded for a group of Year 8 and Year 10
B Movie B attracts an older audience than students. The results are displayed in this ■
Movie A. back-to-back stem plot.
C Movie A appeals to a wider age group than
Movie B. Key: 2 | 6 = 26 wpm
D Movie B appeals to a wider age group than Leaf■ Stem Leaf■
Movie A. Year 8 Year 10
E More people went to Movie A. 99 0
9865420 1 79
problem solving 988642100 2 23689
9776410 3 02455788
1 A sample of 30 people was selected at random 86520 4 1258899
from those attending a local swimming pool. ■ 5 03578
Their ages (in years) were recorded as follows: 6 003
19, 7, 58, 41, 17, 23, 62, 55, 40, 37, 32, 29, 21, 18,
16, 10, 40, 36, 33, 59, 65, 68, 15, 9, 20, 29, 38, 24, Write a report comparing the typing speeds of the
10, 30. two groups.

3 These■parallel■box■plots■show■the■number■of■ 5 There■has■been■a■rise■in■supermarket-own■brands■
weekly■house■sales■by■two■real■estate■agencies■over■ in■Australia.■These■are■commonly■available■in■
a■3-month■period. supermarkets■like■Woolworths,■Coles■and■Aldi.■It■
has■been■said■that■these■brands■account■for■almost■
HJ Looker one-quarter■of■all■grocery■sales.■It■has■also■been■
claimed■that■the■quality■of■supermarket-own■brands■
Hane & Roarne is■comparable■with■the■equivalent■market-leading■
brand,■at■a■much■reduced■cost.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of Assume■you■are■planning■undertake■a■study■
weekly sales
of■a■particular■grocery■line■(e.g.,■baked■beans,■
Prepare■a■report■to■compare■the■performance■of■ breakfast■cereal,■……).■Write■a■plan■of■how■you■
the■two■agencies. would■undertake■this■study.
4 This■taste■test■on■corn■chips■appeared■in■a■newspaper. eBook plus
TasTe TesT: corn chips Interactivities

int-2867
Byron Bay Chilli Co. Corn chips
230g $3.40 ($1.48 per 100g) Word search Chapter 15
• Made in Australia int-2865
• Fat 24.9g/100g Crossword Chapter 15
• Saturated fat 11.8g/100g int-2866
• Sodium 44mg/100g
Verdict: Crisp, thick chips with fresh
corn flavour and low sodium content. No
preservatives, no GM corn. Put Byron Bay in
the title and things cost more!
CCs Corn Chips
200g $2.69 ($1.34 per 100g)
• Made in Australia
• Fat 24.4g/100g
• Saturated fat 10.6g/100g
• Sodium 550 mg/100g
Verdict: Chips are quite thin and very salty to
taste. Very high sodium content.
IGA Black and Gold Plain Corn chips
230g $1.99 (87 cents per 100g)
• Fat 24.9g/100g
• Saturated fat 11.8g/100g
Verdict: Cheap in comparison and quite nice.
A good budget option as they are as good as the
popular branded ones.
Doritos Corn Chips
200g $2.99 ($1.50 per 100g)
• Fat 23.2g/100g
• Saturated Fat 11.2g/100g
Verdict: Very crisp and fresh, but really no better
than the home brand which is $1 cheaper.
Source: The Sunday Mail, 4 Apr. 2010, p. 26.

Comment■on■the■information■displayed.

Chapter opener Digital docs (page 518)
•■ Activity■15-C-1■(doc-5161):■Collecting■and■analysing■
Digital doc
data
•■ Hungry■brain■activity■Chapter■15■(doc-5336)■
•■ Activity■15-C-2■(doc-5162):■More■collecting■and■
(page 497)
analysing■data
Are you ready? •■ Activity■15-C-3■(doc-5163):■Detailed■collecting■and■
Digital docs (page 498) analysing■data
•■ SkillSHEET■15.1■(doc-5337):■Determining■
suitability■of■questions■for■a■survey
•■ SkillSHEET■15.2■(doc-5338):■Finding■proportions Digital docs
•■ SkillSHEET■15.3■(doc-5339):■Distinguishing■ •■ Activity■15-D-1■(doc-5164):■Analysing■reports■
between■types■of■data (page 525)
•■ SkillSHEET■15.4■(doc-5340):■Reading■bar■ •■ Activity■15-D-2■(doc-5165):■Analysing■reports■in■
graphs depth■(page 525)
•■ SkillSHEET■15.5■(doc-5341):■Determining■ •■ Activity■15-D-3■(doc-5166):■Analysing■reports■in■
independent■and■dependent■variables greater■depth■(page 525)
•■ WorkSHEET■15.2■(doc-5343):■Statistics■in■the■media■
15A Populations and samples (page 526)
Digital docs
Chapter review
•■ Activity■15-A-1■(doc-5155):■Populations■and■samples■
(page 502) Interactivities (page 532)
•■ Activity■15-A-2■(doc-5156):■More■populations■and■ •■ Test■yourself■Chapter■15■(int-2867):■Take■the■end-of-
samples■(page 502) chapter■test■to■test■your■progress■
•■ Activity■15-A-3■(doc-5157):■In■depth■populations■ •■ Word■search■Chapter■15■(int-2865):■an■interactive■
and■samples■(page 502) word■search■involving■words■associated■with■this■
•■ WorkSHEET■15.1■(doc-5342):■Populations■and■ chapter
samples■(page 503) •■ Crossword■Chapter■15■(int-2866):■an■interactive■
15B Primary and secondary data chapter
•■ Activity■15-B-1■(doc-5158):■Data■collection■ To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
•■ Activity■15-B-2■(doc-5159):■Further■data■collection www.jacplus.com.au
•■ Activity■15-B-3■(doc-5160):■Advanced■collection
15C Evaluating inquiry methods and statistical
reports
Interactivity
•■ Compare■statistical■reports■(int-2790)■(page 511)

eBook plus
ict activity
Tuvalu■Island■in■the■Pacifi■c■Ocean,■to■announce■
that■they■are■abandoning■their■homeland■due■to■
rising■sea■levels.■In■Sydney,■many■well■known■
suburbs■could■be■threatened■by■rising■sea■levels■in■
climate change the■future,■including■Caringbah,■Kurnell,■Cromer,■
SEARCHLIGHT ID: PRO-0100 Manly■Vale,■Newcastle,■the■central■coast,■Homebush■
Scenario Bay,■Newington■Silverwater,■Arncliffe,■Marrickville■
and■Sydney■Airport.■Climate■change■could■cause■
Climate■change■is■upon■us■and■has■become■one■of■
the■extinction■of■many■species■as■ecosystems■are■
the■great■challenges■facing■humanity.■Our■fossil■
damaged■by■rising■temperatures.■
fuel■driven■economies■are■producing■large■volumes■
In■order■to■address■these■apocalyptic■issues,■we■
of■greenhouse■gases■(water■vapour,■carbon■dioxide,■
need■to■understand■the■role■of■human■activity■in■
methane■and■ozone)■that■are■warming■the■planet.■
climate■change.■It■will■be■your■job■to■investigate■and■
As■our■planet■heats■up,■the■ice■sheets■at■the■poles■
understand■the■relationships■that■underpin■global■
slowly■melt,■causing■sea■levels■to■rise.■Islands■in■
warming.■You■can■then■make■recommendations■to■our■
the■Pacifi■c■Ocean■are■already■being■overcome■by■
political■leaders■and■take■action■yourself■to■help■save■
water,■leading■the■inhabitants■of■islands,■such■as■
our■planet.

Task ■■You■must■have■a■gmail■
You■will■need■to■analyse■real data sets■to■develop■a■ account■and■internet■ SUGGESTED
mathematical■understanding■of■climate■change■issues.■ access■to■use■the■ SOFTWARE
• Microsoft Excel
The■analysis■will■involve■the■use■of■scatter■plots,■box- Google■data■tools.
• Geogebra
and-whisker■plots■and■fi■ve■number■summaries.■Scatter■ ■■ You■will■need■ • Internet connection
plots■will■be■used■to■investigate■and■comment■on■ Microsoft■Excel■and■ • Internet browser
relationships■between■two■climate■change■variables.■ GeoGebra■installed■ with Adobe Flash
Data■sets■will■be■compared■using■box-and-whisker■ on■your■computer. player installed.
plots,■dot■plots■and■histograms.■Environmental■data■ Go■to■projectsPLUS■ • Use the World Bank
on■your■eBook,■set■ weblink in your
will■be■graphed,■such■that■the■independent■variable■
eBookPLUS to locate
is■time.■At■the■end■of■your■project,■your■improved■ up■a■group■and■then■
banks of data in
mathematical■understanding■of■climate■change■will■ open■the■Media Centre■ Excel form.
allow■you■to■make■key■recommendations■on■how■we■ to■locate■everything■
can■meet■the■environmental■challenges■of■the■future.■ you■need.
■■ Open■the■Word■documents■titled■Lesson■1,■
Process Lesson■2■etc.■Follow■the■instructions■in■each■
You■will■use■Microsoft Excel,■Google Fusion Tables■ document■to■complete■your■project.
and■Google Public Data Explorer■to■investigate■ ■■ At■various■stages■of■your■project,■you■will■need■to■
global■environmental■data. access■data■sets■in■Microsoft■Excel■fi■les.
Ict activity — projectsplus 535

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA • MONEY AND FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS
16
16A Purchasing goods
16B Buying on terms
16C Successive discounts
16D Compound interest
16E Depreciation
16F Loan repayments
WHAT DO YOU KNOW ?

1 List what you know about financial
maths. Create a concept map to show
your list.
Financial maths then with a small group.

that shos your class’s knowledge of
financial maths.
eBook plus
Digital doc
Chapter 16
doc-5344
OPENING QUESTION
Which is the better interest rate —

6.25% p.a. simple interest, or 6% p.a.
compound interest?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 537 15/05/12 12:40 PM

Are you ready?

eBook plus
Converting a percentage to a decimal
1 Convert each of the following percentages to a decimal.
Digital doc
a 24%
SkillSHEET 16.1
doc-5345 b 17.5%
c 3%
3
d 9 4 %
eBook plus
Finding simple interest
2 Find the simple interest earned on an investment of:
Digital doc
a $6000 at 7% p.a. for 5 years
SkillSHEET 16.2
doc-5346 b $14 000 at 9.5% p.a. for 8 years
c $100 000 at 7.6% p.a. for 3 years
d $45 000 at 3.5% p.a. for 15 months.
eBook plus
Finding a percentage of a quantity (money)
Digital doc
a 15% of $200
SkillSHEET 16.3
doc-5347 b 8% of $540
c 2.5% of $44
1
d 6 2 % of $1250
eBook plus
Finding percentage discount
4 Find the percentage discount given on each of the following.
Digital doc
a Normal price $90, sale price $72
SkillSHEET 16.4
doc-5348 b Normal price $450, sale price $427.50
c Normal price $1750, sale price $1400
d Normal price $5920, sale price $4000
eBook plus
Decreasing a quantity by a percentage
5 Find the purchase price of each item after a discount is allowed on the marked price.
Digital doc
a $2300 with a 10% discount
SkillSHEET 16.5
doc-5349 b $590.00 with a 25% discount
c $896.00 with a 12.5% discount
1
d $5800 with a 6 4 % discount
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 538 15/05/12 12:40 PM


■■ There are many different payment options when purchasing major goods, such as flat screen
televisions and computers. Payment options include:
•• cash •• credit card •• lay-by
•• deferred payment •• buying on terms •• loan.
■■ The cost of purchasing an item can vary depending on the method of payment used.
■■ Some methods of payment involve borrowing money and, as such, mean that interest is
charged on the money borrowed.
■■ The simple interest formula can be used to calculate the interest charged on borrowed money,
P ×r ×T
I=
100
where: I is the simple interest ($)
P is the principal or amount borrowed or invested ($)
r is the rate of interest per time period
T is the time for which the money is invested or borrowed.
If T is in years, then r is the rate of interest per annum (% p.a.).
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the simple interest on $4000 invested at 4.75% p.a. for 4 years.
THINK WRITE
P ×r ×T
1 Write the formula and the known values of the I= , where P = $4000, r = 4.75%, T = 4
variables. 100
$4000 × 4.75 × 4
2 Substitute known values to find I. I=
100
3 Calculate the value of I. = $760
■■ What are the ways of purchasing the item shown in the advertisement below?
120 c m HD T V

■
5 year
ty
warran
■■ High definition
■■ HDMI ports
■■ 16 : 9 aspect ratio
■■ 1080i
$1200
Chapter 16 Financial maths 539
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 539 15/05/12 12:40 PM

Payment options
Cash
■■ With cash, the marked price is paid on the day of purchase with nothing more to pay.
■■ A cash-paying customer can often negotiate, with the retailer, to obtain a lower price for
the item.
Lay-by
■■ With lay-by, the item is held by the retailer while the customer makes regular payments
towards paying off the marked price.
■■ In some cases a small administration fee may be charged.
Credit cards
■■ With a credit card, the retailer is paid instantly from the credit card provider, generally a
financial lender.
■■ The customer takes immediate possession of the goods.
■■ The financial lender later bills the customer — collating all purchases over a monthly period
and billing the customer accordingly. The entire balance shown on the bill can often be
paid with no extra charge, but if the balance is not paid in full, interest is charged on the
outstanding amount, generally at a very high rate.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
The ticketed price of a mobile phone is $600. Andrew decides to purchase the phone using his credit
card. After 1 month the credit card company charges interest at a rate of 15% p.a. Calculate the
amount of interest that Andrew must pay on his credit card after 1 month.
THINK WRITE
P ×r ×T
1 Write the formula and the known values of the I=
1
variables. Remember that 1 month = 12 year. 100
1
P = $600, r = 15%, T = 12
600 × 15 × 1
2 Substitute known values to find I. I=
100 × 12
3 Calculate the value of I. = $7.50
REMEMBER
1. There are alternatives to consider when deciding on how to pay for a major purchase.
P ×r ×T
2. The simple interest formula is I = , where P = principal, r = interest rate and
T = time. 100
3. Credit card companies calculate interest on a monthly basis.
EXERCISE
FLUENCY
1 WE 1 Find the simple interest payable on a loan of $8000 at 6% p.a. for 5 years.
2 Find the simple interest on each of the following loans.
a $5000 at 9% p.a. for 4 years b $4000 at 7.5% p.a. for 3 years
1 1
c $12 000 at 6.4% p.a. for 2 years d $6000 at 8% p.a. for 1 2 years
2
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 540 15/05/12 12:40 PM

3 Find the simple interest on each of the following investments.

INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS a $50 000 at 6% p.a. for 6 months b $12 500 at 12% p.a. for 1 month
c $7500 at 15% p.a. for 3 months d $4000 at 18% p.a. for 18 months
eBook plus
4 Calculate the monthly interest charged on each of the following outstanding credit card
Activity 16-A-1 balances.
Simple interest a $1500 at 15% p.a. b $4000 at 16.5% p.a.
doc-8488 c $2750 at 18% p.a. d $8594 at 17.5% p.a.
Activity 16-A-2
e $5690 at 21% p.a.
Harder simple
interest
doc-8489 UNDERSTANDING
Activity 16-A-3
5 WE2 The ticketed price of a mobile phone is $800. Elena decides to purchase the phone using
Tricky simple interest
doc-8490 her credit card. After 1 month the credit card company charges interest at a rate of 15% p.a.
Calculate the amount of interest that Elena must pay on her credit card after 1 month.
6 Reece decides to purchase a new stereo system using her credit card. The ticketed price of the
eBook plus
stereo system is $900. When Reece’s credit card statement arrives, it shows that she will pay
Digital docs no interest if she pays the full amount by the due date.
SkillSHEET 16.1 a If Reece pays $200 by the due date, what is the balance owing?
doc-5345
b If the interest rate on the credit card is 18% p.a., how much interest will Reece be
charged in the month?
c What will be the balance that Reece owes at the end of the month?
d At this time Reece pays another $500 off her credit card. How much interest is Reece
then charged for the next month?
eBook plus
e Reece then pays off the entire remaining balance of her card. What was the true cost of
Digital doc the stereo including all the interest payments?
SkillSHEET 16.2
7 Carly has an outstanding balance of $3000 on her credit card for June and is charged interest at
doc-5346
a rate of 21% p.a.
a Calculate the amount of interest that Carly is charged for June.
b Carly makes the minimum repayment of $150 and makes no other purchases using the
credit card in the next month. Calculate the amount of interest that Carly will be charged
for July.
c If Carly had made a repayment of $1000 at the end of June, calculate the amount of
interest that Carly would then have been charged for July.
d How much would Carly save in July had she made the higher repayment at the end of
June?
8 Shane buys a new home theatre system using his credit card. The ticketed price of the bundle is
$7500. The interest rate that Shane is charged on his credit card is 18% p.a. Shane pays off the
credit card at a rate of $1000 each month.
a Complete the table below.
Month Balance owing Interest Payment Closing balance

January $7500.00 $112.50 $1000.00 $6612.50
February $6612.50 $99.19 $1000.00
March $1000.00
April $1000.00
May $1000.00
June $1000.00
July $1000.00
August $1015.86 $0
b What is the total amount of interest that Shane pays?
c What is the total cost of purchasing the home theatre system using his credit card?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 541 15/05/12 12:40 PM

REASONING
9 Design a table that compares the features of each method of payment: cash, lay-by and
credit card.
10 Choose the most appropriate method of payment for each of the described scenarios below.
Explain your choice.
Scenario 1: Andy has no savings and will not be paid for another two weeks. Andy would
like to purchase an HD television and watch
tomorrow’s football final. REFLECTION  
Scenario 2: In September Lena spots on special a home
What can you do to remember
theatre system which she would like to
the simple interest formula?
purchase for her family for Christmas.
16B Buying on terms

■■ When buying an item on terms:
•• a deposit is paid
•• the balance is paid off over an agreed period of time with set payments
•• the set payments may be calculated as a stated arbitrary amount or interest rate
•• total monies paid will exceed the initial cash price.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The cash price of a computer is $2400. It can also be purchased on the following terms: 25% deposit
and payments of $16.73 per week for 3 years. Calculate the total cost of the computer purchased on
terms as described.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the deposit. Deposit = 25% of $2400

= 0.25 ì $2400
= $600
2 Calculate the total of the weekly repayments. Total repayment = $16.73 ì 52 ì 3
= $2609.88
3 Add these two amounts together to find the total Total cost = $600 + $2609.88
cost. = $3209.88
■■ In some examples we need to be able to calculate the amount of each regular repayment using
the terms of the purchase.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A diamond engagement ring has a purchase price of $2500. Michael buys the ring on the following
terms: 10% deposit with the balance plus simple interest paid monthly at 12% p.a. over 3 years.
a Calculate the amount of the deposit.
b What is the balance owing after the initial deposit?
c Calculate the interest payable.
d What is the total amount to be repaid?
e Find the amount of each monthly repayment.
THINK WRITE
a Calculate the deposit by finding 10% of $2500. a Deposit = 10% of $2500
= 0.1 ì $2500
= $250
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 542 15/05/12 12:40 PM

b Find the balance owing by subtracting the b Balance = $2500 - $250

deposit from the purchase price. = $2250
P ×r ×T
c Find the simple interest on $2250 at 12% p.a. c I= , where P = $2250, r = 12%, T = 3
for 3 years. 100
= $2250 ì 0.12 ì 3
= $810
d Find the total repayment by adding the balance d Total repayment = $2250 + $810
owing with the interest payable. = $3060
e Find the monthly repayment by dividing the e Monthly repayment = $3060 ó 36
total repayment by the number of months over = $85
which the ring is to be repaid.
Loans
■■ Money can be borrowed from a bank or other financial institution, in order to pay cash for
an item.
■■ Interest is charged on the amount of money borrowed.
■■ Both the money borrowed and the interest charged must be paid back.
■■ The interest rate on a loan is generally lower than the interest rate offered on a credit card
or when buying on terms.
■■ The calculation of loan payments is done in the same way as for buying on terms; that
is, calculate the interest and add it to the principal before dividing into equal monthly
repayments.
REMEMBER
1. When buying an item on terms we usually pay a deposit with the balance plus interest
paid in weekly or monthly instalments over an agreed period of time.
2. To calculate the total cost of a purchase, add the deposit to the total of the regular
repayments.
3. The amount of each repayment is found by following these steps:
(a) Calculate the deposit.
(b) Find the balance owing by subtracting the deposit from the cash price.
(c) Find the total repayments by adding the interest to the balance owing.
(d) Divide the total amount to be repaid by the number of regular repayments that must
be made.
4. Loan repayments may be calculated in the same way; however, there is no deposit made.
EXERCISE
16B Buying on terms
FLUENCY
1 Calculate the total cost of a $3000 purchase given the terms described below.
a i 12% deposit and monthly payments of $60 over 5 years
ii 20% deposit and weekly payments of $20 over 3 years
iii 15% deposit and annual payments of $700 over 5 years
b Which of these options is the best deal for a purchaser?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 543 15/05/12 12:40 PM

2 Calculate the amount of each repayment for a $5000 purchase given the terms described
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS below.
a 10% deposit with the balance plus simple interest paid monthly at 15% p.a. over
eBook plus
5 years
Activity 16-B-1 b 10% deposit with the balance plus simple interest paid fortnightly at 12% over
Buying on terms 5 years
doc-8491 c 20% deposit with the balance plus simple interest paid monthly at 10% over
Activity 16-B-2 3 years
Buying on difficult
terms 3 Calculate the total repayment and the amount of each monthly repayment for each of the
doc-8492 following loans.
Activity 16-B-3 a $10 000 at 9% p.a. repaid over 4 years
Buying on tricky b $25 000 at 12% p.a. repaid over 5 years
terms
doc-8493 c $4500 at 7.5% p.a. repaid over 18 months
d $50 000 at 6% p.a. repaid over 10 years
e $200 000 at 7.2% p.a. repaid over 20 years
UNDERSTANDING
4 WE3 The cash price of a bedroom suite is $4200. The bedroom suite can be purchased on the
following terms: 20% deposit and weekly repayments of $43.94 for 2 years. Calculate the total
cost of the bedroom suite if you bought it on terms.
5 Guy purchases a computer that has a cash price of $3750 on the following terms: $500 deposit
with the balance plus interest paid over 2 years at $167.92 per month. What is the total amount
that Guy pays for the computer?
eBook plus
6 Robert wants to buy a used car with a cash price of $12 600. The dealer offers terms of 10%
Digital doc deposit and monthly repayments of $812.70 for 2 years.
SkillSHEET 16.3 a Calculate the amount of the deposit.
doc-5347 b Calculate the total amount to be paid in monthly repayments.
c What is the total amount Robert pays for the car?
d How much more than the cash price of the car does Robert pay? (This is the interest
charged by the dealer.)
7 Kylie wants to purchase an entertainment system that has a cash price of $5800. She purchases
the entertainment system on terms of no deposit and monthly repayments of $233.61 for
3 years.
a Calculate the total amount that Kylie pays for the entertainment system.
b Calculate the amount that Kylie pays in interest.
c Calculate the amount of interest that Kylie pays each year.
d Calculate this amount as a percentage of the cash price of the entertainment system.
8 WE4 A used car has a purchase price of $9500. Dayna buys the car on the following terms:
25% deposit with balance plus interest paid at 12% p.a. interest over 3 years.
b What is the balance owing?
9 A department store offers the following terms: one-third deposit with the balance plus interest
paid in equal, monthly instalments over 18 months. The interest rate charged is 9% p.a. Ming
buys a lounge suite with a ticketed price of $6000.
b What is the balance owing?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 544 15/05/12 12:40 PM

10 Calculate the monthly payment on each of the following items bought on terms.
(Hint: Use the steps shown in question 8.)
a Dining suite: cash price $2700, deposit 10%, interest rate
12% p.a., term 1 year
b Video camera: cash price $990,

deposit 20%, interest rate 15% p.a.,
term 6 months
c Car: cash price $16 500, deposit 25%,

interest rate 15% p.a., term 5 years
d Mountain bike: cash price $3200,

one-third deposit, interest rate 9% p.a.,
1
term 2 2 years
e Watch: cash price $675, no deposit, interest

rate 18% p.a., term 9 months
11 Fred wants to purchase his first car. He has saved $1000 as a deposit but the cost of the car is
$5000. Fred takes out a loan from the bank to cover the balance of the car plus $600 worth of
on-road costs.
a How much will Fred need to borrow from the bank?
b Fred takes the loan out over 4 years at 9% p.a. interest. How much interest will Fred need
to pay?
c What will be the amount of each monthly payment that Fred makes?
d What is the total cost of the car after paying off the loan, including the on-road costs?
Give your answer to the nearest $.
12 MC Kelly wants to borrow $12 000 for some home improvements. Which of the following
loans will lead to Kelly making the lowest total repayment?
A Interest rate 6% p.a. over 4 years B Interest rate 7% p.a. over 3 years
1
C Interest rate 5.5% p.a. over 3 2 years D Interest rate 6.5% p.a. over 5 years
E Interest rate 7.5% p.a. over 3 years
REASONING
13 MC Without completing any calculations explain which of the following loans will be the
best value for the borrower.
A Interest rate 8.2% p.a. over 5 years
B Interest rate 8.2% over 4 years
C Interest rate 8% over 6 years
D Interest rate 8% over 5 years
eBook plus
E Interest rate 8% over 4 years REFLECTION  
Digital doc 14 Explain how, when purchasing an item, making
WorkSHEET 16.1 When buying on terms, what arrangements
doc-5350
a deposit using existing savings and taking out are the most beneficial to the buyer?
a loan for the balance can be an advantage.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 545 15/05/12 12:40 PM

16C Successive discounts

■■ Consider the case of Tony who is a mechanic.
Tony purchases his hardware from Tradeways
hardware store, which is having a 10%-off
sale. Tradeways also offers a 5% discount to
tradespeople. Tony purchases hardware that
has a total value of $800. What price does
Tony pay for these supplies?
After the 10% discount, the price of the
supplies is
90% of $800 = 0.90 ì $800
= $720
The 5% trades discount is then applied.
95% of $720 = 0.95 ì $720
= $684
So the price Tony pays is $684.
Now let us consider what single discount Tony has actually received.
Amount of discount = $800 - $684
= $116
$116
Percentage discount = ì 100%
$800
= 14.50%
So we can conclude that the successive discounts of 10% followed by a further 5% is
equivalent to receiving a single discount of 14.50%.
■■ When two discounts are applied one after the other, the total discount is not the same as a
single discount found by adding the two percentages together.
■■ The order of calculating successive discounts does not affect the final answer.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
A furniture store offers a discount of 15% during a sale. A further 5% discount is then offered to
customers who pay cash.
a Find the price paid by Lily, who pays cash for a bedroom suite priced at $2500.
b What single percentage discount does Lily receive on the price of the bedroom suite?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Subtract 15% from 100% to find the a 100% - 15% = 85%

percentage paid.
2 Calculate 85% of the price. 85% of $2500 = 0.85 ì $2500
= $2125
3 Subtract 5% from 100% to find the next 100% - 5% = 95%
percentage paid.
4 Calculate 95% of $2125. 95% of $2125 = 0.95 ì $2125
= $2018.75
b 1 Calculate the amount of discount b Discount = $2500 – $2018.75
received. = $481.25
$481.25
2 Express the discount as a percentage of Percentage discount = ì 100%
the original marked price. $2500
= 19.25%
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 546 15/05/12 12:40 PM

■■ The single discount that is equivalent to successive discounts can also be worked out by
working out a percentage of a percentage, as shown in the worked example below.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Find the single percentage discount that is equivalent to successive discounts of 15% and 5%.
THINK WRITE
1 Subtract 15% from 100% to find the percentage paid 100% - 15% = 85%
after the first discount.
2 Subtract 5% from 100% to find the percentage paid 100% - 5% = 95%
after the second discount.
3 Find 95% of 85%. This is actually the percentage of 95% of 85% = 0.95 ì 0.85
the marked price that the customer pays. = 0.8075
= 80.75%
4 Subtract the percentage from 100% to find the single Discount = 100% - 80.75%
percentage discount. This answer should be less than = 19.25%
15% + 5%.
Note: The single percentage discount for successive discounts is always less than the sum of the
individual discounts.
REMEMBER
1. When two separate percentage discounts are given, they must be calculated one after
the other. Their order does not affect the final answer.
2. The single discount received is not the total of the two percentage discounts; rather, it
will always be slightly less.
EXERCISE
16C
13A Successive discounts
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 In each of the following, an item is reduced in price. Calculate the percentage discount, correct
eBook plus to 1 decimal place.
a A jumper, usually $29.95, is reduced to $24.95.
Activity 16-C-1
b A video game, usually $60, is reduced to $53.90.
Successive discounts
doc-8494 c A child’s bike, usually $158, is reduced to $89.
Activity 16-C-2 d A new car, usually $29 500, is reduced to $24 950.
Difficult successive e A plot of land, priced at $192 000, is reduced to
discounts $177 500 for a quick sale.
doc-8495
Activity 16-C-3
2 WE 6 Calculate the single percentage discount that is equivalent to
Tricky successive successive discounts of 15% and 10%.
discounts 3 MC The single percentage discount that is equivalent to
doc-8496
successive discounts of 10% and 20% is:
A 10%
B 18%
C 28%
D 30%
E 35%
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 547 16/05/12 1:46 PM

eBook plus
4 Find the single percentage discount that is equivalent to each of the following successive discounts.
a 15% and 20% b 12% and 8%
Digital doc c 10% and 7.5% d 50% and 15%
SkillSHEET 16.4
doc-5348 5 Calculate the single percentage discount that is equivalent to two successive 10% discounts.
UNDERSTANDING
6 WE 5 A supplier of electrical parts offers tradespeople a 20% trade discount. If accounts are
settled within 7 days, a further 5% discount is given.
eBook plus a Calculate the price paid by an electrician for parts to the value of $4000 if the account is
settled within 7 days.
Digital docs
SkillSHEET 16.5
b What single percentage discount does the electrician receive on the price of the electrical
doc-5349 parts?
SkillSHEET 16.6 7 At a confectionary wholesaler, customers have their accounts reduced by 10% if they are paid
doc-5351 within 7 days.
a Jacinta pays her $100 account within 7 days. How much does she actually pay?
b If customers pay cash, they receive a further 5% discount. How much would Jacinta pay
if she pays cash?
c By how much in total has her account been reduced?
d What is the single percentage discount equivalent to these successive discounts?
8 A fabric supplier offers discounts to fashion stores and a further discount if the store’s account
is paid with 14 days. ‘David’s Fashion Stores’ have ordered fabric to the value of $2000 from
the fabric supplier.
a If fashion stores receive a reduction of 8%, how much does ‘David’s Fashion Stores’ owe
on its account?
b This amount is reduced by a further 5% for payment within 14 days. How much needs to
be paid now?
c What has been the total reduction in the cost?
d What do the successive discounts of 8% and 5% equal as a single percentage discount?
9 Tony is a mechanic who wants to buy equipment worth $250 at a hardware store. Tony receives
15% off the marked price of all items and then a further 5% trade discount.
a Calculate the amount that is due after Tony is given the first 15% discount.
b From this amount, apply the trade discount of 5% to find the amount due.
c How much is the cash discount that Tony receives?
d Calculate the amount that would have been due had Tony received a single discount of
20%. Is this the same answer?
e Calculate the amount of cash discount that Tony receives as a percentage of the original bill.
f Would the discount have been the same had the 5% discount been applied before the 15%
discount?
g Calculate the single percentage discount that is equivalent to successive discounts of 10%
and 20%.
10 A car has a marked price of $25 000.
a Find the price paid for the car after successive discounts of 15%, 10% and 5%.
b What single percentage discount is equivalent to successive discounts of 15%, 10% and 5%?
REASONING
11 Is a 12.5% discount followed by a 2.5% discount, the same single discount as a 2.5% discount
followed by a 12.5% discount? Investigate and explain your answer giving mathematical
evidence.
12 Derive a mathematical formula to calculate the REFLECTION  
single discount (expressed as a decimal) In what situations might a successive
generated by two successive discounts, a and b discount be applied?
(expressed as decimals).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 548 15/05/12 12:40 PM


eBook plus
■■ Interest on the principal in a savings account, or short or long term deposit, is generally
calculated using compound interest rather than simple interest.
Interactivity ■■ When interest is added to the principal at regular intervals, increasing the balance of the
Compound
interest
account, and each successive interest payment is calculated on the new balance, it is called
int-2791 compound interest.
■■ Compound interest can be calculated by calculating simple interest one period at a time.
■■ The amount to which the initial investment grows is called the compounded value.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Kyna invests $8000 at 8% p.a. for 3 years with interest paid at the end of each year. Find the
compounded value of the investment by calculating the simple interest on each year separately.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the initial (first year) principal. Initial principal = $8000

2 Calculate the interest for the first year. Interest for year 1 = 8% of $8000
= $640
3 Calculate the principal for the second year by adding Principal for year 2 = $8000 + $640
the first year’s interest to the initial principal. = $8640
4 Calculate the interest for the second year. Interest for year 2 = 8% of $8640
= $691.20
5 Calculate the principal for the third year by adding Principal for year 3 = $8640 + $691.20
the second year’s interest to the second year’s = $9331.20
principal.
6 Calculate the interest for the third year. Interest for year 3 = 8% of $9331.20
= $746.50
7 Calculate the future value of the investment by Compounded value after 3 years
adding the third year’s interest to the third year’s = $9331.20 + $746.50
principal. = $10 077.70
■■ To calculate the actual amount of interest received, we subtract the initial principal from the
future value.
■■ In the example above, compound interest = $10 077.70 - $8000
= $2077.70
We can compare this with the simple interest earned at the same rate.
P ×r ×T
I=
100
8000 × 8 × 3
=
100
= $1920
■■ The table below shows a comparison between the interest earned on an investment of
$8000 earning 8% p.a. at both simple interest (I ) and compound interest (CI ) over an
eight year period.
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Total (I ) $640.00 $1280.00 $1920.00 $2560.00 $3200.00 $3840.00 $4480.00 $5120.00
Total (CI ) $640.00 $1331.20 $2077.70 $2883.91 $3754.62 $4694.99 $5710.59 $6807.44
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 549 15/05/12 12:40 PM

■■ We can develop a formula for the future value of an investment rather than do each example
by repeated use of simple interest. Consider Worked example 7. Let the compounded value
after each year, n, be An.
After 1 year, A1 = 8000 ì 1.08 (increasing $8000 by 8%)
After 2 years, A2 = A1 ì (1.08)
= 8000 ì 1.08 ì 1.08 (substituting the value of A1)
= 8000 ì 1.082
After 3 years, A3 = A2 ì 1.08
= 8000 ì 1.082 ì 1.08 (substituting the value of A2)
= 8000 ì 1.083
The pattern then continues such that the value of the investment after n years equals:
$8000 ì 1.08n.
■■ This can be generalised for any investment:
A = P(1 + R)n
where A = amount (or future value) of the investment
P = principal (or present value)
R = interest rate per compounding period expressed as a decimal
n = number of compounding periods.
■■ To calculate the amount of compound interest (CI ) we then use the formula
CI = A - P
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
William has $14 000 to invest. He invests the money at 9% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded
annually.
a Use the formula A = P(1 + R)n to calculate the amount to which this investment will grow.
b Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the compound interest formula. a A = P(1 + R)n
2 Write down the values of P, R and n. P = $14 000, R = 0.09, n = 5

3 Substitute the values into the formula. A = $14 000 ì 1.095
4 Calculate. = $21 540.74
The investment will grow to $21 540.74.
b Calculate the compound interest earned. b CI = A - P
= $21 540.74 - $14 000
= $7540.74
The compound interest earned is $7540.74.
■■ In the above example, interest is paid annually.

■■ Interest can be paid more regularly — it may be paid six-monthly (twice a year),
quarterly (4 times a year), monthly or even daily. This is called the compounding period.
■■ The time and interest rate on an investment must reflect the compounding period. For
example, an investment over 5 years at 6% p.a. compounding quarterly will have:
n = 20 (5 ì 4) and R = 0.015 (6% ó 4).
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 550 15/05/12 12:40 PM

■■ To find n:
n = number of years ì compounding periods per year
■■ To find R:
R = interest rate per annum ó compounding periods per year
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Calculate the future value of an investment of $4000 at 6% p.a. for 2 years with interest
compounded quarterly.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the compound interest formula. A = P(1 + R)n

2 Write the values of P, R and n. P = $4000, R = 0.015, n = 8
3 Substitute the values into the formula. A = $4000 ì 1.0158
4 Calculate. = $4505.97
The future value of the investment is $4505.97.
REMEMBER
1. The future value of an investment under compound interest can be found by calculating
the simple interest for each year separately.
2. The compound interest formula is A = P(1 + R)n, where A is the amount to which the
investment grows and P is the principal or initial amount invested. The compound
interest earned is then calculated using the formula CI = A - P.
3. In the formula, n is the number of compounding periods over the term of the
investment:
n = number of years ì compounding periods per year.
4. In the formula, R is the interest rate (as a decimal) per compounding period:
R = interest rate per annum ó compounding periods per year.
EXERCISE
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 Use the formula A = P(1 + R)n to calculate the amount to which each of the following
eBook plus investments will grow with interest compounded annually.
a $3000 at 4% p.a. for 2 years
Activity 16-D-1
b $9000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years
Compound interest
puzzle 1 c $16 000 at 9% p.a. for 5 years
doc-8497 d $12 500 at 5.5% p.a. for 3 years
Activity 16-D-2 e $9750 at 7.25% p.a. for 6 years
Compound interest f $100 000 at 3.75% p.a. for 7 years
puzzle 2
doc-8498 2 Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments.
Activity 16-D-3 a $870 for 2 years at 3.50% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
Compound interest 1
puzzle 3
b $9500 for 2 years at 4.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
2
doc-8499 1
c $148 000 for 3 2 years at 9.2% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
d $16 000 for 6 years at 8% p.a. with interest compounded monthly
e $130 000 for 25 years at 12.95% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 551 15/05/12 12:40 PM

UNDERSTANDING
3 WE 7 Danielle invests $6000 at 10% p.a. for 4 years with interest paid at the end of each year.
Find the compounded value of the investment by calculating the simple interest on each year
separately.
4 Ben is to invest $13 000 for 3 years at 8% p.a. with interest paid annually. Find the amount of
interest earned by calculating the simple interest for each year separately.
5 WE 8 Simon has $2000 to invest. He invests the money at 6% p.a. for 6 years with interest
compounded annually.
a Use the formula A = P(1 + R)n to calculate the amount to which this investment will grow.
b Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
6 WE 9 Calculate the future value of an investment of $14 000 at 7% p.a. for 3 years with
interest compounded quarterly.
7 A passbook savings account pays interest of 0.3% p.a. Jill has $600 in such an account.
Calculate the amount in Jill’s account after 3 years, if interest is compounded quarterly.
8 Damien is to invest $35 000 at 7.2% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded
six-monthly. Calculate the compound interest earned on the investment.
9 Sam invests $40 000 in a one-year fixed deposit at an interest rate of 7% p.a. with interest
compounding monthly.
a Convert the interest rate of 7% p.a. to a rate per month.
b Calculate the value of the investment upon maturity.
10 MC A sum of $7000 is invested for 3 years at the rate of 5.75% p.a., compounded quarterly.
The interest paid on this investment, to the nearest dollar, is:
A $1208 B $1308 C $8208 D $8308 E $8508
11 MC After selling their house and paying off their mortgage, Mr and Mrs Fernhill have
$73 600. They plan to invest it at 7% p.a. with interest compounded annually. The value of
their investment will first exceed $110 000 after:
A 5 years B 6 years C 8 years D 10 years E 15 years
12 MC Maureen wishes to invest $15 000 for a period of 7 years. The following investment
alternatives are suggested to her. The best investment would be:
A simple interest at 8% p.a.
B compound interest at 6.7% p.a. with interest compounded annually
C compound interest at 6.6% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly
D compound interest at 6.5% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly
E compound interest at 6.4% p.a. with interest compounded monthly
13 MC An amount is to be invested for 5 years and compounded semi-annually at 7% p.a.
Which of the following investments will have a future value closest to $10 000?
A $700 B $6500 C $7400 D $9000 E $9900
14 Jake invests $120 000 at 9% p.a. for a 1-year term. For such large investments interest is
compounded daily.
a Calculate the daily percentage interest rate, correct to 4 decimal places.
Use 1 year = 365 days.
b Calculate the compounded value of Jake’s investment on maturity.
c Calculate the amount of interest paid on this investment.
d Calculate the extra amount of interest earned compared with the case where the interest is
calculated only at the end of the year.
REASONING
15 Daniel has $15 500 to invest. An investment over a 2-year term will pay interest of 7% p.a.
a Calculate the compounded value of Daniel’s investment if the compounding period is:
i 1 year ii 6 months iii 3 months iv monthly.
b Explain why it is advantageous to have interest compounded on a more frequent basis.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 552 15/05/12 12:40 PM

16 Jasmine invests $6000 for 4 years at 8% p.a. simple interest. David also invests $6000 for
4 years, but his interest rate is 7.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly.
a Calculate the value of Jasmine’s investment on maturity.
b Show that the compounded value of David’s investment is greater than Jasmine’s
investment.
c Explain why David’s investment is worth more than Jasmine’s investment despite
receiving a lower rate of interest.
17 Quan has $20 000 to invest over the next 3 years. He has the choice of investing his money at
6.25% p.a. simple interest or 6% p.a. compound interest.
a Calculate the amount of interest that Quan will earn if he selects the simple interest
option.
b Calculate the amount of interest that Quan will earn if the interest is compounded:
i annually ii six monthly iii quarterly.
c Clearly Quan’s decision will depend on the compounding period. Under what conditions
should Quan accept the lower interest rate on the compound interest investment?
eBook plus d Consider an investment of $10 000 at 8% p.a. simple interest over 5 years. Use a trial-
and-error method to find an equivalent rate of
Digital doc compound interest over the same period.
WorkSHEET 16.2 REFLECTION  
doc-5352
e Will this equivalent rate be the same if we change:
How is compound interest
i the amount of the investment?
calculated differently to simple
ii the period of the investment? interest?
16E Depreciation
eBook plus
■■ Depreciation is the reduction in the value of an item as it ages over a period of time. For
example, a car that is purchased new for $45 000 will be worth less than that amount 1 year
eLesson later and less again each year.
What is
depreciation?
■■ Depreciation is usually calculated as a percentage of the yearly value of the item.
eles-0182 ■■ To calculate the depreciated value of an item use the formula
A = P(1 - R)n
where A is the depreciated value of the item, P is the initial value of the item, R is the
percentage that the item depreciates each year expressed as a decimal and n is the number of
years that the item has been depreciating for.
■■ This formula is almost the same as the compound interest formula except that it subtracts a
percentage of the value each year instead of adding.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
A farmer purchases a tractor for $115 000. The value of the tractor depreciates by 12% p.a. Find the
value of the tractor after 5 years.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the depreciation formula. A = P(1 - R)n

2 Write the values of P, R and n. P = $115 000, R = 0.12, n = 5
3 Substitute the values into the formula. A = $115 000 ì (0.88)5
4 Calculate. = $60 689.17
The value of the tractor after 5 years
is $60 689.17.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 553 15/05/12 12:40 PM

eBook plus
■■ In many cases, depreciation can be a tax deduction.
■■ When the value of an item falls below a certain value it is said to be written off. That is to say
Interactivity that, for tax purposes, the item is considered to be worthless.
Different rates
of depreciation
■■ Trial-and-error methods can be used to calculate the length of time that the item will take to
int-1155 reduce to this value.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
A truck driver buys a new prime mover for $500 000. The prime mover depreciates at the rate of
15% p.a. and is written off when its value falls below $100 000. How long will it take for the prime
mover to be written off?
THINK WRITE
1 Make an estimate of, say, n = 5. Use the depreciation Consider n = 5.

formula to find the value of the prime mover after A = P(1 - R)n
5 years. = $500 000 ì (0.85)5
= $221 852.66
2 Because the value will still be greater than $100 000, try a Consider n = 10.
larger estimate, say, n = 10. A = P(1 - R)n
= $500 000 ì (0.85)10
= $98 437.20
3 As the value is below $100 000, check n = 9. Consider n = 9.
A = P(1 - R)n
= $500 000 ì (0.85)9
= $115 808.47
4 Because n = 10 is the first time that the value falls below The prime mover will be written off in
$100 000, conclude that it takes 10 years to be written off. 10 years.
REMEMBER
1. Depreciation is the reducing value of a major asset over time.

2. Depreciation is usually calculated as a percentage of the yearly value of the item.
3. The depreciation formula is A = P(1 - R)n, where A is the depreciated value of the
item, P is the initial value, R is the percentage depreciation per annum expressed as a
decimal and n is the number of years that the item has been depreciating for.
EXERCISE
16E Depreciation
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 Calculate the depreciated value of an item for the initial value, depreciation rate and time, in
eBook plus years, given below.
a Initial value of $30 000 depreciating at 16% p.a. over 4 years
Activity 16-E-1
b Initial value of $5000 depreciating at 10.5% p.a. over 3 years
Depreciation
doc-8500 c Initial value of $12 500 depreciating at 12% p.a. over 5 years
Activity 16-E-2
Harder depreciation UNDERSTANDING
doc-8501
2 WE 10 A laundromat installs washing machines and clothes dryers to the value of
$54 000. If the value of the equipment depreciates at a rate of 20% p.a., find the value of the
equipment after 5 years.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 554 15/05/12 12:40 PM

3 A drycleaner purchases a new machine for $38 400. The machine depreciates at 16% p.a.
INDIVIDUAL
PATHWAYS a Calculate the value of the machine after 4 years.
b Find the amount by which the machine has depreciated over this period of time.
eBook plus
4 A tradesman values his new tools at $10 200. For tax purposes, their value depreciates at a rate
Activity 16-E-3 of 15% p.a.
Tricky depreciation a Calculate the value of the tools after 6 years.
doc-8502
b Find the amount by which the value of the tools has depreciated over these 6 years.
c Calculate the percentage of the initial value that the tools are worth after 6 years.
5 A taxi is purchased for $52 500 with its value depreciating at 18% p.a.
a Find the value of the taxi after 10 years.
b Calculate the accumulated depreciation over this period.
6 A printer depreciates the value of its printing presses by 25% p.a. Printing presses are
purchased new for $2.4 million. What is the value of the printing presses after:
a 1 year b 5 years c 10 years?

7 MC A new computer workstation costs $5490. With 26% p.a. reducing-value depreciation,
the workstation’s value at the end of the third year will be close to:
A $1684 B $2225 C $2811 D $3082 E $3213
8 MC The value of a new photocopier is $8894. Its value depreciates by 26% in the first year,
21% in the second year and 16% reducing balance in the remaining 7 years. The value of the
photocopier after this time, to the nearest dollar, is:
A $1534 B $1851 C $2624 D $3000 E $3504
9 MC A company was purchased 8 years ago for $2.6 million. With a depreciation rate of
12% p.a., the total amount by which the company has depreciated is closest to:
A $0.6 million B $1.0 million C $1.7 million
D $2.0 million E $2.3 million
10 MC Equipment is purchased by a company and is depreciated at the rate of 14% p.a. The
number of years that it will take for the equipment to reduce to half of its initial value is:
A 4 years B 5 years C 6 years
D 7 years E 8 years
11 MC An asset, bought for $12 300, has a value of $6920 after 5 years. The depreciation rate is
close to:
A 10.87% B 16.76% C 18.67%
D 21.33% E 27.34%
12 WE 11 A farmer buys a light aeroplane for crop-dusting. The aeroplane costs $900 000. The
aeroplane depreciates at the rate of 18% p.a. and is written off when its value falls below
$150 000. How long will it take for the aeroplane to be written off?
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 555 15/05/12 12:40 PM

13 A commercial airline buys a jumbo jet for $750 million. The value of this aircraft depreciates
at a rate of 12.5% p.a.
a Find the value of the plane after 5 years, correct to the nearest million dollars.
b How many years will it take for the value of the jumbo jet to fall below $100 million?
REASONING
14 A machine purchased for $48 000 will have a value of $3000 in 9 years.
a Use a trial-and-error method to find the rate at which the machine is depreciating per
annum.
n
b Consider the equation x = a n , a = x . Verify your answer to part a using this relationship.
15 Camera equipment purchased for $150 000 will
have a value of $9000 in 5 years. REFLECTION  
Find the rate of annual depreciation using trial
How and why is the formula for
and error first and then algebraically with the depreciation different to compound
n
relationship, ‘if x = a then a = n x ’. Compare interest?
and contrast each method.
16F Loan repayments

■■ The simple interest formula is used to calculate the interest on a flat rate loan.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Calculate the interest payable on a loan of $5000 to be repaid at 12% p.a. flat interest over 4 years.
THINK WRITE
P ×r ×T
1 Write the simple interest formula. I=
100
2 List the known values. P = $5000, r = 12%, T = 4
5000 × 12 × 4
3 Substitute the values into the formula. I=
100
4 Calculate the interest. = $2400
The interest payable is $2400.
■■ The total amount that would have to be repaid under the loan in Worked example 12 is $7400,
and this could be made in 4 equal payments of $1850. With a flat-rate loan, the interest is
calculated on the initial amount borrowed regardless of the amount of any repayments made.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 556 15/05/12 12:40 PM

■■ In contrast, taking a reducible-interest-rate loan means that each annual amount of interest is
based on the amount owing at the time.
■■ Consider the same loan of $5000, this time at 12% p.a. reducible interest and an agreed
annual repayment of $1850. At the end of each year, the outstanding balance is found
by adding the amount of interest payable and then subtracting the amount of each
repayment.
Interest for year 1 = 12% of $5000
= 0.12 ì $5000
= $600
Balance for year 2 = $5000 + $600 - $1850
= $3750
Interest for year 2 = 12% ì $3750
= 0.12 ì $3750
= $450
Balance for year 3 = $3750 + $450 - $1850
= $2350
= 0.12 ì $2350
= $282
Balance for year 4 = $2350 + $282 - $1850
= $782
= 0.12 ì $782
= $93.84
I n the fourth year, a payment of only $875.84 is required to fully repay the loan. The total
amount of interest charged on this loan is $1425.84, which is $974.16 less than the same loan
calculated using flat-rate interest.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Calculate the amount of interest paid on a loan of $10 000 that is charged at 9% p.a. reducible
interest over 3 years. The loan is repaid in two annual instalments of $4200 and the balance at the
end of the third year.
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate the interest for the first year. Interest for year 1 = 9% of $10 000
= 0.09 ì $10 000
= $900
2 Calculate the balance at the start of the second year. Balance for year 2 = $10 000 + $900 - $4200
= $6700
3 Calculate the interest for the second year. Interest for year 2 = 9% of $6700
= 0.09 ì $6700
= $603
4 Calculate the balance at the start of the third year. Balance for year 3 = $6700 + $603 - $4200
= $3103
5 Calculate the interest for the third year. Interest for year 3 = 9% of $3103
= 0.09 ì $3103
= $279.27
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6 Calculate the amount of the final repayment and Balance remaining at end of year 3
ensure that the loan is fully repaid. = $3103 + $279.27
= $3382.27
7 Find the total amount of interest paid by adding each Interest charged = $900 + $603 + $279.27
year’s amount. = $1782.27
REMEMBER
1. Loans can be charged by calculating either flat (simple) interest or by reducible

interest.
2. To calculate the cost of a flat-rate interest loan, use the simple interest formula.
3. To calculate the cost of a loan at a reducible interest rate, calculate the amount of
interest payable each year and then recalculate the outstanding balance of the loan after
each payment is made before calculating the next year’s interest.
EXERCISE
16F Loan repayments
INDIVIDUAL FLUENCY
PATHWAYS 1 WE 12 Calculate the interest payable on a loan of $10 000 to be repaid at 15% p.a. flat-rate
eBook plus interest over 3 years.
2 Calculate the interest payable on each of the following loans.
Activity 16-F-1
Repaying a loan a $20 000 at 8% p.a. flat-rate interest over 5 years
doc-8503 b $15 000 at 11% p.a. flat-rate interest over 3 years
Activity 16-F-2 c $7500 at 12.5% p.a. flat-rate interest over 2 years
Harder loan d $6000 at 9.6% p.a. flat-rate interest over 18 months
repayments
doc-8504
e $4000 at 21% p.a. flat-rate interest over 6 months
Activity 16-F-3
Difficult loan UNDERSTANDING
repayments
doc-8505
3 Larry borrows $12 000 to be repaid at 12% p.a. flat rate of interest over 4 years.
a Calculate the interest that Larry must pay.
b What is the total amount that Larry must repay?
c If Larry repays the loan in equal annual instalments, calculate the amount of each
repayment.
4 WE 13 Calculate the amount of interest paid on a loan of $12 000 that is charged at 10% p.a.
reducible interest over 3 years. The loan is repaid in two annual instalments of $5000 and the
balance at the end of the third year.
5 Calculate the total amount that is to be repaid on a loan of $7500 at 12% p.a. reducible interest
over 3 years with two annual repayments of $3400 and the balance repaid at the end of the
third year.
6 Brian needs to borrow $20 000. He finds a loan that charges 15% p.a. flat-rate interest over
4 years.
a Calculate the amount of interest that Brian must pay on this loan.
b Calculate the total amount that Brian must repay on this loan.
c Brian repays the loan in 4 equal annual instalments. Calculate the amount of each
instalment.
d Brian can borrow the $20 000 at 15% p.a. reducible interest instead of flat-rate interest. If
Brian makes the same annual repayment at the end of the first three years and the balance
in the fourth, calculate the amount of money that Brian will save.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 558 15/05/12 12:40 PM

7 Georgia borrows $12 000 at 10% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years. Georgia repays the loan
in two equal annual payments of $4900 and the balance at the end of the third year.
a Calculate the amount of interest that Georgia must pay on this loan.
b Georgia finds that she can afford to repay $5200 each year. How much does Georgia save
by making this higher repayment?
8 Frank borrows $25 000 at 12% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years with two annual repayments
of $11 000 and the balance repaid at the end of the third year.
a Find the total amount of interest that Frank pays on this loan.
b What is the average amount of interest charged on this loan per year?
c By writing your answer to part b as a percentage of the initial amount borrowed, find the
equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan.
9 Felicity borrows $8000 at 8% p.a. reducible interest over 3 years, repaying the loan in
two annual payments of $3200 and the balance repaid at the end of the third year.
a Using the method described in question 8, find the equivalent flat rate of interest.
b Find the equivalent flat rate of interest charged if Felicity increases the amount of each
annual repayment to $4000.
REASONING
10 Natalie has the choice of two loans of $15 000. Each loan is to be taken over a three-year term
with annual repayments of $6350. Loan A is charged at 9% flat-rate interest; Loan B is charged
at 10% reducible interest. As Natalie’s financial planner, construct a detailed report to advise
Natalie which loan would be better for her to take.
eBook plus
11 Chris borrows $13 500 at 10% p.a. reducible interest
Digital doc over 2 years, making an annual repayment of $7800 and REFLECTION  
WorkSHEET 16.3 the balance repaid at the end of the second year. Show How does a loan at reducible
doc-5353 that if interest is added every six months, at which interest compare with the same
time a repayment of $3900 is made, a saving of loan at flat-rate interest?
approximately $350 is made.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 559 15/05/12 12:40 PM

Summary
Purchasing goods
■■ There are alternatives to consider when deciding on how to pay for a major purchase.
P ×r ×T
■■ The simple interest formula is I = , where P = principal, r = interest rate and
T = time. 100
■■ Credit card companies calculate interest on a monthly basis.
Buying on terms
■■ When buying an item on terms we usually pay a deposit with the balance plus interest paid in
weekly or monthly instalments over an agreed period of time.
■■ To calculate the total cost of a purchase, add the deposit to the total of the regular
repayments.
■■ The amount of each repayment is found by following these steps:
(a) Calculate the deposit.
(b) Find the balance owing by subtracting the deposit from the cash price.
(c) Find the total repayments by adding the interest to the balance owing.
(d) Divide the total amount to be repaid by the number of regular repayments that must be
made.
■■ Loan repayments may be calculated in the same way, however there is no deposit made.
Successive discounts
■■ When two separate percentage discounts are given, they must be calculated one after the
other. Their order does not affect the final answer.
■■ The single discount received is not the total of the two percentage discounts; rather, it will
always be slightly less.
Compound interest
■■ The future value of an investment under compound interest can be found by calculating the
simple interest for each year separately.
■■ The compound interest formula is A = P(1 + R)n, where A is the amount to which the
investment grows and P is the principal or initial amount invested. The interest earned is then
calculated using the formula CI = A - P.
■■ In the formula, n is the number of compounding periods over the term of the investment:
n = number of years ì compounding periods per year.
■■ In the formula, R is the interest rate (as a decimal) per compounding period:
R = interest rate per annum ó compounding periods per year.
Depreciation
■■ Depreciation is the reducing value of a major asset over time.
■■ Depreciation is usually calculated as a percentage of the yearly value of the item.
■■ The depreciation formula is A = P(1 - R)n, where A is the depreciated value of the item,
P is the initial value, R is the percentage depreciation per annum expressed as a decimal
and n is the number of years that the item has been depreciating for.
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 560 15/05/12 12:40 PM

Loan repayments
■■ Loans can be charged by calculating either flat (simple) interest or by reducible interest.
■■ To calculate the cost of a flat-rate interest loan, use the simple interest formula.
■■ To calculate the cost of a loan at a reducible interest rate, calculate the amount of interest
payable each year and then recalculate the outstanding balance of the loan after each payment
is made before calculating the next year’s interest.

Homework
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 561 15/05/12 12:40 PM

Chapter review
FLUENCY c Calculate the interest that will be charged.
d What is the total amount that Erin has to repay?
1 Calculate the simple interest that is earned on
e Calculate the amount of each monthly
$5000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years.
repayment.
2 Jim invests a sum of money at 9% p.a. Which one
8 A new car has a marked price of $40 000. The car
of the following statements is true?
can be purchased on terms of 10% deposit and
A Simple interest will earn Jim more money than
monthly repayments of $1050 for 5 years.
if compound interest is paid annually.
a Find the total cost of the car if it is purchased
B Jim will earn more money if interest is
on terms.
compounded annually rather than monthly.
b Calculate the amount of interest paid.
C Jim will earn more money if interest is
c Calculate the amount of interest paid per year.
compounded quarterly rather than six-monthly.
d Calculate the interest rate charged.
D Jim will earn more money if interest is
compounded annually rather than six-monthly. 9 The single discount that is equivalent to successive
E It does not matter whether simple interest or discounts of 15% and 20% is:
compound interest is used to calculate the A 10% B 18%
growth of Jim’s investment. C 28% D 30%
E 32%
3 Find the single discount that is equivalent to
successive discounts of 12.5% and 5%. 10 A car dealership offers a 10% discount on the price
of service of a car purchased at the dealership.
4 Which one of the following statements is correct? a Calculate the price paid for a service valued at
A Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are less $290.00 by a person who purchased their car at
than a single discount of 25%. the dealership.
B Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are b During November, the dealership offers
equal to a single discount of 25%. an extra 15% discount on all services and
C Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are mechanical repairs. Calculate the price Callum,
greater than a single discount of 25%. who purchased his car at the dealership, pays
D Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are for a service in November.
equal to successive discounts of 12% and 13%. c What is the total discount given on this
E Successive discounts of 10% and 15% are service?
equal to successive discounts of 13% and 12%. d Determine the single percentage discount that
5 Brendan has a credit card with an outstanding would be equivalent to the successive discounts
balance of $3600. The interest rate charged on the of 10% and 15% that Callum receives.
loan is 18% p.a. Calculate the amount of interest 11 Ryan invests $12 500 for 3 years at 8% p.a. with
that Brendan will be charged on the credit card for interest paid annually. By calculating the amount
the next month. of simple interest earned each year separately,
6 An LCD television has a cash price of $5750. It determine the amount to which the investment will
can be purchased on terms of 20% deposit plus grow.
weekly repayments of $42.75 for 3 years. Calculate 12 Calculate the compound interest earned on $45 000
the total cost of the television if it is purchased on at 12% p.a. over 4 years if interest is compounded:
terms. a annually
7 Erin purchases a new entertainment unit that has b six-monthly
a cash price of $6400. Erin buys the unit on the c quarterly
following terms: 10% deposit with the balance plus d monthly.
interest to be repaid in equal monthly repayments 13 A new computer server costs $7290. With 22% p.a.
over 4 years. The simple interest rate charged is reducing-value depreciation, the server’s value at
12% p.a. the end of the third year will be close to:
a Calculate the amount of the deposit. A $1486 B $2257
b Calculate the balance owing after the deposit C $2721 D $3023
has been paid. E $3460
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 562 15/05/12 12:40 PM

14 An asset, bought for $34 100, has a value of $13 430 2 Gavin borrows $18 000 over 5 years from the
after 5 years. The depreciation rate is close to: bank. The loan is charged at 8.4% p.a. flat-rate
A 11% interest. The loan is to be repaid in equal monthly
B 17% instalments. Calculate the amount of each monthly
C 18% repayment.
D 21% 3 A building society advertises investment accounts
E 22% at the following rates:
15 The value of a new car depreciates by 15% p.a. a 3.875% p.a. compounding daily
Find the value of the car after 5 years if it was b 3.895% p.a. compounding monthly
purchased for $55 000. c 3.9% p.a. compounding quarterly.
PROBLEM SOLVING Peter thinks the first account is the best one
because the interest is calculated more frequently.
1 The value of a new tractor is $175 000. The value Paul thinks the last account is the best one
of the tractor depreciates by 22.5% p.a. because it has the highest interest rate. Explain
a Find the value of the tractor after 8 years. whether either is correct.
b What percentage of its initial value is the
tractor worth after 8 years?
eBook plus
Interactivities
Test yourself
Chapter 16
int-2870
Word search
Chapter 16
int-2868
Crossword
Chapter 16
int-2869
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 563 15/05/12 12:40 PM

Chapter opener 16D Compound interest
Digital doc Interactivity
• Hungry brain activity Chapter 16 (doc-5344) • Compound interest (int-2791) (page 549)
(page 537) Digital docs
Are you ready? • Activity 16-D-1 (doc-8497): Compound interest
puzzle 1 (page 551)
Digital docs(page 538)
• Activity 16-D-2 (doc-8498): Compound interest
• SkillSHEET 16.1 (doc-5345): Converting a
puzzle 2 (page 551)
percentage to a decimal
• Activity 16-D-3 (doc-8499): Compound interest
• SkillSHEET 16.2 (doc-5346): Finding simple
puzzle 3 (page 551)
interest
• WorkSHEET 16.2 (doc-5352): Compound interest
• SkillSHEET 16.3 (doc-5347): Finding a percentage
(page 553)
of a quantity (money)
• SkillSHEET 16.4 (doc-5348): Finding percentage 16E Depreciation
discount Interactivity
• SkillSHEET 16.5 (doc-5349): Decreasing a quantity • Different rates of depreciation (int-1155) (page 554)
by a percentage eLesson
16A Purchasing goods • What is depreciation? (eles-0182) (page 553)
Digital docs (pages 554–5)
• Activity 16-A-1 (doc-8488): Simple interest • Activity 16-E-1 (doc-8500): Depreciation
• Activity 16-A-2 (doc-8489): Harder simple interest • Activity 16-E-2 (doc-8501): Harder depreciation
• Activity 16-A-3 (doc-8490): Tricky simple interest • Activity 16-E-3 (doc-8502): Tricky depreciation
• SkillSHEET 16.1 (doc-5345): Converting a 16F Loan repayments
percentage to a decimal
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 16.2 (doc-5346): Finding simple interest
• Activity 16-F-1 (doc-8503): Repaying a loan
16B Buying on terms (page 558)
Digital docs • Activity 16-F-2 (doc-8504): Harder loan repayments
• Activity 16-B-1 (doc-8491): Buying on terms (page 558)
(page 544) • Activity 16-F-3 (doc-8505): Difficult loan
• Activity 16-B-2 (doc-8492): Buying on difficult repayments (page 558)
terms (page 544) • WorkSHEET 16.3 (doc-5353): Loan repayments
• Activity 16-B-3 (doc-8493): Buying on tricky terms (page 559)
(page 544)
• SkillSHEET 16.3 (doc-5347): Finding a percentage Chapter review
of a quantity (money) (page 544) Interactivities(page 563)
• WorkSHEET 16.1 (doc-5350): Buying on terms • Test yourself Chapter 16 (int-2870): Take the end-of-
(page 545) chapter test to test your progress
• Word search Chapter 16 (int-2868): an interactive
16C Successive discounts word search involving words associated with this
Digital docs chapter
• Activity 16-C-1 (doc-8494): Successive discounts • Crossword Chapter 16 (int-2869): an interactive
(page 547) crossword using the definitions associated with the
• Activity 16-C-2 (doc-8495): Difficult successive chapter
discounts (page 547)
• Activity 16-C-3 (doc-8496): Tricky successive To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
discounts (page 547) www.jacplus.com.au
• SkillSHEET 16.4 (doc-5348): Finding percentage
discount (page 548)\
• SkillSHEET 16.5 (doc-5349): Decreasing a quantity
by a percentage (page 548)
• SkillSHEET 16.6 (doc-5351): Expressing one
quantity as a percentage of another (page 548)
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_TE_16.indd 564 15/05/12 12:41 PM

probleM solving
17
problem
solving II
opening QUesTion
There are many strategies that can

be used when solving problems. List
6 strategies.
problem solving
2
 − 
1
  1 2 
1 What is the value of    ?
 4
 
2 Rachel is flying from Sydney to Perth. She left Sydney at 11:00 pm on January 6 and arrived
in Perth five hours later.
a What is the time in Sydney when Rachel’s plane landed in Perth?
b What is the time in Perth when Rachel’s plane landed?
3 The numbers 1 through 10 were written on pieces of paper and placed into a hat. Greg chose
one piece of paper from the hat, and without replacing that number, then chose a second piece
of paper from the hat.
a Is Greg’s first choice dependent upon his second choice? Explain.
b Is Greg second choice dependent upon his first choice? Explain.
4 Asuka sells musical instruments at discount prices. She had a drum kit on sale for 15% off the
retail price of $5000. After two months the drum kit did not sell, and Asuka decided to apply
an extra 10% discount to the existing sale price.
a What is the total amount saved by the customer?
b What is the final price of the drum kit?
c Explain how a 25% discount on the retail price would compare with the successive
discounts?
5 I have a combination of $10 notes and $5 notes in my wallet. If I have 27 notes altogether and
their total value is $190, how many of each type of note do I have?
6 a Graph the equation y = 4-x using the following table:
x −2.5 −2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
y
b Describe what happens to y as x becomes larger.
c Describe what happens to y as x becomes smaller.

problem solving
7 Mariah the Mathematics teacher wanted to give her students a chance to win a reward at the
end of the term. She placed 20 cards into a box, and wrote the word ON on 16 cards, and
OFF on 4 cards. After a student chooses a card, that card is replaced into the box for the next
student to draw. If a student chooses an OFF card, then they do not have to attend school on a
specified day. If they choose an ON card, then they do not receive a day off.
a Mick, a student, chose a random card from the box. What is the probability he received a
day off?
b Juanita, a student, chose a random card from the box after Mick. What is the probability
that she did not receive a day off?
c What is the probability that Mick and Juanita both received a day off?
8 Thomas went to an electronics store to buy a flat screen HD TV together with some
accessories. The store offered him two different loans to buy the television and equipment.
The following agreement was struck with the store.
•• Thomas will not be penalised for paying off the loans early.
•• Thomas does not have to pay the principal and interest until the end of the loan period.
Loan 1 $7000 for 3 years at 10.5% p.a. compounding yearly
Loan 2 $7000 for 5 years at 8% p.a. compounding yearly
a Explain which loan Thomas should choose if he decides to pay off the loan at the end of
the first, second or third year.
b Explain which loan Thomas should choose for these two options.
Paying off Loan 1 at term
Paying off Loan 2 at the end of four years
c Thomas considers the option to pay off the loans at the end of their terms. Explain how
you can determine the better option without further calculations.
d Why would Thomas decide to choose Loan 2 instead of Loan 1 (paying over its full
term), even if it cost him more money?
9 Express 4.27 as an improper fraction.
10 What is the probability of choosing a red card or the Ace of Clubs from a standard pack of
cards?
n
11 The mean mass of a group of n people is m kg. If another people whose mean mass is
2
5m
kg join the group, the mean mass changes to (m + 6) kg. Evaluate m.
4
12 What is the cost of buying 2000 shares in the mining company DIGGER at $10.47 each if
there is a transaction fee of 0.1% OR $20, whichever is the larger?
13 A and B are complementary events and P(A) = a. Determine:
a P(B)
b P(A ß B)
c P(A ¶ B)
14 Lance lives in a small town with a population of 350 people. The town was predicted to grow
at rate of 10% per year.
a Write an equation to model the growth of this town over n years.
b How many years will it be until the population is over 1000 people? (Whole years only)
c How many years will it be until the population is over 2000 people? (Whole years only)
d Lance, using the data from part c, assumed that the town should have approximately
10 000 people 95 years from now. Explain why his reasoning is incorrect.
e Explain how you can help Lance see how the population will change over the next
100 years.
15 A TV cost $700 cash. I buy it on terms, that are $200 deposit plus $30 per month for
20 months.
a How much more do I actually pay?
b Express this amount as a percentage of the cash price.
Chapter 17 Problem solving II 567

problem solving
16 Write the following expression in its simplest form.

18 x 15 x + 30 15
× ÷
(3 x − 12)2 x ( x + 2) ( x − 4)2
17 A paint shop produces a unique type of paint by mixing two kinds of paint together — indoor
paint and outdoor paint. The unique paint is subject to the following conditions:
i At least 20 litres of paint (indoor and outdoor combined) must be mixed.
ii Indoor paint requires 3 units of dye, while outdoor paint requires 8 units of dye and
there is a maximum of 110 units of dye available.
a If x litres of indoor paint and y litres of outdoor paint are mixed, write two inequations
for the conditions given.
b If 10 litres of outdoor paint is required, how much dye can be used for the indoor
paint?
c Discuss the effect that the information in part b has on the two inequations from part a.
18 What is the probability of rolling two even numbers in one throw of two unbiased, 6-sided
dice?
19 A calculator company took a poll of 80 Year 10 students to find out what types of calculators
students had used during their academic careers:
Scientific calculators: 70
Graphing calculators: 50
Graphing and Scientific calculators: 40
What is the probability that a student had used a graphing calculator given that they had
also used a scientific calculator?
20 Jan bought a computer for her business at a cost of $2500. She elected to use the diminishing
value method (compound depreciation), instead of the straight-line method of depreciation.
Her accountant told her that she was entitled to depreciate the cost of the computer over
5 years at 40% per year.
a How much was the computer worth at the end of the first year?
b By how much could Jan reduce her taxable income at the end of the first year? (The
amount Jan can reduce her taxable income is equal to how much value the asset lost
from one year to the next.)
c Explain whether the amount she can deduct from her taxable income will increase or
decrease at the end of the second year.
21 A Shend is a type of tropical pumpkin grown by the people of Outer Thrashia.
The diameter (D m) of a Shend increases over a number of months (m) according to the
rule D = 0.25 ì (10)0.01m.
a Determine the diameter of the pumpkin after 4 months.
b If the Shend is not harvested it will explode when it reaches a critical diameter of 0.5 metres.
Show that it takes approximately 30 months for an un-harvested Shend to explode?
22 There are 6 black discs and 9 red discs in a jar. Two discs are withdrawn simultaneously.
What is the probability that the discs are the same colour?
23 Natalina is going to build a movie theatre with n screens. At each screen, there will be
250 seats for the audience to watch that movie. In addition to audience members, there are
15 employees on the premises at any given time (selling tickets and popcorn and so on).
According to building regulations, she must have one toilet for every 100 people in the
building.
a Write an equation relating the number of screens (n) to the total number of people who
can possibly be in the building (p) any one time. Which variable is dependent? Which
variable is independent? Explain.
b Write an equation relating the total number of people who can possibly be in the
building (p) to the number of toilets (t).
c What kind of numbers do p, t and n have to be?

problem solving
d If Natalina builds 5 theatre screens, what is the minimum number of toilets she must
also build?
e If Natalina can only supply eight toilets, what is the maximum number of screens she
can build?
24 Jason and Paul go to the shopping car park on weekends to see if they can find any loose
change that people have dropped. Over the past year they have kept track of how much money
they have found. They found twelve $2 coins, three fifty-cent pieces, thirty-nine 20c coins,
thirty-eight 10c coins, and one hundred and fifty-two 5c coins. What is the probability that the
next coin they find will be worth more than ten cents? State your answer as a percent to the
nearest percent.
25 A set of examination results is displayed in the
following cumulative frequency histogram and 100
ogive.
80
a Stephanie knows that her result is in the
85th percentile. Explain whether Stephanie 60
can work out her exact result. 40
b What is the class median?
20
c Stephanie’s twin, Betty, knows that she got
70% for her exam. Can she compare her 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
exam result to Stephanie’s result?
Examination mark
d Approximately in which percentile would
Betty’s result lie?
26 Dimitri constructed a back-to-back stem plot to compare the ages of the students in his dance
class.
Ages of students attending at the Ballroom Dancing Studio
Females Males
9 1 123
7 2 022245
5 3 0017
52 4 67
320 5 2
4421 6 44
a Compare the range of distribution of the ages of males and females from this set of data.
b What is the mode for this set of data?
c One of Dimitri’s students, Anthea, used a grouped frequency distribution table of all the
students to calculate the mean age of the students at Dimitri’s Ballroom Dancing Studio.
Create the grouped frequency distribution table using class intervals of 0–9, 10–19 etc.
d Anthea correctly calculated the mean from the grouped frequency distribution table to
be 39.5. Elena, another student, correctly used the original data in the back-to-back stem
plot and calculated the mean to be 38.2. Show how they both got their answers.
e What is the reason for the difference in the two answers?
27 Events AÅ and BÅ are independent. Prove that events AÅ and B are independent.
28 Tylar is offered a new Beta Brava, a sleek 4 cylinder sports car for $56 000. He borrows the
money and repays it at $12 500 per year for 5 years.
All new cars depreciate in value; the Beta Brava is no different. It loses 10% in the first
year and then 5% of the previous year’s value each year thereafter.
a What is the car worth after 5 years ?
b Taking the depreciation into account and considering how much he paid for his car, how
much has Tylar lost, on average, each year over the 5 years?

problem solving
29 The equation 2x + 3y = 6 is changed according to the following rules.

i The whole equation is doubled.
ii Only the x-value is doubled.
iii Only the y-value is doubled.
iv The y-intercept is doubled.
a Write the new equation in each case.
b Draw the graph of each new equation on the same axes as the original equation.
c Describe the effect of each transformation on the graph of the original equation.
30 Andrew does not know the answer to two questions on a multiple choice exam. The first
question has four choices and the second question he does not know has five choices.
a What is the probability that he will get both questions wrong?
b If he is certain that one of the choices cannot be the answer in the first question, how
will this change the probability that he will get both questions wrong?
31 Lara is employed as a salesperson. She is offered two methods of calculating her income.
Method 1: Commission only of 13% on all sales

Method 2: $350 per week plus a commission of 4.5% on all sales
Lara’s research shows that the average sales total per employee per month is $14 382.
a If Lara were to choose her method based on the average employee sales total, from
which method of payment would she receive the most income, in dollars per annum?
b Compare the difference, in dollars, between the two methods of payment based on the
average sales total. Justify your answer with calculations.
32 Annie’s and Barbara’s ages add to 25, and have a difference of 11. If Annie is the older of the
two, how old are both Annie and Barbara?
33 Rosetta and Theo have been married for 16 years but have kept separate investment accounts
during that time. The graph below shows the value of their investments over time where
interest has been paid annually.
Value of investments
A Theo’s
Value of investment ($)
25000 account
Rosetta’s
20000
account
15000
10000
5000
0 n
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (years)
a What were the values of Rosetta’s and Theo’s initial investments?

b How much did Rosetta’s investment change yearly over time? What does this represent
in real terms?
c Give the equation to describe the value of Rosetta’s investment over time (A).
n
 R 
d Theo’s investment grew according to the general formula A = P  1 + compounded
 100 
annually. Determine the rate at which Theo’s investment is growing?
e After initially investing the same amount of money, the graph shows that after
approximately 13 years their investments had grown to the same amount. Use your
equations to show that this is so.
f Compare the two investments over the 16 year period.

problem solving
34 The marks for two Mathematics tests, A and B, for a class are presented in the box plots below.
a Compare the five point
summary for each. Mathematics test A
b Which statistic appears to be the
same for both tests? What does Mathematics test B
this indicate?
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
c In which test did the students
appear to perform better?
d What can the teacher deduce about the tests from these results?
e What can the teacher deduce about her students’ learning from these results?
35 Three contestants A, B and C enter a race. If A is three times as likely to win as B and four
times as likely to win as C, find the probability that either A or B wins.
36 My weight is k kg. I put on a kg per month for m months after which my weight increases at
the compound rate of b% per month for c months. I start a diet and my weight drops at the
compound rate of d% per month for e months. What is my final weight?
37 Your big brother has buried your mp3 player in the backyard to tease you. He’s given you the
following Cartesian co-ordinate clues to help you find it, where x and y are the horizontal and
vertical distances from the back door in metres.
The back door is at (0, 0)
The tree is at (0, 3)
The shrub is at (8, 7)
The stump is at (8, 3)
The player is on the line y = − 45 x + 10 which bisects the line connecting the tree and shrub
and it is also 3 metres from the stump.
Draw a diagram to represent this information and mark the possible locations of your
player on the Cartesian plane.
38 In the scientific area of Genetics, probability is used to assist in determining the likelihood of
inherited characteristics.
For example; a widow’s peak hairline is dominant; a straight hairline is recessive.
Consider a mother who is heterozygous dominant (Ww) for the widow’s peak and a father
who is homozygous recessive (ww).
a Complete this table. W w
w
b Use your table to determine the probability
w
that their offspring will have a widow’s peak.
39 Palmo is in his third year as an apprentice cabinet maker. He earns $855 gross salary per week.
a Calculate his income for the year, if he receives a 17.5% four week holiday loading.
b Palmo purchased cutting tools for $5000. In the first three years they depreciated at a
constant rate to $3635. How much did the tools depreciate each year?
40 Penny is a softball player. The number of runs she scored in her first eight games were
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9.
a Calculate the mean, median and mode for the number of runs to 1 decimal place.
Discuss which statistic is the best indicator of the measure of centre in this case.
b Based on the above figures:
i what is the probability that in future games, Penny will score at least six runs?
ii in how many of her next five games would you expect her to score at least six runs?
c Penny’s coach claims that it is possible for her to achieve a median of 7 if she keeps up
her practice.
i What is the minimum number of games she must play to have a median run score
of 7? At least how many runs will she need in each game?
ii Give a possible set of scores for these games that would allow Penny to achieve this.
d Given your answer to part b above, how likely is this?

problem solving
41 This board game consists of 25 squares, each with side

lengths of 12 cm. The triangles are equilateral in shape,
with side lengths of 8 cm. A coin is tossed and lands on the
game board.
a What is the probability it will land on a square that
contains a triangle?
b What is the probability it will land on a triangle?
c What is the probability it will land on a green or blue
triangle?
d It costs $1 per throw and pays $2.50 for landing on a
square that contains a triangle, $5.00 for landing on a
triangle and $15 for landing on a green or blue triangle.
If you played 20 games what could be your potential return per game on each? Would
you make a profit or loss on your outlay?
e If you play 100 games, would you made a profit? Show your reasoning.
f What entices people to play these games?
42 The difference between two numbers is 3. If six times the larger number minus twice the
smaller number is 46, determine the two numbers.
43 The surface area of a lake is evaporating at a rate of 5% per year due to climate change. To
model this situation, a relationship between the surface area of the lake (S km2) over time is
given by S = 20 000 ì 0.95x, where x is the time in years.
a Explain whether this is an exponential relationship.
b What is the surface area of the lake initially?
c What will the surface area be in 10 years’ time?
d Plot a graph for this relationship.
e What will the surface area be in 100 years’ time?
f Explain whether this is a realistic model.
44 A bakery employs experienced bakers at $25 per hour and apprentices at $16 per hour. The
manager has a budget which will allow her to employ four experienced bakers to work a
40 hour week.
a How many apprentices who will only work for 30 hours per week can be employed for
the same amount of money?
b If the manager want to employ a combination of experienced bakers and apprentices,
how many of each could she employ for $4000 per week?
45 Bailey has built a wooden ramp to practise his skateboard tricks.
A
E D 2.2 m
3.6 m
F 12 m C
a Find the distance travelled up the ramp (i.e. distance FB).
b What angle does the ramp make with the ground?
c After construction, Bailey checks that the ramp is ‘square’ by measuring the diagonals.
Find the length of AF.
d Two such ramps are made so that they can be placed 10 m apart. If Bailey can cover the
distance from the top of one ramp, along the ground, then to the top of the other, on his
skateboard, in 12 seconds, how fast is he going? (Answer in km/h).

problem solving
46 Briana’s normal rate of pay is $15.25 per hour. Last week she was paid for 11 hours, at time-
and-a-half.
a If Briana was paid at double the hourly rate, how many hours would she need to work
the next week, to earn the same amount of money?
b Briana’s boss is offering her the choice for two shifts, the rate paid depending on the
work days offered.
Shift 1: 15 hours at the normal rate plus 5 hours at time-and-a-half.
Or
Shift 2: 10 hours at the normal rate plus 8 hours at double time.
Which shift offers a better wage and by how much?
47 The height of each student in a Year 10 class was measured and it was found that the mean
height was 160 cm. Two students were absent. When their heights were included in the data
for the class, the mean height did not change.
Suggest a pair of heights that are possible for the two absent students. What reasoning
could be used to find a pair of possible heights?
48 The IT department for a school can buy mini-laptops from an educational supplier and receive
a discount. If the IT manager orders 150 mini-laptops (for all the Year 10 students), the cost
is $30 000 and if she orders 80 mini-laptops the cost is $16 000. If she only had $20 000 to
spend how many mini-laptops could she buy?
49 At the entrance to a car rally, 35 people were surveyed and asked which of three models of
4WD rally cars they preferred — Toyota, Nissan or Subaru. Six of the group liked all three
types of 4WD vehicles. Eight of the group liked Toyota and Nissan, 10 liked Toyota and
Subaru and 12 liked Nissan and Subaru. Also 22 of the group liked Toyota, 18 liked Nissan
and 17 liked Subaru. Two people didn’t like any of the models of 4WD rally cars.
a Display this information on a Venn diagram.
b Determine the probability of selecting a person who:
i liked Toyota only
ii does not like the Subaru.
c Find the probability that a person likes Subaru or Nissan but not Toyota.

problem solving
50 Bronwyn decides to buy a new laptop. The ticketed price is $1200. When Bronwyn’s credit
card statement arrives, it shows that she will not pay any interest if she pays the full amount
by the due date.
a If Bronwyn pays $300 by the due date, what is the balance owing?
b If the interest rate on the credit card is 22% p.a., how much interest will Bronwyn be
charged on the balance owing in the next month?
c How much will Bronwyn owe at the end of that month?
d Bronwyn now pays $600 off her credit card. How much interest is she charged the
following month?
e Bronwyn then pays off the remaining balance on her credit card. How much does she pay?
f How much has the laptop cost her, including all the interest payments?
51 The data below shows the number of times 25 Year 10 students have used a computer in the
last week.
10, 19, 7, 0, 1, 6, 22, 3, 9, 15, 3, 6, 13, 2, 16, 8, 5, 4, 11, 10, 16, 4, 8, 5, 13
a Group the data into a frequency table in class intervals of size 5.
b Represent the grouped data as a histogram.
c Add a frequency polygon to the histogram.
d Construct a cumulative frequency polygon.
e From the cumulative frequency polygon, estimate how many students used a computer
more than 10 times in the week.
f Add a percentage cumulative frequency axis to the graph.
g Estimate the 50th percentile and the 30th percentile. Interpret these results.
52 The initial alcohol content in a glass of red wine is about 12%. If the initial concentration
is given by C0 and t represents the number of days after the wine has been opened, then the
reduction in concentration of alcohol is given by: C = C0 ì 0.12kt
a Show that the value of k is 0.24, if the initial concentration is 100 mg/L and 60 mg/L
after 1 day.
b State the exponential equation.
c Draw the graph of this relationship.
d Find the concentration remaining after 5 days.
53 The following data show the ages of a
Male Female
group of 30 males and 30 females as they
98 0 5
enter hospital for the first time.
a Construct a pair of parallel box plots to 9 9 8 8 8 6 3 21 1 77899
represent the two sets of data, showing 87764320 2 0012455679
working out for the median and 1st and 86310 3 013358
3rd quartiles. 752 4 2368
b Calculate the mean, range and IQR for 53 5 134
both sets of data.
6 2
c Determine any outliers if they exist.
d Write a short paragraph comparing the data.
8 7
54 Fiona invests $8000 for 4 years at 6% p.a. simple interest. Nathan also invests $8000 for
4 years; however, his interest rate is 5.6% p.a. compounded quarterly.
a Calculate the value of Fiona’s investment at maturity.
b Show that the compounded value of Nathan’s investment is greater than that of Fiona’s.
c Explain why Nathan’s investment after 4 years is greater than Fiona’s even though she is
receiving a higher rate of interest.
55 A pencil case contains 3 black pens and 2 red pens. The pencil case is shaken, one falls out and
is put back in the case. This is repeated twice more. Each pen has an equal chance of falling out.
a Represent this information on a tree diagram.
b Find the probability of getting three black pens.
c Find the probability of getting at least two red pens.

problem solving
56 Catherine invests $2000 in a term deposit account which pays interest at a rate of 4.5% per annum
on the balance at the beginning of each year.
a After one year what is her investment worth?
b What percentage of her original investment is her bank balance at the end of the year?
c What would Catherine’s investment be worth after two years?
d Plot the graph of this exponential function.
e Use the graph to predict when her investment will be worth $10 000.
57 A well-known problem in mathematics is called the ‘handshake’ problem.
a 3 people are in a room. How many handshakes are required so that everyone shakes
hands with everyone else once?
b Repeat the above exercise for 4 people.
c Develop a general rule for the number of handshakes for n people.
58 In preparation for the Christmas office party, Fred is put in charge of providing coffee. He
determines that each cup of coffee requires 3.2 grams of coffee ($19 per kg), 6.4 grams of
sugar ($0.98 per kg) and 10.5 grams of milk ($1.40 per kg) plus a plastic cup which costs
$2.00 for 24 cups.
a Determine the cost of providing a single cup of coffee.
b If Fred has $25 to spend, how many cups of coffee can he make, assuming that he
charges 10 cents a cup, and half the people pay?
59 The cost of a mobile phone from Company A is $40 per month plus $0.25 per SMS, while
Company B offers a plan for $30 a month but $0.30 per SMS. How many SMSs would make
the plans the same monthly cost?
60 Virgin Blue buys a new plane so that extra flights can be arranged between Sydney, Australia
and Wellington, New Zealand. The plane costs $1 200 000. It depreciates at a rate of
16.5% p.a. and is written off when its value falls below $150 000. How long can Virgin Blue
use this plane before it is written off?
61 At a baby shower, we started discussing baby statistics. One of the women told us she had
heard a report that for every 100 babies born, there were 6 more boys than girls. If we were to
randomly pick a child from a representative group, what is the probability of picking a girl?
62 The numbat is an Australian animal which is in danger of becoming extinct because of habitat
loss and foxes. Since it only eats white ants, its source of food is also diminishing. The
number of numbats, t weeks after their habitat has been lost is modelled by the function
500
N = 60 + numbats per hectare.
t+2
a How many numbats were there before their habitat was lost?
b How many numbats are there 10 weeks after their habitat loss?
c How long after habitat loss are there only 80 numbats per hectare?
d According to this model, will the numbats die out completely?

problem solving
63 The following data show the number of pets in each of the 12 houses in Coral Avenue, Rosebud.
2, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 2, 4, 3, 1, 1, 0
a Calculate the mean and median number of pets.
b The empty block of land at the end of the street was bought by a Cattery and now houses
20 cats. Recalculate the mean and median.
c Explain why the answers are so different, and which measure of central tendency is best
used for certain data.
64 Erin borrows $12 000 for a new car at 9% p.a. over 4 years.
a Calculate the total amount to be repaid if the interest is compounded monthly.
b How much will be paid in interest for this loan?
c How much would each repayment be in order to repay the loan in equal monthly
instalments?
65 Based on her performance throughout the year, Mary was given a probability of 0.7 of
winning her first tennis tournament. If the probability of winning both her first and second
tennis tournaments is 0.56, what is her probability of winning the second tennis tournament?
66 A syndicate won first prize in Tattslotto but isn’t sure how many people participated. The total
amount won is $120 000. The amount won by each person is a whole number of dollars.
a Make a table of values showing the amount, P, won by each person when the prize
money is shared among n people from 1 to 12 inclusively.
b Sketch the function.
c Write a rule that relates the number of people to the amount of prize won.
d What type of variation (function) is this? State the value of k.
e If 20 people had been in the syndicate, how much would each have received?
f If each person only received $1500, how many people would have been in the
syndicate?
67 The amount of money in an investment plan (V ) grows exponentially with compound interest
according to the rule V = PAn , where n = the time (in years), P = the initial investment and A
is the compound interest term.
After 1 year (n = 1), the amount of money in the investment is $2662.50, while after 2
years the amount is $2835.56.
a Determine the values of P and A.
b Determine the annual rate of interest as a percentage.
68 In the game of draw poker, a player is dealt 5 cards from a deck of 52. To obtain a flush, all
5 cards must be of the same suit.
a Determine the probability of getting a diamond flush.
b Determine the probability of getting any flush.
69 The number of Year 10 students in all the 40 schools in the Northern District of the Education
Department was recorded as follows:
56, 134, 93, 67, 123, 107, 167, 124, 108, 78,
89, 99, 103, 107, 110, 45, 112, 127, 106, 111,
127, 145, 87, 75, 90, 123, 100, 87, 116, 128,
131, 106, 123, 87, 105, 112, 145, 115, 126, 92
a Using a interval of 10, produce a table showing the frequency for each interval.
b Use the table to estimate the mean.
c Calculate the mean of the ungrouped data.
d Compare the results from parts b and c and explain any differences.
70 An electronics store is having trouble selling the latest mp3 player. The original price was
$99 but on October 1 it was reduced 10%. On October 8 it was reduced a further 10%. On
October 12 the regional manager decided to increase all prices by 5%. On October 15 the
local manager decided to reduce the price by another 10% anyway.
a Calculate the prices on all 4 dates after the discounts/increases have been applied.
b What is the ‘final’ percentage discount after Oct 15?

problem solving
71 You use this spinner to play a game. Explain whether it is a fair

game and whether you would play if the scoring was:
B
a if the pointer lands in A, you win $8, if the pointer lands in B,
you win $3
b if the pointer lands in A, you win $18, if the pointer lands in B, A
you win $5.
72 Moore’s Law states that the capacity of computer hard drives doubles every 18 months.
Assume that on 1 January 2010 the capacity of a hard drive was 512 GB (1 GB = 220 bytes).
a Sketch a graph showing hard drive capacity going back at least 10 years.
b What was the capacity on 1 January 2000?
c Predict the capacity on 1 January 2016.
73 Complete this table regarding compound interest.
Annual Compounding Length of Value of

Principal interest rate period investment investment
$1000 6.4% Monthly 11 months
$2000 7.82% Daily 77 days
$4000 8.08% Quarterly 8 years
74 In the game of blackjack, players are initially given 2 cards from a deck of 52. Face cards
(jack, queen, king) are worth 10 points, an ace is either 1 or 11 (player’s choice) and other
cards (2–10) are worth their numerical value. The value of the 2 cards dealt is added together;
for example; 2 + king = 2 + 10 = 12.
a What is the probability of getting a total of 10 with the first 2 cards?
b What is the probability of getting a total of 20 with the first 2 cards?
75 A gold and copper bracelet weighs 238 grams. The volume of the bracelet is 15 cm3. Gold
weighs 19.3 grams per cm3, and copper weighs 9 grams per cm3. What percentage of gold (by
volume and by mass) is in the bracelet?
76 A small car yard has 60 cars, half of which are Toyotas. Since running a car on LPG rather
than petrol has become one of the most popular features, 25 cars are LPG based, including 20
of the Toyotas. There are some 4WD vehicles in the car yard, 5 of which are Toyota and 6 of
which have LPG systems. Unfortunately only one of the Toyota 4WDs is also LPG based. 18
of the vehicles have none of the characteristics already mentioned. Draw a Venn diagram and
then answer the following questions. If a customer looks at a vehicle, find the probability that
the vehicle is:
a a 4WD vehicle
b an LPG Toyota
c not LPG based
d not a Toyota
e either a Toyota or a 4WD
f neither LPG based nor 4WD
g an LPG system but is not a Toyota
h not an LPG based Toyota 4WD.
77 Patrick and Trisha were told that they needed a deposit of $34 000 before they could borrow
enough money to buy their new home. At that time Trisha had saved $6200 and Patrick had
saved $7400. They both worked and although they paid rent of $1280 per month they are able
to save $260 per week.
a When they made enquiries about the loan, how much less than the deposit did they have?
b At their current rate of savings, how long will it take them to save the rest of the
deposit?

problem solving
c If the deposit is 10% of the cost of the home, what was the cost of the house.
d How much money will they have to borrow once they get their deposit?
e How much interest is charged for the first month, if the interest rate is 9% p.a. reducible.
f If Trisha and Patrick use their savings every week and the amount they would have spent
on rent to repay the loan, how much can they afford to pay every month?
g How much would they owe at the beginning of the second month?
h What will happen if interest rates rise to 9.5% p.a. at the beginning of the second month?
i What would you advise Trisha and Patrick?
78 100 people seated at different tables in a Mexican restaurant were asked if their party had
ordered any of the following items: Burritos, Fajitas, or Tacos. The following information was
found.
23 people had ordered none of these items.
11 people had ordered all three of these items.
29 people had ordered fajitas or tacos but did not order burritos.
41 people had ordered tacos.
46 people had ordered at least two of these items.
13 people had ordered burritos and tacos but had not ordered fajitas.
26 people had ordered burritos and fajitas.
a Place this information in a Venn diagram.
b How many people ordered Burritos only?
c How many people ordered Fajitas?
79 Radioactive decay for a certain substance can be modelled using the relationship
M = Mo ì (1.0122)-t, where Mo is its original mass and M is its mass after t days.
a Prove that the substance has a half-life of 57.3 days.
b Calculate the percentage of mass lost by the substance after 20 days.
80 To determine whether a game is fair the expected value is calculated. In its simplest form:
expected value = P(win) ì (prize) - P(loss) ì (cost of game)
If there is more than one prize, with an associated probability, then add up the various
P(win) ì prize terms.
a A game is fair if expected value = ______
b Consider the following game based on the total of 2 dice.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W1 L2 W3 L4 W5 L5 W4 L3 W2 L1 W1
Where, for example, W5 means you win $5, L2 means you lose $2 and so on.
Determine the expected value and comment on your result.
81 A survey recorded the number of years of education of the parents of a class of Year 10
students. The results were as follows
12, 15, 12, 11, 13, 17, 10, 12, 14, 16,
12, 13, 11, 9, 11, 12, 12, 16, 12, 14,
12, 13, 11, 11, 14, 12, 11, 10, 15, 12,
13, 12, 12, 11, 10, 10, 12, 12, 14, 13,
11, 9, 12, 15, 16, 13, 12, 14, 15, 12
a Produce a table showing frequency and cumulative frequency for each number of
years.
b Produce a cumulative frequency polygon.
c From the results of part a and part b, produce a box-plot.
82 The annual rate of inflation is very similar to the annual interest rate on a compound interest
investment. Determine the annual rate of inflation in the following cases. Give your answers
as a percentage rounded to 2 decimal places.
a In 2005 the price of a family-sized pizza was $11. The exact same pizza in 2010 is $17.

problem solving
b In 2000 the price of a litre of petrol was $0.98. In 2009 the price was $1.45.
c In 1972 the price of a can of soft drink was $0.25 while in 2010 the price is $2.10.
83 Ethan wants to borrow $30 000 to buy a new Toyota corolla. He finds a bank that will give
him the loan at 12% flat-rate interest over 5 years.
a Calculate the amount of interest that Ethan will pay on this loan.
b Calculate the total amount that Ethan must repay on his loan.
c Ethan decides to repay the loan in 5 equal yearly instalments. Calculate the amount of
each instalment.
d Ethan could have borrowed $30 000 at 12% reducible interest instead of flat-rate interest.
If he makes the same repayments for 4 years, how much money will Ethan have saved?
84 a A Year 10 boy is talking with a Year 10 girl and asks her if she has any brothers or sisters.
She says, ‘Yes, I have one’. What is the probability that she has a sister?
b A Year 10 boy is talking with a Year 10 girl and asks her if she has any brothers or
sisters. She says, ‘Yes, I have an older one’. What is the probability that she has a sister?
85 A recent survey of the heights (in cm) of a group of Year 10 boys resulted in the following data.
172, 178, 159, 168, 167, 172, 177, 171, 169, 172,
170, 189, 173, 177, 169, 168, 171, 180, 174, 160,
175, 171, 173, 168, 170, 171, 172, 174, 168, 170
a Calculate the mean.
b Calculate the median.
c Examine the data and identify any possible outliers. If they exist, discuss the effect of
the outliers on the mean and the median.
86 An electronics store offers its customers 2 choices.
Option 1: 20% down then make equal payments (based on the money owing at the
beginning of the loan) every 6 months for 2 years. The interest rate (simple) is 8% (annual)
of the amount owing at the time of the payment.
Option 2: No money down, with 10 equal payments (based on the money owing at the
beginning of the loan), 1 per month. The interest rate (simple) is 12% (annual) of the
amount owing at the time of the payment.
In both cases, the balance owing at the end of the time period is to be paid in full.
Calculate the better deal on a $200 TV. Justify your conclusions with appropriate
calculations.
87 The times, in seconds, of the duration of 20 TV advertisements shown in the 6–8 pm time slot
are recorded below.
16 60 35 23 45 15 25 55 33 20 22 30 28 38 40 18 29 19 35 75
a From the data, determine the:
i mode
ii median
iii mean, write your answer correct to 2 decimal places
iv range
v lower quartile
vi upper quartile
vii interquartile range.
b Using your results from part a, construct a box plot for the time, in seconds, for the
20 TV advertisements in the 6–8 pm time slot.
c From your box plot, determine:
i the percentage of advertisements that are more than 39 seconds in length
ii the percentage of advertisements which last between 21 and 39 seconds
iii the percentage of advertisements which are more than 21 seconds in length
The types of TV advertisements during the 6−8 pm time slot were categorised as Fast
Food, Supermarkets, Program information, Retail (clothing, sporting goods, furniture).

problem solving
A frequency table for the frequency of these advertisements being shown during this time
slot is shown below.
Type Frequency
Fast food 7
Supermarkets 5
Program information 3
Retail 5
d What type of data has been collected in the table?
e What percentage of advertisements are advertisements for fast food outlets?
f What would be good options for a graphical representation of this type of data?
88 In the game of major league baseball, a very rare event is what is called a ‘perfect game’. This
occurs when the pitcher gets all men out. Since there are 9 innings and 3 outs/inning, this
means that the pitcher must get 27 men in a row out.
The most recent perfect game was by Mark Buehrle, July 23, 2009.
a Given that the probability a batter who faces Mark Buehrle does not get out is 0.313,
determine the probability that he throws a perfect game.
b Given that there are about 2000 games per year, about how often is a perfect game
thrown.
89 Two experiments are performed to record the growth of different bacteria.
Bacteria A molecules grow according to the formula: A = 500(1.031)t, where t = time
in days.
Bacteria B molecules grow according to the formula: B = 200(1.086)t, where t = time
in days.
a On the same set of axes, sketch graphs of these 2 models.
b Estimate, graphically when the number of molecules of Bacteria A is the same as the
number of molecules of Bacteria B.
c Using a calculator, spreadsheet or another method, calculate the time the two bacteria
are equal in number. Give your answer to 2 decimal places.
90 When all of Saphron’s team players turn up for their twice weekly netball training the chance
that they then win their Saturday game is 0.65. If not all players are at the training session
then the chance of winning their Saturday game is 0.40. Over a four week period, Saphron’s
players all turn up for training three times.
a Using a tree diagram, with T to represent all players training and W to represent a win,
represent the winning chance of Saphron’s netball team.
b Using the tree diagram constructed in part a, determine the probability of Saphron’s
team winning their Saturday game. Write your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
c Determine the exact probability that Saphron’s team did not train given that they won
their Saturday game.

problem solving
91 The speeds, in km/h, of 55 cars travelling along a major road are recorded below.
Speed Frequency
60–64 1
65–69 1
70–74 10
75–79 13
80–84 9
85–89 8
90–94 6
95–99 3
100–104 2
105–109 1
110–114 1
Total 55
a By finding the midpoint for each class interval, determine the mean speed, in km/h,
of the cars travelling along the road. Write your answer correct to two decimal
places.
b The speed limit along the road is 75 km/h. A speed camera is set to photograph
the license plates of cars travelling 7% more than the speed limit. A speeding fine
is automatically sent to the owners of the cars photographed. Based on the 55 cars
recorded, how many speeding fines were issued?
c Drivers of cars travelling 5 km/h up to 15 km/h over the speed limit are fined $135.
Drivers of cars travelling more than 15 km/h and up to 25 km/h over the speed limit are
fined $165 and drivers of cars recorded travelling more than 25 km/h and up to 35 km/h
are fined $250. Drivers travelling more than 35 km/h pay a $250 fine in addition to
having their driver’s license suspended. If it is assumed that this data is representative
of the speeding habits of drivers along a major road and there are 30 000 cars travelling
along this road on any given month. Determine:
i The amount, in dollars, collected in fines throughout the month. Write your answer
correct to the nearest cent.
ii How many drivers would expect to have their licenses suspended throughout the
month?
92 Calculate the total interest paid on a 6 month loan of $14 000 with 10% p.a. reducible interest.
Each month $2000 is paid with the balance at the end of the 6 months.
93 Consider the case of a ‘random’ 2-digit number (00, 01 . . . 98, 99) and determining the
probability that the 2 digits are different.
The 1st number can be anything (10 digits) while the 2nd number can be one of 9
that is different from the 1st. Therefore the probability that the 2 digits are different
10 × 9
= = 0.9
10 × 10
An Australian bank note consists of 8 digits.
a Write the formula for the probability that all 8 digits are different.
b Calculate this probability exactly.

problem solving
94 Year 10 student Ruby is a babysitter. Her babysitting fees are $12.50 per hour for up to three
hours. After three hours, her babysitting fees are at the half-hourly rate of $7.00.
a Write an expression that can be used to determine Ruby’s babysitting fees, R, for the
following:
i for any time, t, up to three hours
ii for any time, t, after three hours.
b Use an appropriate expression from part a. If Ruby receives $72.50 for babysitting, how
many hours did she spend babysitting?
c Ruby decides to restructure her babysitting fees.
For the first 3 hours her fee is $12.50 per hour.
For between four to six hours she charges a flat fee of $70.
By comparing her two fee structures, determine the expected amount, in dollars, Ruby
would receive using the new fee structure for each hour up to and including 6 hours.
95 Sixty Year 10 students were surveyed about driving. 80% of the students said that they
currently had their learner’s permit. Of the students with a learner’s permit, 40% of the
students said that they averaged more than 5 hours each week in driving practice and of these
students, 15% had also driven in wet conditions. 25% of the students with a learner’s permit
said that they had driven in wet conditions.
a Determine the probability that a student with a learner’s permit, selected at random had:
i practised driving for more than 5 hours each week and in dry conditions
ii not practised driving for more than 5 hours but had driven in wet conditions
iii practised for more than 5 hours given that they had driven in wet conditions
b A different group of 150 Year 10 students were surveyed. What would be the predicted
number of students who would have a learner’s permit and had driven in wet conditions?
96 The test scores, out of a total score of 50, for two classes A and B are shown in the stem plot
below.
Class A Class B
5 0 124
9753 1 145
97754 2 005
886551 3 155
320 4 157789
0 5 00
a Ms. Vinculum teaches both classes and made the statement that ‘Class A’s performance on
the test showed that the students’ ability was more closely matched than the students’ ability
in Class B’. By finding the measure of centre, first and third quartiles, and the measure of
spread for the test scores for each class, explain if Ms. Vinculum’s statement was correct.
b Would it be correct to say that Class A performed better on the test than Class B? Justify
your answer by comparing the quartiles and median for each class.
97 There are two major methods of calculating depreciation; the usual reducing value
depreciation and what is called straight-line depreciation. In the latter you are allowed to
claim the same, fixed amount each year until there is no value left. For example, over 5 years
1
one can claim 5 of the item’s initial value each year.
Compare the two methods of depreciation in the following cases.
a Original price = $1000
Reducing value depreciation of 30% for 3 years
Straight-line depreciation of 20% of original value each year for 5 years
b Original price = $5000
Reducing value depreciation of 20% for 5 years
Straight-line depreciation of 16.7% of original value each year for 6 years

problem solving
98 In a mixture of dried fruit and nuts, the nuts

1
make up 6 of the total mass. An extra 4 kg of
nuts is added to the mixture, changing the nut
composition of the mixture to 1 of its mass. What
4
is the total mass of the fruit and nut mixture
now?
99 You often see side-by-side escalators in department stores, one travelling up and the other
travelling down at the same speed. Consider this scenario.
•• Ann walks down the down escalator, stepping on every step, and taking 1 second per
step. She takes 24 steps to reach the bottom.
•• Zoe walks down the up escalator, stepping on every step, and taking 1 second per step.
She takes 120 steps to reach the bottom.
The escalators are moving at the same speed, but in opposite directions. If they had not
been moving, how many steps would be visible on each escalator? (They both have the
same number of steps.)
100 Juanita receives an annual salary of $48 500. She receives a pay increase of 3.5% each year
for three years. At the end of the three years, her pay is increased by an additional x% for
t years.
Ida receives an annual salary of $52 750. She also receives a pay increase at the same
time at Juanita. Ida’s pay is increased by 2% each year for n years.
a Show that if Juanita and Ida both receive the same annual salary at the end of n years,
t
 x 
then 1.041 × 1.02t =  1 +
 100 
b If t = 5 years, show that x = 2.82%
101 Helena is the owner of the web store ‘Warm as Toast’ which makes and sells sheepskin
slippers. It costs Helena $1000 for machinery and materials plus a cost of $15 for each slipper
made.
a Write an equation that determines the cost, C in dollars, of each slipper, s, made.
b Helena is able to sell each pair of slippers for $25. Write an equation that determines the
revenue, R, in dollars, Helena makes on each slipper sold, s.
c Using your equations from parts a and b, how many slippers does Helena need to sell to
meet her costs?
d Helena makes a profit of $2500. By writing an equation that determines the profit, P, in
dollars, Helena makes on each pair of slippers sold, determine the number of slippers
Helena sold to make this profit.
102 When walking home from school during the summer months, Harold buys either an ice cream
or a drink from the corner shop. If Harold bought an ice cream the previous day then there is
a 30% chance that he will buy a drink the next day. If he bought a drink the previous day then
there is a 40% that he will buy an ice cream the next day. On Monday, Harold bought an ice
cream. Determine the probability that he buys an ice cream on Wednesday.

problem solving
103 Fred purchases a plasma TV on a payment plan. He pays 15% deposit and then equal monthly
repayments of $105.50 for 24 months. The TV is priced at $2650.
a Determine the amount Fred pays in deposit. Write your answer to the nearest cent.
b After the deposit is paid, determine the amount owing on the TV.
c How much does Fred pay for the TV after he has made 24 equal repayments?
d Determine the amount Fred pays extra for the TV.
e Using your value from part d determine the percentage interest Fred pays on the money
he borrowed for the TV. Base your calculations on simple interest. Write your answer
correct to 1 decimal place.
104 A sheet of paper is torn in half, and the pieces placed on top of one another. These pieces
together are torn in half, and the new pieces are placed on top of one another. This process
continues through 20 such tears, with the pieces being placed on top of each other each time.
If the original piece of paper was 0.01 mm thick, what is the height of the final pile of pieces
of paper? Give your answer in metres, correct to 1 decimal place.
105 The amount of energy the sun delivers to the surface of the Earth each second is known as
the Solar Constant. It is measured to be 1.35 ì 106 ergs/cm2 each second. If 1 watt is equal to
1 ì 107 ergs/s, what is the Solar Constant each second, expressed in watts/m2.
106 Two standard dice are rolled.
Event A is the subset of that at least one of the numbers of the upper face is a multiple of 3
Event B is the subset of the sum of the numbers of the upper face is greater than 10.
Mutually exclusive events, A and B, follow the condition of P(A ¶ B) = 0.
a Using the condition for mutually exclusivity, show that events A and B are not mutually
exclusive.
If A and B are independent events, then P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B)
b Using the condition for independent events, can events A and B be described as
independent? Justify your answer using calculations.
107 Theresa’s home office equipment is depreciated based on reducing balance method at a rate of
x% per year until the scrap value is less than $300. The office equipment had an initial value
of $3700. After 7 years the office equipment will, for the first time, have a value below the
scrap value of $300. Determine the rate of depreciation, x, correct to 2 decimal places.
108 A container holds 100 mL of a salt solution. How many mL of water must be added to the
solution to decrease the saltiness by 20%?
109 An amoeba is a microscopic organism. It is able to reproduce itself in 3 minutes. One amoeba
is placed in a jar. In 3 hours the jar is completely filled with amoeba. How long did it take for
the jar to be one-quarter filled with amoeba?
110 Gloria is investing $25 000 in a bank account. She is offered two different interest options:
Option A: 4.5% p.a. compounded monthly
Option B: 4.75% p.a. compounded half yearly
Gloria decides to invest using Option B for a period of five years. Show, by finding the
amount Gloria’s investment has grown after 5 years, that she receives $319.08 more using
Option B than Option A.
111 Bianca and Hannah modify the game of darts for a fund
6 1
raising school fete. The dart board Bianca and Hannah use is
shown in the diagram at right
The dart board has a 40 cm diameter. The bull’s eye 12 7
(red centre) has a diameter of 5 cm. The inner section, (i.e. 5 11 8 2
numbers 7 to 12 circle) has a radius of 10 cm.
10 9
The rules of their game are as follows:
To score, the player has to hit either the same number
three times, or the same number twice and the bull’s eye. 4 3
It costs $2 to enter and players have three shots at the
dartboard.

problem solving
The table below shows how much players would receive for certain scores.
Score Payout ($)

The same three numbers in the range 1 to 6 $5
The same three numbers in the range 7 to 12 $10
Bull’s eye with any same two numbers in the $15
range 1 to 6
Bull’s eye with any same two numbers in the $20
range 7 to 12
If 150 players enter Bianca and Hannah’s dart game, what would be the expected amount,
in dollars, they would pay out? Justify your answer by determining the probabilities of
obtaining each of the required scores to receive a payout.
112 Tracy places her money in an investment account that earns x% interest per year for five
years. At the end of each year the amount of interest for the 12 months is added to the sum in
the account. At the end of the first year her $2500, with interest added, has grown to $2575.
At the end of the second year the amount of money in her account was $2652.25.
a If the rate of interest Tracy’s money earned over the first two years was constant,
determine the value of x.
b At the end of the second year, the rate of interest was increased. This rate did not change
for the next two years. At the end of the fourth year, the amount of money in Tracy’s
account was $2896.32. Determine the new rate of interest Tracy’s account earned during
the third and fourth years. Write your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
c After interest had been paid into Tracy’s account at the end of the fourth year, she was
able to deposit another $1000 into the account. The interest rate earned on the account
was increased by 1.5%. Determine the amount of money Tracy will have in her account
at the end of the fifth year. Write your answer to the nearest cent.
113 Andy and Tom have regular games of chess. So far, Tom has won 25% of the time and Andy
has won 18 games. How many games has Tom won?
114 Andy, Bill and Cam each have a mobile phone with a different payment plan.
Andy’s plan
40c flag fall plus 45c for every 30 sec or part thereof of a call
Bill’s plan
35c flag fall plus 92c per minute or part thereof of a call
Cam’s plan
36c flag fall plus 46c per 30 second or part thereof of a call
The boys call each other regularly, with calls lasting up to 3 min. Give an analysis of call
costs for each of them for calls lasting up to 3 mins.
115 This Venn diagram shows the relationship between four sets A, B, C and D.
ξ
A B
1 2 3 16
4 5 6 7 C
8 9 10 11
D
12 13 14 15
What is the sum of the elements contained within the region (A ¶ B) ß (C ¶ D)?

problem solving
116 The tennis coach at school is retiring, and eight members of his squad decide to buy him a
farewell gift. They each contribute the same amount of money. When another two members of
the squad found out about the plan, they said they would join in, paying their share of the cost
of the gift. The original eight contributors then each received $3 back.
What was the cost of the gift?
117 In financial circles, there is a formula that is commonly used to determine the length of time it
takes to double a sum of money invested at a compound interest rate of R% p.a.
n
Number of years to double money = .
R
Using an investment of $1000 and an interest rate of 10% p.a., determine a value for n.
118 There are 40 children in a room and they are either right-handed or left-handed. There are 17
right-handed boys, and 9 left-handed children. Of the 40 children, 21 are girls.
How many left-handed girls are in the room?
119 Suppose you buy a rare stamp for $15, sell it for $20, buy it back for $22, and finally sell it for $30.
How much money did you make, or lose, in buying and selling this stamp?
Note: The answer is not $15.
120 In any leap year, the calendar for January is the same as the calendar for another month in the
year. Which month is this?
121 A draw for a tennis tournament looks like a tree diagram. This could be the draw for eight players.
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3
X X
X
X
X X
X
Champion
X X
X
X
X X
X
In this type of draw, a player is out of the tournament after one loss. With an odd number of
players, one of the competitors is given a ‘bye’, which means the player does not compete
in that round. No competitor can be given more than one bye in a tournament.
Consider a tournament of this type with nine tennis players.
a Draw a diagram showing how this draw could be played.
b What is the maximum number of games the champion will have to play?
c What would be the minimum number of games the champion could play?
122 Sandy’s savings account pays a simple interest rate of 3.5% on daily balances (the interest is
calculated daily on the balance in the account). Her statement for July looks like this.
Date Deposit Withdrawal Balance

1/7 $4200
3/7 $100
7/7 $500
21/7 $725
28/7 $85
31/7

problem solving
a Complete the Balance column for the month of July.

b In order to calculate the interest she has earned for the month, complete the following
table.
Date Number of days Balance Interest calculation Interest earned
2
4200 × 3.5 ×
2/7 2 $4200 365 $0.81
100
6/7 4
20/7
27/7
31/7
What is Sandy’s total interest for the month?

123 In a school election for House Captain there are six candidates — let’s call them A, B, C, D, E
and F. After the election, the following facts were released.
•• A won with 50 votes.
•• B was second.
•• F was last with 5 votes.
•• No two candidates received the same number of votes.
•• 100 students voted.
What is the greatest number of votes B could have received?
124 I have 6 bags of marbles, each containing fewer than 20 marbles. There is a total of
90 marbles in five of the bags. The sixth bag contains 5 fewer marbles than the average
number in all six bags. How many marbles are in the sixth bag?
125 In my drawer I have socks of 5 different colours, and 10 of each colour. They are not in pairs,
and randomly distributed in the drawer. In the dark I go to my drawer to get 4 socks of the
same colour. How many would I need to select to be certain of getting 4 of the same colour?
126 A die in the shape of a dodecahedron has regular pentagonal faces numbered 1 to 12. The
sum of the numbers on each pair of opposite faces equals 13.
With its face numbered 1 uppermost, it is adjacent to faces numbered 2, 4, 6, 5 and 3,
reading clockwise.
3 2
1
5 4
6
If the 6 was sitting uppermost, draw a diagram to show the numbers adjacent to its face.
127 Guests at a luxury resort are told that the entry code to the sauna is a 3-digit odd number with
no repeated digits. (It can not start with 0.) They are given this code written on a piece of
paper.
Suppose you lose this piece of paper, and wish to have a sauna. What is the maximum
number of numbers you will have to try to gain entry to the sauna?
128 A long rectangular table has boys and girls seated on either side, with no-one seated at
the ends. An equal number of children sit on both sides. On one side of the table there are
11 boys, while on the other side, there are 5 girls.
How many more boys than girls are seated at the table?

problem solving
129 The local take-away cafe is trying to promote its business by giving away drink vouchers.
Here’s the deal.
•• Every disposable drink cup comes with a voucher attached to the cup.
•• Every 4 vouchers collected can be traded for a free drink, served in a new cup, with a
voucher attached.
Last month I spent $56 on $2 take-away drinks at the cafe. If I used all my vouchers when I
accumulated them, how many drinks did I have?
130 An interesting biological fact has been discovered about bees.
•• A male bee has only one parent — a mother.
•• A female bee has two parents — a mother and a father.
If we look back 5 generations into the ancestry of a male bee, draw a diagram to show how
many ancestors we would find.

number AND algebra • REAL NUMBERS
18
18A Number classification review
18B Surds
18C Operations with surds
18D Fractional indices
18E Negative indices
18F Logarithms
18G Logarithm laws
18H Solving equations
What do you know ?

1 List what you know about real numbers.
Real numbers 2 Share what you know with a partner and

real numbers.
opening question
Manning’s formula is a formula used to

estimate the flow of water down a river in
a flood event, measured in metres per
2 1
R3 S 2
second. The formula is v = , where
n
R is the hydraulic radius, S is the slope
of the river and n is the roughness
coefficient. What will be the flow of
water in the river if R = 8, S = 0.0025 and
n = 0.625?
number and algebra • real numbers
are you ready?

eBook plus Identifying surds

1 Which of the following are surds?
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 18.1 a 7 b 10
doc-5354 c 49 d 4 2
eBook plus
Simplifying surds
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 18.2 a 48 b 98
doc-5355 c 5 12 d 3 72
eBook plus
Adding and subtracting surds
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 18.3 a 2 6 − 4 3 + 7 3 − 5 6 b 2 32 − 5 45 − 4 180 + 10 8
doc-5356
eBook plus
Multiplying and dividing surds
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 18.4 a 7 × 10 b 2 3 × 4 6
doc-5357 6 5 6
c d
2 10 3
eBook plus
Evaluating numbers in index form
Digital doc
a 72 b 34
SkillSHEET 18.5
doc-5358 c (2.5)6 d (0.3)4
eBook plus
Using the index laws
Digital doc a x3 ì x7 b 4y3 ì 5y8
SkillSHEET 18.6
doc-5359
c 24a3b ó 6ab5 d (2m4)2
590 maths quest 10 + 10a for the australian Curriculum

18a number classification review

eBook plus
■ The number systems used today evolved from a basic and practical need of primitive people
to count and measure magnitudes and quantities such as livestock, people, possessions, time
Interactivity and so on.
Classifying
numbers
■ As societies grew and architecture and engineering developed, number systems became more
int-2792 sophisticated. Number use developed from solely whole numbers to fractions, decimals and
irrational numbers.
■ The Real Number System contains the set of rational and irrational numbers. It is denoted by
the symbol R. The set of real numbers contains a number of subsets which can be classified as
shown in the chart below.
Real numbers R
Irrational numbers I Rational numbers Q

(surds, non-terminating
and non-recurring
decimals, π ,e) Integers Non-integer rationals
Z (terminating and
recurring decimals)
Negative Zero Positive

Z– (neither positive Z+
nor negative) (Natural
numbers N)
rational numbers (q )
■ A rational number (ratio-nal) is a number that can be expressed as a ratio of two whole
a
numbers in the form , where b ò 0.
b
Rational numbers are given the symbol Q. Examples are:
1 2 3 9 i
, , , ,
5 7 10 4
7, -6, 0.35, 1. 4
Chapter 18 real numbers 591

Integers (Z )
■■ Rational numbers may be expressed as integers. Examples are:
5 −4 27 15
1
= 5, 1
= -4, 1
= 27, - 1 = -15
■■ The set of integers consists of positive and negative whole numbers and 0 (which is neither
positive nor negative). They are denoted by the letter Z and can be further divided into
subsets. That is:
Z = {. . ., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Z + = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}
Z - = {-1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, . . .}
■■ Positive integers are also known as natural numbers (or counting numbers) and are denoted
by the letter N. That is:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}
■■ Integers may be represented on the number line as illustrated below.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Z 1 2 3 4 5 6 N Z- -6 -5 - 4 -3 -2 -1
The set of integers The set of positive integers The set of negative integers
or natural numbers
Note: Integers on the number line are marked with a solid dot to indicate that they are the
only points in which we are interested.
Non-integer rationals
■■ Rational numbers may be expressed as terminating decimals. Examples are:
7 1 5 9
10
= 0.7, 4 = 0.25, 8 = 0.625, 5 = 1.8
■■ These decimal numbers terminate after a specific number of digits.
■■ Rational numbers may be expressed as recurring decimals (non-terminating or periodic
decimals). For example:
= 0.333 333 . . . or 0.3
1
3

9 (or 0.81)
= 0.818 181 . . . or 0.81
11
= 0.833 333 . . . or 0.83

5
6

3 (or 0.230769)
= 0.230 769 230 769 . . . or 0.230769
13
■■ These decimals do not terminate, and the specific -3.743 3 1–
digit (or number of digits) is repeated in a pattern. -2–4 2 1.63 3.6
Recurring decimals are represented by placing a dot or
line above the repeating digit or pattern.
- 4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 Q
■■ Rational numbers are defined in set notation as:
Q = rational numbers
a 
Q =  , a, b ∈ Z , b ≠ 0  where Æ means ‘an element of’.
 b 
Irrational numbers (I )

■■ An irrational number (ir-ratio-nal) is a number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two
a
whole numbers in the form , where b ò 0.
b
■■ Irrational numbers are given the symbol I. Examples are:
7
7, 13, 5 21, , p, e
9
592 Maths Quest 10 + 10A for the Australian Curriculum

■■ Irrational numbers may be expressed as decimals. For example:

5 = 2.236 067 977 5 . . . 0.03 = 0.173 205 080 757 . . .
18 = 4.242 640 687 12 . . . 2 7 = 5.291 502 622 13 . . .
p = 3.141 592 653 59 . . . e = 2.718 281 828 46 . . .
■■ These decimals do not terminate, and the digits do not repeat themselves in any particular
pattern or order (that is, they are non-terminating and non-recurring).
■■ Rational and irrational numbers belong to the set of
- 1–2 π–
real numbers (denoted by the symbol R). They can - 12 - 5 4 2 π
be positive, negative or 0. The real numbers may be
represented on a number line as shown at right (irrational - 4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
R
numbers above the line; rational numbers below it).
■■ To classify a number as either rational or irrational:
1. Determine whether it can be expressed as a whole number, a fraction or a terminating or
recurring decimal.
2. If the answer is yes, the number is rational; if the answer is no, the number is irrational.
p (pi)
■■ The symbol p (pi) is used for a particular number; that is, the circumference of a circle whose
diameter length is 1 unit.
■■ It can be approximated as a decimal that is non-terminating and non-recurring. Therefore, p
is classified as an irrational number. (It is also called a transcendental number and cannot be
expressed as a surd.)
■■ In decimal form, p = 3.141 592 653 589 793 23 . . . It has been calculated to
29 000 000 (29 million) decimal places with the aid of a computer.
Worked Example 1
Specify whether the following numbers are rational or irrational.

1 1
a b 25 c 13 d 3p e 0.54 f 3 64 g 3 32 h 3
5 27
Think Write
1 1
a
5
is already a rational number. a
5
is rational.
b 1 Evaluate 25. b 25 = 5
2 The answer is an integer, so classify 25. 25 is rational.
c 1 Evaluate 13. c 13 = 3.605 551 275 46 . . .
2 The answer is a non-terminating and 13 is irrational.
non-recurring decimal; classify 13.
d 1 Use your calculator to find the value of d 3p = 9.424 777 960 77 . . .
3p.
2 The answer is a non-terminating and 3p is irrational.
non-recurring decimal; classify 3p.
e 0.54 is a terminating decimal; classify it e 0.54 is rational.
accordingly.
f 1 Evaluate 3 64 . f 3
64 = 4
3
2 The answer is a whole number, so 64 is rational.
classify 3 64 .
Chapter 18 Real numbers 593

g 1 Evaluate 3 32 . g 3
32 = 3.174 802 103 94 . . .
3
2 The result is a non-terminating and 32 is irrational.
non-recurring decimal; classify 3 32 .
1 1 1
h 1 Evaluate 3 . h 3 =
27 27 3
3
1
2 The result is a number in a rational form. is rational.
27
remember
a
1. Rational numbers (Q) can be expressed in the form , where a and b are whole
b
numbers and b ò 0. They include whole numbers, fractions and terminating and
recurring decimals.
a
2. Irrational numbers (I) cannot be expressed in the form , where a and b are whole
b
numbers and b ò 0. They include surds, non-terminating and non-recurring decimals,
and numbers such as p and e.
3. Rational and irrational numbers together constitute the set of real numbers (R).
Exercise
fluency
1 WE 1 Specify whether the following numbers are rational (Q) or irrational (I ).
4 7
a 4 b c d 2 e 7
5 9
1 9
f 0.04 g 2
2
h 5 i j 0.15
4
k -2.4 l 100 m 14.4 n 1.44 o p
25
p q 7.32 r − 21 s 1000 t 7.216 349 157 . . .
9
3 1
u − 81 v 3p w 62 x y 3 0.0001
16
2 Specify whether the following numbers are rational (Q), irrational (I ) or neither.
1 11 0 1
a b 625 c d e -6
8 4 8 7
1.44 8
f 3
81 g − 11 h i π j
4 0
3 π 3
(−5)2 3 1
k 21 l m n - o
7 11 100
64 2 6 3 1
p q r s 27 t
16 25 2 4
22π
( 2)
4
3
u v −1.728 w 6 4 x 4 6 y
7

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA • REAL NUMBERS
3 MC Which of the following best represents a rational number?
4 9 3
A p B C D 3 E 5
9 12
4 MC Which of the following best represents an irrational number?
6 3
A − 81 B C 343 D 22 E 144
5
π
5 MC Which of the following statements regarding the numbers -0.69, 7, , 49 is correct?
3
π
A is the only rational number.
3
B 7 and 49 are both irrational numbers.
C -0.69 and 49 are the only rational numbers.
D -0.69 is the only rational number.
E 7 is the only rational number.
1 11 3
6 MC Which of the following statements regarding the numbers 2 , - , 624, 99 is correct?
2 3
11
A - and 624 are both irrational numbers.
3
B 624 is an irrational number and 3 99 is a

rational number.
C 624 and 3 99 are both irrational numbers.
1 11 REFLECTION  
D 2 is a rational number and - is an irrational
2 3
number. Why is it important to understand
the real number system?
3
E 99 is the only rational number.
18B Surds
■■ A surd is an irrational number that is represented by a root sign or a radical sign, for
example: ,3 ,4
Examples of surds include: 7, 5, 3 11 , 4 15
Examples that are not surds include:
9, 16 , 3 125 , 4 81
■■ Numbers that are not surds can be simplified to rational numbers, that is:
9 = 3, 16 = 4 , 3 125 = 5, 4 81 = 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Which of the following numbers are surds?

1
a 16 b 13 c d 3 17 e 4 63 e 3 1728
16
THINK WRITE
a 1 Evaluate 16 . a 16 = 4
2 The answer is rational (since it is a whole 16 is not a surd.
number), so state your conclusion.

b 1 Evaluate 13. b 13 = 3.605 551 275 46 . . .

2 The answer is irrational (since it is a non- 13 is a surd.
recurring and non-terminating decimal),
so state your conclusion.
1 1 1
c 1 Evaluate . c =
16 16 4
1
2 The answer is rational (a fraction); state is not a surd.
16
your conclusion.
d 1 Evaluate 3 17 . d 3
17 = 2.571 281 590 66 . . .
3
2 The answer is irrational (a non- 17 is a surd.
terminating and non-recurring decimal),
so state your conclusion.
e 1 Evaluate 4 63 . e 4
63 = 2.817 313 247 26 . . .
4
2 The answer is irrational, so classify 4 63 63 is a surd.
accordingly.
f 1 Evaluate 3 1728 . f 3
1728 = 12
3
2 The answer is rational; state your 1728 is not a surd.
conclusion. So b, d and e are surds.
Proof that a number is irrational

■■ In Mathematics you are required to study a variety of types of proofs. One such method is
called proof by contradiction.
■■ This method is so named because the logical argument of the proof is based on an assumption
that leads to contradiction within the proof. Therefore the original assumption must be false.
a
■■ An irrational number is one that cannot be expressed in the form (where a and b are
b
integers). The next worked example sets out to prove that 2 is irrational.
Worked Example 3
Prove that 2 is irrational.

Think Write
a
1 Assume that 2 is rational; that is, it Let 2 = , where b ò 0
a b
can be written as in simplest form.
b
We need to show that a and b have no
common factors.
a2
2 Square both sides of the equation. 2=
b2
3 Rearrange the equation to make a2 the a2 = 2b2 [1]
subject of the formula.

NUMBER AND ALGEBRA • REAL NUMBERS
4 If x is an even number, then x = 2n. \ a2 is an even number and a must also be even;
that is, a has a factor of 2.
5 Since a is even it can be written as a = 2r. \ a = 2r
6 Square both sides. a2 = 4r2 [2]
But a2 = 2b2 from [1]
7 Equate [1] and [2]. \ 2b2 = 4r2
4r 2
b 2 =
2
= 2r2
\ b2 is an even number and b must also be even;
that is, b has a factor of 2.
8 Repeat the steps for b as previously done for a. Both a and b have a common factor of 2.
This contradicts the original assumption that
a
2 = , where a and b have no common factor.
b
\ 2 is not rational.
\ It must be irrational.
■■ The dialogue included in the worked example should be present in all proofs and is an
essential part of the communication that is needed in all your solutions.
■■ Note: An irrational number written in surd form gives an exact value of the number; whereas
the same number written in decimal form (for example, to 4 decimal places) gives an
approximate value.
REMEMBER
A number is a surd if:

1. it is an irrational number (equals a non-terminating, non-recurring decimal)
2. it can be written with a radical sign (or square root sign) in its exact form.
EXERCISE
18B Surds
FLUENCY
eBook plus
1 WE 2 Which of the numbers below are surds?
Digital doc
a 81 b 48 c 16 d 1.6 e 0.16 f 11
SkillSHEET 18.1
doc-5354 3 3
g h 3 i 1000 j 1.44 k 4 100 l 2 + 10
4 27
3 3 3
m 32 n 361 o 100 p 125 q 6+ 6 r 2p
3 7 4 2 3
s 169 t u 16 v ( 7 ) w 33 x 0.0001
8
5
y 32 z 80

 6 
2 MC The correct statement regarding the set of numbers  , 20 , 54 , 3 27 , 9  is:
 9 
3
A 27 and 9 are the only rational numbers of the set.
6
B is the only surd of the set.
9
6
C and 20 are the only surds of the set.
9
D 20 and 54 are the only surds of the set.
E 9 and 20 are the only surds of the set.
 1 1 1 
3 MC Which of the numbers of the set  , 3 , , 21, 3 8  are surds?
 4 27 8 
1 1
A 21 only B only C and 3 8
8 8
1 1
d and 21 only e and 21 only
8 4
 1 
4 MC Which statement regarding the set of numbers π , , 12 , 16 , 3 + 1 is not true?
 49 
A 12 is a surd. B 12 and 16 are surds.

c p is irrational but not a surd. d 12 and 3 + 1 are not rational.
E p is not a surd.
 144 
5 MC Which statement regarding the set of numbers 6 7 , , 7 6 , 9 2 , 18 , 25  is
 16 
not true?
144 144
A when simplified is an integer. B and 25 are not surds.
16 16
c 7 6 is smaller than 9 2 . d 9 2 is smaller than 6 7.
E 18 is a surd.
understanding
6 Complete the following statement by selecting appropriate words, suggested in brackets:
6
a is definitely not a surd, if a is . . . (any multiple of 4; a perfect square and cube).
7 Find the smallest value of m, where m is a positive integer, so that 3 16m is not a surd.
Reasoning
8 WE 3 Prove that the following numbers are irrational, using a proof by contradiction:
a 3
reflection  
b 5
How can you be certain that a is a surd?
c 7

18c Operations with surds

Simplifying surds
■■ To simplify a surd means to make a number (or an expression) under the radical sign ( ) as
small as possible.
■■ To simplify a surd (if it is possible), it should be rewritten as a product of two factors, one of
which is a perfect square, that is, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100 and so on.
■■ We must always aim to obtain the largest perfect square when simplifying surds so that
there are fewer steps involved in obtaining the answer. For example, 32 could be written
as 4 × 8 = 2 8 ; however, 8 can be further simplified to 2 2 , so 32 = 2 × 2 2 ; that is
32 = 4 2 . If, however, the largest perfect square had been selected and 32 had been
written as 16 × 2 = 16 × 2 = 4 2 , the same answer would be obtained in fewer steps.
Worked Example 4
Simplify the following surds. Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.
1
a 384 b 3 405 c - 175 d 5 180 x 3 y5
8
Think Write
a 1 Express 384 as a product of two factors a 384 = 64 × 6

where one factor is the largest possible
perfect square.
2 Express 64 × 6 as the product of two = 64 × 6
surds.
3 Simplify the square root from the perfect =8 6
square (that is, 64 = 8).
b 1 Express 405 as a product of two factors, b 3 405 = 3 81 × 5
one of which is the largest possible
perfect square.
2 Express 81 × 5 as a product of two = 3 81 × 5
surds.
3 Simplify 81. = 3× 9 5
4 Multiply together the whole numbers = 27 5
outside the square root sign (3 and 9).
1 1
c 1 Express 175 as a product of two factors c − 175 = − 25 × 7
in which one factor is the largest possible 8 8
perfect square.
1
2 Express 25 × 7 as a product of 2 surds. = − × 25 × 7
8
1
3 Simplify 25. =− ×5 7
8
5
4 Multiply together the numbers outside =− 7
the square root sign. 8

d 1 Express each of 180, x3 and y5 as a d 5 180 x 3 y 5 = 5 36 × 5 × x 2 × x × y 4 × y

product of two factors where one factor
is the largest possible perfect square.
2 Separate all perfect squares into one surd = 5 × 36 x 2 y 4 × 5 xy
and all other factors into the other surd.
3 Simplify 36 x 2 y 4 . = 5 × 6 × x × y 2 × 5 xy
4 Multiply together the numbers and the = 30 xy 2 5 xy
pronumerals outside the square root sign.
Addition and subtraction of surds

■■ Surds may be added or subtracted only if they are alike.
Examples of like surds include 7, 3 7 and −5 7. Examples of unlike surds include
11, 5 , 2 13 and −2 3.
■■ In some cases surds will need to be simplified before you decide whether they are like
or unlike, and then addition and subtraction can take place. The concept of adding and
subtracting surds is similar to adding and subtracting like terms in algebra.
Worked Example 5
Simplify each of the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive real
numbers.
1
a 3 6 + 17 6 − 2 6 b 5 3 + 2 12 − 5 2 + 3 8 c 100 a 3 b2 + ab 36 a − 5 4 a2 b
2
Think Write
a All 3 terms are alike because they contain the a 3 6 + 17 6 − 2 6 = (3 + 17 − 2) 6

same surd ( 6 ).
Simplify. = 18 6
b 1 Simplify surds where possible. b 5 3 + 2 12 − 5 2 + 3 8
= 5 3+2 4×3−5 2 +3 4×2
= 5 3 + 2× 2 3 − 5 2 +3× 2 2
= 5 3+4 3−5 2 +6 2
2 Add like terms to obtain the simplified =9 3+ 2
answer.
1
c 1 Simplify surds where possible. c 100 a3b 2 + ab 36a − 5 4 a 2 b
2
1
= × 10 a 2 × a × b 2 + ab × 6 a − 5 × 2 × a b
2
1
= × 10 × a × b a + ab × 6 a − 5 × 2 × a b
2
= 5ab a + 6ab a − 10 a b
2 Add like terms to obtain the simplified = 11ab a − 10 a b
answer.

Multiplication and division of surds

Multiplying surds
■■ To multiply surds, multiply together the expressions under the radical signs. For example,
a × b = ab , where a and b are positive real numbers.
■■ When multiplying surds it is best to first simplify them (if possible). Once this has been done
and a mixed surd has been obtained, the coefficients are multiplied with each other and then
the surds are multiplied together. For example,
m a × n b = mn ab
Worked Example 6
Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and y are
positive real numbers.
a 11 × 7 b 5 3 × 8 5 c 6 12 × 2 6 d 15 x 5 y2 × 12 x 2 y
Think Write
a Multiply the surds together, using a 11 × 7 = 11 × 7

a × b = ab (that is, multiply expressions under the = 77
square root sign).
Note: This expression cannot be simplified any further.
b Multiply the coefficients together and then multiply the b 5 3 ×8 5 = 5×8× 3 × 5
surds together. = 40 × 3 × 5
= 40 15
c 1 Simplify 12 . c 6 12 × 2 6 = 6 4 × 3 × 2 6
= 6×2 3 ×2 6
= 12 3 × 2 6
2 Multiply the coefficients together and multiply = 24 18
the surds together.
3 Simplify the surd. = 24 9 × 2
= 24 × 3 2
= 72 2
d 1 Simplify each of the surds. d 15 x 5 y 2 × 12 x 2 y
= 15 × x 4 × x × y 2 × 4 × 3 × x 2 × y
= x 2 × y × 15 × x × 2 × x × 3 × y
= x 2 y 15 x × 2 x 3 y
2 Multiply the coefficients together and = x 2 y × 2 x 15 x × 3 y
the surds together.
= 2 x 3 y 45 xy
3 Simplify the surd. = 2 x 3 y 9 × 5 xy

= 2 x 3 y × 3 5 xy
= 6 x 3 y 5 xy

■■ When working with surds, we sometimes need to multiply surds by themselves; that is, square
them. Consider the following examples:
( 2 )2 = 2 × 2 = 4 = 2
( 5 )2 = 5 × 5 = 25 = 5
■■ Observe that squaring a surd produces the number under the radical sign. This is not
surprising, because squaring and taking the square root are inverse operations and, when
applied together, leave the original unchanged.
■■ When a surd is squared, the result is the number (or expression) under the radical sign; that is,
( a )2 = a, where a is a positive real number.
Worked Example 7

a ( 6 )2
b ( 3 5 )2
Think Write
a Use ( a )2 = a, where a = 6. 2
a ( 6) = 6
b 1 Square 3 and use ( a )2 = a to square 5 . b (3 5 )2 = 32 × ( 5 )2

=9ì5
2 Simplify. = 45
Dividing surds
a a
■■ To divide surds, divide the expressions under the radical signs; that is, = , where a and
b are whole numbers. b b
■■ When dividing surds it is best to simplify them (if possible) first. Once this has been done, the
coefficients are divided next and then the surds are divided.
Worked Example 8
Divide the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and y are positive
real numbers.
55 48
a b
5 3
9 88 36 xy
c d
6 99 25 x 9 y11
Think Write
a a 55 55
a 1 Rewrite the fraction, using = . a =
b b 5 5

2 Divide the numerator by the denominator = 11

(that is, 55 by 5).
3 Check if the surd can be simplified any
further.
a a 48 48
b 1 Rewrite the fraction, using = . b =
b b 3 3
2 Divide 48 by 3. = 16
3 Evaluate 16 . =4
a a 9 88 9 88
c 1 Rewrite surds, using = . c =
b b 6 99 6 99
9 8
2 Simplify the fraction under the radical =
by dividing both numerator and 6 9
denominator by 11.
9×2 2
3 Simplify surds. =
6×3
18 2
4 Multiply the whole numbers in the =
18
numerator together and those in the
denominator together.
5 Cancel the common factor of 18. = 2
36 xy 6 xy
d 1 Simplify each surd. d =
9 11
25 x y 5 x × x × y10 × y
8
6 xy
=
5 x 4 y 5 xy
6
2 Cancel any common factors — in this =
5x 4 y 5
case xy.
Rationalising denominators
■■ If the denominator of a fraction is a surd, it can be changed into a rational number. In other
words, it can be rationalised.
■■ As discussed earlier in this chapter, squaring a simple surd (that is, multiplying it by itself)
results in a rational number. This fact can be used to rationalise denominators as follows.
a b ab b
× = , where =1
b b b b
■■ If both numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied by the surd contained in the
denominator, the denominator becomes a rational number. The fraction takes on a different
appearance, but its numerical value is unchanged, because multiplying the numerator and
denominator by the same number is equivalent to multiplying by 1.

Worked Example 9
Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.

6 2 12 17 − 3 14
a b c
13 3 54 7
Think Write
6
a 1 Write the fraction. a
13
6 13
2 Multiply both the numerator and denominator by the surd = ×
13 13
contained in the denominator (in this case 13). This has the
13 78
same effect as multiplying the fraction by 1, because = 1. =
13 13
2 12
b 1 Write the fraction. b
3 54
2 12 2 4×3
2 Simplify the surds. (This avoids dealing with large numbers.) =
3 54 3 9×6
2×2 3
=
3×3 6
4 3
=
9 6
4 3 6
3 Multiply both the numerator and denominator by 6. = ×
(This has the same effect as multiplying the fraction by 1, 9 6 6
6 4 18
because = 1.) =
6 9×6
Note: We need to multiply only by the surd part of the
denominator (that is, by 6 rather than by 9 6).
4 9×2
4 Simplify 18. =
9×6
4×3 2
=
54
12 2
=
54
2 2
5 Divide both the numerator and denominator by 6 (cancel down). =
9
17 − 3 14
c 1 Write the fraction. c
7
( 17 − 3 14 ) 7
2 Multiply both the numerator and denominator by 7. Use = ×
grouping symbols (brackets) to make it clear that the whole 7 7
numerator must be multiplied by 7.

17 × 7 − 3 14 × 7
3 Apply the Distributive Law in the numerator. =
a(b + c) = ab + ac 7× 7
119 − 3 98
=
7
119 − 3 49 × 2
4 Simplify 98. =
7
119 − 3 × 7 2
=
7
119 − 21 2
=
7
Rationalising denominators using conjugate surds

■■ The product of pairs of conjugate surds results in a rational number. (Examples of pairs
of conjugate surds include 6 + 11 and 6 − 11, a + b and a − b, 2 5 − 7 and 2 5 + 7 .)
This fact is used to rationalise denominators containing a sum or a difference of surds.
■■ To rationalise the denominator that contains a sum or a difference of surds, multiply both
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
Two examples are given below:
1 a− b
1. To rationalise the denominator of the fraction , multiply it by .
a+ b a− b
1 a+ b
2. To rationalise the denominator of the fraction , multiply it by
.
a− b a+ b
A quick way to simplify the denominator is to use the difference of two squares identity:
( a − b )( a + b) = ( a )2 − ( b )2
=a-b
Worked Example 10
Rationalise the denominator and simplify the following.

1
a
4− 3
6+3 2
b
3+ 3
Think Write
1
a 1 Write down the fraction. a
4− 3
1 (4 + 3 )
2 Multiply the numerator and denominator = ×
by the conjugate of the denominator. (4 − 3 ) (4 + 3 )
(4 + 3 )
(Note that = 1.)
(4 + 3 )

4+ 3
3 Apply the Distributive Law in the =
numerator and the difference of (4) 2 − ( 3 ) 2
two squares identity in the denominator.
4+ 3
4 Simplify. =
16 − 3
4+ 3
=
13
6 +3 2
b 1 Write down the fraction. b
3+ 3
( 6 + 3 2) (3 − 3 )
2 Multiply the numerator and denominator = ×
by the conjugate of the denominator. (3 + 3 ) (3 − 3 )
(3 − 3 )
(Note that = 1.)
(3 − 3 )
6 ×3+ 6 × − 3 +3 2 ×3+3 2 × − 3
3 Multiply the expressions in grouping =
symbols in the numerator, and apply the (3)2 − ( 3 )2
difference of two squares identity in the
denominator.
3 6 − 18 + 9 2 − 3 6
4 Simplify. =
9−3
− 18 + 9 2
=
6
− 9×2 +9 2
=
6
−3 2 + 9 2
=
6
6 2
=
6
= 2
remember
1. To simplify a surd means to make a number (or an expression) under the radical sign as
small as possible.
2. To simplify a surd, write it as a product of two factors, one of which is the largest
possible perfect square.
3. Only like surds may be added and subtracted.
4. Surds may need to be simplified before adding and subtracting.
5. When multiplying surds, simplify the surd if possible and then apply the following
rules:
(a) a × b = ab
(b) m a × n b = mn ab , where a and b are positive real numbers.

6. When a surd is squared, the result is the number (or the expression) under the radical
sign: ( a )2 = a, where a is a positive real number.
7. When dividing surds, simplify the surd if possible and then apply the following rule:
a a
a÷ b= =
b b
where a and b are whole numbers, and b ò 0.
8. To rationalise a surd denominator, multiply the numerator and denominator by the surd
contained in the denominator. This has the effect of multiplying the fraction by 1, and
thus the numerical value of the fraction remains unchanged, while the denominator
becomes rational:
a a b ab
= × =
b b b b
where a and b are whole numbers and b ò 0.
9. To rationalise the denominator containing a sum or a difference of surds, multiply both
the numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate of the denominator.
This eliminates the middle terms and leaves a rational number.
exerCise
18C operations with surds
fluenCy
1 We4a Simplify the following surds.
eBook plus
a 12 b 24 c 27 d 125
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 18.2 e 54 f 112 g 68 h 180
doc-5355
i 88 j 162 k 245 l 448
2 We4b, c Simplify the following surds.
a 2 8 b 8 90 c 9 80 d 7 54
1
e −6 75 f −7 80 g 16 48 h 392
7
1 1 1 3
i 162 j 192 k 135 l 175
9 4 9 10
3 We4d Simplify the following surds. Assume that a, b, c, d, e, f, x and y are positive real
numbers.
a 16a 2 b 72a 2 c 90 a 2 b d 338a 4
e 338a3b3 f 68a3b 5 g 125 x 6 y 4 h 5 80 x 3 y 2

1 1
i 6 162c 7 d 5 j 2 405c 7 d 9 k 88ef l 392e11 f 11
2 2
4 We5a Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that x and y are positive
real numbers.
a 3 5 + 4 5 b 2 3 + 5 3 + 3
c 8 5 + 3 3 + 7 5 + 2 3 d 6 11 − 2 11
e 7 2 + 9 2 − 3 2 f 9 6 + 12 6 − 17 6 − 7 6
g 12 3 − 8 7 + 5 3 − 10 7 h 2 x + 5 y + 6 x − 2 y

eBook plus
5 We5b Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive
real numbers.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 18.3 a 200 − 300 b 125 − 150 + 600
doc-5356
c 27 − 3 + 75 d 2 20 − 3 5 + 45
e 6 12 + 3 27 − 7 3 + 18 f 150 + 24 − 96 + 108
g 3 90 − 5 60 + 3 40 + 100 h 5 11 + 7 44 − 9 99 + 2 121
i 2 30 + 5 120 + 60 − 6 135 j 6 ab − 12ab + 2 9ab + 3 27ab

1 1 1 1 7
k 98 + 48 + 12 l 32 − 18 + 3 72
2 3 3 8 6
6 We5c Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive
real numbers.
a 7 a − 8a + 8 9a − 32a b 10 a − 15 27a + 8 12a + 14 9a
c 150 ab + 96ab − 54 ab d 16 4 a 2 − 24 a + 4 8a 2 + 96a

1 1 1
e 8a3 + 72a3 − 98a3 f 36a + 128a − 144 a
2 4 6
g 9a3 + 3a 5 h 6 a 5b + a 3b − 5 a 5b
i ab ab + 3ab a 2 b + 9a3b3 j a3b + 5 ab − 2 ab + 5 a3b
k 32a3b 2 − 5ab 8a + 48a 5b6 l 4 a 2 b + 5 a 2 b − 3 9a 2 b
eBook plus
7 We6 Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that a,
b, x and y are positive real numbers.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 18.4 a 2× 7 b 6× 7 c 8× 6
doc-5357
d 10 × 10 e 21 × 3 f 27 × 3 3
g 5 3 × 2 11 h 10 15 × 6 3 i 4 20 × 3 5
1 1
j 10 6 × 3 8 k 48 × 2 2 l 48 × 2 3
4 9
1 1
m 60 × 40 n xy × x 3 y 2 o 3a 4 b 2 × 6a 5b3
10 5
1
p 12a 7 b × 6a3b 4 q 15 x 3 y 2 × 6 x 2 y 3 r 15a3b3 × 3 3a 2 b6
2
8 We7 Simplify each of the following.
a ( 2 )2 b ( 5 )2 c ( 12 )2
d ( 15 )2 e (3 2 )2 f (4 5 )2
g (2 7 )2 h (5 8 )2
9 We8 Simplify the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that a,
b, x and y are positive real numbers.
15 8 60 128
a b c d
3 2 10 8
18 65 96 7 44
e f g h
4 6 2 13 8 14 11

9 63 2040 x 4 y3 16 xy
i j k l
15 7 30 x2y5 8x 7 y 9
xy 12 x8 y12 2 2a 2 b 4 10 a 9 b3
m × n ×
x5y7 x 2 y3 5a3b6 3 a7b
10 We9a, b Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
eBook plus
5 7 4 8 12
Digital doc a b c d e
SkillSHEET 18.7 2 3 11 6 7
doc-5360
15 2 3 3 7 5 2 4 3
f g h i j
6 5 5 2 3 3 5
5 14 16 3 8 3 8 60 2 35
k l m n o
7 8 6 5 7 7 28 3 14
understanding
11 We9c Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
eBook plus
6 + 12 15 − 22 6 2 − 15 2 18 + 3 2
Digital doc a b c d
SkillSHEET 18.8 3 6 10 5
doc-5361
3 5+6 7 4 2 +3 8 3 11 − 4 5 2 7−2 5
e f g h
8 2 3 18 12
eBook plus 7 12 − 5 6 6 2− 5 6 3−5 5 3 5+7 3
i j k l
Digital doc 6 3 4 8 7 20 5 24
SkillSHEET 18.9
12 We10 Rationalise the denominator and simplify.
doc-5362
1 1 4
a b c
5+2 8− 5 2 11 − 13
5 3 8−3
d e
3 5+4 2 8+3
12 − 7 3 −1 refleCtion
eBook plus f g
12 + 7 5 +1 Under what circumstance might
Digital doc you need to rationalise the
WorkSHEET 18.1
3 6 − 15 5− 3
h i denominator of a fraction
doc-5363 6+2 3 4 2− 3
18d fractional indices 1

■ Consider the expression a 2 . Now consider what happens if we square that expression.
1
(a 2 )2 = a (using the Fourth Index Law, (am)n = am ì n)
2
■ Now, from our work on surds we know that ( a ) = a.
1 1
2 2
■ From this we can conclude that (a 2 ) = ( a ) and further conclude that a 2 = a .
1
■ We can similarly show that a 3 = 3 a .
1
■ This pattern can be continued and generalised to produce a n = n a .

Worked Example 11
Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

1 1
a 9 2 b 64 3
Think Write
1 1
a 1 Write 9 2 as 9. a 92 = 9
2 Evaluate. =3
1 1
b 1 Write 64 3 as 3 64 . b 64 3 = 3 64
2 Evaluate. =4
Worked Example 12
Use a calculator to find the value of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
1 1
a 10 4 b 200 5
Think Write
1
a Use a calculator to produce the answer. a 10 4 = 1.778 279 41
ö 1.8
1
b Use a calculator to produce the answer. b 200 5 = 2.885 399 812
ö 2.9
1
■■ Consider the expression (a m ) n . Using our work so far on fractional indices, we can say
1
(a m ) n = n a m .
1 m
■■ We can also say (a m ) n = a n using the index laws.
m
■■ We can therefore conclude that a n = n a m .
■■ Such expressions can be evaluated on a calculator either by using the index function, which is
usually either ^ or xy and entering the fractional index, or by separating the two functions for
power and root.
Worked Example 13
2
Evaluate 3 7 , correct to 1 decimal place.
Think Write
2 2
Use a calculator to evaluate 3 7 . 3 7 ≈ 1.4
1
■■ We can also use the index law a 2 = a to convert between expressions that involve fractional
indices and surds.

Worked Example 14
Write each of the following expressions in simplest surd form.

1 3
a 10 2 b 5 2
Think Write
1
1
a Since an index of is equivalent to taking the square root, this a 10 2 = 10
2
term can be written as the square root of 10.
3
b 1 A power of 32 means square root of the number cubed. b 52 = 53
2 Evaluate 53. = 125
3 Simplify 125. =5 5
■■ In Year 9 you would have studied the index laws and all of these laws are valid for fractional
indices.
Worked Example 15
Simplify each of the following. 1
1 2 1
 2 2
 x3 
a m 5 × m 5 b ( a2 b3 ) 6 c  3 
 y 4 
Think Write
1 2
a 1 Write the expression. a m5 × m5
3
2 Multiply numbers with the same base by adding the indices. = m5
1
b 1 Write the expression. b (a 2 b 3 ) 6
2 3
2 Multiply each index inside the grouping symbols = a6b6
(brackets) by the index on the outside.
1 1
3 Simplify the fractions. = a3b2
1
 2 2
x3 
c 1 Write the expression. c 
 3
 y 4 
1
x3
2 Multiply the index in both the numerator and = 3
denominator by the index outside the grouping symbols. y 8

remember
1. Fractional indices are those that are expressed as fractions.

2. Numbers with fractional indices can be written as surds, using the following identities:
1 m
n m n m
= a a n = a = ( a )
an n
3. All index laws are applicable to fractional indices.
Exercise
18D Fractional indices
Fluency
1 WE 11 Evaluate each of the following without using a calculator if necessary.
1 1 1
a 16 2 b 25 2 c 812
1 1 1
d 8 3 e 27 3 f 125 3
2 WE 12 Use a calculator to evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place if necessary.
1 1 1
a 814 b 16 4 c 3 3
1 1 1
d 52 e 75 f 8 9
3 WE 13 Use a calculator to find the value of each of the following, correct to 1 decimal place.
3 5 2
a 12 8 b 100 9 c 50 3
3 2
4
 3 4  4 3
d (0.6) 5 e   f  
 4  5
4 WE 14 Write each of the following expressions in simplest surd form.
1 1 1
a 7 2 b 12 2 c 72 2
5 3 5
d 2 2 e 3 2 f 10 2
5 Write each of the following expressions with a fractional index.
a 5 b 10 c x
3 3
d m e 2 t 6 f
6 WE 15a Simplify each of the following. Leave your answer in index form.
3 1 1 3 1 1
a 4 5 × 4 5 b 2 8 × 2 8 c a 2 × a 3
3 2 1 1 3 2
d x 4 × x 5 e 5m 3 × 2m 5 f 1 7
b × 4b 7
2
2 3 3 1
2 8
g −4 y 2 × y 9 h a × 0.05a 4 i 5x3 × x 2
5
2 3 1 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 4
a a 3 b 4 × a 3 b 4 b x 5 y 9 × x 5 y 3 c 2ab 3 × 3a 5 b 5
3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 3
1 4 5
d 6m 7 × m n e x 3 y 2 z 3 × x 6 y 3 z 2 f 2a 5 b 8 c 4 × 4 b 4 c 4
3


1 1 2 1 3
a 3 2 ÷ 3 3 b 5 3 ÷ 5 4 c 122 ÷ 12 2
4
6 3 3 1
m5
d a7 ÷ a7 e x2 ÷ x4 f 5
m9
3 3
2x 4 7 n2 25b 5
g 3
h 4
i 1
4x 5 21n 3 20 b 4
4 3 5 2 2 2 3 4 3
a x 3 y 2 ÷ x 3 y 5 b a 9 b 3 ÷ a 5 b 5 c m 8 n 7 ÷ 3n 8
3 3 7 1
4 2 1
5a 4 b 5 p8 q 4
d 10 x 5 y ÷ 5x 3 y 4 e 1 1
f 2 1
20 a 5 b 4 7 p3q6
( ) ( ) (7 )
3 1
6
3 5 2 4 1
a 24 b 53 c 5
(m ) ( 2b )
3 1
1 4 8 1 3
d (a3 )10 e 9 f 2
( )
14
(x ) (3m )
n b
3 15 m p a c
g 4 p7 h n i b
Understanding
11 WE 15b, c Simplify each of the following.
( ) ( )
1
3 2
1 1 2 3 7
4 4
a a2b3 b (a b) c x5y8
2
( )
1
( )
1
1 3 3 3 1 2 2 2  3 3
x2y3z5  a4 
f 
 b 
d 3a 3 b 5 c 4 e
2
2
 4  33 1
 m5   b5   4x7  2
g  7  h  4  i 
3
 8   9   2 y 4 
n c
If ( )
m
3 n 1
a4 is equal to a4, then m and n could not be:
A 1 and 3 B 2 and 6
C 3 and 8 D 4 and 9
3 4
a a8 b b9 c m16
d 16 x 4 e 3
8y 9 f 4
16 x8 y12
3 3
g 27m 9 n15 h 5
32 p5q10 i 216a6 b18

reasoning
14 At the start of this chapter we looked at Manning’s formula, which is used to calculate the flow
2 1
R3S 2
of water in a river during a flood situation. Manning’s formula is v = , where R is the
n
hydraulic radius, S is the slope of the river and n is the roughness coefficient. This formula is
used by meteorologists and civil engineers to analyse potential flood situations.
We were asked to find the flow of water in metres per second in the river if
R = 8, S = 0.0025 and n = 0.625.
a Use Manning’s formula to find the flow of water in the river.
b To find the volume of water flowing through the river, we multiply the flow rate by the
average cross-sectional area of the river. If the average cross-sectional area is 52 m2, find the
volume of water (in L) flowing through the river each second. (Remember 1 m3 = 1000 L.)
c If water continues to flow at this rate, what will
be the total amount of water to flow through in refleCtion
one hour? Justify your answer. How will you remember the rule
d Use the Internet to find the meaning of the terms for fractional indices?
hydraulic radius and roughness coefficient.
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 18.2
doc-5364
18e negative indices

23
■ Consider the following division 4
= 2−1 (using the Second Index Law).
2
23 8 1
Alternatively, 4 = = .
2 16 2
1
We can conclude that 2−1 = .
2
■ In general form:
1 −n 1
a −1 = and a = n .
a a
■ When using a calculator to evaluate expressions that involve negative indices, we need to
familiarise ourselves with the keys needed.

Worked Example 16
Evaluate each of the following using a calculator.

a 4-1 b 2-4
Think Write
a Use a calculator to evaluate 4-1. a 4-1 = 0.25
b Use a calculator to evaluate 2-4. b 2-4 = 0.0625
1
■■ Consider the index law a −1 = . Now let us look at the case in which a is fractional.
a
−1
 a
Consider the expression   .
 b
−1
 a 1
  =
b a
b
b
= 1×
a
b
=
a
■■ We can therefore consider an index of -1 to be a reciprocal function.
Worked Example 17
Write down the value of each of the following without the use of a calculator.
−1 −1
 2  1
a   b  
3 5
−1
 1
c  1 
4
Think Write
−1 −1
 2 2  2 3
a To evaluate   take the reciprocal of . a   =
 3 3 3 2
−1 −1
 1 1  1 5
b 1 To evaluate   take the reciprocal of . b   =
 5 5 5 1
5
2 Write as a whole number. =5
1
−1 −1
1 c  1  5
c 1 Write 1 as an improper fraction.  1  = 
4 4  4
5 4
2 Take the reciprocal of . =
4 5

remember
1
1. To evaluate an expression that involves negative indices, use the or the x-1 function.
xy
2. An index of -1 can be considered as a reciprocal function and applying this to fractions
−1
 a b
gives us the rule   = .
 b a
Exercise
18E Negative indices
Fluency
1 WE 16 Evaluate each of the following using a calculator.
a 5-1 b 3-1 c 8-1
-1
d 10 e 2-3 f 3-2
-2
g 5 h 10-4
2 Find the value of each of the following, correct to 3 significant figures.
a 6-1 b 7-1 c 6-2
-3 -3
d 9 e 6 f 15-2
-2 -4
g 16 h 5
a (2.5)-1 b (0.4)-1 c (1.5)-2
-2 -3
d (0.5) e (2.1) f (10.6)-4
-3 -4
g (0.45) h (0.125)
a (-3)-1 b (-5)-1 c (-2)-2
-2 -1
d (-4) e (-1.5) f (-2.2)-1
-1 -2
g (-0.6) h (-0.85)
5 WE 17 Write down the value of each of the following without the use of a calculator.
−1 −1 −1 −1
 4  3  7  13 
a   b   c   d  
 5 10   8  20 
−1 −1 −1 −1
 1  1  1  1
e   f   g   h  
 2  4  8 10 
−1 −1 −1 −1
 1  1  1  1
i  1  j  2 
 
k  1 
 
l  5 
 2
2 4 10
6 Find the value of each of the following, leaving your answer in fraction form if necessary.
−2 −2 −3 −2
 1  2  2  1
a   b   c   d  
 2  5  3  4
−2 −2 −3 −3
 1  1  1  1
e  1  f  2  g  1  h  2 
  2  4  
3  
5
7 Find the value of each of the following.
−1 −1 −1 −1
 2  3  1  1
a  −  b  −  c  −  d  − 
 
3  
5  4   10 
−2 −2 −1 −2
 2  1  1  3
e  −  f  −  g  −1  h  −2 
 
3  
5   2   4

reasoning
eBook plus
8 Consider the expression 2-n. Explain what happens to
Digital doc
the value of this expression as n increases. refleCtion
WorkSHEET 18.3
doc-5365 How can division to used to
explain negative indices?
18f logarithms
■ The index, power or exponent in the statement y = ax is also known as a logarithm (or log for
short).
Logarithm (or index or power or exponent)
y=a x
Base
■ This statement y = ax can be written in an alternative form as loga y = x, which is read as ‘the
logarithm of y to the base a is equal to x’. These two statements are equivalent.
ax = y « loga y = x
Index form Logarithmic form
■ For example, 32 = 9 can be written as log3 9 = 2. The log form would be read as ‘the
logarithm of 9, to the base of 3, is 2’. In both forms, the base is 3 and the logarithm is 2.
Worked example 18
Write the following in logarithmic form.

a 104 = 10 000 b 6x = 216
think Write
a 1 Write the given statement. a 104 = 10 000

2 Identify the base (10) and the logarithm (4) and write log10 10 000 = 4
the equivalent statement in logarithmic form. (Use
ax = y « loga y = x, where the base is a and the log is x.)
b 1 Write the given statement. b 6x = 216
2 Identify the base (6) and the logarithm (x) and write log6 216 = x
the equivalent statement in logarithmic form.
Worked example 19
Write the following in index form.

1
a log2 8 = 3 b log25 5 =
2
think Write
a 1 Write the statement. a log2 8 = 3

2 Identify the base (2) and the log (3) and write the 23 = 8
equivalent statement in index form. Remember that the
log is the same as the index.

1
b 1 Write the statement. b log25 5 =
2
1
 1
2 Identify the base (25) and the log   25 2 = 5
2
and write the equivalent statement in index form.
■■ In the previous examples, we found that:

log2 8 = 3 « 23 = 8 and log10 10 000 = 4 « 104 = 10 000.
We could also write log2 8 = 3 as log2 23 = 3 and log10 10 000 = 4 as log10 104 = 4.
■■ Can this pattern be used to work out the value of log3 81? We need to find the power when the
base of 3 is raised to that power to give 81.
Worked Example 20
Evaluate log3 81.

Think Write
1 Write the log expression. log3 81

2 Express 81 in index form with a base of 3. = log3 34
3 Write the value of the logarithm. =4
remember
1. Logarithm is another name for an index, power or exponent.

For example, in the statement 23 = 8, the logarithm is 3.
2. The logarithm of a number to any positive base is the index when the number is
expressed as a power of the base.
That is, ax = y « loga y = x, where a > 0, y > 0.
3. One way of evaluating the logarithm of a number is to write the number in index form
to the given base.
That is, loga ax = x.
For example, log3 81 = log3 34 = 4.
Exercise
18F Logarithms
Fluency
1 WE 18 Write the following in logarithmic form.
a 42 = 16 b 25 = 32 c 34 = 81 d 62 = 36
e 1000 = 10 3 f 25 = 5 2
g 43 = x h 5x = 125
1
i 7x = 49 j p4 = 16 k 9 2 = 3 l 0.1 = 10-1
1 3
1
m 2 = 8 3 n 2−1 = o a0 = 1 p 4 2 = 8
2
2 MC The statement w = h is equivalent to:
t
A w = logt h B h = logt w
C t = logw h D t = logh w

3 WE 19 Write the following in index form.

a log2 16 = 4 b log3 27 = 3 c log10 1 000 000 = 6
1
d log5 125 = 3 e log16 4 = f log4 64 = x
2
1 1
g = log49 7 h log3 x = 5 i log81 9 =
2 2
1
j log10 0.01 = -2 k log8 8 = 1 l log64 4 =
3
4 MC The statement q = logr p is equivalent to:
A q = r p B p = rq
C r = pq D r = qp
5 WE 20 Evaluate the following logarithms.
a log2 16 b log4 16
c log11 121 d log10 100 000
e log3 243 f log2 128
g log5 1 h log9 3
 1
i log3   j log6 6
 3
 1 
k log10  log125 5
 100 
l
6 Write the value of each of the following.

a log10 1 b log10 10
c log10 100 d log10 1000
e log10 10 000 f log10 100 000
Understanding
7 Use your results to question 6 to answer the following.
a Between which two whole numbers would log10 7 lie?
b Between which two whole numbers would log10 4600 lie?
c Between which two whole numbers would log10 85 lie?
d Between which two whole numbers would log10 12 750 lie?
e Between which two whole numbers would log10 110 lie?
f Between which two whole numbers would log10 81 000 lie?
Reasoning
8 a If log10 g = k, find the value of log10 g2. Justify your answer.
b If logx y = 2, find the value of logy x. Justify your answer. reflection  
c By referring to the equivalent index statement, explain How are indices and
why x must be a positive number given log4 x = y, for all logarithms related?
values of y.
18G Logarithm laws

■■ From previous work, you will be familiar with the index laws.
am
1. am ì an = am + n 2. n = a m − n 3. (am)n = amn
a
1
4. a0 = 1 5. a1 = a 6. a−1 =
a
■■ We can use these index laws to produce equivalent logarithm laws.

Law 1
■■ If x = am and y = an, then loga x = m and loga y = n (equivalent log form).
Now xy = am ì an
or xy = am + n (First Index Law).
So loga (xy) = m + n (equivalent log form)
or loga (xy) = loga x + loga y (substituting for m and n).
log a x + log a y = log a (xy)
■■ This means that the sum of two logarithms with the same base is equal to the logarithm of the
product of the numbers.
Worked Example 21
Evaluate log10 20 + log10 5.

Think Write
1 Since the same base of 10 is used in each log log10 20 + log10 5 = log10 (20 ì 5)
term, use = log10 100
loga x + loga y = loga (xy) and simplify.
2 Evaluate. (Remember that 100 = 102.) =2
Law 2
■■ If x = am and y = an, then loga x = m and loga y = n (equivalent log form).
x am
Now =
y an
x
or = am −n (Second Index Law).
y
 x
So log a   = m − n (equivalent log form)
 y
 x
or log a   = log a x − log a y (substituting for m and n).
 y
 x
log a x - log a y = log a  
 y
■■ This means that the difference of two logarithms with the same base is equal to the logarithm
of the quotient of the numbers.
Worked Example 22
Evaluate log4 20 - log4 5.

Think Write
 20 
1 Since the same base of 4 is used in each log4 20 - log4 5 = log4  
5
 x
log term, use log a x − log a y = log a   and = log4 4
 y
simplify.

Worked Example 23
Evaluate log5 35 + log5 15 - log5 21.

Think Write
1 Since the first two log terms are being added, log5 35 + log5 15 - log5 21
use loga x + loga y = loga (xy) and simplify. = log5 (35 ì 15) - log5 21
= log5 525 - log5 21
 525 
2 To find the difference between the two = log 5 
 21 
remaining log terms, use
 x = log5 25
log a x − log a y = log a   and simplify.
 y
■■ Once you have gained confidence in using the first two laws, you can reduce the number of
steps of working by combining the application of the laws. In Worked example 23, we could
write:
 35 × 15 
log 5 35 + log 5 15 − log 5 21 = log 5 
 21 
= log5 25
=2
Law 3
■■ If x = am, then loga x = m (equivalent log form).
Now xn = (am)n
or xn = amn (Third Index Law).
So loga xn = mn (equivalent log form)
or loga xn = (loga x) ì n (substituting for m)
or loga xn = n loga x.
log a xn = n log a x
■■ This means that the logarithm of a number raised to a power is equal to the product of the
power and the logarithm of the number.
Worked Example 24
Evaluate 2 log6 3 + log6 4.

Think Write
1 The first log term is not in the required form 2 log6 3 + log6 4 = log6 32 + log6 4
to use the log law relating to sums. Use = log6 9 + log6 4
loga xn = n loga x to rewrite the first term in
preparation for applying the first log law.
2 Use loga x + loga y = loga (xy) to simplify the = log6 (9 ì 4)
two log terms to one. = log6 36

Law 4
■■ As a0 = 1 (Fourth Index Law),
loga 1 = 0 (equivalent log form).
log a 1 = 0
■■ This means that the logarithm of 1 with any base is equal to 0.
Law 5
■■ As a1 = a (Fifth Index Law),
loga a = 1 (equivalent log form).
log a a = 1
■■ This means that the logarithm of any number a with base a is equal to 1.
Law 6
 1
■■ Now log a   = log a x −1 (Sixth Index Law)
 x
 1
or log a   = −1 × log a x (using the fourth log law)
 x
 1
or log a   = − log a x.
 x
 1
log a   = − log a x
 x
Law 7
■■ Now loga ax = x loga a (using the third log law)
or loga ax = x ì 1 (using the fifth log law)
or loga ax = x.
log a ax = x
remember
The index laws can be used to produce the following logarithm laws.
 x
1. loga x + loga y = loga (xy) 2. log a x − log a y = log a  
 y
3. loga xn = n loga x 4. loga 1 = 0
 1
5. loga a = 1 6. log a   = − log a x
 x
7. loga ax = x
Exercise
18G Logarithm laws
Fluency
1 Use a calculator to evaluate the following, correct to 5 decimal places.
a log10 50 b log10 25 c log10 5 d log10 2
2 Use your answers to question 1 to show that each of the following statements is true.
a log10 25 + log10 2 = log10 50 b log10 50 - log10 2 = log10 25
c log10 25 = 2 log10 5 d log10 50 - log10 25 - log10 2 = log10 1

3 WE 21 Evaluate the following.

a log6 3 + log6 2 b log4 8 + log4 8
c log10 25 + log10 4 d log8 32 + log8 16
e log6 108 + log6 12 f log14 2 + log14 7
a log2 20 - log2 5 b log3 54 - log3 2
c log4 24 - log4 6 d log10 30 000 - log10 3
e log6 648 - log6 3 f log2 224 - log2 7
a log3 27 + log3 2 - log3 6 b log4 24 - log4 2 - log4 6
c log6 78 - log6 13 + log6 1 d log2 120 - log2 3 - log2 5
6 Evaluate 2 log4 8.
a 2 log10 5 + log10 4 b log3 648 - 3 log3 2
1
c 4 log5 10 - log5 80 d log2 50 + log2 16 - 2 log2 5
2
8 Evaluate the following.
 1
a log8 8 b log5 1 c log2  
2
d log4 45 e log6 6-2 f log20 20
 1  1
g log2 1 h log3   i log4  
9 2
 1 
j log 5 5 k log 3   l log 2 8 2
 3
Understanding
9 Use the logarithm laws to simplify each of the following.
a loga 5 + loga 8 b loga 12 + loga 3 - loga 2
c 4 logx 2 + logx 3 d logx 100 - 2 logx 5
e 3 loga x - loga x2 f 5 loga a - loga a4
g logx 6 - logx 6x h loga a7 + loga 1
i log p p j log k k k
 1  1 
k 6 log a   l log a  3 
 a  a
a The equation y = 10x is equivalent to:
A x = 10y B x = log10 y
C x = logx 10 D x = logy 10
b The equation y = 104x is equivalent to:
A x = log10 4 y B x = log10 4 y
1
y 1
C x = 10 4 D x = log10 y
4
c The equation y = 103x is equivalent to:
1
1
A x = log10 y B x = log10 y3
3
C x = log10 y – 3 D x = 10y – 3

d The equation y = manx is equivalent to:

n
1 my  m
A x = a B x = log a 
n  y 
1 1  y
C x = (log a y − log a m) D x = log  
n n a  m
11 Simplify, and evaluate where possible, each of the following without a calculator.
a log2 8 + log2 10 b log3 7 + log3 15 c log10 20 + log10 5
d log6 8 + log6 7 e log2 20 - log2 5 f log3 36 - log3 12
1 1
g log5 100 - log5 8 h log2+ log2 9 i log4 25 + log4
3 5
4 1
j log10 5 - log10 20 k log3 - log3 l log2 9 + log2 4 - log2 12
5 5
m log3 8 - log3 2 + log3 5 n log4 24 - log4 2 - log4 6
12 MC a The expression log10 xy is equal to:
A log10 x ì log10 y B log10 x - log10 y
C log10 x + log10 y D y log10 x
b The expression log10 xy is equal to:
A x log10 y B y log10 x
C 10 logx y D log10 x + log10 y
1
c The expression log2 64 + log2 10 is equal to:
3
A log2 40 B log2 80
64
C log2 D 1
10
Reasoning
13 For each of the following, write the possible strategy you intend to use.
a Evaluate (log3 81)(log3 27).
log a 81
b Evaluate . reflection  
log a 3
log 5 7
What technique will you use
c Evaluate 5 . to remember the log laws?
In each case, explain how you obtained your final answer.

■■ The equation loga y = x is an example of a general logarithmic equation. Laws of logarithms
and indices are used to solve these equations.
Worked Example 25
Solve for x in the following equations.

a log2 x = 3 b log6 x = -2
c log3 x4 = -16 d log5 (x - 1) = 2
Think Write
a 1 Write the equation. a log2 x = 3

2 Rewrite using = y « loga y = x.
ax 23 = x
3 Rearrange and simplify. x=8

b 1 Write the equation. b log6 x = -2

2 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. 6-2 = x
1
3 Rearrange and simplify. x= 2
6
1
=
36
c 1 Write the equation. c log3 x4 = -16
2 Rewrite using loga xn = n loga x. 4 log3 x = -16
3 Divide both sides by 4. log3 x = -4
4 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. 3-4 = x
1
5 Rearrange and simplify. x= 4
3
1
=
81
d 1 Write the equation. d log5 (x - 1) = 2

2 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. 52 = x - 1
3 Solve for x. x - 1 = 25
x = 26
Worked Example 26
Solve for x in log x 25 = 2, given that x > 0.

Think Write
1 Write the equation. logx 25 = 2

2 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. x2 = 25
3 Solve for x. x = 5 (because x > 0)
Note: x = -5 is rejected as a solution
because x > 0.
Worked Example 27
Solve for x in the following.

 1
a log2 16 = x b log3   = x c log9 3 = x
  3
Think Write
a 1 Write the equation. a log2 16 = x

2 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. 2x = 16
3 Write 16 with base 2. = 24
4 Equate the indices. x=4

b
 1
b log 3   = x
1 Write the equation.
 3
1
2 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. 3x =
3
1
=
31
1
3 Write with base 3. 3x = 3-1
3
4 Equate the indices. x = -1
c 1 Write the equation. c log9 3 = x
2 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. 9x = 3
3 Write 9 with base 3. (32)x = 3
4 Remove the grouping symbols. 32x = 31
5 Equate the indices. 2x = 1
1
6 Solve for x. x=
2
Worked Example 28
Solve for x in the equation log2 4 + log2 x - log2 8 = 3.

Think Write
1 Write the equation. log2 4 + log2 x - log2 8 = 3

2 Simplify the left-hand side.  4 × x
log 2  =3
Use loga x + loga y = loga (xy) and  8 
 x
log a x − log a y = log a   .
 y
 x
3 Simplify. log 2   = 3
 2
x
4 Rewrite using ax = y « loga y = x. 23 =
2
5 Solve for x. x = 2 ì 23
=2ì8
= 16
■■ When solving an equation like log2 8 = x, we could rewrite it in index form as 2x = 8. This can
be written with the same base of 2 to produce 2x = 23. Equating the indices gives us a solution
of x = 3.
■■ Can we do this to solve the equation 2x = 7? Consider the method shown in the next worked
example. It involves the use of logarithms and the log10 function on a calculator.

Worked Example 29
Solve for x, correct to 3 decimal places, if

a 2x = 7 b 3-x = 0.4
Think Write
a 1 Write the equation. a 2x = 7

2 Take log10 of both sides. log10 2x = log10 7
3 Use the logarithm-of-a-power law to x log10 2 = log10 7
bring the power, x, to the front of the
logarithmic equation.
log10 7
4 Divide both sides by log10 2 to get x by Therefore, x =
itself. log10 2
5 Use a calculator to evaluate the = 2.807

logarithms and write the answer correct
to 3 decimal places.
b 1 Write the equation. b 3-x = 0.4
2 Take log10 of both sides. log10 3-x = log10 0.4
3 Use the logarithm of a power law to -x log10 3 = log10 0.4
bring the power, x, to the front of the
logarithmic equation.
log10 0.4
4 Divide both sides by log10 3 to get the -x −x =
by itself. log10 3
5 Use a calculator to evaluate the -x = -0.834

logarithms and write the answer correct
to 3 decimal places.
6 Divide both sides by -1 to get x by itself. x = 0.834
■■ Therefore, we can state the following rule:

log10 b
If ax = b, then x = .
log10 a
This rule applies to any base, but since your calculator has base 10, this is the most
commonly used for this solution technique.
remember
1. In a logarithmic equation the unknown, x, can be:

(a) the number, log2 x = 5
(b) the base, logx 8 = 3
(c) the logarithm, log2 4 = x.
2. The laws of logarithms and indices can be used to solve these equations.
log10 b
3. If ax = b, then x = .
log10 a

Exercise
Fluency
1 WE 25 Solve for x in the following.
a log5 x = 2 b log3 x = 4 c log2 x = -3
d log4 x = -2 e log10 x2 = 4 f log2 x3 = 12
g log3 (x + 1) = 3 h log5 (x - 2) = 3 i log4 (2x - 3) = 0
j log10 (2x + 1) = 0 k log2 (-x) = -5 l log3 (-x) = -2
m log5 (1 - x) = 4 n log10 (5 - 2x) = 1
2 WE 26 Solve for x in the following, given that x > 0.
2
a logx 9 = 2 b logx 16 = 4 c logx 25 =
3
3  1  1
d logx 125 = e logx   = -3 f logx  = -2
4  
8  64 
g logx 6 = 2
2 h logx 4 = 3
3

a log2 8 = x b log3 9 = x
 1  1
c log5   = x d log4  =x
 
5  16 
e log4 2 = x f log8 2 = x
g log6 1 = x h log8 1 = x
i log 1 2 = x j log 1 9 = x
2 3

a log2 x + log2 4 = log2 20 b log5 3 + log5 x = log5 18
c log3 x - log3 2 = log3 5 d log10 x - log10 4 = log10 2
e log4 8 - log4 x = log4 2 f log3 10 - log3 x = log3 5
g log6 4 + log6 x = 2 h log2 x + log2 5 = 1
i 3 - log10 x = log10 2 j 5 - log4 8 = log4 x
k log2 x + log2 6 - log2 3 = log2 10 l log2 x + log2 5 - log2 10 = log2 3
m log3 5 - log3 x + log3 2 = log3 10 n log5 4 - log5 x + log5 3 = log5 6
5 MC a The solution to the equation log 7 343 = x is:
A x = 2 B x = 3 C x = 1 D x = 0
b If log8 x = 4, then x is equal to:
A 4096 B 512 C 64 D 2
1
c Given that logx 3 = , x must be equal to:
2
A 3 B 6 C 81 D 9
d If log a x = 0.7, then log a x2 is equal to:
A 0.49 B 1.4 C 0.35 D 0.837
6 Solve for x in the following equations.
1
a 2x = 128 b 3x = 9 c 7 x = d 9x = 1
49
e 5x = 625 f 64x = 8 g 6 x = 6 h 2 x = 2 2
1 1
i 3x = j 4x = 8 k 9 x = 3 3 l 2x =
3 4 2
1 1
m 3 x + 1 = 27 3 n 2 x − 1 = o 4 x + 1 =
32 2 8 2

understanding
7 We 29 Solve the following equations, correct to 3 decimal places.
a 2x = 11 b 2x = 0.6 c 3x = 20
d 3 = 1.7
x e 5x = 8 f 0.7x = 3
g 0.4x = 5 h 3x + 2 = 12 i 7-x = 0.2
j 8-x = 0.3 k 10-2x = 7 l 82 - x = 0.75
8 The decibel (dB) scale for measuring loudness, d,
is given by the formula d = 10 log10 (I ì 1012),
where I is the intensity of sound in watts per
square metre.
a Find the number of decibels of sound if the
intensity is 1.
b Find the number of decibels of sound
produced by a jet engine at a distance of
50 metres if the intensity is 10 watts per
square metre.
c Find the intensity of sound if the sound
level of a pneumatic drill 10 metres away is
90 decibels.
d Find how the value of d changes if the
intensity is doubled. Give your answer to the
nearest decibel.
e Find how the value of d changes if the
intensity is 10 times as great.
f By what factor does the intensity of sound
have to be multiplied in order to add
20 decibels to the sound level?
reasoning
9 The Richter scale is used to describe the energy of earthquakes. A formula for the Richter
2
scale is: R = log10 K – 0.9, where R is the Richter scale value for an earthquake that
3
releases K kilojoules (kJ) of energy.
a Find the Richter scale value for an earthquake that releases the following amounts of
energy:
i 1000 kJ ii 2000 kJ iii 3000 kJ
iv 10 000 kJ v 100 000 kJ vi 1 000 000 kJ
b Does doubling the energy released double the Richter scale value? Justify your answer.
c Find the energy released by an earthquake of:
i magnitude 4 on the Richter scale
ii magnitude 5 on the Richter scale
iii magnitude 6 on the Richter scale.
d What is the effect (on the amount of energy released) of
increasing the Richter scale value by 1?
e Why is an earthquake measuring 8 on the Richter scale
so much more devastating than one that measures 5?
eBook plus
refleCtion
Digital doc
Tables of logarithms were used in classrooms before calculators were used
WorkSHEET 18.4
there. Would using logarithms have any effect on the accuracy of calculations?
doc-6754

Summary
Number classification review
a
■■ Rational numbers (Q) can be expressed in the form , where a and b are whole numbers
b
and b ò 0. They include whole numbers, fractions and terminating and recurring decimals.
a
■■ Irrational numbers (I) cannot be expressed in the form , where a and b are whole
b
numbers and b ò 0. They include surds, non-terminating and non-recurring decimals, and
numbers such as p and e.
■■ Rational and irrational numbers together constitute the set of real numbers (R).
Surds
A number is a surd if:
■■ it is an irrational number (equals a non-terminating, non-recurring decimal)
■■ it can be written with a radical sign (or square root sign) in its exact form.
Operations with surds

■■ To simplify a surd means to make a number (or an expression) under the radical sign as small
as possible.
■■ To simplify a surd, write it as a product of two factors, one of which is the largest possible
perfect square.
■■ Only like surds may be added and subtracted.
■■ Surds may need to be simplified before adding and subtracting.
■■ When multiplying surds, simplify the surd if possible and then apply the following rules:
(a) a × b = ab
(b) m a × n b = mn ab , where a and b are positive real numbers.
■■ When a surd is squared, the result is the number (or the expression) under the radical
sign: ( a )2 = a, where a is a positive real number.
■■ When dividing surds, simplify the surd if possible and then apply the following rule:
a a
a÷ b= =
b b
where a and b are whole numbers, and b ò 0.
■■ To rationalise a surd denominator, multiply the numerator and denominator by the surd
contained in the denominator. This has the effect of multiplying the fraction by 1, and thus the
numerical value of the fraction remains unchanged, while the denominator becomes rational:
a a b ab
= × =
b b b b
where a and b are whole numbers and b ò 0.
■■ To rationalise the denominator containing a sum or a difference of surds, multiply both
the numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate of the denominator. This
eliminates the middle terms and leaves a rational number.
Fractional indices
■■ Fractional indices are those that are expressed as fractions.
■■ Numbers with fractional indices can be written as surds, using the following identities:
1 m
n m n m
a n = n a a n = a = ( a )
■■ All index laws are applicable to fractional indices.

Negative indices
1
■■ To evaluate an expression that involves negative indices, use the or the x-1 function.
xy
■■ An index of -1 can be considered as a reciprocal function and applying this to fractions
−1
 a b
gives us the rule   = .
 b a
Logarithms
■■ Logarithm is another name for an index, power or exponent.
For example, in the statement 23 = 8, the logarithm is 3.
■■ The logarithm of a number to any positive base is the index when the number is expressed as
a power of the base.
That is, ax = y « loga y = x, where a > 0, y > 0.
■■ One way of evaluating the logarithm of a number is to write the number in index form to the
given base.
That is, loga ax = x.
For example, log3 81 = log3 34 = 4.
Logarithm laws
■■ The index laws can be used to produce the following logarithm laws.
1. loga x + loga y = loga (xy)
 x
2. log a x − log a y = log a  
 y
3. loga xn = n loga x
4. loga 1 = 0
5. loga a = 1
 1
6. log a   = − log a x
 x
7. loga ax = x
Solving equations
■■ In a logarithmic equation the unknown, x, can be:
(a) the number, log2 x = 5
(b) the base, logx 8 = 3
(c) the logarithm, log2 4 = x.
■■ The laws of logarithms and indices can be used to solve these equations.
log10 b
■■ If ax = b, then x = .
log10 a
Mapping your understanding


Chapter review
Fluency 8 Simplify the following, giving answers in the
simplest form.
6
1 MC Which of the given numbers, , 0.81, 5, a 7 12 + 8 147 − 15 27
12
π 3 1 3 1
-3.26, 0.5 , , are rational? b 64 a3b3 − ab 16ab + 100 a 5b 5
5 12 2 4 5ab
3 9 Simplify each of the following.
A 0.81, 5, -3.26, 0.5 and
12
a 3× 5 b 2 6 × 3 7
6 π
B and c 3 10 × 5 6 d ( 5 )2
12 5
10 Simplify the following, giving answers in the
6 3 simplest form.
C , 0.81 and
12 12
1
a 675 × 27
6 5
d 5, -3.26 and
12 b 10 24 × 6 12
2 For each of the following, state whether the number
is rational or irrational and give the reason for your 11 Simplify the following.
answer: 30 6 45
2 a b
a 12 b 121 c 10 3 5
9
3 20 ( 7 )2
d 0.6 e 3 0.08 c d
12 6 14
3 MC Which of the numbers of the given set, 12 Rationalise the denominator of each of the
{3 2 , 5 7 , 9 4 , 6 10 , 7 12 , 12 64 }, are surds? following.
2 3
A 9 4 , 12 64 a b
6 2 6
B 3 2 and 7 12 only
C 3 2 , 5 7 and 6 10 only 2 3 −1
c d
5−2 3 +1
D 3 2 , 5 7 , 6 10 and 7 12
13 Evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal
m 20 3 place if necessary.
4 Which of 2m , 25m , , , m , 3 8m are
surds 16 m 1 1
a if m = 4? b if m = 8? a 64 3 b 20 2
1 1
c 10 3 d 50 4
a 50 b 180
14 Evaluate each of the following, correct to 1 decimal
c 2 32 d 5 80 place.
8 7 2 3
6 MC The expression 392 x y may be
a 20 3 b 2 4
simplified to: 2
3
a 196 x 4 y 3 2 y B 2 x 4 y 3 14 y  2 3
c (0.7) 5 d  
 3
c 14 x 4 y 3 2 y D 14 x 4 y 3 2
15 Write each of the following in simplest surd form.
7 Simplify the following surds. Give the answers in
1 1
the simplest form.
a 2 2 b 18 2
2 25 5 11
a 4 648 x 7 y 9 b - x y 3 4
5 64 c 5 2 d 8 3

16 Evaluate each of the following, without using a 26 Use the logarithm laws to simplify each of the
calculator. Show all working. following.
a loga 16 + loga 3 - loga 2
( )
3 1 1
2 2 2
16 4 × 814 b log x x x
a
1
b 125 3 − 27 3
c 4 loga x - loga x2
6 × 16 2
17 Evaluate each of the following, giving your answer  1
d 5 log x  
as a fraction.  x
a 4-1 b 9-1 c 4-2 d 10-3 27 Solve for x in the following, given that x > 0.
18 Find the value of each of the following, correct to a log2 x = 9 b log5 x = -2
3 significant figures. c logx 25 = 2 d logx 26 = 6
a 12-1 b 7-2 e log3 729 = x f log7 1 = x
-1
c (1.25) d (0.2)-4 28 Solve for x in the following.
19 Write down the value of each of the following. a log5 4 + log5 x = log5 24
−1 −1 b log3 x - log3 5 = log3 7
 2  7
a   b   29 Solve for x in the following equations.
 3  10 
1 1
a 6 x =
x
−1 −1 b 7 =
 1  1 36 7
c   d  3 
 5  
4
c 2 x+1 = 8 2
20 mC The expression 250 may be simplified to:
30 Solve for x in the following equations, correct to
A 25 10 B 5 10 3 decimal places.
C 10 5 D 5 50 a 2x = 25 b 0.6x = 7
c 9-x = 0.84
21 mC When expressed in its simplest form,
2 98 − 3 72 is equal to: problem solVing
A −4 2 B -4 1 Answer the following. Explain how you reached
C −2 4 D 4 2 your answer. 3
3
a What is the hundred’s digit in 3 ?
3
8x b What is the one’s digit in 6704?
22 mC When expressed in its simplest form, is
equal to: 32 c What is the thousand’s digit in 91000?
2 a Plot a graph of y = 4x by first producing a table
x x x3
A B of values. Label the y-intercept and the equation
2 4 of any asymptotes.
x3 x x b Draw the line y = x on the same set of axes.
C D c Use the property of inverse graphs to draw the
2 4
graph of y = log4 x. Label any intercepts and
23 Find the value of the following, giving your answer
the equation of any asymptotes.
in fraction form.
d Use a graphics calculator or graphing software
−1 −2
 2  2 to check your graphs.
a   b  
 5  3
24 Find the value of each of the following, leaving
your answer in fraction form.
a 2-1 b 3-2 eBook plus
−1
 1 Interactivities
c 4-3 d  
 2 Test Yourself Chapter 18
int-2873
25 Evaluate the following. Word search Chapter 18
a log12 18 + log12 8 int-2871
b log4 60 - log4 15 Crossword Chapter 18
c log9 98 int-2872
d 2 log3 6 - log3 4

eBook plus aCtiVities
Are you ready? 18D Fractional indices
Digital docs (page 590) Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 18.1 (doc-5354): Identifying surds • WorkSHEET 18.2 (doc-5364): Real numbers II
• SkillSHEET 18.2 (doc-5355): Simplifying surds (page 614)
• SkillSHEET 18.3 (doc-5356): Adding and
subtracting surds 18E Negative indices
• SkillSHEET 18.4 (doc-5357): Multiplying and Digital doc
dividing surds • WorkSHEET 18.3 (doc-5365): Real numbers III
• SkillSHEET 18.5 (doc-5358): Evaluating numbers in (page 617)
index form
• SkillSHEET 18.6 (doc-5359): Using the index laws 18H Solving equations
Digital doc
• WorkSHEET 18.4 (doc-6754): Real numbers IV
Interactivity (page 629)
• Classifying numbers (int-2792) (page 591)
Chapter review
18B Surds
Interactivities (page 633)
Digital doc • Test yourself Chapter 18 (int-2873): Take the end-of-
• SkillSHEET 18.1 (doc-5354): Identifying surds chapter test to test your progress
(page 597) • Word search Chapter 18 (int-2871): an interactive
18C Oprations with surds
word search involving words associated with this
chapter
Digital docs(pages 607–9) • Crossword Chapter 18 (int-2872): an interactive
• SkillSHEET 18.2 (doc-5355): Simplifying surds crossword using the definitions associated with the
• SkillSHEET 18.3 (doc-5356): Adding and chapter
subtracting surds
• SkillSHEET 18.4 (doc-5357): Multiplying and To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
dividing surds
www.jacplus.com.au
• SkillSHEET 18.7 (doc-5360): Rationalising
denominators
• SkillSHEET 18.8 (doc-5361): Conjugate pairs
• SkillSHEET 18.9 (doc-5362): Applying the
difference of two squares rule to surds
• WorkSHEET 18.1 (doc-5363): Real numbers I

number AND algebra • Patterns and algebra
19
19A Polynomials
polynomials
19C Long division of polynomials
19D Polynomial values
19E The remainder and factor theorems
19F Factorising polynomials
19G Solving polynomial equations
What do you know ?

1 List what you know about polynomials.
Polynomials 2 Share what you know with a partner and

polynomials.
opening question
What does the graph of y = (x - 2)(x + 1)(x - 3)

look like?
How can we solve cubic equations such as
x3 + 3x2 - 17x - 2 = 0?
number and algebra • patterns and algebra
are you ready?

eBook plus Expanding the product of two linear factors

Digital doc
a (x + 1)(x - 3)
SkillSHEET 19.1
doc-5366 b (x + 6)2
c (3x - 4)(2x + 5)
eBook plus Substitution into quadratic equations

2 Find the value of y for these parabolas when x = 2.
Digital doc
a y = x2 - 4
SkillSHEET 19.2
doc-5367 b y = x2 + 9x - 4
c y = -3x2 + 5x + 1
eBook plus Factorising quadratic trinomials

Digital doc
a x2 + x - 6
SkillSHEET 19.3
doc-5368 b x2 - 5x - 6
c 2x2 - 5x - 3
eBook plus Factorising difference of two squares expressions

Digital doc
a x2 - 4
SkillSHEET 19.4
doc-5369 b 25 - x2
c 3x2 - 147
eBook plus Solving quadratic equations

5 Solve each of the following.
Digital doc
a (x + 1)(x - 3) = 0
SkillSHEET 19.5
doc-5370 b x2 - 2x - 15 = 0
c 2x2 - 7x + 6 = 0

19a polynomials
■ A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted P(x), is an expression containing only non-negative
integer powers of x.
■ The degree of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x in the expression. For example:
3x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, or linear polynomial.
x2 + 4x - 7 is a polynomial of degree 2, or quadratic polynomial.
x
-5x3 + is a polynomial of degree 3, or cubic polynomial.
2
10 is a polynomial of degree 0 (think of 10 as 10x0).
■ Expressions containing a term similar to any of the following terms are not polynomials:
1
, x-2, x , 2x, sin x, etc.
x
For example, the following are not polynomials.
2
3x2 - 4x + -5x4 + x3 - 2 x x2 + sin x + 1
x
■ In the expression P(x) = 6x3 + 13x2 - x + 1
x is the variable.
6 is the coefficient of x3.
13 is the coefficient of x2.
-1 is the coefficient of x.
6x 3, 13x 2, -x and +1 are all terms.
The constant term is +1.
The degree of the polynomial is 3.
■ The leading term is 6x3 because it is the term that contains the highest power of x.
■ The leading coefficient is 6.
■ Any polynomial with a leading coefficient of 1 is called monic.
An example of where polynomials are useful is shown below.
The surface area, S, of a plant hothouse of length L and height x

can be approximated by the polynomial S(x) = p x2 + Lp x – 4.
Chapter 19 polynomials 637

remember
1. A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted P(x), is an expression containing only non-

negative integer powers of x.
2. The degree of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x in the expression.
Exercise
19A Polynomials
Fluency
1 State the degree of each of the following polynomials.
a x3 - 9x2 + 19x + 7 b 65 + 2x7 c 3x2 - 8 + 2x
1 5 u4
d x6 - 3x5 + 2x4 + 6x + 1 e y8 + 7y3 - 5 f u − + 2u − 6
2 3
e5
g 18 − h 2g - 3 i 1.5f 6 - 800f
6
2 State the variable for each polynomial in question 1.
3 Which polynomials in question 1 are:
a linear?
b quadratic?
c cubic?
d monic?
4 State whether each of the following is a polynomial (P) or not (N).
5 x2
a 7 x + 6 x 2 + b 33 - 4p c +x
x 9
1
d 3 x 4 − 2 x 3 − 3 x − 4 e k-2 + k - 3k3 + 7 f 5r − r 9 +
3
4 c6 − 3c3 + 1
g h 2x - 8x + 1 i sin x + x2
2
5 Consider the polynomial P(x) = -2x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 5.
a What is the degree of the polynomial?
b What is the variable?
c What is the coefficient of x2?
d What is the value of the constant term?
e Which term has a coefficient of 3?
f Which is the leading term?
6 Consider the polynomial P(w) = 6w7 + 7w6 - 9.
c What is the coefficient of w6?
d What is the coefficient of w?
e What is the value of the constant term?
f Which term has a coefficient of 6?
7 Consider the polynomial f (x) = 4 - x2 + x4.
b What is the coefficient of x4?
c What is the leading term?
d What is the leading coefficient?

Understanding
8 A sports scientist determines the following equation for the velocity of a breaststroke swimmer
during one complete stroke:
v(t) = 63.876t6 – 247.65t 5 + 360.39t 4 – 219.41t 3 + 53.816t 2 + 0.4746t
c How many terms are there?
d Use a graphics calculator or
graphing software to draw the
graph of this polynomial.
e Match what happens during
one complete stroke with
points on the graph.
reflection  
How can you tell what the

degree of a polynomial is?

polynomials
■■ To add or subtract polynomials, we simply add or subtract any like terms in the expressions.
Worked Example 1

a (5x3 + 3x2 - 2x - 1) + (x4 + 5x2 - 4)
b (5x3 + 3x2 - 2x - 1) - (x4 + 5x2 - 4)
Think Write
a 1 Write the expression. a (5x3 + 3x2 - 2x - 1) + (x4 + 5x2 - 4)

2 Remove any grouping symbols, watching = 5x3 + 3x2 - 2x - 1 + x4 + 5x2 - 4
any signs.
3 Identify any like terms and change the = x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 + 5x2 - 2x - 1 - 4
order.
4 Simplify by collecting like terms. = x4 + 5x3 + 8x2 - 2x - 5
b 1 Write the expression. b (5x3 + 3x2 - 2x - 1) - (x4 + 5x2 - 4)
2 Remove any grouping symbols, watching = 5x3 + 3x2 - 2x - 1 - x4 - 5x2 + 4
any signs.
3 Identify any like terms and change the = -x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 - 5x2 - 2x - 1 + 4
order.
4 Simplify by collecting like terms. = -x4 + 5x3 - 2x2 - 2x + 3
■■ If we expand linear factors, for example, (x + 1)(x + 2)(x - 7), we may also get a polynomial
as the following worked example shows.
Chapter 19 Polynomials 639

Worked example 2
Expand and simplify:

a x(x + 2)(x - 3) b (x - 1)(x + 5)(x + 2)
think Write
a 1 Write the expression. a x(x + 2)(x - 3)

2 Expand the last two linear factors. = x(x2 - 3x + 2x - 6)
= x(x2 - x - 6)
3 Multiply the expression in the grouping = x3 - x2 - 6x
symbols by x.
b 1 Write the expression. b (x - 1)(x + 5)(x + 2)
2 Expand the last two linear factors. = (x - 1)(x2 + 2x + 5x + 10)
3 Multiply the expression in the second = (x - 1)(x2 + 7x + 10)
pair of grouping symbols by x and then = x3 + 7x2 + 10x - x2 - 7x - 10
by -1.
4 Collect like terms. = x3 + 6x2 + 3x - 10
remember
1. To add or subtract polynomials, add or subtract any like terms in the expression.
2. When expanding linear factors:
(a) expand two factors first, and then multiply by the remaining linear factors, one at a
time
(b) collect like terms at each stage
(c) (x + 2)3 may be written as (x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 2).
exerCise
19b adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials
FluenCy
1 We1a Simplify each of the following.
a (x4 + x3 - x2 + 4) + (x3 - 14)
b (x6 + x4 - 3x3 + 6x2) + (x4 + 3x2 + 5)
c (x3 + x2 + 2x - 4) + (4x3 - 6x2 + 5x - 9)
d (2x4 - 3x3 + 7x2 + 9) + (6x3 + 5x2 - 4x + 5)
e (15x4 - 3x2 + 4x - 7) + (x5 - 2x4 + 3x2 - 4x - 3)
2 We1b Simplify each of the following.
a (x4 + x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 5) - (x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1)
b (x6 + x3 + 1) - (x5 - x2 - 1)
c (5x7 + 6x5 - 4x3 + 8x2 + 5x - 3) - (6x5 + 8x2 - 3)
d (10x4 - 5x2 + 16x + 11) - (2x2 - 4x + 6)
e (6x3 + 5x2 - 7x + 12) - (4x3 - x2 + 3x - 3)
eBook plus
3 We2a Expand and simplify each of the following.
Digital doc a x(x + 6)(x + 1) b x(x - 9)(x + 2)
SkillSHEET 19.1 c x(x - 3)(x + 11) d 2x(x + 2)(x + 3)
doc-5366
e -3x(x - 4)(x + 4) f 5x(x + 8)(x + 2)

g x2(x + 4) h -2x2(7 - x)
i (5x)(-6x)(x + 9) j -7x(x + 4)2
4 We2b Expand and simplify each of the following.
a (x + 7)(x + 2)(x + 3) b (x - 2)(x + 4)(x - 5)
c (x - 1)(x - 4)(x + 8) d (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)
e (x + 6)(x - 1)(x + 1) f (x - 7)(x + 7)(x + 5)
g (x + 11)(x + 5)(x - 12) h (x + 5)(x - 1)2
i (x + 2)(x - 7)2 j (x + 1)(x - 1)(x + 1)
5 Expand and simplify each of the following.
a (x - 2)(x + 7)(x + 8) b (x + 5)(3x - 1)(x + 4)
c (4x - 1)(x + 3)(x - 3)(x + 1) d (5x + 3)(2x - 3)(x - 4)
e (1 - 6x)(x + 7)(x + 5) f 3x(7x - 4)(x - 4)(x + 2)
g -9x(1 - 2x)(3x + 8) h (6x + 5)(2x - 7)2
i (3 - 4x)(2 - x)(5x + 9)(x – 1) j 2(7 + 2x)(x + 3)(x + 4)
6 Expand and simplify each of the following.
a (x + 2)3 b (x + 5)3 reFleCtion
c (x - 1)
3 d (x - 3)4 How do you add or subtract polynomials?
e (2x - 6)
3 f (3x + 4)4
19C long division of polynomials

eBook plus
■ The reverse of expanding is factorising (expressing a polynomial as a product of its linear
factors).
Interactivity ■ Before learning how to factorise, you must be familiar with long division of polynomials. You
Long division
of polynomials may remember in earlier levels doing long division questions.
int-2793 Consider 745 ó 3, or 3) 745 . The process used is as follows.
2
3 into 7 goes 2 times. Write 2 at the top. 3) 745
2
2ì3=6 3) 745
Write the 6. 6
2
3) 745
Subtract to get 1. 6
1
Bring down the 4 to form 14. 2
3) 745
6
14
3 into 14 goes 4. Write 4 at the top. 24
3) 745
6
14
4 ì 3 = 12 24
3) 745
6
14
Write the 12. 12

24
3) 745
6
14
2
24
3) 745
6
14
12
Bring down the 5 to form 25. 25
3 into 25 goes 8. Write 8 at the top. 248
3) 745
6
14
12
25
8 ì 3 = 24 248
3) 745
6
14
12
25
Write the 24. 24
248 Quotient
Divisor 3) 745 Dividend
6
14
12
25
Answer: 248 remainder 1 1 Remainder
■■ The same process can be used to divide polynomials by polynomial factors.
Consider (x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 10) ó (x - 3) or x - 3) x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 10

x into x3 goes x2 times x2
(consider only the leading terms). x - 3) x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 10
Write x2 at the top.
x2
x2 ì (x - 3) = x3 - 3x2 x - 3) x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 10
Write the x3 - 3x2. x3 - 3x2
x2
x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
Subtract. x3 - 3x2
(x3 - x3 = 0, 2x2 - -3x2 = 5x2) 5x2
Note: Subtracting a negative is the same as changing the sign and adding.

x2
Bring down the -13x. x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
x2 + 5x
x into 5x2 goes 5x. Write +5x at the top. x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
x2 + 5x
5x ì (x - 3) = 5x2 - 15x x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
Write the 5x2 - 15x. 5x2 - 15x
x2 + 5x
x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
Subtract. 5x2 - 15x
Note: 5x2 - 5x2 = 0, -13x - -15x = +2x 2x
x2 + 5x
Bring down the 10. x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
5x2 - 15x
2x + 10
x2 + 5x + 2
x into 2x goes 2. Write +2 at the top. x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
5x2 - 15x
2x + 10
x2 + 5x + 2
2 ì (x - 3) = 2x - 6 x - 3) + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
5x2 - 15x
2x + 10
Write the 2x - 6. 2x - 6
x2 + 5x + 2 Quotient
Subtract to get 16. x - 3) x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 10
x3 - 3x2
5x2 - 13x
5x2 - 15x
2x + 10
2x - 6
Answer: x2 + 5x + 2 remainder 16 16 Remainder

Worked Example 3
Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a (x3 + 3x2 + x + 9) ó (x + 2) b (x3 - 4x2 - 7x - 5) ó (x - 1) c (2x3 + 6x2 - 3x + 2) ó (x - 6)
Think Write
x2 + x - 1 Q
a 1 Write the question in long division a x + 2) + 3x2 + x + 9
x3
format. x3 + 2x2
x2 + x
2 Perform the long division process.
x2 + 2x
-x + 9
-x - 2
11 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 + x - 1; remainder is 11.
x2 - 3x - 10 Q
b 1 Write the question in long division b x - 1) x3 - 4x2 - 7x - 5
format. x3 - x2
-3x2 - 7x
-3x2 + 3x
-10x - 5
-10x + 10
-15 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 - 3x - 10; remainder is –15.
2x2 + 18x + 105 Q
c 1 Write the question in long division c x - 6) 2x3 + 6x2 - 3x + 2
format. 2x3 - 12x2
18x2 - 3x
18x2 - 108x
105x + 2
105x - 630
632 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is 2x2 + 18x + 105; remainder is 632.
Worked Example 4
State the quotient and remainder for (x3 - 7x + 1) ó (x + 5).

Think Write
x2 - 5x + 18 Q
1 Write the question in long division format. x + 5) + 0x2 - 7x + 1
x3
Note that there is no x2 term in this equation. x3 + 5x2
Include 0x2 as a ‘placeholder’. -5x2 - 7x
-5x2 - 25x
2 Perform the long division process. 18x + 1
18x + 90
-89 R
3 Write the quotient and remainder. Quotient is x2 - 5x + 18; remainder is –89.

Worked Example 5
Find the quotient and the remainder when x4 - 3x3 + 2x2 - 8 is divided by the linear
expression x + 2.
Think Write
1 Set out the long division with each polynomial x + 2) x4 - 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x - 8
in descending powers of x. If one of the
powers of x is missing, include it with 0 as the
coefficient.
x3
2 Divide x into x4 and write the result above. x + 2) x4 - 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x - 8
x3
3 Multiply the result x3 by x + 2 and write the x + 2) - 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x - 8
x4
result underneath. x4 + 2x3
x3 - 5x2
4 Subtract and bring down the remaining terms to x + 2) - 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x - 8
x4
complete the expression. -(x4 + 2x3)
-5x3 + 2x2 + 0x - 8
x3 - 5x2 + 12x - 24
5 Divide x into -5x3 and write the result above. x + 2) x4 - 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x - 8
-(x4 + 2x3)
6 Continue this process to complete the long -5x3 + 2x2 + 0x - 8
division. -(-5x3 - 10x2)
12x2 + 0x - 8
-(12x2 + 24x)
-24x - 8
-(-24x - 48)
40
7 The polynomial x3 - 5x2 + 12x - 24, at the top, The quotient is x3 - 5x2 + 12x - 24.
is the quotient.
8 The result of the final subtraction, 40, is the The remainder is 40.
remainder.
remember
Long division of polynomials is similar to long division with numbers. The highest power
term is the main one considered at each stage. The key steps are:
1. determine how many times the first term of the divisor goes into the first term of dividend
2. multiply and write the result underneath
3. subtract. (If necessary, change the sign and add.)
4. bring down the next term
5. repeat the process until no pronumerals remain to be divided
6. state the quotient and remainder.

Exercise
19C Long division of polynomials
fluency
1 WE 3a Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a (x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 9) ó (x + 2)
b (x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 1) ó (x + 1)
c (x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 1) ó (x + 3)
d (x3 + 3x2 + x + 3) ó (x + 4)
e (x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 4) ó (x + 2)
f (x3 + 6x2 + 2x + 2) ó (x + 2)
g (x3 + x2 + x + 3) ó (x + 1)
h (x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 4) ó (x + 8)
i (x3 + x2 + 4x + 1) ó (x + 2)
j (x3 + 9x2 + 3x + 2) ó (x + 5)
2 WE 3b State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 9) ó (x - 2)
b (x3 + x2 + x + 9) ó (x - 3)
c (x3 + x2 - 9x - 5) ó (x - 2)
d (x3 - 4x2 + 10x - 2) ó (x - 1)
e (x3 - 5x2 + 3x - 8) ó (x - 3)
f (x3 - 7x2 + 9x - 7) ó (x - 1)
g (x3 + 9x2 + 2x - 1) ó (x - 5)
h (x3 + 4x2 - 5x - 4) ó (x - 4)
3 WE 3c Divide the first polynomial by the second and state the quotient and remainder.
a 3x3 - x2 + 6x + 5, x + 2 b 4x3 - 4x2 + 10x - 4, x + 1
c 2x - 7x + 9x + 1, x - 2
3 2 d 2x3 + 8x2 - 9x - 1, x + 4
e 4x - 10x - 9x + 8, x - 3
3 2 f 3x3 + 16x2 + 4x - 7, x + 5
4 Divide the first polynomial by the second and state the quotient and remainder.
a 6x3 - 7x2 + 4x + 4, 2x - 1 b 6x3 + 23x2 + 2x - 31, 3x + 4
c 8x + 6x - 39x - 13, 2x + 5
3 2 d 2x3 - 15x2 + 34x - 13, 2x - 7
e 3x3 + 5x2 - 16x - 23, 3x + 2 f 9x3 - 6x2 - 5x + 9, 3x - 4
5 State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
− x 3 − 6 x 2 − 7 x − 16 −3 x 3 + 7 x 2 + 10 x − 15
a b
x +1 x−3
−2 x 3 + 9 x 2 + 17 x + 15 4 x 3 − 20 x 2 + 23 x − 2
c d
2x + 1 −2 x + 3
6 WE 4 State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x3 - 3x + 1) ó (x + 1) b (x3 + 2x2 - 7) ó (x + 2)
c (x - 5x + 2x) ó (x - 4)
3 2 d (-x3 - 7x + 8) ó (x - 1)
e (5x + 13x + 1) ó (x + 3)
2 f (2x3 + 8x2 - 4) ó (x + 5)
g (-2x - x + 2) ó (x - 2)
3 h (-4x3 + 6x2 + 2x) ó (2x + 1)
7 WE 5 Find the quotient and the remainder when each polynomial is divided by the linear
expression given.
a x4 + x3 + 3x2 - 7x, x - 1
b x4 - 13x2 + 36, x - 2
c x5 - 3x3 + 4x + 3, x + 3 reflection  
d 2x6 - x4 + x3 + 6x2 - 5x, x + 2 Can you think of an alternative
e 6x4 - x3 + 2x2 - 4x, x - 3 way to divide polynomials?
f 3x4 - 6x3 + 12x, 3x + 1


■■ Consider the polynomial P(x) = x3 - 5x2 + x + 1.
■■ The value of the polynomial when x = 3 is denoted by P(3) and is found by substituting x = 3
into the equation in place of x. That is:
P(3) = (3)3 - 5(3)2 + (3) + 1
P(3) = 27 - 5(9) + 3 + 1
P(3) = 27 - 45 + 4
P(3) = -14
Worked Example 6
If P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 3x - 4, find:

a P(1) b P(-2) c P(a) d P(2b) e P(x + 1).
Think Write
a 1 Write the expression. a P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 3x - 4

2 Replace each occurrence P(1) = 2(1)3 + (1)2 - 3(1) - 4
of x with 1.
3 Simplify. =2+1-3-4
= -4
b 1 Write the expression. b P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 3x - 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(-2) = 2(-2)3 + (-2)2 - 3(-2) - 4
of x with -2.
3 Simplify. = 2(-8) + (4) + 6 - 4
= -16 + 4 + 6 - 4
= -10
c 1 Write the expression. c P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 3x - 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(a) = 2a3 + a2 - 3a - 4
of x with a.
3 No further simplification
is possible, so stop here.
d 1 Write the expression. d P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 3x - 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(2b) = 2(2b)3 + (2b)2 - 3(2b) - 4
of x with 2b.
3 Simplify. = 2(8b3) + 4b2 – 6b + 4
= 16b3 + 4b2 – 6b + 4
e 1 Write the expression. e P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 3x - 4
2 Replace each occurrence P(x + 1) = 2(x + 1)3 + (x + 1)2 - 3(x + 1) - 4
of x with (x + 1).
3 Expand the right-hand = 2(x + 1)(x + 1)(x + 1) + (x + 1)(x + 1) - 3(x + 1) - 4
side and collect like = 2(x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 1) + x2 + 2x + 1 - 3x - 3 - 4
terms. = 2(x3 + 2x2 + x + x2 + 2x + 1) + x2 - x - 6
= 2(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + x2 - x - 6
= 2x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 2 + x2 - x - 6
= 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x - 4

remember
P(a) means the value of P(x) when x is replaced by a and the polynomial is evaluated.
exerCise
19d polynomial values
FluenCy
eBook plus
1 We6 If P(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 + 2x + 10, find the following.
a P(0) b P(1)
Digital doc c P(2) d P(3)
SkillSHEET 19.2
e P(-1) f P(-2)
doc-5367
g P(-3) h P(a)
i P(2b) j P(x + 2)
k P(x - 3) l P(-4y)
2 Copy the following table.
Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Rem Rem Rem Rem

when when when when
divided divided divided divided
by by by by
P(x) P(1) P(2) P(-1) P(-2) (x - 1) (x - 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
Complete columns 2 to 5 of the table for each of the following polynomials.

a P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1
b P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 2
c P(x) = x3 - x2 + 4x - 1
d P(x) = x3 - 4x2 - 7x + 3
understanding
3 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x - 1) and complete
column 6 of the table.
4 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x - 2) and complete
5 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 1) and complete
6 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 2) and complete

7 Copy and complete:

a A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 8) is to calculate
__________.
b A quick way of finding the remainder
when P(x) is divided by (x - 7) is to
eBook plus
calculate __________. reFleCtion
Digital doc c A quick way of finding the remainder Is there a quick way to find a remainder
WorkSHEET 19.1 when P(x) is divided by (x - a) is to when dividing polynomials?
doc-5375
calculate __________.
19e the remainder and factor theorems

the remainder theorem
■ In the previous exercise, you may have noticed that:
the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x - a) is equal to P(a).
That is, R = P(a).
This is called the remainder theorem.
■ We could have derived this result as follows.
If 13 is divided by 4, the quotient is 3, and the remainder is 1. That is:
1
13 ó 4 = 3 + 4
and
13 = 4 ì 3 + 1
■ Similarly, if P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 is divided by (x - 2), the quotient is x2 + 3x + 7 and the
remainder is 15. That is:
15
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) ó (x - 2) = x2 + 3x + 7 + and
x−2
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) = (x2 + 3x + 7)(x - 2) + 15
■ In general, if P(x) is divided by (x - a), the quotient is Q(x) and the remainder is R, we can write:
R
P (x) ó (x - a) = Q (x) + and
( x − a)
P (x) = (x - a)Q (x) + R
■ Substituting x = a into this last expression yields
P(a) = (a - a)Q(x) + R
= 0 ì Q(x) + R
=R (as before).
the factor theorem

■ The remainder when 12 is divided by 4 is zero, since 4 is a factor of 12.
■ Similarly, if the remainder (R) when P(x) is divided by (x - a) is zero, then (x - a) must be
a factor of P(x). Since R = P(a), all we need to do is to find a value of a that makes P(a) = 0,
and we can say that (x - a) is a factor.
If P(a) = 0, then (x - a) is a factor of P(x).
This is called the factor theorem.
■ Imagine P(x) could be factorised as follows:
P(x) = (x - a)Q(x),
where Q(x) is ‘the other’ factor of P(x).
Then we have:
P(a) = (a - a)Q(a)
= 0 ì Q(a)
=0
■ So if P(a) = 0, (x - a) is a factor.

Worked Example 7
Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 - 7x2 - 2 x + 4 is divided by:
a x - 3 b x + 6.
Think Write
a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x3 - 7x2 - 2x + 4

2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by R = P(3)
(x - 3) is equal to P(3). = 33 - 7(3)2 - 2(3) + 4
= 27 - 7(9) - 6 + 4
= 27 - 63 - 6 - 4
= -46
b The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 6) is b R = P(-6)
equal to P(-6). = (-6)3 - 7(-6)2 - 2(-6) + 4
= -216 - 7(36) + 12 + 4
= -216 - 252 + 12 + 4
= -452
Worked Example 8
The remainder when x3 + kx2 + x - 2 is divided by (x - 2) is equal to 20.

Find the value of k.
Think Write
1 Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 + kx2 + x - 2.

2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x - 2) R = P(2)
is equal to P(2). = 23 + k(2)2 + 2 - 2
= 8 + 4k
3 We are given R = 20. Since R = 20,
Put 8 + 4k = 20. 8 + 4k = 20
4 Solve for k. 4k = 12
k=3
remember
1. The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x – a) is equal to P(a). That is:

R = P(a).
This is known as the remainder theorem.
2. If P(a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of P(x). This is known as the factor theorem.
Exercise
19e The remainder and factor theorems
fluency
1 WE 7 Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 + 3x2 - 10x - 24 is divided by:
a x - 1 b x + 2 c x - 3 d x + 5
e x - 0 f x - k g x + n h x + 3c.

2 Find the remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second without performing long
division.
a x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4, x - 3 b x3 - 4x2 + 2x - 1, x + 1
c x3 + 3x2 - 3x + 1, x + 2 d x3 - x2 - 4x - 5, x - 1
e 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 3, x + 5 f -3x3 - 2x2 + x + 6, x + 1
g x3 + x2 + 8, x - 5 h x3 - 3x2 - 2, x - 2
i -x3 + 8, x + 3 j x3 + 2x2, x - 7
Understanding
3 WE 8 a The remainder when x3 + k x + 1 is divided by (x + 2) is -19. Find the value of k.
b The remainder when x3 + 2x2 + m x + 5 is divided by (x - 2) is 27. Find the value of m.
c The remainder when x3 - 3x2 + 2x + n is divided by (x - 1) is 1. Find the value of n.
d The remainder when ax3 + 4x2 - 2x + 1 is divided by (x - 3) is -23. Find the value of a.
e The remainder when x3 - bx2 - 2x + 1 is divided by (x + 1) is 0. Find the value of b.
f The remainder when -4x2 + 2x + 7 is divided by (x - c) is -5. Find a possible whole
number value of c.
g The remainder when x2 - 3x + 1 is divided by (x + d ) is 11. Find the possible values of d.
h The remainder when x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is divided by (x - 5) is -14. When the cubic
polynomial is divided by (x + 1), the remainder is -2. Find a and b.
a When x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 5 is divided by (x + 2), the remainder is:
A -5 B -2 C 2 D 5
b Which of the following is a factor of 2x3 + 15x2 + 22x - 15?
A (x - 1) B (x - 2) C (x + 3) D (x + 5)
c When x3 - 13x2 + 48x - 36 is divided by (x - 1), the remainder is:
A -3 B -2 C -1 D 0
d Which of the following is a factor of x3 - 5x2 - 22x + 56?
A (x - 2) B (x + 2) C (x - 7) D (x + 4)
5 Find one factor of each of the following cubic polynomials.
a x3 - 3x2 + 3x - 1 b x3 - 7x2 + 16x - 12
c x3 + x2 - 8x - 12 d x3 + 3x2 - 34x - 120
Reasoning
6 Prove that each of the following is a linear factor of x3 + 4x2 - 11x - 30 by substituting values
into the cubic function: (x + 2), (x - 3), (x + 5).
7 Avoid division and show that the first polynomial is exactly divisible by the second (that is, the
second polynomial is a factor of the first).
a x3 + 5x2 + 2x - 8, x - 1
b x3 - 7x2 - x + 7, x - 7
c x3 - 7x2 + 4x + 12, x - 2
d x3 + 2x2 - 9x - 18, x + 2 reflection  
e x3 + 3x2 - 9x - 27, x + 3
How are the remainder and
f -x3 + x2 + 9x - 9, x - 1 factor theorems related?
g -2x3 + 9x2 - x - 12, x - 4
h 3x3 + 22x2 + 37x + 10, x + 5
19f Factorising polynomials

Using long division
■■ Once one factor of a polynomial has been found (using the factor theorem as in the previous
section), long division may be used to find other factors. In the case of a cubic polynomial,
one — possibly two — other factors may be found.

Worked Example 9
Use long division to factorise the following.

a x3 - 5x2 - 2 x + 24 b x3 - 19x + 30 c -2 x3 - 8x2 + 6x + 4
Think Write
a 1 Name the polynomial. a P(x) = x3 - 5x2 - 2x + 24

2 Look for a value of x such that P ( x) = 0.
For cubics containing a single x3, try a
factor of the constant term (24 in this case).
Try P (1). P(1) = 13 - 5 ì 12 - 2 ì 1 + 24
= 1 - 5 - 2 + 24
= 18
ò0
P(1) ò 0, so (x - 1) is not a factor. P(2) = 23 - 5 ì 22 - 2 ì 2 + 24
Try P(2). = 8 - 20 - 4 + 24
ò0
P(2) ò 0, so (x - 2) is not a factor. P(-2) = (-2)3 - 5 ì (-2)2 - 2 ì (-2) + 24
Try P(-2). = -8 - 20 + 4 + 24
= -28 + 28
=0
P(-2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor. (x + 2) is a factor.
x2 - 7x + 12
3 Divide (x + 2) into P(x) using long x + 2) - 5x2 - 2x + 24
x3
division to find a quadratic factor. x3 + 2x2
-7x2 - 2x
-7x2 - 14x
12x + 24
12x + 24
0
4 Write P(x) as a product of the two factors P(x) = (x + 2)(x - 7x + 12)
2
found so far.
5 Factorise the quadratic factor if possible. P(x) = (x + 2)(x - 3)(x - 4)
b 1 Name the polynomial. b P(x) = x3 - 19x + 30
Note: There is no x2 term, so include 0x2. P(x) = x3 + 0x2 - 19x + 30
2 Look at the last term in P(x), which is 30. P(-5) = (-5)3 - 19 ì (-5) + 30
This suggests it is worth trying P(5) or = -125 + 95 + 30
P(-5). Try P(-5). P(-5) = 0 so (x + 5) is =0
a factor. So (x + 5) is a factor.
x2 - 5x + 6
3 Divide (x + 5) into P(x) using long x + 5) x + 0x2 - 19x + 30
3
division to find a quadratic factor. x3 + 5x2

-5x2 - 19x
-5x2 - 25x
6x + 30
6x + 30
0
4 Write P(x) as a product of the two factors P(x) = (x + 5)(x2 - 5x + 6)
found so far.
5 Factorise the quadratic factor if possible. P(x) = (x + 5)(x -2)(x - 3)

c 1 Write the given polynomial. c Let P(x) = -2x3 - 8x2 + 6x + 4

2 Take out a common factor of -2. (We = -2(x3 + 4x2 - 3x - 2)
could take out +2 as the common factor,
but taking out -2 results in a positive
leading term in the part still to be
factorised.)
3 Let Q(x) = (x3 + 4x2 - 3x - 2). Let Q(x) = (x3 + 4x2 - 3x - 2).
(We have already used P earlier.)
4 Evaluate Q(1). Q(1) = 1 + 4 - 3 - 2
Q(1) = 0, so (x - 1) is a factor. =0
So (x - 1) is a factor.
x2 + 5x + 2
5 Divide (x - 1) into Q(x) using long x - 1) + 4x2 - 3x - 2
x3
division to find a quadratic factor. x3 - x2
5x2 - 3x
5x2 - 5x
2x - 2
2x - 2
0
6 Write the original polynomial P(x) as a P(x) = -2(x - 1)(x2 + 5x + 2)
product of the factors found so far.
7 In this case, it is not possible to further
factorise P(x).
■■ Note: In these examples, P(x) may have been factorised without long division by finding all
three values of x that make P(x) = 0 (and hence three factors) and then checking that the three
factors multiply to give P(x).
Using short division

■■ The process of long division can be quite time (and space) consuming. An alternative is short
division, which may take a little longer to understand, but is quicker once mastered.
■■ Consider P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 10. Using the factor theorem, we can find that (x - 1) is a
factor of P(x). So, P(x) = (x - 1)( ? ).
Actually, we know more than this: as P ( x) begins with x3 and ends with +10, we could
write
P(x) = (x - 1)(x2 + ? - 10)
The x2 in the second pair of grouping symbols produces the desired x3 (the leading term in
P(x)) when the expressions are multiplied. The -10 in the second pair of grouping symbols
produces +10 (the last term in P(x)) when the expressions are multiplied.
■■ Imagine expanding this version of P(x). Multiplying x in the first pair of grouping symbols by
x2 in the second would produce x3, which is what we want, but multiplying -1 in the first pair
of grouping symbols by x2 in the second gives -1x2.
Since P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 13x + 10, we really need +2x2, not -1x2. That is, we need
+3x2 more. To get this, the ? must be 3x, because when x in the first pair of grouping
symbols is multiplied by 3x in the second pair, +3x2 results. That is, we have deduced
P(x) = (x - 1) (x2 + 3x - 10).
Factorising the expression in the second pair of grouping symbols gives
P(x) = (x - 1)(x + 5)(x - 2)

■■ This procedure, which we will call short division, can be confusing at first, but with
persistence it can be a quick and easy method for factorising polynomials.
■■ The following worked example is a repeat of a previous one, but explains the use of short,
rather than long, division.
Worked Example 10
Use short division to factorise x3 - 5x2 - 2 x + 24.

Think Write
1 Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 - 5x2 - 2x + 24.

2 Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. P(-2) = (-2)3 - 5 ì (-2)2 - 2 ì (-2) + 24
Try P(-2). = -8 - 20 + 4 + 24
= -28 + 28
=0
P(-2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor. So (x + 2) is a factor.
3 Look again at the original
P(x) = x3 - 5x2 - 2x + 24.
The first term in the grouping symbols must be x2,
and the last term must be 12.
P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 + 12)
4 Imagine the expansion of the expression in step 3. P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 - 7x + 12)
We have x3 and 2x2, but require -5x2. We need an
extra -7x2. We get this by inserting a -7x term in the
second pair of grouping symbols.
5 Factorise the expression in the second pair of P(x) = (x + 2)(x - 3)(x - 4)
grouping symbols if possible.
remember
To factorise a polynomial:
1. let P(x) = the given polynomial
2. use the factor theorem to find a linear factor (try factors of the constant term)
3. use long or short division to find the remaining factor
4. factorise the remaining factor if possible.
Exercise
19F Factorising polynomials
fluency
1 WE 9a Use long division to factorise each dividend.
a x + 1) x3 + 10x2 + 27x + 18 b x + 2) x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10
c x + 9) x3 + 12x2 + 29x + 18 d x + 1) x3 + 8x2 + 19x + 12
e x + 3) x3 + 14x2 + 61x + 84 f x + 7) x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42

g x + 2) x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2 h x + 3) x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12
i x + 5) x3 + 14x2 + 65x + 100 j x) x3 + 13x2 + 40x
k x) x3 + 7x2 + 12x l x + 5) x3 + 10x2 + 25x
m x + 1) x3 + 6x2 + 5x n x + 6) x3 + 6x2
eBook plus 2 We9, 10 Factorise the following as fully as possible.

a x3 + x2 - x - 1 b x3 - 2x2 - x + 2
Digital doc c x + 7x + 11x + 5
3 2 d x3 + x2 - 8x - 12
SkillSHEET 19.3
doc-5368
e x + 9x + 24x + 16
3 2 f x3 - 5x2 - 4x + 20
g x + 2x - x - 2
3 2 h x3 - 7x - 6
i x + 3x - 4
3 2 j x3 + x2 + x + 6
k x + 8x + 17x + 10
3 2 l x3 + x2 - 9x - 9
m x3 - x2 - 8x + 12 n x3 + 9x2 - 12x - 160
3 Factorise as fully as possible.
a 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6 b 3x3 + 14x2 + 7x - 4
c 3x3 + 2x2 - 12x - 8 d 4x3 + 35x2 + 84x + 45
e 5x3 + 9x2 + 3x - 1 f x3 + x2 + x + 1
g 4x3 + 16x2 + 21x + 9 h 6x3 - 23x2 + 26x - 8
i 10x3 + 19x2 - 94x - 40 j 7x3 + 12x2 - 60x + 16
4 Factorise as fully as possible.
a 3x3 - x2 - 10x
b 4x3 + 2x2 - 2x
c 3x3 - 6x2 - 24x
d -2x3 - 12x2 - 18x
e 6x3 - 6x2
f -x3 - 7x2 - 12x
g -x3 - 3x2 + x + 3
h -2x3 + 10x2 - 12x reFleCtion
i -6x3 - 5x2 + 12x - 4 Explain the steps in
j -5x3 + 24x2 - 36x + 16 factorising polynomials
k -x5 - x4 + 21x3 + 49x2 - 8x - 60
19g solving polynomial equations

■ A polynomial equation of the form P(x) = 0 may be solved by factorising P(x) and applying
the Null Factor Law.
■ The Null Factor Law applies to polynomial equations just as it does for quadratics.
■ If P(x) = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) = 0, then the solutions can be found as follows.
Let each factor = 0:
x-a=0 x-b=0 x-c=0
Solving each of these equations produces the solutions
x=a x=b x = c.
■ If P(x) = k(lx - a)(mx - b)(nx - c) = 0, then the solutions can be found as follows.
Let each factor = 0:
lx - a = 0 mx - b = 0 nx - c = 0
Solving each of these equations produces the solutions
a b c
x= x= x= .
l m n
Note: The coefficient k used in this example does not produce a solution in x.

Worked Example 11
Solve:
a x3 = 9x
b -2 x3 + 4x2 + 70x = 0
c 2 x3 - 11x2 + 18x - 9 = 0.
Think Write
a 1 Write the equation. a x3 = 9x
2 Rearrange so all terms are on the left. x3 - 9x = 0

3 Take out a common factor of x. x(x2 - 9) = 0
4 Factorise the expression in the grouping x(x + 3)(x - 3) = 0
symbols using the difference of squares
rule.
5 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x = 0, x + 3 = 0 or x - 3 = 0
x = 0, x = -3 or x = 3
b 1 Write the equation. b -2x3 + 4x2 + 70x = 0
2 Take out a common factor of -2x. -2x(x2 - 2x - 35) = 0

3 Factorise the expression in the grouping -2x(x - 7)(x + 5) = 0
symbols.
4 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. -2x = 0, x - 7 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
x = 0, x = 7 or x = -5
c 1 Name the polynomial. c Let P(x) = 2x3 - 11x2 + 18x - 9.
2 Use the factor theorem to find a factor
(search for a value a such that
P(a) = 0). Consider factors of the P(1) = 2 - 11 + 18 - 9
constant term (that is, factors of 9 such as =0
1, 3). The simplest value to try is 1. So (x - 1) is a factor.
2x2 - 9x + 9
3 Use long or short division to find another x - 1) 2x3 - 11x2 + 18x - 9
factor of P(x). 2x - 2x2
3
-9x2 + 18x
-9x2 + 9x
9x - 9
9x - 9
0
P(x) = (x - 1)(2x2 - 9x + 9)
4 Factorise the quadratic factor. P(x) = (x - 1)(2x - 3)(x - 3)
5 Consider the factorised equation For (x - 1)(2x - 3)(x - 3) = 0
to solve.
6 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x - 1 = 0, 2x - 3 = 0 or x - 3 = 0
3
x = 1, x = 2 or x = 3

remember
To solve a polynomial equation:

1. let P(x) = . . .
2. use the factor theorem (try P(1), etc.) to find a factor of the form (x - a)
3. use long or short division to find the quotient
4. factorise the quotient if possible
5. let each linear factor equal zero and solve for x in each case.
6. If P(x) = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) = 0, then the solutions are:
x=a x=b x = c.
7. If P(x) = k(lx – a)(mx – b)(nx – c) = 0, then the solutions are:
a b c
x= x= x= .
l m n
exerCise
19g solving polynomial equations
FluenCy
eBook plus
1 We11a, b Solve the following.
a x3 - 4x = 0 b x3 - 16x = 0
Digital doc c 2x3 - 50x = 0 d -3x3 + 81 = 0
SkillSHEET 19.4
e x3 + 5x2 = 0 f x3 - 2x2 = 0
doc-5369
g -4x3 + 8x = 0 h 12x3 + 3x2 = 0
i 4x2 - 20x3 = 0 j x3 - 5x2 + 6x = 0
k x3 - 8x2 + 16x = 0 l x3 + 6x2 = 7x
eBook plus
m 9x2 = 20x + x3 n x3 + 6x = 4x2
Digital doc 2 We11c Use the factor theorem to solve the following.
SkillSHEET 19.5
doc-5370
a x3 - x2 - 16x + 16 = 0
b x3 - 6x2 - x + 30 = 0
c x3 - x2 - 25x + 25 = 0
d x3 + 4x2 - 4x - 16 = 0
e x3 - 4x2 + x + 6 = 0
f x3 - 4x2 - 7x + 10 = 0
g x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6 = 0
h x3 - 6x2 - 15x + 100 = 0
i x3 - 3x2 - 6x + 8 = 0
j x3 + 2x2 - 29x + 42 = 0
k 2x3 + 15x2 + 19x + 6 = 0
l -4x3 + 16x2 - 9x - 9 = 0
m -2x3 - 9x2 - 7x + 6 = 0
n 2x3 + 4x2 - 2x - 4 = 0
3 mC Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
Which of the following is a solution to x3 - 7x2 + 2x + 40 = 0?
A 5 B -4
C -2 D 1
4 mC A solution of x - 9x + 15x + 25 = 0 is x = 5. How many other (distinct) solutions are
3 2
there?
A 0 B 1
C 2 D 3

5 Solve P(x) = 0.
a P(x) = x3 + 4x2 - 3x - 18
b P(x) = 3x3 - 13x2 - 32x + 12
c P(x) = -x3 + 12x - 16
d P(x) = 8x3 + 10x2 - 38x + 20
e P(x) = x4 + 2x3 - 13x2 - 14x + 24
f P(x) = -72 - 42x + 19x2 + 7x3 - 2x4
g P(x) = x4 + 2x3 - 7x2 - 8x + 12
h P(x) = 4x4 + 12x3 - 24x2 - 32x
6 Solve each of the following equations.
a x3 - 3x2 - 6x + 8 = 0
b x3 + x2 - 9x - 9 = 0
eBook plus
c 3x3 + 3x2 - 18x = 0 reFleCtion
Digital doc d 2x4 + 10x3 - 4x2 - 48x = 0 Can you predict the number of solutions
WorkSHEET 19.2 e 2x4 + x3 - 14x2 - 4x + 24 = 0 a polynomial might have?
doc-5376 f x4 - 2x2 + 1 = 0

Summary
Polynomials
■■ A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted P(x), is an expression containing only non-negative
integer powers of x.
■■ The degree of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x in the expression.
Adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials

■■ To add or subtract polynomials, add or subtract any like terms in the expression.
■■ When expanding linear factors:
(a) expand two factors first, and then multiply by the remaining linear factors, one at a
time
(b) collect like terms at each stage
(c) (x + 2)3 may be written as (x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 2).
Long division of polynomials

Long division of polynomials is similar to long division with numbers. The highest power term
is the main one considered at each stage. The key steps are:
■■ determine how many times the first term of the divisor goes into the first term of
dividend
■■ multiply and write the result underneath
■■ subtract. (If necessary, change the sign and add.)
■■ bring down the next term
■■ repeat the process until no pronumerals remain to be divided
■■ state the quotient and remainder.
Polynomial values
■■ P(a) means the value of P(x) when x is replaced by a and the polynomial is evaluated.
The remainder and factor theorems

■■ The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x – a) is equal to P(a). That is:
R = P(a).
This is known as the remainder theorem.
■■ If P(a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of P(x). This is known as the factor theorem.
Factorising polynomials
To factorise a polynomial:
■■ let P(x) = the given polynomial
■■ use the factor theorem to find a linear factor (try factors of the constant term)
■■ use long or short division to find the remaining factor
■■ factorise the remaining factor if possible.
Solving polynomial equations

To solve a polynomial equation:
■■ let P(x) = . . .
■■ use the factor theorem (try P(1), etc.) to find a factor of the form (x - a)
■■ use long or short division to find the quotient
■■ factorise the quotient if possible

■■ let each linear factor equal zero and solve for x in each case.
■■ If P(x) = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) = 0, then the solutions are:
x = a x = b x = c.
■■ If P(x) = k(lx – a)(mx – b)(nx – c) = 0, then the solutions are:
a b c
x = x = x = .
l m n


Chapter review
FluenCy b The remainder is:
A -9 B 2
1 mC Which of the following is not a polynomial?
C 4 D 2x - 1
x2 7 Find the quotient and remainder when the first
A x 3 − + 7x − 1 B a4 + 4a3 + 2a + 2
3 polynomial is divided by the second in each case.
2 a x3 + 2x2 - 16x - 3, x + 2
C x + 3x + 2 D 5
b x3 + 3x2 - 13x - 7, x - 3
2 Consider the polynomial c -x3 + x2 + 4x - 7, x + 1
1
f ( x ) = − 7 x 4 + x 5 + 3. 8 mC If P(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 7x + 1, then P(-2) equals:
a What is the degree of f (x)? A -34 B -33
b What is the coefficient of x4? C -9 D 7
c What is the constant term? 9 If P(x) = -3x3 + 2x2 + x - 4, find:
d What is the leading term? a P(1) b P(-4)
3 mC The expansion of (x + 5)(x + 1)(x - 6) is: c P(2a).
A x3 - 30 10 Without dividing, find the remainder when
B x3 + 12x2 - 31x + 30 x3 + 3x2 - 16x + 5 is divided by x - 1.
C x3 - 31x - 30 11 Show that x + 3 is a factor of x3 - 2x2 - 29x - 42.
D x3 + 5x2 - 36x - 30
12 Factorise x3 + 4x2 - 100x - 400.
4 mC x3 + 5x2 + 3x - 9 is the expansion of:
13 Solve:
A (x + 3)3
a (2x + 1)(x - 3)2 = 0
B x(x + 3)(x - 3)
b x3 - 9x2 + 26x - 24 = 0
C (x - 1)(x + 3)2
D (x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) c x4 - 4x3 - x2 + 16x - 12 = 0
5 Expand: problem solVing

a (x - 2)2(x + 10)
b (x + 6)(x - 1)(x + 5) 1 Let P(x) = an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 be
c (x - 7)3 a ploynomial where the coefficients are integers.
d (5 - 2x)(1 + x)(x + 2). Also let P(w) = 0 where w is an integer. Show that
6 mC Consider the following long division.
w is a factor of a0
x2 + x + 2
x + 4) + 5x2 + 6x - 1
x3 eBook plus
x3 + 4x2
x2 + 6x Interactivities
x2 + 4x Test yourself Chapter 19
int-2876
2x - 1
2x + 8 int-2874
-9 Crossword Chapter 19
a The quotient is: int-2875
A -9 B 4
C x + 4 D x2 + x + 2

Are you ready? 19F Factorising polynomials
Digital docs (page 636) Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 19.1 (doc-5366): Expanding the product • SkillSHEET 19.3 (doc-5368): Factorising quadratic
of two linear factors trinomials (page 655)
• SkillSHEET 19.2 (doc-5367): Substitution into
quadratic equations 19G Solving polynomial equations
• SkillSHEET 19.3 (doc-5368): Factorising quadratic Digital docs
trinomials • SkillSHEET 19.4 (doc-5369): Factorising difference
• SkillSHEET 19.4 (doc-5369): Factorising difference of two squares expressions (page 657)
of two squares expressions • SkillSHEET 19.5 (doc-5370): Solving quadratic
• SkillSHEET 19.5 (doc-5370): Solving quadratic equations (page 657)
equations • WorkSHEET 19.2 (doc-5376): Polynomials II
(page 658)
polynomials Chapter review
Digital doc (page 661)
Interactivities
• SkillSHEET 19.1 (doc-5366): Expanding the product • Test yourself Chapter 19 (int-2876): Take the end-of-
of two linear factors (pages 640) chapter test to test your progress
19C Long division of polynomials word search involving words associated with this
Interactivity chapter
• Long division of polynomials (int-2793) (page 641) • Crossword Chapter 19 (int-2875): an interactive
chapter
Digital docs
• SkillSHEET 19.2 (doc-5367): Substitution into To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
quadratic equations (page 648)
www.jacplus.com.au
• WorkSHEET 19.1 (doc-5375): Polynomials I
(page 649)

20
20A Functions and relations
20B Exponential functions
20C Cubic functions
20D Quartic functions
20E Transformations
What do you know ?

1 List what you know about functions and
relations. Create a concept map to show
Functions and your list.

relations 3 As a class, create a large concept map

functions and relations.
opening question
The sails of the opera house are formed

from sections of what shape?
number and algebra • linear and non-linear relationships
are you ready?

eBook plus
Finding the gradient and y-intercept
Digital doc
1 Find the gradient and y-intercept of the following straight lines.
SkillSHEET 20.1
doc-5378 a y = 3x + 4 b 2x + y = 3
c 5x - 2y - 8 = 0
eBook plus Sketching straight lines

2 Sketch the graph of each straight line.
Digital doc
a y = 2x + 1 b y = -4x + 2
SkillSHEET 20.2
doc-5379
c y = 2
eBook plus Sketching parabolas

3 Sketch the graph of each parabola.
Digital doc
a y = x2 b y = x2 - 4
SkillSHEET 20.3
doc-5380
c y = -2x2 d y = (x - 2)2
eBook plus Completing the square

4 Complete the square to change each of these quadratic equations into turning point form.
Digital doc
a y = x2 + 6x + 11 b y = x2 - 4x - 1
SkillSHEET 20.4
doc-5381
c y = x2 + x - 2
eBook plus Identifying equations of straight lines and parabolas

5 Identify each of the following as a straight line, a parabola or neither.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 20.5
a y = 2x2 + 7 b x2 + y2 = 25
doc-5382 c 2x + y - 3 = 0 d y = (x - 2) (x - 4)
1
e y = x + 6 f y = 2x + 3
2
eBook plus Finding points of intersection

6 Find any points of intersection of the lines y = 2x + 3 and y = 4x - 5.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 20.6
doc-5383
eBook plus Substitution into index expressions

7 Substitute the following values for x into y = 3x and evaluate.
Digital doc
a x = 4 b x = 1
SkillSHEET 20.7
doc-5384
c x = 0 d x = -3


Relations
■■ A relation is a set of ordered pairs of values such as all the points on the circle x2 + y2 = 4
or all the points on the exponential y = 2x. Relations can be grouped into the following four
categories.
y
One-to-one relations
■■ A one-to-one relation exists if for any x-value there is only one
corresponding y-value and vice versa. For example: 0 x
One-to-many relations y
■■ A one-to-many relation exists if for any x-value there is more than one
y-value, but for any y-value there is only one x-value. For example:
0 x
Many-to-one relations y
■■ A many-to-one relation exists if there is more than one x-value for any
y-value but for any x-value there is only one y-value. For example:
0 x
Many-to-many relations y y
■■ A many-to-many relation exists if there is more

than one x-value for any y-value and vice versa. For
0 x 0 x
example:
Worked Example 1
What type of relation does each graph represent?

a y b y c y
0 x
0 x 0 x
Think Write
a 1 For some x-values there is more than one a One-to-many relation

y-value. A line through some x‑values
shows that 2 y-values are available:
y
x = -1
0 x
Chapter 20 Functions and relations 665

2 For any y-value there is only one x‑value.

A line through any y-value shows that
only one x-value is available:
y
y=1
0 x
b 1 For any x-value there is only one y‑value. b One-to-one relation
2 For any y-value there is only one x‑value.

c 1 For any x-value there is only one y‑value. c Many-to-one relation
2 For some y-values there is more than one
x‑value.
Functions
■■ Relations that are one-to-one or many-to-one are called functions. That is, a function is a
relation where for any x-value there is at most one y-value. For example:
1. y 2. y
0 x 0 x
Vertical line test

■■ A function is determined from a graph if a vertical line, drawn anywhere on the graph cannot
intersect with the curve more than once.
Worked Example 2
State whether or not each of the following relations are functions.

a y b y
0 x
0 x
Think Write
a It is possible for a vertical line to intersect with a Not a function

the curve more than once.
b It is not possible for any vertical line to intersect b Function
with the curve more than once.

Function notation
■■ Consider the relation y = 2x, which is a function.
The y-values are determined from the x-values, so we say ‘y is a function of x’, which is
abbreviated to y = f (x).
So, the rule y = 2x can also be written as f (x) = 2x.
If x = 1, then y = f (1)
=2ì1
=2
If x = 2, then y = f (2)
=2ì2
= 4, and so on.
Evaluating functions
■■ For a given function y = f (x), the value of y when x = 1 is written as f (1), the value of y when
x = 5 is written as f (5), the value of y when x = a as f (a), etc.
Worked Example 3
If f (x) = x2 - 3, find:
a f (1)
b f (-2)
c f (a)
d f (2a).
Think Write
a 1 Write the rule. a f (x) = x2 - 3

2 Substitute x = 1 into the rule. f (1) = 12 - 3
3 Simplify. =1-3
= -2
b 1 Write the rule. b f (x) = x2 - 3
2 Substitute x = -2 into the rule. f (-2) = (-2)2 - 3
3 Simplify. =4-3
=1
c 1 Write the rule. c f (x) = x2 - 3
2 Substitute x = a into the rule. f (a) = a2 - 3
d 1 Write the rule. d f (x) = x2 - 3
2 Substitute x = 2a into the rule. f (2a) = (2a)2 - 3
3 Simplify the expression if possible. = 22a2 - 3
= 4a2 - 3
Identifying features of functions

■■ We can identify features of certain functions by observing what happens to the function value
(y value) when x approaches a very small value such as 0 (x ç 0) or a very large value such
as Ñ (x ç Ñ).

Worked Example 4
Describe what happens to these functions as the value of x increases, that is, as x ç Ñ.
1
a f (x) = x2 b f (x) = 2-x c f (x) = + 1
x
Think Write
a 1 Write the function. a f (x) = x2

2 Substitute large x values into the function, such f (10 000) = 100 000 000
as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f (1 000 000) = 1 ì 1012
3 Write a conclusion. As x ç Ñ, f (x) also increases; that is,
f (x) ç Ñ.
b 1 Write the function. b f (x) = 2-x
2 Substitute large x values into the function, such f (10 000) ö 0
as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f (1 000 000) ö 0
3 Write a conclusion. As x ç Ñ, f (x) ç 0.
1
c 1 Write the function. c f (x) = + 1
x
2 Substitute large x values into the function, such f (10 000) = 1.0001
as x = 10 000 and x = 1 000 000. f (1 000 000) = 1.000 001
3 Write a conclusion. As x ç Ñ, f (x) ç 1.
Points of intersection
■■ If two functions are drawn on the one set of axes, there may be a point or points where the
curves intersect. The function equations can be solved simultaneously to find the coordinates
of these points of intersection.
Worked Example 5
1
Find any points of intersection between f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = .
x
Think Write
1 Write the two equations. f (x) = 2x + 1

1
g( x ) =
x
2 Points of intersection are common values For points of intersection:
between the two curves. To solve the equations 1
2x + 1 =
simultaneously, equate both functions. x
3 Rearrange the resulting equation and solve for x. 2x2 + x = 1
2x + x - 1 = 0
2
(2x - 1)(x + 1) = 0
1
x = 2 or -1
4 Substitute the x values into either function to find f ( 1 ) = 2 ì 12 + 1 = 2

2
the y values.
f (-1) = 2 ì -1 + 1 = -1
5 Write the coordinates of the two points of intersection. Points of intersection are ( 1 , 2) and (-1, -1).
2

remember
1. A function is a relation so that for any x-value there is at most one y-value (one-to-one
or many-to-one relations).
2. Vertical line test: The graph of a function cannot be crossed more than once by any
vertical line.
y y
0 x
0 x
Function Not a function

3. f (x) = . . . is used to describe ‘a function of x’. To evaluate the function, for example
when x = 2, find f (2) by replacing each occurrence of x on the RHS with 2.
4. Substitute appropriate x values to describe what happens to functions as x ç Ñ
(x approaches infinity) or x ç 0 (x approaches zero).
5. To find points of intersection, solve function equations simultaneously to find both x
and y values.
Exercise
Fluency
1 WE 1 What type of relation does each graph represent?
a y b y c y
0 x
0 x 0 x
d y e y f y
0 x 0 x
0 x
g y h y i y
0 x 0 x
0 x
j y k y l y
0 x
0 x 0 x

2 WE 2 Use the vertical line test to determine which of the relations in question 1 are functions.
3 WE 3 a If f ( x) = 3x + 1, find
i f (0), ii f (2), iii f (-2) and iv f (5) respectively.
b If g ( x) = x + 4 , find
i g (0), ii g (-3), iii g (5) and iv g (-4) respectively.
1
c If g ( x) = 4 - , find
x
 1  1  1
i g (1), ii g  , iii g  −
 and iv g  − respectively.
2 2 5
d If f ( x) = (x + 3)2, find
i f (0), ii f (-2), iii f (1) and iv f (a) respectively.
24
e If h ( x) = , find
x
i h (2), ii h (4), iii h (-6) and iv h (12) respectively.
understanding
Which of the following relations is a function?
a y B x2 + y2 = 9 C y = 8x - 3 d y
0 x 0 x
5 Which of the following relations are functions?

a y = 2x + 1 b y = x2 + 2
c y = 2x d x2 + y2 = 25
e x + 4x + y + 6y = 14
2 2 f y = −4x
10
6 Given that f ( x ) = − x find:
x
a f (2) b f (-5) c f (2x)
d f (x2) e f (x + 3) f f (x - 1)
7 Find the value (or values) of x for which each function has the value given.
a f (x) = 3x - 4, f (x) = 5 b g(x) = x2 - 2, g(x) = 7
1
c f (x) = , f ( x) = 3 d h(x) = x2 - 5x + 6, h(x) = 0
x
e g(x) = x2 + 3x, g(x) = 4 f f (x) = 8 − x , f (x) = 3
Reasoning
8 WE 4 Describe what happens to:
a f (x) = x2 + 3 as x ç Ñ
b f (x) = 2x as x ç - Ñ
1
c f (x) = as x ç Ñ
x
d f (x) = x3 as x ç - Ñ
e f (x) = -5x as x ç - Ñ.

9 We5 Find any points of intersection between the following curves.

a f (x) = 2x - 4 and g(x) = x2 - 4
2
eBook plus
b f (x) = -3x + 1 and g(x) = -
x reFleCtion
Digital doc c f (x) = x2 - 4 and g(x) = 4 - x2
How do you determine the difference
WorkSHEET 20.1
3 1 between functions and relations?
doc-5385 d f (x) = 4
x - 64 and x2 + y2 = 25
20b exponential functions

■ Exponential functions can be used to model many real Exponential growth
eBook plus
situations involving natural growth and decay. y y = ax
eLesson ■ Exponential growth is when a quantity grows by 10
Exponential 8
a constant percentage in each fixed period of time.
growth
Examples of exponential growth include growth of 6
eles-0176
investment at a certain rate of compound interest and 4
2
growth in the number of cells in a bacterial colony.
-4 -2 0 2 4 x
■ Exponential decay is when a quantity decreases by a Exponential decay

constant percentage in each fixed period of time. y
Examples of exponential decay include yearly loss of -x
10
y=a 8
value of an item (called depreciation) and radioactive or 1
y = 6
decay. ax 4
■ Both exponential growth and decay can be modelled by 2
exponential functions of the type y = kax (y = k ì a x).
The difference is in the value of the base a. When a > 1, -4 -2 0 2 4 x
there is exponential growth and when 0 < a < 1 there is
exponential decay.
The value of k corresponds to the initial quantity that is growing or decaying.
Worked example 6
The number of bacteria, N, in a Petri dish after x hours is given by the equation N = 50 ì 2 x.
a Determine the initial number of bacteria in the Petri dish.

b Determine the number of bacteria in the Petri dish after 3 hours.
c Draw the graph of the function of N against x.
d Use the graph to estimate the length of time it will take for the initial number of bacteria to
treble.

Think Write/draw
a 1 Write the equation. a N = 50 ì 2x

2 Substitute x = 0 into the given formula and When x = 0, N = 50 ì 20
evaluate. (Notice that this is the value of k = 50 ì 1
for equations of the form y = k ì a x.) = 50
3 Write the answer in a sentence. The initial number of bacteria in the Petri dish
is 50.
b 1 Substitute x = 3 into the formula and b When x = 3, N = 50 ì 23
evaluate. = 50 ì 8
= 400
2 Write the answer in a sentence. After 3 hours there are 400 bacteria in the Petri
dish.
c 1 Draw a set of axes, labelling the horizontal c
axis as x and the vertical axis as N.
2 Plot the points generated by the answers to
parts a and b.
3 Calculate the value of N when x = 1 and At x = 1, N = 50 ì 21 At x = 2, N = 50 ì 22
x = 2 and plot the points generated. = 50 ì 2 = 50 ì 4
= 100 = 200
4 Join the points plotted with a smooth N
N = 50 ì 2x
curve. 500
400
300
200
100
0 1 2 3 x
5 Label the graph.

d 1 Determine the number of bacteria required. d Number of bacteria = 3 ì 50
= 150
2 Draw a horizontal line from N = 150 to the N
N = 50 ì 2x
curve and from this point draw a vertical 500
line to the x-axis.
400
300
200
100
0 1 2 3 x
3 The point on the x-axis will be the estimate

of the time taken for the number of
bacteria to treble.
4 Write the answer in a sentence. The time taken will be approximately 1.6 hours.

Worked Example 7
A new computer costs $3000. It is estimated that each year it will be losing 12% of the previous
year’s value.
a Determine the value, $V, of the computer after the first year.
b Determine the value of the computer after the second year.
c Determine the equation which relates the value of the computer to the number of years, n, it has
been used.
d Use your equation to determine the value of the computer in 10 years’ time.
Think Write
a 1 State the original value of the computer. a V0 = 3000
2 Since 12% of the value is being lost each V1 = 88% of 3000

year, the value of the computer will be 88% = 0.88 ì 3000
or (100 - 12)% of the previous year’s value. = 2640
Therefore, the value after the first year (V1) is
88% of the original cost.
3 Write the answer in a sentence. The value of the computer after 1 year
is $2640.
b 1 The value of the computer after the b V2 = 88% of 2640
second year, V2, is 88% of the value after the = 0.88 ì 2640
first year. = 2323.2
2 Write the answer in a sentence. The value of the computer after the second
year is $2323.20.
c 1 The original value is V0. c V0 = 3000
2 The value after the first year, V1, is obtained V1 = 3000 ì 0.88
by multiplying the original value by 0.88.
3 The value after the second year, V2, is V2 = (3000 ì 0.88) ì 0.88
obtained by multiplying V1 by 0.88, or by = 3000 ì (0.88)2
multiplying the original value, V0, by (0.88)2.
4 The value after the third year, V3, is obtained V3 = 3000 ì (0.88)2 ì 0.88
by multiplying V2 by 0.88, or V0 by (0.88)3. = 3000 ì (0.88)3
5 By observing the pattern we can generalise as Vn = 3000 ì (0.88)n
follows: the value after the nth year, Vn, can
be obtained by multiplying the original value,
V0, by 0.88 n times; that is, by (0.88)n.
d 1 Substitute n = 10 into the equation obtained d When n = 10, V10 = 3000 ì (0.88)10
in part c to find the value of the computer = 835.50
after 10 years.
2 Write the answer in a sentence. The value of the computer after 10 years is
$835.50.
■■ Sometimes the relationship between the two variables closely resembles an exponential
pattern, but cannot be described exactly by an exponential function. In such cases, part of the
data are used to model the relationship with exponential growth or the decay function.

Worked Example 8
The population of a certain city is shown in the table below.

Year 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Population (ì 1000) 128 170 232 316 412 549
Assume that the relationship between the population, P, and the year, x, can be modelled by the
function P = ka x, where x is the number of years after 1985. The value of P must be multiplied by
1000 in order to find the actual population.
a State the value of k, which is the population, in thousands, at the start of the period.
b Use a middle point in the data set to find the value of a, correct to 2 decimal places. Hence, write
the formula, connecting the population, P, with the number of years, x, since 1985.
c For the years given, find the size of the population using the formula obtained in part b. Compare
it with the actual size of the population in those years.
d Predict the population of the city in the years 2015 and 2020.
Think Write/display
a From the given table, state the value of k a k = 128

that corresponds to the population of the
city in the year 1985.
b 1 Write the given formula for the b P = kax
population of the city.
2 Replace the value of k with the P = 128 ì ax
value found in a.
3 Using a middle point of the data, Middle point is (1995, 232).
replace x with the number of When x = 10, P = 232, so
years since 1985 and P with the 232 = 128 ì a10
corresponding value.
4 Solve the equation for a. 232
a10 =
128
= 1.8125
a = 10 1.8125
a = 1.0613. . .
5 Round the answer to 2 decimal a ö 1.06
places.
6 Rewrite the formula with this value So P = 128 ì (1.06)x
of a.
c 1 Draw a table of values and enter the c
Year 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
given years, the number of years
since 1985, x, and the population for x 0 5 10 15 20 25
each year, P. Round values of P to P 128 171 229 307 411 549
the nearest whole number.
2 Comment on the closeness of the fit. The values for the population obtained using the
formula closely resemble the actual data.
d 1 Find the value of x, the number of d For the year 2015, x = 30.
years after 1985.
2 Substitute this value of x into the P = 128 ì (1.06)30
formula and evaluate. = 735.166 87. . .

3 Round to the nearest whole number. P ö 735

4 Answer the question in a sentence. The predicted population for 2015 is 735 000.
5 Repeat for the year 2020. For the year 2020, x = 35.
P = 128 ì (1.06)35
= 983.819 . . .
P ö 984
The predicted population for 2020 is 984 000.
remember
In the function y = kax:

1. k represents the initial amount or quantity
2. a is the base.
If a > 1, the function represents exponential growth.
If 0 < a < 1, it represents exponential decay.
3. To find the value of a:
(a) in the case of exponential growth, add the % increase to 100% and change the
resulting percentage into a decimal
(b) in the case of exponential decay, subtract the % decrease from 100% and change
the resulting percentage into a decimal.
Exercise
20b Exponential functions
Fluency
1 WE 6 The number of micro-organisms, N, in a culture dish after x hours is given by the
equation N = 2000 ì 3x.
a Determine the initial number of micro-organisms in the dish.
b Determine the number of micro-organisms in a dish after 5 hours.
c Draw the graph of N against x.
d Use the graph to estimate the number of hours needed for the initial number of micro-
organisms to quadruple.
2 The value of an investment (in dollars) after n years is given by A = 5000 ì (1.075)n.
a Determine the size of the initial investment.
b Determine the value of the investment (to the nearest dollar) after 6 years.
c Draw the graph of A against n.
d Use the graph to estimate the number of years needed for the initial investment to double.
3 MC a The function P = 300 ì (0.89)n represents an:
A exponential growth with the initial amount of 300
B exponential growth with the initial amount of 0.89
C exponential decay with the initial amount of 300
D exponential decay with the initial amount of 0.89
E exponential decay with the initial amount of 300 ì 0.89
b The relationship between two variables, A and t, is described by the function
A = 45 ì (1.095)t, where t is the time, in months, and A is the amount, in dollars.
This function indicates:
A a monthly growth of $45 B a monthly growth of 9.5 cents
C a monthly growth of 1.095% D a monthly growth of 9.5%
E a yearly growth of 9.5%

4 mC The graph of y = 2x + 1 - 1 is best represented by:

A y B y
1
0 x
1
0 x
-1 -1
C y D y
1
0 x
-1
0 x -1
1
E y
0 x
-1
eBook plus
5 mC The graph of y = 3x - 2 + 2 has an asymptote and y-intercept respectively at:
1
A y = 0, 2
Digital doc 9
1
SkillSHEET 20.8 B y = 2, 29
doc-5386
C y = 2, 2
8
D y = 2, 1
9
E y = 0, 2
understanding
eBook plus 6 We7 A new washing machine costs $950. It is estimated that each year it will be losing 7% of
the previous year’s value.
Digital doc a Calculate the value of the machine after the first year.
SkillSHEET 20.9
doc-5387
b Calculate the value of the machine after the second year.
c Determine the equation that relates the value of the machine, $V, to the number of years,
n, that it has been used.
d Use your equation to find the value of the machine in 12 years’ time.
7 A certain radioactive element decays in such a way that every 50 years the amount present
decreases by 15%. In 1900, 120 mg of the element was present.
a Calculate the amount present in 1950.
b Calculate the amount present in the year 2000.

c Determine the rule that connects the amount of the element present, A, with the number
of 50-year intervals, t, since 1900.
d Calculate the amount present in the year 2010. Round your answer to 3 decimal places.
e Graph the function of A against t.
f Use the graph to estimate the half-life of this element (that is, the number of years needed
for half the initial amount to decay).
8 When a shirt made of a certain fabric is washed, it loses 2% of its colour.
a Determine the percentage of colour that remains after:
i two washes
ii five washes.
b Write a function for the percentage of colour, C, remaining after w washings.
c Draw the graph of C against w.
d Use the graph to estimate the number of washes after which there is only 85% of the
original colour left.
9 WE 8 The population of a certain country is shown in the table below.
Year Population (in millions)

1990 118
1995 130
2000 144
2005 160
2010 178
Assume that the relationship between the population, P, and the year, n, can be modelled by
the formula P = kan, where n is the number of years since 1990.
a State the value of k.
b Use the middle point of the data set to find the value of a rounded to 2 decimal places.
Hence, write the formula that connects the two variables, P and n.
c For the years given in the table, find the size of the population, using your formula.
Compare the numbers obtained with the actual size of the population.
d Predict the population of the country in the year 2035.
10 The temperature in a room (in degrees Celsius), recorded at 10-minute intervals after the air
conditioner was turned on, is shown in the table below.
Time (min) 0 10 20 30 40
Temperature (èC) 32 26 21 18 17
Assume that the relationship between the temperature, T, and the time, t, can be modelled by
the formula T = cat, where t is the time, in minutes, since the air conditioner was turned on.
a State the value of c.
b Use the middle point in the data set to find the value of a to 2 decimal places.
c Write the rule connecting T and t.
d Using the rule, find the temperature in the room 10, 20, 30 and 40 minutes after the air
conditioner was turned on and compare your numbers with the recorded temperature.
Comment on your findings. (Give answers correct to 1 decimal place.)
11 The population of a species of dogs (D) increases exponentially and is described by the
equation D = 60(1 - 0.6t ) + 3, where t represents the time in years.
a Calculate the initial number of dogs.
b Calculate the number of dogs after 1 year.
c Determine the time taken for the population to reach 50 dogs.

12 Carbon-14 decomposes in such a way that the amount present can be calculated using the
equation, Q = Q0(1 - 0.038)t, where Q is measured in milligrams and t in centuries.
a If there is 40 mg present initially, how much is present in 10 years’ time and 2000 years’
time?
b How many years will it take for there to be less than 10 mg?
reasoning
13 Fiona is investing $20 000 in a fixed term deposit earning 6% p.a. interest. When Fiona has
$30 000 she intends to put a deposit on a house.
a Determine an exponential function that will model the growth of Fiona’s investment.
b Graph this function.
c Determine the length of time (correct to the nearest year) that it will take for Fiona’s
investment to grow to $30 000.
d Suppose Fiona had been able to invest at 8% p.a. How much quicker would Fiona’s
investment have grown to the $30 000 she needs?
e Alvin has $15 000 to invest. Find the interest rate at which Alvin must invest his money,
if his investment is to grow to $30 000 in less than 8 years.
14 A Petri dish containing a bacteria colony was exposed to an antiseptic. The number of bacteria
within the colony, B, over time, t, in hours is shown in the diagram below.
(‘000) B
120
100
(1, 84)
80
(2, 58.8)
60
(3, 41.16)
40
20 (4, 28.81)
0 1 2 3 4 t
Hours
a Using the graph above, predict the number of bacteria in the Petri dish after 5 hours.
b Using the points from the graph, show that if B can be modelled by the function
B (in thousands) = abt, then a = 120 and b = 0.7.
c After 8 hours, another type of antiseptic was added to the Petri dish. Within three hours,
the number of bacteria in the Petri dish had decreased to 50. If the number of bacteria
decreased at a constant rate, show that the total of number of bacteria that had decreased
within two hours was approximately 6700.
15 One hundred people were watching a fireworks display at a local park. As the fireworks
were set off, more people started to arrive to see the show. The number of people, P, at time,
t minutes, after the start of the fireworks display, can be modelled by the function, P = abt.
a If after 5 minutes there were approximately 249 people, show that the number of people
arriving at the park to watch the fireworks increased by 20% each minute.
The fireworks display lasted for 40 minutes. After 40 minutes, people started to leave
the park. The number of people leaving the park could be modelled by an exponential
function. 15 minutes after the fireworks
ceased there were only 700 people in
the park. reFleCtion
b Derive an exponential function that What are the main differences between
eBook plus
can determine the number of people, a graph modelling exponential growth
Digital doc N, remaining in the park after the compared with one showing decay?
WorkSHEET 20.2 fireworks had finished at any time, m,
doc-5388 in minutes.

20c Cubic functions

■■ Cubic functions are those where the highest power of x is 3. These include functions such as
y = x3 or y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3). These can be compared with quadratic functions such as
y = x2 or y = (x + 1)(x − 2).
■■ The graphs of cubic functions have predictable properties, just as the graphs of quadratic
functions do.
Worked Example 9
Plot the graph of y = x3 - 1 by completing a table of values.

Think Write
1 Prepare a table of values, taking x values from -3 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

to 3. Fill in the table by substituting each x value
into the given equation to find the corresponding y -28 -9 -2 -1 0 7 26
y value.
20
15
10
5
-3 -2 -1 0
-1 1 2 3 x
-5
-10
y = x3 - 1
-15
-20
-25
Worked Example 10
Plot the curve of y = x(x - 2)(x + 2) by completing a table of values.

Think Write
1 Prepare a table of values, taking x values from -3 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

to 3. Fill in the table by substituting each x value
into the given equation. y -15 0 3 0 -3 0 15

x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = x (x - 2)(x + 2)
-15

■■ A good sketch of a cubic function shows:

1. x- and y-intercepts
2. the behaviour of the function at extreme values of x, that is, as x approaches infinity
(x ç + Ñ) and as x approaches negative infinity (x ç - Ñ)
3. the general location of turning points.
Note that for cubic functions, ‘humps’ are not symmetrical as they are for parabolas, but are
skewed to one side.
The graphs below show the two main types of cubic graph.
y y Point of Inflection
Turning
points
Consider the general factorised cubic y = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c).

The x-intercepts occur when y = 0, that is, when x = a or x = b or x = c. The y-intercept
occurs when x = 0, that is, the y-intercept is
y = (0 - a)(0 - b)(0 - c)
= -abc
c b a x
-abc
Worked Example 11
Sketch the following, showing all intercepts:

a y = (x - 2)(x - 3)(x + 5)
b y = (x - 6)2(4 - x)
c y = (x - 2)3.
Think Write
a 1 Write the equation. a y = (x - 2)(x - 3)(x + 5)

2 The y-intercept occurs where x = 0. y-intercept: if x = 0,
Substitute x = 0 into the equation. y = (-2)(-3)(5)
= 30
Point: (0, 30)

3 Solve y = 0 to find the x-intercepts. x-intercepts: if y = 0,

x - 2 = 0, x - 3 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
x = 2, x = 3 or x = -5
Points: (2, 0), (3, 0), (-5, 0)
4 Combine the above steps to sketch. y
30
-5 2 3 x
b 1 Write the equation. b y = (x - 6)2(4 - x)

2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,
y = (-6)2(4)
= 144
Point: (0, 144)
3 Solve y = 0 to find the x-intercepts. x-intercepts: if y = 0,
x - 6 = 0 or 4 - x = 0
x = 6 or x=4
Points: (6, 0), (4, 0)
4 Combine all information and sketch the y
graph.
Note: The curve just touches the x-axis 144
at x = 6. This occurs with a double factor
such as (x - 6)2.
4 6 x
c 1 Write the equation. c y = (x - 2)3

2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,
y = (-2)3
= -8
3 Solve y = 0 to find the x-intercepts. x-intercept: if y = 0,
x-2=0
x=2
4 Combine all information and sketch the y
graph.
Note: The point of inflection is at
x = 2. This occurs with a triple factor such
as (x - 2)3. 2 x
-8

remember
To sketch a cubic function: y

1. find the y-intercept (let x = 0)
20
2. find the x-intercepts (let y = 0) y = (x +1)(2x - 5)(x - 4)
3. use all available information to sketch
the graph.
-1 5– 4 x
2
Exercise
20c Cubic functions
1 WE 9, 10, 11 Sketch the following, showing all intercepts.
a y = (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) b y = (x - 3)(x - 5)(x + 2)
c y = (x + 6)(x + 1)(x - 7) d y = (x + 4)(x + 9)(x + 3)
e y = (x + 8)(x - 11)(x + 1) f y = (2x - 6)(x - 2)(x + 1)
g y = (2x - 5)(x + 4)(x - 3) h y = (3x + 7)(x - 5)(x + 6)
i y = (4x - 3)(2x + 1)(x - 4) j y = (2x + 1)(2x - 1)(x + 2)
k y = (x - 3)2(x - 6) l y = (x + 2)(x + 5)2
2 Sketch the following (a mixture of positive and negative cubics).
a y = (2 - x)(x + 5)(x + 3) b y = (1 - x)(x + 7)(x - 2)
c y = (x + 8)(x - 8)(2x + 3) d y = (x - 2)(2 - x)(x + 6)
e y = x(x + 1)(x - 2) f y = -2(x + 3)(x - 1)(x + 2)
g y = 3(x + 1)(x + 10)(x + 5) h y = -3x(x - 4)2
i y = 4x (x + 8)
2 j y = (5 - 3x)(x - 1)(2x + 9)
k y = (6x - 1)2(x + 7) l y = -2x2(7x + 3)
3 MC Which of the following is a reasonable sketch of y = (x + 2)(x - 3)(2x + 1)?
A y B y
-3 1– 2 x -2 - 1– 3 x
2 2
C y D y
-2 - 1– 3 x
1– 2 3 x
2 2
y
4 MC The graph shown could be that of:
A y = x2(x + 2)
B y = (x + 2)3 x
-2 2
C y = (x - 2)(x + 2)2
D y = (x - 2)2(x + 2)
-8

5 MC The graph at right has the equation: y

A y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
B y = (x + 1)(x - 2)(x + 3)
C y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) x
-3 -1 2
D y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x - 3)
-6
6 MC If a, b and c are positive numbers, the equation of the graph shown below could be:
A y = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) y
B y = (x + a)(x - b)(x + c)
C y = (x + a)(x + b)(x - c)
D y = (x - a)(x + b)(x - c)
-b c a x
reflection  
Is it possible to get symmetrical ‘humps’

for the graphs of cubic functions?
20d Quartic functions

■■ Quartic functions are those where the highest power of x is 4. These include functions such as
y = x4 or y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 5). These can be compared with cubic functions such as
y = x3 or y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3).
■■ It is necessary, when sketching the graphs of quartic functions, to find all the intercepts on
both the x- and y-axes. This is best achieved by factorising the expression.
Basic shapes of quartic graphs

■■ The direction of a quartic graph is determined by the coefficient of the x4 term. This is similar
to the effect the coefficient of x2 has on the shape of a parabola. Consider the coefficient of x4
to be a.
When a is positive (a > 0)
1. y = ax4 2. y = ax4 + cx2, c í 0 3. y = ax2(x - b)(x - c)
y y y
b 0 c x
0 x 0 x
4. y = a(x - b)2(x - c)2 5. y = a(x - b)(x - c)3 6. y = a(x - b)(x - c)(x - d )(x - e)
y y y
b 0 c x
b 0 c x b c 0 d ex

When a is negative (a < 0) y

If a was negative in each of the previous graphs, they would be
reflected in the x-axis. 0 x
The inverted form of y = x4 is shown below — y = -x4.
■■ To find the x-intercepts of a quartic function, let y = 0, and solve

the equation for x. y = -x 4
Worked Example 12
Sketch the graph of y = x4 - 2x3 - 7x2 + 8x + 12, showing all intercepts.

Think Write
1 Find the y-intercept. When x = 0, y = 12.

2 Let P(x) = y. Let P(x) = x4 - 2x3 - 7x2 + 8x + 12.
3 Find two linear factors of the quartic expressions, P(1) = (1)4 - 2(1)3 - 7(1)2 + 8(1) + 12
if possible, using the factor theorem. = 12
ò0
P(–1) = (-1)4 - 2(-1)3 - 7(-1)2 + 8(-1) + 12
=0
(x + 1) is a factor.
P(2) = (2)4 - 2(2)3 - 7(2)2 + 8(2) + 12
=0
(x - 2) is a factor.
4 Find the product of the two linear factors. (x + 1)(x - 2) = x2 - x - 2
5 Use long division to divide the quartic by the x2 - x - 6
quadratic factor x2 - x - 2. x2 - x - 2) - x4 - 7x2 + 8x + 12
2x3
x - x - 2x2
4 3
-x3 - 5x2 + 8x
-x3 + x2 + 2x
-6x2 + 6x + 12
-6x2 + 6x + 12
0
6 Express the quartic in factorised form. y = (x + 1)(x - 2)(x2 - x - 6)
= (x + 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)(x + 2)
7 To find the x-intercepts, solve y = 0. If 0 = (x + 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)(x + 2)
x = -1, 2, 3, -2.
8 State the x-intercepts. The x-intercepts are -2, -1, 2, 3.
9 Sketch the graph of the quartic. y
12
-2 -10 2 3 x

remember
Quartic graphs y
1. General equation is y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e.
2. Basic shape of quartic graphs:
b c 0d ex
(a) If a > 0:
y = a(x - b)(x - c)(x - d)(x - e)
y y y
b 0 c x
b 0 c x
0 x
y = ax4 + cx2, c ≥ 0 y = ax2(x - b)(x - c) y = a(x - b)(x - c)3

(b) If a < 0, then the reflection in the x-axis of the types of graph in the figures above is
obtained.
Exercise
20d Quartic functions
Understanding
1 WE 12 Sketch the graph of each of the following showing all intercepts. You may like to verify
the shape of the graph using a graphics calculator.
a y = (x - 2)(x + 3)(x - 4)(x + 1)
b y = (x2 - 1)(x + 2)(x - 5)
c y = 2x4 + 6x3 - 16x2 - 24x + 32
d y = x4 + 4x3 - 11x2 - 30x
e y = x4 + 4x3 - 12x - 9
f y = x4 - 4x2 + 4
g y = 30x - 37x2 + 15x3 - 2x4
h y = 6x4 + 11x3 - 37x2 - 36x + 36
2 MC Consider the function f (x) = x4 - 8x2 + 16.
a When factorised, f (x) is equal to:
A (x + 2)(x - 2)(x - 1)(x + 4) B (x + 3)(x - 2)(x - 1)(x + 1)
C (x - 2)3(x + 2) D (x - 2)2(x + 2)2
b The graph of f ( x) is best represented by:
A y B y
x 16
-2 0 2
-16 -2 0 2 x
C y D y
16
4
-2 0 2 x 0 x
-2 2

reasoning
3 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
a y = x(x - 1)3
b y = (2 - x)(x2 - 4)(x + 3)
c y = x4 - x2
d y = 9x4 - 30x3 + 13x2 + 20x + 4
e y = -(x - 2)2(x + 1)2
f y = x4 - 6x2 - 27
g y = (x + 2)3(x - 3)
h y = 4x2 - x4
Verify your answers using a graphics calculator.
4 The function f (x) = x4 + ax3 - 4x2 + bx + 6 has
x-intercepts (2, 0) and (-3, 0). Find the values reFleCtion
eBook plus of a and b. What are the basic differences
Digital doc 5 The functions y = (a - 2b)x4 - 3x - 2 and between cubic and quartic
WorkSHEET 20.3 y = x4 - x3 + (a + 5b)x2 - 5x + 7 both have an x-intercept functions?
doc-5389 of 1. Find the value of a and b.
20e transformations
■ Once the basic shape of the graph of a particular function is known, it is not difficult to
eBook plus
predict the shape of a related function, which is a transformation of the basic function.
Interactivity Transformations of parabolas have been dealt with previously, but for the sake of comparison
Polynomial
with other functions, it will be included in this chapter. Other functions considered are circles,
transformations
int-2794 hyperbolas, exponential functions, cubic and quartic functions. This is essentially a summary
of transformations of functions discussed previously.
quadratic functions
■ The basic quadratic function is y = x2. The shape of its graph is:
y = x2
(0, 0) x
Vertical translation
■ Adding or subtracting a constant to y = x2 moves the curve up or down the y-axis.
y
y = x2 + 2 y y = x2
y = x2 y = x2 - 3
x
(0, 2)
x
(0, -3)

Horizontal translation
■■ If the graph of y = x2 is translated b units horizontally, the equation becomes y = (x - b)2.
y
y y = (x + 1)2
y = x2
y = x2
y = (x - 2)2 (0, 1)
(0, 4)
x (-1, 0) x
(2, 0)
Dilation
■■ If the graph of y = x2 is dilated by factor a, the graph becomes narrower if a >1 and wider if
0 < a < 1.
y y y = 1–4 x2
y = 2x2
y = x2 y = x2
(0, 0) x (0, 0) x
Reflection
■■ If the x2 term is positive, the graph is concave up, y
y = x2
while if there is a negative sign in front of the x2
term, the graph is concave down.
x
(0, 0)
y = -x2
Circles
■■ The equation of a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r is y
x2 + y2 = r2. P(x, y)
r y
x x
Translation
■■ If the circle is translated b units to the right, y
y P(x, y)
parallel to the x-axis, and k units upwards,
(y - k)
parallel to the y-axis, the equation of the circle, k
centre (h, k) becomes (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r2. (x - h)
h x x

Hyperbolas
k
■■ The hyperbola is a function of the form xy = k or y = .
x
1
■■ The graph of y = has the shape
x
y
2 y = —1x
1
-3 -2 -1
0 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
Dilation
k 1
Graphs of the form y = are the same basic shape as y = , with y-values dilated by a factor
of k. x x
8 y = —4x
4
-2 -1
0 1 2 x
-4
-8
Negative values of k
■■ Negative values of k cause the graph to be reflected across the y-axis.
y
6
-
3 y = —x3
1 2 3
-3 -2 -1 0 x
-3
-6
Exponential functions
■■ These functions are of the form y = ax, where a ò 1. The basic shape has a y-intercept of 1.
y
y = 2x
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x

Functions for the form y = k ì ax

■■ Multiplying by a factor of k causes the y-intercept to move to the point (0, k).
y
24
22
20 y = 3 ì 2x
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
y=0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
Functions with a negative exponent

■■ This causes the graph to be reflected in the y-axis.
y
28
y = 3-x 26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4 y=1 y=0
2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
Cubic functions
■■ The basic form of a cubic function is y = x3. This can also be expressed in the form
y = a(x − b)3 + c, where a = 1, b = 0 and c = 0.
y y = x3
Translation y
■■ If a ò 1, b ò 0 and c ò 0, the graph is translated y = a(x - b)3 + c
+b units in the x direction, +c units in the y direction,
and dilated by a factor of a in the y direction.
(b, c)
x

Reflection
■■ The cubic function can be expressed in factor form as y = a(x - b)(x - c)(x - d), where b, c
and d are the x-intercepts. If the value of a is negative, this causes the curve to be reflected in
the x-axis.
y
y = a(x - b)(x - c)(x - d) y = -(x + 2)(x - 1)(x - 3)
where a > 0 y
-2 1 3 x
b c d
x
Quartic functions
■■ The basic form of the quartic function y = ax4, when a is y
positive, has the following shape.
y = ax4
where a > 0
0 x
Reflection
■■ Negative values of a cause the graph to be reflected y
in the x-axis.
0 x
y = -x 4
Transformation in general polynomials

■■ With knowledge of the transformations which occur in the functions just discussed, it is
possible to generate many other graphs without knowing the equation of the original function.
Consider a basic polynomial y = P(x) and what happens to the shape of the curve as the
function is changed.
Worked Example 13
Use the sketch of y = P(x) shown at right to sketch: y

a y = P(x) + 1
b y = P(x) - 1
c y = -P(x)
0 x
y = P(x)

Think Write/draw
a 1 Sketch the original y = P(x). a y
2 Consider the x-values. They remain

unchanged — there is no horizontal
translation.
0 x
y = P(x)
3 Consider the y-values. They are increased y

by 1 — the curve is shifted up 1 unit.
1
0 x
y = P(x) + 1
4 Sketch the graph of y = P(x) + 1 using a

similar scale to the original.
b 1 Sketch the original y = P(x). b y

translation.
0 x
y = P(x)
3 Consider the y-values. They are decreased y

by 1 — the curve is shifted down 1 unit.
0 x
-1
y = P(x) - 1
4 Sketch the graph of y = P(x) - 1 using a


c 1 Sketch the original y = P(x). c y

translation.
0 x
y = P(x)
3 Consider the y-values. They will all y

change sign — the curve will be reflected y = -P(x)
in the x-axis. That is, negative becomes
positive and positive becomes negative.
0 x
4 Sketch the graph of y = -P(x) using a

remember
To sketch general polynomials:

1. sketch the original curve
2. examine the changes in the x-values
3. examine the changes in the y-values
4. draw the final sketch using a similar scale.
Exercise
20e Transformations
Understanding
1 WE 13 Use the sketch of y = P(x) shown at right to sketch: y y = P(x)
a y = P(x) + 1
b y = P(x) - 2
c y = -P(x)
d y = 2P(x) 0 x
2 Consider the sketch of y = P(x). Sketch: y y = P(x)

a y = P(x) + 1
b y = -P(x)
c y = P(x + 2)
0 1 x

Reasoning
3 Draw any polynomial y = P(x). Discuss the similarities and differences between the graphs of
y = P(x) and y = -P(x).
y = P(x) and y = 2P(x).
y = P(x) and y = P(x) - 2.
6 Consider the sketch of y = P(x).
Give a possible equation for each of the following in terms of y
P(x).
0 x
-1
y = P(x)
a y b y c y
1
0 x
0 x 0 x
-2
-3
-4
reflection  
Why is it important to understand

how transformations can affect
the shape of a graph?

Summary
Functions and relations
■■ A function is a relation so that for any x-value there is at most one y-value (one-to-one or
many-to-one relations). y y
■■ Vertical line test: The graph of a function
cannot be crossed more than once by any
vertical line.
0 x
■■ f (x) = . . . is used to describe ‘a function of
x’. To evaluate the function, for example 0 x
when x = 2, find f (2) by replacing each
occurrence of x on the RHS with 2. Function Not a function
■■ Substitute appropriate x values to describe what happens to functions as x ç Ñ (x approaches
infinity) or x ç 0 (x approaches zero).
■■ To find points of intersection, solve function equations simultaneously to find both x and y values.
Exponential functions
In the function y = kax:
■■ k represents the initial amount or quantity
■■ a is the base.
If a > 1, the function represents exponential growth.
If 0 < a < 1, it represents exponential decay.
■■ To find the value of a:
(a) in the case of exponential growth, add the % increase to 100% and change the resulting
percentage into a decimal
(b) in the case of exponential decay, subtract the % decrease from 100% and change the
resulting percentage into a decimal.
Cubic functions
To sketch a cubic function: y
■■ find the y-intercept (let x = 0)
■■ find the x-intercepts (let y = 0)
20
y = (x +1)(2x - 5)(x - 4)
■■ use all available information to sketch the graph.
-1 5– 4 x
2
Quartic functions
Quartic graphs y
■■ General equation is y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e.
■■ Basic shape of quartic graphs:
b c 0d ex
(a) If a > 0:
y = a(x - b)(x - c)(x - d)(x - e)
y y y
b 0 c x
b 0 c x
0 x
y= ax4 + cx2, c≥0 y = ax2(x - b)(x - c) y = a(x - b)(x - c)3
(b) If a < 0, then the reflection in the x-axis of the types of graph in the figures above is
obtained.

Transformations
To sketch general polynomials:
■■ sketch the original curve
■■ examine the changes in the x-values
■■ examine the changes in the y-values
■■ draw the final sketch using a similar scale.

Using terms from the summary above, and other terms if you wish, construct a concept map
that illustrates your understanding of the key concepts covered in this chapter. Compare
your concept map with the one that you created in What do you know? on page 663.

Chapter review
Fluency 8 MC Which of the following shows the graph of
y = -2(x + 5)3 - 12?
1 Which of the following are functions?
y y A y B y
a b
x
(-5, 12)
(-5, -12)
0 x 0 x
x
2 Which of the following are functions? C y D y

(5, 12)
a y = 2x - 7
x
b x2 + y2 = 30
c y = 2x (5, -12) x
1
d y =
x +1
9 Sketch:
3 If f ( x ) = 4 − x 2 , find: a y = x(x - 2)(x + 11)
a f (0) b y = x3 + 6x2 - 15x + 8
b f (1) c y = -2x3 + x2
c f (2)
10 MC The rule for the graph shown below could be:
4 Sketch each of the following curves, showing all y
intercepts. f(x)
a y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x - 3)
b y = (2x + 1)(x + 5)2
5 Give an example of the equation of a cubic that 0 x
2
would just touch the x-axis and cross it at another
point.
6 Match each equation with its type of curve.
a y = x2 + 2 A circle A f (x) = x(x + 2)3 B f (x) = -x(x - 2)2
b x2 + y2 = 9 B cubic C f (x) = x2(x - 2)2 D f (x) = x(x - 2)3
2 11 MC The graph of y = (x + 3)2(x - 1)(x - 3) is best
c f ( x ) = C exponential
x+2 represented by:
d g(x) = 6-x D parabola A b
e h(x) = (x + 1)(x - 3)(x + 5) E hyperbola y y
7 MC The equation for this graph could be:

y 0 x
-3 1 3
0 x
-3 1 3
c d
y y
-3 -1 5 x
A y = (x - 5)(x + 1)(x + 3) x x
-3 0 1 3 -3 0 1 3
B y = (x - 3)(x - 1)(x + 5)
C y = (x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 5)
D y = (5 - x)(1 + x)(3 + x)

12 Sketch the graph of y = x4 - 7x3 + 12x2 + 4x - 16, d Determine the rule for this increase in
showing all intercepts. temperature.
13 Consider the sketch of y = P(x) shown at right. e If the stove is left on, what would the predicted
Sketch y = -P(x). temperature be in 6 hours?
y 6 The number of hyenas, H, in the zoo is given by
H = 20(100.1t ), where t is the number of years since
counting started. At the same time, the number of
dingoes, D, is given by D = 25(100.05t ).
0 x a Calculate the number of:
-1 1
i hyenas
ii dingoes
14 Draw any polynomial y = P(x). Discuss the when counting began.
similarities and differences between the graphs of b Calculate the numbers of each after:
y = P(x) and y = P(x) + 3. i 1 year
ii 18 months.
problem solVing c Which of the animals is the first to reach a
population of 40 and by how long?
1 Find the value(s) of x for which: d After how many months are the populations
a f (x) = x2 + 7 and f (x) = 16 equal and what is this population?
1
b g( x ) = and g(x) = 3 7 The temperature in a green house is monitored
x −2 when the door is left open. The following
c h( x ) = 8 + x and h(x) = 6 measurements are taken.
2 Describe what happens to f (x) = -2x as x ç Ñ and
Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20
x ç - Ñ.
3 Find any points of intersection between
f (x) = x2 - 4 and g(x) = x3 + x2 - 12 a Determine an exponential equation to fit the
4 The concentration of alcohol (mg/L) in a bottle of collected data.
champagne is modelled by C = C0 ì 0.33kt where b State the initial temperature of the green house.
t represents the time in days after the bottle is c What will the temperature be after 30 minutes?
opened. If the initial concentration is 80 mg/L and It is discovered that one of the temperature
the concentration after 1 day is 70 mg/L, find the readings is incorrect.
concentration remaining after: d Recalculate all the temperatures using the
a 3 days exponential rule found in part a.
b 1 week e If the original incorrect temperature was
c 18 hours. omitted from the data, does this change
the rule?
5 A hot plate used as a camping stove is cooling
f Will the temperature ever reach 0 èC? Explain.
down. The formula which describes this cooling
pattern is T = 500 ì 0.5t where T is the temperature
in degrees Celsius and t is the time in hours.
a What is the initial temperature of the stove?
b What is the temperature of the stove after
2 hours? eBook plus
c Decide when the stove will be cool enough to
Interactivities
touch and give reasons. Test yourself Chapter 20
A second camp stove is set up and turned on. Its int-2879
heating temperature is measured and listed below. Word search Chapter 20
int-2877
Time (hours) 0 1 2 3 4 Crossword Chapter 20
Temperature (èC) 50 100 200 400 800 int-2878

Are you ready? • SkillSHEET 20.9 (doc-5387): Decreasing a quantity
Digital docs (page 664) by a percentage (page 676)
• SkillSHEET 20.1 (doc-5378): Finding the gradient • WorkSHEET 20.2 (doc-5388): Exponential growth
and y-intercept and decay (page 678)
• SkillSHEET 20.2 (doc-5379): Sketching straight 20D Quartic functions
lines
Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 20.3 (doc-5380): Sketching parabolas
• SkillSHEET 20.4 (doc-5381): Completing the • WorkSHEET 20.3 (doc-5389): Cubic and quartic
square functions (page 686)
• SkillSHEET 20.5 (doc-5382): Identifying equations 20E Transformations
of straight lines and parabolas
Interactivity
• SkillSHEET 20.6 (doc-5383): Finding points of
intersection • Polynomial transformations (int-2794) (page 686)
• SkillSHEET 20.7 (doc-5384): Substitution into index Chapter review
expressions Interactivities (page 697)
20A Functions and relations • Test yourself Chapter 20 (int-2879): Take the end-of-
Digital doc
chapter test to test your progress
• WorkSHEET 20.1 (doc-5385): Functions and • Word search Chapter 20 (int-2877): an interactive
relations (page 671) word search involving words associated with this
chapter
20B Exponential functions • Crossword Chapter 20 (int-2878): an interactive
eLesson
• Exponential growth (eles-0176) (page 671) chapter
Digital docs To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
• SkillSHEET 20.8 (doc-5386): Converting a
percentage to a decimal (page 676) www.jacplus.com.au

measurement AND geometry • Geometric reasoning
21
21A Angles in a circle
21B Intersecting chords, secants and
tangents
21C Cyclic quadrilaterals
21D Tangents, secants and chords
What do you know ?

1 List what you know about circle
geometry. Create a concept map to show
Circle your list.

geometry 3 As a class, create a large concept map

circle geometry.
opening question
How does an understanding of shapes

and angles help us design the most
effective sails for yachts?
measurement and geometry • geometric reasoning
are you ready?

eBook plus Using tests to prove congruent triangles

1 a True or false? Congruent triangles are identical triangles in every way. A
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 21.1
b State four tests that can be used to prove congruent triangles.
doc-5390 c Prove that DABC ô DADC, giving reasons.
B D
C
eBook plus Corresponding sides and angles of congruent triangles

2 The two triangles below are congruent.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 21.2 A Q
doc-5391
P
B
C R
Triangle 1 Triangle 2
a Which side in triangle 2 corresponds to side AB in triangle 1?

b Which side in triangle 1 corresponds to side PQ in triangle 2?
c Name the angle in triangle 2 that corresponds to ±ACB in triangle 1.
d Name the angle in triangle 1 that corresponds to ±PRQ in triangle 2.
eBook plus Using tests to prove similar triangles

3 a True or false? Similar triangles have equal angles and sides. P
Digital doc
b State four tests than can be used to prove similar triangles.
SkillSHEET 21.3
doc-5392 c Prove that DPQR ~ DPST, giving reasons.
Q R
S T
eBook plus Angles in a triangle

4 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles.
Digital doc
a a b c
SkillSHEET 21.4 b
doc-5393 55è
43è 53è
c 130è
46è
eBook plus More angle relations

5 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.
Digital doc
a b c
SkillSHEET 21.5
doc-5394 77è
b 31è
x a 140è y
28è
49è 95è
700 maths quest 10 + 10a for the australian curriculum

21a angles in a circle

eBook plus introduction
Interactivity
■ In circle geometry, there are many theorems that can be used to solve problems. It is
Angles in a important that we are also able to prove these theorems.
circle ■ To prove a theorem is true:
int-2795
1. state the aim of the proof
2. use given information and previously established theorems to establish the result
eBook plus 3. give a reason for each step of the proof
4. state a clear conclusion.
Digital docs ■ In proving circle geometry theorems, the most useful tool is to be able to prove both
SkillSHEET 21.1
doc-5390 congruent and similar triangles. The SkillSHEETs may assist you in revising these concepts.
SkillSHEET 21.2 ■ You may also need to construct new lines on the diagram. By convention, we will use the
doc-5391 letter O to represent the centre of the circles.
SkillSHEET 21.3 ■ In this chapter we will prove and then use 14 different theorems.
doc-5392
■ First, let’s recall the definitions for various parts of a circle.
parts of a circle
Part (name) Description Diagram
Centre The middle point, equidistant from all points on

the circumference. It is usually shown by a dot
and labelled O. O
Circumference The outside length or the boundary forming the

circle. It is the circle’s perimeter.
O
Radius A straight line from the centre to any point on the

circumference.
O
Diameter A straight line from one point on the

circumference to another, passing through the
centre. O
Chord A straight line from one point on the

circumference to another.
O
(continued)
chapter 21 circle geometry 701

Part (name) Description Diagram
Segment The area of the circle between a chord and the

circumference. The smaller segment is called
the minor segment and the larger segment is the O
major segment.
Sector An area of a circle enclosed by 2 radii and the

circumference.
O
Arc A portion of the circumference.
Tangent A straight line that touches the circumference at

one point only.
O
Secant A chord extended beyond the circumference on

one side.
O

Angles in a circle C
■■ In the diagram at right, chords AC and BC form the angle ACB.

We say that arc AB has subtended angle ACB.
■■ Theorem 1 Code A B
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice

the angle subtended at the circumference, standing on the same arc.
R
Proof:
Let ±PRO = x and ±QRO = y
O
RO = PO = QO (radii of the same Q
circle are equal) P
±RPO = x
and ±RQO = y R
±POM = 2x (exterior angle of triangle)
and ±QOM = 2y (exterior angle of triangle) xy
±POQ = 2x + 2y O Q
= 2(x + y) P M
which is twice the size of ±PRQ = x + y.
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle is twice the angle subtended at the
circumference, standing on the same arc.
■■ Theorem 2 Code
R
All angles that have their vertex on the circumference
and are subtended by the same arc are equal. S
O
Proof:
Q
Join P and Q to O, the centre of the circle. P Q P
Let ±PSQ = x
±POQ = 2x (angle at the centre is twice
the angle at the circumference)
±PRQ = x (angle at the circumference is half the angle of the centre)
±PSQ = ±PRQ.
Angles at the circumference subtended by the same arc are equal.
The application of the first two circle geometry theorems can be seen in the following
worked example.
Worked Example 1
Find the values of the pronumerals in the diagram at right, x

46è
giving reasons for your answers. O
y
Think Write
1 Angles x and 46è are angles subtended by the x = 46è

same arc and both have their vertex on the
circumference.
2 Angles y and 46è stand on the same arc. The 46è y = 2 ì 46è
angle has its vertex on the circumference and y has = 92è
its vertex at the centre. The angle at the centre is
twice the angle at the circumference.
Chapter 21 Circle geometry 703

Angles subtended by the diameter, that is, angles in a semicircle, are right angles.
In the diagram at right, PQ is the diameter. Angles a, b
c b
and c are right angles. This theorem is in fact a special
case of Theorem 1. Q
P O
Proof: a
±POQ = 180è (straight line)
Let S refer to the angle at the circumference subtended by the diameter. In the figure, S
could be at the points where a, b and c are represented on the diagram.
±PSQ = 90è (angle at the circumference is half the angle at the centre)
Angles subtended by a diameter are right angles.
Constructing a tangent
There are a number of ways to construct a tangent to a circle. One of the techniques is outlined
below.
1. Draw a circle of radius 5 cm and centre O.
2. Draw a radius.
3. Call the point of intersection of the radius and the circumference, P.
4. Extend this radius through P to the point Q, 5 cm outside the circle.
5. Using O and Q as centres, draw intersecting arcs above and below the line OQ.
6. Draw a straight line joining the points of intersection. This line is the tangent.
7. What do you notice about the angle between OQ and the tangent?
8. Investigate another technique for constructing a tangent to a circle.
9. Write a set of instructions for this method of constructing a tangent.
O P Q
If a radius is drawn to any point on the circumference and a tangent is
drawn at the same point, then the radius will be perpendicular to the
tangent. O P
In the diagram at right, the radius is drawn to a point, P, on the
circumference. The tangent to the circle is also drawn at P. The radius and
the tangent meet at right angles, that is, the angle at P equals 90è.
Worked Example 2
Find the values of the pronumerals in the diagram at right, z

giving a reason for your answer. s
O
Think Write
1 Angle z is subtended by the diameter. Use an z = 90è

appropriate theorem to state the value of z.
2 Angle s is formed by a tangent and a radius, drawn s = 90è
to the point of contact. Apply the corresponding
theorem to find the value of s.

The angle formed by two tangents meeting at an external point is bisected by a straight
line joining the centre of the circle to that external point.
Proof:
R
O S
Consider DSOR and DSOT.

OR = OT (radii of the same circle are equal)
OS is common.
±ORS = ±OTS = 90è (angle between a tangent and radii is 90è)
\ DSOR @ DSOT (RHS)
So ±ROS = ±TOS and ±OSR = ±OST (corresponding angles in congruent triangles
are equal)
The angle formed by two tangents meeting at an external point is bisected by a straight
line joining the centre of the circle to the external point.
Worked Example 3
Given that BA and BC are tangents to the circle, find the values of the A
pronumerals in the diagram at right. Give reasons for your answers. r
O 68è t
u B
q
s
C
Think Write
1 Angles r and s are angles formed by the tangent s = r = 90è

and the radius, drawn to the same point on the
circle. State their size.
2 In the triangle ABO, two angles are already known DABO: t + 90è + 68è = 180è
and so angle t can be found using our knowledge t + 158è = 180è
of the sum of angles in a triangle. t = 22è
3 ±ABC is formed by the two tangents, so the line ±ABO = ±CBO
BO, joining the vertex B with the centre of the ±ABO = t = 22è, ±CBO = u
circle, bisects this angle. This means that angles t u = 22è
and u are equal.
4 AOB and COB are similar triangles. In AOB and COB
r + t + 68è = 180è
s + u + q = 180è
r = s = 90è (proved previously)
t = u = 22è (proved previously)
\ q = 68è

remember
1. An angle with its vertex at the centre of the circle is twice the size of an angle
subtended by the same arc, but with the vertex at the circumference.
2. Angles with their vertices on the circumference, subtended by the same arc, are
equal.
3. Angles subtended by the diameter are right angles.
4. A tangent and a radius, drawn to the same point on a circle, meet at a 90è angle.
5. An angle formed by two tangents is bisected by the line joining the vertex of that angle
to the centre of the circle.
exercise
21a angles in a circle
Note: It is acceptable to use a code as a reason for a statement in geometric proofs.
Fluency
eBook plus 1 We1 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following, giving reasons for your
answers.
Digital doc a b c
30è P Q
SkillSHEET 21.4 S
doc-5393 x 32è
x 25è y R x
A B
eBook plus d e f A
x
Digital doc 30è
40è y •O
SkillSHEET 21.5 x 80è O x
•
doc-5394
A B B
g h i B
O 50è O• x 28è
42è x• x A •
A
y O
B
2 We2 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following figures, giving reasons for
your answers.
a b c
t m n
u
•
s • • •
r
d e f
38è O
• x • x
75è • O
x
y

understanding
3 WE 3 Given that AB and DB are tangents, find the value of the pronumerals in each of the
following, giving reasons for your answers.
a A b A
x r
y
O • 70è w B B 40è t O
•
z s
D D
c A d
O
y 20è
•
O• z x B A s 70è x y B
rz
D
e D f A
D 15è x z
yO
•
20è
B
y z B
A x
•

In the diagram at right, which angle is subtended by the D
same arc as ±APB? P
A ±APC
b ±BPC A
c ±ABP
C
d ±ADB B
B C
Referring to the diagram at right, which of the statements is true?
A 2±AOD = ±ABD F
b ±AOD = 2±ACD
O
c ±ABF = ±ABD
d ±ABD = ±ACD A D
Reasoning
6 Values are suggested for the pronumerals in the diagram
below. AB is a tangent to a circle and O is the centre. In A
rs
each case give reasons to justify suggested values. B
25è
a s = t = 45è
b r = 45è t O
C m
c u = 65è u
D n
d m = 25è F
e n = 45è

7 Set out below is the proof of this result: The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at
the circumference standing on the same arc.
R
a
O
b
P Q
Copy and complete the following to show that ±POQ = 2 ì ±PRQ.

Construct a diameter through R. Let the opposite end of the diameter be S.
x R y Let ±ORP = x and ±ORQ = y.
OR = OP (____________________)
O
±OPR = x (____________________)
±SOP = 2x (exterior angle equals ____________________)
OR = OQ (____________________)
P Q
S ±OQR = __________ (____________________)
±SOQ = __________ (____________________)
Now ±PRQ = __________ and ±POQ = __________.
Therefore ±POQ = 2 ì ±PRQ.
8 Prove that the segments formed by drawing tangents from an external point to a circle are
equal in length.
9 Prove that an angle formed by two tangents is bisected by the line joining the vertex of that
angle to the centre of the circle.
10 Use the figure drawn below to prove that angles subtended by the same arc are equal.
eBook plus R S
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 21.1
doc-5395
reFlection
O
What are the common steps in proving a theorem?
P Q
21b intersecting chords, secants and

tangents
intersecting chords
In the diagram below, chords PQ and RS intersect at X.
P
S
X
R Q
1. Measure lengths PX, QX, RX and SX and complete the table below.
Line segment PX QX RX SX
Length
2. Calculate the following: PX ì QX and RX ì SX
3. What do you notice about the results in step 2 above?
4. Draw another circle and a pair of intersecting chords and repeat steps 1 to 3 above.

The results of this activity can be generalised for any circle as follows.
If the two chords intersect inside a circle, then the point of intersection P
divides each chord into two segments so that the product of the lengths
a
of the segments for both chords is the same. d S
PX ì QX = RX ì SX or a ì b = c ì d c X b
Proof: R Q
Join PR and SQ.
Consider DPRX and DSQX.
±PXR = ±SXQ (vertically opposite angles are equal)
±RSQ = ±RPQ (angles at the circumference standing on the same arc are equal)
±PRS = ±PQS (angles at the circumference standing on the same arc are equal)
DPRX ~ DSQX (equiangular)
PX RX
= (ratio of sides in similar triangles is equal)
SX QX
or PX ì QX = RX ì SX
Worked Example 4
Find the value of the pronumeral.

A
4 5 D
6 X
C m
Think Write
1 Chords AB and CD intersect at X. Point X divides AX ì BX = CX ì DX

each chord into two parts so that the products of
the lengths of these parts are equal. Write this as a
mathematical statement.
2 Identify the lengths of the line segments. AX = 4, BX = m, CX = 6, DX = 5
3 Substitute the given lengths into the formula and 4m = 6 ì 5
solve for m. 30
m=
4
= 7.5
Intersecting secants
In the diagram below, chords CD and AB are extended to form secants CX and AX respectively.
They intersect at X.
Measure lengths AX, XB, XC and DX and calculate the products AX ì XB and XC ì DX.
What do you notice?
C
D
X
B A

Your observation from the activity above can be generalised as follows.

■■ Theorem 7 Code C
If two secants intersect outside the circle as shown, then c
D
the following relationship is always true: d
X b
AX ì XB = XC ì DX or a ì b = c ì d. B A
a
Proof:
Join D and A to O, the centre of the circle.
C
Let ±DCA = x.
±DOA = 2x (angle at the centre is twice the angle D
at the circumference standing on the O
same arc) X A
B
Reflex ±DOA = 360è - 2x (angles in a revolution add
to 360è)
±DBA = 180è - x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference standing
on the same arc)
±DBX = x (angle sum of a straight line is 180è)
±DCA = ±DBX
Consider DBXD and DCXA.
±BXD is common.
±DCA = ±DBX (shown previously)
±XAC = ±XDB (angle sum of a triangle is 180è)
DAXC ~ DDXB (equiangular)
AX XC
=
DX XB
or AX ì XB = XC ì DX
Worked Example 5
C
y
D
A
6 5
B
7
X
Think Write
1 Secants XC and AX intersect outside the circle at XC ì DX = AX ì XB

X. Write the rule connecting the lengths of XC,
DX, AX and XB.
2 State the length of the required line segments. XC = y + 6 DX = 6
AX = 7 + 5 XB = 7
= 12
3 Substitute the length of the line segments and (y + 6) ì 6 = 12 ì 7
solve the equation for y. 6y + 36 = 84
6y = 48
y=8

Intersecting tangents
■■ In the diagram below right, tangents AC and BC intersect at C and AC = BC.
If two tangents meet outside a circle, then the lengths from A
the external point to where they meet the circle are equal.
Proof: C
Join A and B to O, the centre of the circle.
Consider DOCA and DOCB. B
OC is common.
OA = OB (radii of the same circle are equal) A
±OAC = ±OBC (radius is perpendicular to tangent through
the point of contact) C O
DOCA @ DOCB (RHS)
AC = BC (corresponding sides of congruent
B
triangles are equal).
If two tangents meet outside a circle, the lengths from the
external point to the point of contact are equal.
Worked Example 6
B
3
C
m
A
Think Write
1 BC and AC are tangents intersecting at C. State the AC = BC

rule that connects the lengths BC and AC.
2 State the lengths of BC and AC. AC = m, BC = 3
3 Substitute the required lengths into the equation to m=3
find the value of m.
Chords and radii

■■ In the diagram below, the chord AB and the radius OC intersect at X at 90è; that is,
±OXB = 90è. OC bisects the chord AB; that is, AX = XB.
A B
X
C

If a radius and a chord intersect at right angles, then the radius bisects the chord.
Proof:
A B
X
C
Join OA and OB.

Consider DOAX and DOBX.
OA = OB (radii of the same circle are equal)
±OXB = ±OXA (given)
OX is common.
DOAX @ DOBX (RHS)
AX = BX (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal)
If a radius and a chord intersect at right angles, then the radius bisects the chord.
■■ The converse is also true:
If a radius bisects a chord, the radius and the chord meet at right angles.
■■ Theorem 10 M P
Chords equal in length are equidistant from the centre. B
This theorem states that if the chords MN and PR are of equal length, C
A
then OD = OC. D O
R
Proof: N
M P
B
C
A
D O
R
N
Construct OA ^ MN and OB ^ PR.

Then OA bisects MN and OB bisects PR (Theorem 9)
Because MN = PR, MD = DN = PC = CR.
Construct OM and OP, and consider DODM and DOCP.
MD = PC (shown above)
OM = OP (radii of the same circle are equal)
±ODM = ±OCP = 90è (by construction)
DODM @ DOCP (RHS)
So OD = OC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are equal)
Chords equal in length are equidistant from the centre.
Worked Example 7
Find the values of the pronumerals, given that AB = CD. G

A E
m 3 B
n
O
2.5
F D
C
H

Think Write
1 Since the radius OG is perpendicular to the chord AB, the AE = EB

radius bisects the chord.
2 State the lengths of AE and EB. AE = m, EB = 3
3 Substitute the lengths into the equation to find the value of m. m=3
4 AB and CD are chords of equal length and OE and OF are OE = OF
perpendicular to these chords. This implies that OE and OF
are equal in length.
5 State the lengths of OE and OF. OE = n, OF = 2.5
6 Substitute the lengths into the equation to find the value of n. n = 2.5
remember
1. Code 2. Code
P C
D
S X
B A
X
R Q
AX ì XB = XC ì DX
PX ì QX = RX ì SX
3. Code 4. Code
A If OC ^ AB,
AX = XB.
O
C
A B
X
B C
AC = BC
5. Code
P If MN = PR,
M then OD = OC.
B
C
A
D O
R
N
Exercise
21b Intersecting chords, secants and tangents
Fluency
1 WE 4 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following.

a A D b C c C
m 4
A 6 A m
6 X 9 2
X B 4 X
C 8 m 9
B D m
D B


a b
4
2
m 4.5
3
n
5 6
c d
8 5
4 6
n 3
7
m
3 WE 6 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following.

a b c x
5
7 3.1
x 2.5 y
m

a b
3.3 x
2.8
O
x O
c d
m
5.6 2.5 2.5 x O
O
understanding

In which of the following figures is it possible to find the value of m through solving a linear
equation?
a b
7 7
2 2
5 m m 3
c d
m
4 m
4 2
2
3 1

6 Find the length, ST, in the diagram below.

Q 5 cm
R 4 cm
S
9 cm T
P
Reasoning
7 Prove the result: If a radius bisects a chord, then the radius meets the chord at right angles.
Remember to provide reasons for your statements.
8 Prove the result: Chords that are an equal distance from the centre are equal in length. Provide
reasons for your statements.
reflection  
9 Prove that the line joining the centres of two intersecting
circles bisects their common chord at right angles. What techniques will you use
Provide reasons for your statements. to prove circle theorems?
21c Cyclic quadrilaterals

Quadrilaterals in circles
1. Construct a circle of radius 10 cm.
2. Mark points A, B, C and D on different points on the circumference.
3. Join points A and B, B and C, C and D and A and D by straight lines to B
construct a quadrilateral. A
4. Accurately measure the interior angles at points A, B, C and D.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for another circle. C
6. What is the relationship between
D
(a) ±ABC and ±ADC
(b) ±BAD and ±BCD?
7. In each circle, extend AD to form an exterior angle at A and measure the exterior angle. What
is the relationship between this exterior angle at A and ±BCD?
■■ A cyclic quadrilateral has all four vertices on the circumference of a B
circle; that is, the quadrilateral is inscribed in the circle. A
In the diagram at right, points A, B, C and D lie on the circumference;
C
hence, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
It can also be said that points A, B, C and D are concyclic; that is, the D
circle passes through all the points.
The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (add to 180è).
Proof:
B
Join A and C to O, the centre of the circle. A
Let ±ABC = x.
Reflex ±AOC = 2x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the O C
circumference standing on the same arc)
Reflex ±AOC = 360è - 2x (angles in a revolution add to 360è) D
±ADC = 180è - x (angle at the centre is twice the angle at the
circumference standing on the same arc)
±ABC + ±ADC = 180è
Similarly, ±DAB + ±DCB = 180è.
Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
■■ The converse is also true:
If opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.

Worked Example 8
Find the values of the pronumerals in the diagram at right. Q

Give reasons for your answers. P 120è 75è
y R
x
S
Think Write
1 PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral, so its opposite ±PQR + ±RSP = 180è (the opposite angles of
angles are supplementary. First find the value of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.)
x by considering a pair of opposite angles ±PQR ±PQR = 75è, ±RSP = x
and ±RSP and forming an equation to solve. x + 75è = 180è
x = 105è
2 Find the value of y by considering the other pair of ±SPQ + ±QRS = 180è
opposite angles (±SPQ and ±QRS). ±SPQ = 120è, ±QRS = y
y + 120è = 180è
y = 60è

The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.
Proof:
Q
P
b
T a
a R
±QPS + ±QRS = 180è (opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral)

±QPS + ±SPT = 180è (adjacent angles on a straight line)
Therefore ±SPT = ±QRS.
The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.
Worked Example 9
Find the value of the pronumerals in the diagram at right. A

50è
D y B
100è
C x
Think Write
1 ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. The exterior angle, x = ±DAB, ±DAB = 50è

x, is equal to its interior opposite angle, ±DAB. So x = 50è.
2 The exterior angle, 100è, is equal to its interior ±ADC = 100è, ±ADC = y
opposite angle, ±ADC. So y = 100è.

remember
1. A cyclic quadrilateral has all four of its vertices on the circumference of a circle.
2. Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
3. The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.
exercise
21c cyclic quadrilaterals
Fluency
1 We8 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.

eBook plus
a b c n
Digital doc 65è
m
SkillSHEET 21.6 92è 95è
doc-5396
y 155è
x
d e f y
x
135è
O
O
50è x y 85è
x
2 We9 Find the values of the pronumerals in each of the following.

a b y c
80è x 95è
x
y
85è x
115è
110è
d e f
x 120è 130è
x
150è 120è
y
n m
3 mc Note: There may be more than one correct answer.

Which of the following correctly states the relationship between x, y
and z in the diagram shown? x
A x = y and x = 2z O
B x = 2y and y + z = 180è z
C z = 2x and y = 2z
y
D x + y = 180è and z = 2x

understanding
4 The steps below show you how to set out the proof that the opposite
A B
angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are equal. x
a Find the size of ±DOB. O
b Find the size of the reflex angle DOB.
c Find the size of ±BCD. C
d Find ±DAB + ±BCD. D
5 mc Note: There may be more than one correct answer.
q r
t p s
a Which of the following statements is always true for the diagram shown?
A r = t B r = p C r = q D r = s
b Which of the following statements is correct for the diagram shown?
A r + p = 180è B q + s = 180è C t + p = 180è D t = r
reasoning
eBook plus
6 Prove that the exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is
Digital doc equal to the interior opposite angle. reFlection
WorkSHEET 21.2
What is a cyclic quadrilateral?
doc-5397
21d tangents, secants and chords

the alternate segment theorem
■ Consider the figure shown. Line BC is a tangent to the circle at the
point A. D
■ A line is drawn from A to anywhere on the circumference, point D. O
The angle ±BAD defines a segment (the shaded area).
The unshaded part of the circle is called the alternate segment to
±BAD. B A C
Now consider angles subtended by the chord AD in the alternate
segment, such as the angles marked in red and blue. E
■ The alternate segment theorem states that these are equal to the
angle that made the segment, namely: O
D
±BAD = ±AED and ±BAD = ±AFD
F
B A C
■ Theorem 13 Code
The angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to the angle
in the alternate segment. G
Proof:
We are required to prove that ±BAD = ±AFD.
Construct the diameter from A through O, meeting the circle at G. D O
Join G to the points D and F. F
±BAG = ±CAG = 90è (radii ^ tangent at point of contact)
±GFA = 90è (angle in a semicircle is 90è)
±GDA = 90è (angle in a semicircle is 90è) B A C

Consider DGDA. We know that ±GDA = 90è.

±GDA + ±DAG + ±AGD = 180è
90è + ±DAG + ±AGD = 180è
±DAG + ±AGD = 90è
±BAG is also a right angle.
±BAG = ±BAD + ±DAG = 90è
Equate the two results.
±DAG + ±AGD = ±BAD + ±DAG
Cancel the equal angles on both sides.
±AGD = ±BAD
Now consider the fact that both triangles DAG and DAF are subtended from the same
chord (DA).
±AGD = ±AFD (angles in the same segment standing on the same arc are (equal)
Equate the two equations.
±AFD = ±BAD
Worked Example 10
Find the value of x and y, giving reasons.

A
x
B
D 62è y C
Think Write
1 Use the alternate segment theorem to find x. x = 62è (angle between a tangent and a chord is
equal to the angle in the alternate segment)
2 The value of y is the same as x because x and y are y = 62è (angles in the same segment standing
subtended by the same chord BT. on the same arc are equal)
Tangents and secants

If a tangent and a secant intersect as shown, the following A
relationship is always true: a
XA ì XB = (XT)2 or a ì b = c2. B
b
Proof: X c
Join BT and AT. T
Consider DTXB and DAXT.
±TXB is common.
±XTB = ±XAT (angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to
A
the angle in the alternate segment)
±XBT = ±XTA (angle sum of a triangle is 180è)
B
DTXB ~ DAXT (equiangular)
XB XT X
So = T
XT XA
or XA ì XB = (XT)2.

Worked Example 11
A m
B 5
X
8
T
Think Write
1 Secant XA and tangent XT intersect at X. Write XA ì XB = (XT)2

the rule connecting the lengths of XA, XB and XT.
2 State the values of XA, XB and XT. XA = m + 5, XB = 5, XT = 8
3 Substitute the values of XA, XB and XT into the (m + 5) ì 5 = 82
equation and solve for m. 5m + 25 = 64
5m = 39
m = 7.8
remember
1. The angle formed by a tangent and a chord is equal to the angle in the alternate
segment.
B
A
D C
2. If a tangent and a secant intersect as shown, then XA ì XB = (XT)2.
A
B
X
Exercise
21d Tangents, secants and chords
Fluency
1 WE 10 Find the value of the pronumerals in the following.
a b 59è
x
70è 47è
x
y

2 WE 11 Find the value of the pronumerals in the following.

a b
5
4
12
p
q
4
3 Line AB is a tangent to the circle as shown in the figure on B y

the right. Find the values of the angles labelled x and y.
A x
O
21è
Questions 4 to 6 refer to the figure on the right. The line D M

MN is a tangent to the circle, and EA is a straight line. The
circles have the same radius. E F G A
O C
B N
4 Find 6 different right angles.
5 MC If ±DAC = 20è, then ±CFD and ±FDG are respectively:
A 70è and 50è B 70è and 40è
C 40è and 70è D 70è and 70è
6 MC A triangle similar to FDA is:
A FDG B FGB
C EDA D GDE
7 Find the values of the angles x and y in the figure at right. A
y
O
42è
x
62è
B
understanding
8 Show that if the sum of the two given angles in question 7 is 90è, then the line AB must be a
diameter.
9 Find the value of x in the figure at right, given that the line x
underneath the circle is a tangent.
100è
O
20è
10 In the figure at right, express x in terms of a and b. This is the x

same drawing as in question 9.
a O

11 Two tangent lines to a circle meet at an angle y, as shown in

10è
the figure at right. Find the values of the angles x, y and z.
z
O
x y
12 Solve question 11 in the general case (see the figure at right) a

and show that y = 2a. This result is important for space
navigation (imagine the circle to be the earth) in that an object at
z
y can be seen by people at x and z at the same time.
O
x y
13 In the figure at right, find the values of the angles x, y and z. z

y
75è
x
20è
14 MC Examine the figure at right. The angles x and y

(in degrees) are respectively: 51
y
A 51 and 99 B 51 and 129 19
C 39 and 122 D 51 and 122 x O
Questions 15 to 17 refer to the figure at right. The line BA C

is a tangent to the circle at point B. Line AC is a chord that x
meets the tangent at A. y D
O
z 50è 45è A
B
15 Find the values of the angles x and y.
16 MC The triangle which is similar to triangle BAD is:
A CAB B BCD
C BDC D AOB
17 MC The value of the angle z is:
A 50è B 85è
C 95è D 100è
Reasoning
18 Find the values of the angles x, y and z in the figure
at right. The line AB is tangent to the circle at B.
O C
D 33è
y
A z x 92è
B

19 Find the values of the angles x, y and z in the figure below. The line AB is tangent to the circle
at B. The line CD is a diameter.
C
x
O
y D
25è z A
B
20 Solve question 19 in the general case; that is, express angles x, y and z in terms of a (see the
figure below).
C
x
O y D
a z A
B
21 Prove that, when two circles touch, their centres and the point of contact are collinear.
reflection  
Describe the alternate

segment of a circle.

Summary
Angles in a circle
■■ An angle with its vertex at the centre of the circle is twice the size of an angle subtended by
the same arc, but with the vertex at the circumference.
■■ Angles with their vertices on the circumference, subtended by the same arc, are equal.
■■ Angles subtended by the diameter are right angles.
■■ A tangent and a radius, drawn to the same point on a circle, meet at a 90è angle.
■■ An angle formed by two tangents is bisected by the line joining the vertex of that angle to the
centre of the circle.
Intersecting chords, secants and tangents

■■ Code
P
S
X
R Q
PX ì QX = RX ì SX
■■ Code
C
D
X
B A
AX ì XB = XC ì DX
■■ Code
A
B
AC = BC
■■ Code
A B
X
C
If OC ^ AB, AX = XB.
■■ Code
M P
B
C
A
D O
R
N
If MN = PR, then OD = OC.

Cyclic quadrilaterals
■■ A cyclic quadrilateral has all four of its vertices on the circumference of a circle.
■■ Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
■■ The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the interior opposite angle.
Tangents, secants and chords

■■ The angle formed by a tangent and a chord is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
B
A
D C
■■ If a tangent and a secant intersect as shown, then XA ì XB = (XT)2.
A
B
X


Chapter review
Fluency 2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each case.
a
Note: All questions in this exercise can be done without
a calculator. x
1 Determine the values of the pronumerals in each of O
the following.
a b
50è x
25è 48è
b
x
y
O 70è x
c x d x
28è y
O
O c
z
x O
110è
e f 70è
y
O
O x
d
x O
70è
x x
g h
O O
110è 250è
3 Find the value of m in each of the following.
a
i j 6
x x 10 5
110è
100è
k 70è l 8
m
50è O z m
y 30è
4
x 6

c 5 MC Note: There may be more than one correct

5 answer.
Which of the following statements is true for the
4 diagram shown?
m 3
A
O C
d
10 8
B
7.5
m A AO = BO
B AC = BC
C ±OAC = ±OBC
D ±AOC = 90è
6 Two chords, AB and CD, intersect at E as shown. If
4 MC Note: There may be more than one correct AE = CE, prove that EB = ED.
answer.
In which of the following figures is it possible to C
get a reasonable value for the pronumeral? B
a 4 A E
6
5
m
D
7 Two circles intersect at X and Y. Two lines, AXB

and CXD, intersect one circle at A and C, and the
b
other at B and D, as shown. Prove that ±AYC =
6 ±BYD.
3
C B
2 m X
A D
c
2
8 Y
5
m
8 Name at least five pairs of equal angles in the
following diagram.
R
d
Q
S
m 7 U
O
3 P
4
T

9 Find the values of the pronumerals in the following problem solving

figures.
1 Find the values of the pronumerals in the following
a
figures.
85è
a
y x
100è
42è
x
b b y
56è
x 81è
O
130è
c
78è y p
92è x 2 Find the value of the pronumerals in the following.

a
x 4
d 6
88è
x
97è y
b
4
10 MC Which of the following statements is not
always true for the diagram below?
8
a b c
m
4 n
e
c
d
5
A ±a + ±c = 180è
B ±b + ±d = 180è
C ±e + ±c = 180è
D ±a + ±e = 180è

d f
7
2
x
x
w
3
e a
1
6 b
eBook plus
5.5
Interactivities
8 Test yourself Chapter 21
11 int-2882
int-2880
int-2881

Are you ready? • WorkSHEET 21.1 (doc-5395): Circle geometry I
Digital docs (page 700) (page 708)
• SkillSHEET 21.1 (doc-5390): Using tests to prove
congruent triangles 21C Cyclic quadrilaterals
• SkillSHEET 21.2 (doc-5391): Corresponding sides Digital docs
and angles of congruent triangles • SkillSHEET 21.6 (doc-5396): Angles in a
• SkillSHEET 21.3 (doc-5392): Using tests to prove quadrilateral (page 717)
similar triangles • WorkSHEET 21.2 (doc-5397): Circle geometry II
• SkillSHEET 21.4 (doc-5393): Angles in a triangle (page 718)
• SkillSHEET 21.5 (doc-5394): More angle relations
Chapter review
21A Angles in a circle
Interactivities (page 729)
Interactivity • Test yourself Chapter 21 (int-2882): Take the end-of
• Angles in a circle (int-2795) (page 701) chapter test to test your progress
Digital docs • Word search Chapter 21 (int-2880): an interactive
• SkillSHEET 21.1 (doc-5390): Using tests to prove word search involving words associated with this
congruent triangles (page 701) chapter
• SkillSHEET 21.2 (doc-5391): Corresponding sides • Crossword Chapter 21 (int-2881): an interactive
and angles of congruent triangles (page 701) crossword using the definitions associated with the
• SkillSHEET 21.3 (doc-5392): Using tests to prove chapter
similar triangles (page 701)
• SkillSHEET 21.4 (doc-5393): Angles in a triangle To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
• SkillSHEET 21.5 (doc-5394): More angle relations
(page 706)

measurement AND geometry • Pythagoras & trigonometry
22
22A The sine rule
22B The cosine rule
22C Area of triangles
22D The unit circle
22E Trigonometric functions
22F Solving trigonometric equations
What do you know ?

1 List what you know about trigonometry.
Trigonometry II
trigonometry.
opening question
How would you find the height of this

water tower if you could not climb up to
the top?
measurement and geometry • Pythagoras & trigonometry
are you ready?

eBook plus Labelling right-angled triangles

1 Label the sides of these triangles as opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse with respect to the angle
Digital doc marked q.
SkillSHEET 22.1
a b
doc-5398
eBook plus Calculating sin, cos or tan of an angle

2 Evaluate each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
Digital doc
a sin 23è b cos 47è28Å c tan 19è39Å
SkillSHEET 22.2
doc-5399
eBook plus Finding side lengths in right-angled triangles

3 Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 22.3
a b 14 cm
doc-5400
6 cm
x x
35è 20è
eBook plus Calculating the angle from a sin, cos or tan ratio
4 Find the value of q, correct to the nearest degree.
Digital doc 1
SkillSHEET 22.4 a cos q = 2
b sin q = 0.866 c tan q = 1
doc-5401
eBook plus Finding angles in right-angled triangles

5 Find the value of q, correct to the nearest minute.
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 22.5
a 12 cm b
doc-5402
20 cm
15 cm
17 cm

22A The sine rule

Exact values
■■ Most of the trigonometric values that we will deal with in this chapter are only approximations.
■■ However, angles of 30è, 45è and 60è have exact values of sine, cosine and tangent.
B
30è
2 2
60è
A D C
2
■■ Consider an equilateral triangle, ABC, of side length 2 units.
If the triangle is perpendicularly bisected, then two congruent triangles, ABD and CBD, are
obtained. From triangle ABD it can be seen that altitude BD creates a right-angled triangle
with angles of 60è and 30è and base length (AD) of 1 unit. The altitude BD is obtained using
Pythagoras’ theorem. B
(AB)2 = (AD)2 + (BD)2
22 = 12 + (BD)2
4 = 1 + (BD)2 2
30è
4 - 1 = (BD) 2
3
(BD)2 = 3
BD = 3 60è
■■ Using triangle ABD and the three trigonometric ratios the following exact A D
values are obtained: 1
opp 1 opp 3
sin B = À sin 30è = sin A = À sin 60è =
hyp 2 hyp 2
adj 3 adj 1
cos B = À cos 30è = cos A = À cos 60è =
hyp 2 hyp 2
opp 1 3 opp 3
tan B = À tan 30è = or tan A = À tan 60è = or 3
adj 3 3 adj 1
■■ Consider a right-angled isosceles triangle EFG whose equal sides are of G
1 unit. The hypotenuse EG is obtained by using Pythagoras’ theorem.
(EG)2 = (EF)2 + (FG)2 2 1
= 12 + 12
=2 45è
E 1 F
EG = 2
■■ Using triangle EFG and the three trigonometric ratios, the following exact
values are obtained:
opp 1 2
sin E = À sin 45è = or
hyp 2 2
adj 1
cos E = À cos 45è = or 2
hyp 2 2
opp 1
tan E = À tan 45è = or 1
adj 1
Chapter 22 Trigonometry II 733

■■ When working with non–right-angled triangles, it is usual to B

label the angles A, B and C, and the sides a, b and c, so that side a
c a
is the side opposite angle A, side b is the side opposite angle B
and side c is the side opposite angle C. A C
■■ In a non–right-angled triangle, a perpendicular line, h, can be b
drawn from the angle B to side b.
This divides the triangle into two right-angled triangles, ABD B
and CBD.
■■ Using triangle ABD and the sine trigonometric ratio for
c h a
h
right-angled triangles, we obtain sin A = . Using triangle CBD
c
A C
and the sine trigonometric ratio for right-angled triangles, we D b
h
c = sin A and –a = sin C
h– h
obtain sin C = .
a
■■ Transposing each equation to make h the subject, we obtain: h = c sin A and h = a sin C. Since
h is common to both triangles the two equations may be equated and we get c sin A = a sin C.
Dividing both sides of the equation by sin A gives:
a sin C
c=
sin A
Dividing both sides of the equation by sin C gives:
c a
=
sin C sin A
■■ In a similar way, if a perpendicular line is drawn from angle A to B
side a, the two right-angled triangles would give h = c sin B and
h = b sin C.
c
b c
This would give: = h
sin B sin C
From this, the sine rule can be stated. A b C
■■ In any triangle ABC: h = c sin B and
h = b sin C
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C B
Notes
c a
1. When using this rule, depending on the values given, any
combination of the two equalities may be used to solve a A C
b
particular triangle.
2. To solve a triangle means to find all unknown side lengths and angles.
■■ The sine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
1. two angles and one side length
2. two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths.
Worked Example 1
In the triangle ABC, a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80è. Find A, C and c.
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC and B

fill in the given information. c 80è a = 4
A b=7 C

2 Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule has The sine rule can be used since two side
been satisfied. lengths and an angle opposite one of these
side lengths have been given.
3 Write down the sine rule to find A. To find angle A:
a b
=
sin A sin B
4 7
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. =
sin A sin 80 °
5 Transpose the equation to make sin A the subject. 4 sin 80è = 7 sin A
4 sin 80 °
sin A =
7
 4 sin 80 ° 
6 Evaluate. A = Sin −1  
 7
ö 34.246 004 71è
7 Round off the answer to degrees and minutes. ö 34è15Å
8 Determine the value of angle C using the fact that C ö 180è - (80è + 34è15Å)
the angle sum of any triangle is 180è. = 65è45Å
9 Write down the sine rule to find c. To find side length c:
c b
=
sin C sin B
c b
sin 65 ° 45′ sin 80 °
7 sin 65 ° 45′
11 Transpose the equation to make c the subject. c=
sin 80 °
12 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ö 6.48 m
places and include the appropriate unit.
The ambiguous case

■■ When using the sine rule there is one important issue to consider. If we are given two
side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths, then two different triangles
may be drawn. For example, if a = 10, c = 6 and C = 30è, two possible triangles could be
created.
B B
a = 10 a = 10
c=6 c=6
30è 30è
A C A C
I n the first case (above left), angle A is an acute angle, while in the second case (above right),
angle A is an obtuse angle.
■■ When using the sine rule to find an angle, we have to use the inverse sine function. If we are
finding an angle, given the sine value, it is important to remember that an angle between 0è
and 90è has the same sine value as its supplement. For example, sin 40è = 0.6427, and sin
140è = 0.6427.

Worked Example 2
In the triangle ABC, a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30è. Find two possible values of A, and hence two
possible values of B and b.
Case 1
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle B

ABC and fill in the given information. a = 10
c=6
30è
A C
2 Check that one of the criteria for the sine The sine rule can be used since two side lengths
rule has been satisfied. and an angle opposite one of these side lengths have
been given.
a c
=
sin A sin C
10 6
sin A sin 30 °
10 sin 30è = 6 sin A
10 sin 30 °
5 Transpose the equation to make sin A the sin A =
subject. 6
 10 sin 30 ° 
6 Evaluate angle A. A = sin −1  
 6
ö 56.442 690 24è
7 Round off the answer to degrees and A ö 56è27Å
minutes.
8 Determine the value of angle B, using the B ö 180è - (30è + 56è27Å)
fact that the angle sum of any triangle is = 93è33Å
180è.
9 Write down the sine rule to find b. To find side length b:
b c
=
sin B sin C
b 6
sin 93 ° 33′ sin 30 °
6 sin 93 ° 33′
11 Transpose the equation to make b the b=
subject. sin 30 °
12 Evaluate. Round off the answer to ö 11.98 m
2 decimal places and include the
appropriate unit.
The values we have just obtained are only one set of possible answers for the given dimensions of the
triangle ABC.
We are told that a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30è. Since side a is larger than side c, it follows that angle
A will be larger than angle C. Angle A must be larger than 30è; therefore it may be an acute angle or an
obtuse angle.

Case 2
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle B

ABC and fill in the given information. a = 10
c=6
30è
A C
2 Write down the alternative value for To find the alternative angle A:
angle A. Simply subtract the value If sin A = 0.8333, then A could also be:
obtained for A in Case 1 from 180è. A ö 180è - 56è27Å
= 123è33Å
3 Determine the alternative value of angle B ö 180è - (30è + 123è33Å)
B, using the fact that the angle sum of = 26è27Å
any triangle is 180è.
4 Write down the sine rule to find the To find side length b:
alternative b. b c
=
sin B sin C
b 6
sin 26 ° 27′ sin 30 °
6 sin 26 ° 27′
6 Transpose the equation to make b the b=
subject. sin 30 °
Hence, for this example there were two possible solutions as shown by the diagrams below.
B B
a = 10 a = 10
c=6 c=6
30è 30è
A C A C
■■ The ambiguous case does not work for each example. Consider Worked example 1, in
which we were required to solve the triangle ABC given a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80è. For
angle A, we obtained A = 34è15Å. However, angle A could also have been A = 145è45Å (since
there are two possible values of A between 0è and 180è whose sine is the same; that is,
sin 34è15Å = 0.5628 and sin 145è45Å = 0.5628).
We will now see whether or not A = 145è45Å is a possible solution.
To obtain C subtract angles A and B from 180è.
C = 180è - (80è + 145è45Å)
= 180è - 225è45Å
= -45è45Å (not possible)
Hence, for Worked example 1 only one possible solution exists.
■■ It would be useful to know, before commencing a question, whether or not the ambiguous
case exists and, if so, to then find both sets of solutions.
■■ The ambiguous case exists if C is an acute angle and a > c > a sin C, or any equivalent
statement; for example, if B is an acute angle and a > b > a sin B, and so.
■■ In Worked example 2, where a = 10 m, c = 6 m and C = 30è, there were two possible solutions
because C was an acute angle and a > c > a sin C, since 10 > 6 > 10 ì 0.5.
■■ In Worked example 1, where a = 4 m, b = 7 m and B = 80è, there was only one possible solution
because even though B was an acute angle, the condition a > b > a sin B could not be satisfied.

Worked Example 3
To calculate the height of a building, Kevin measures the angle of elevation to the top as 52è. He then
walks 20 m closer to the building and measures the angle of elevation as 60è. How high is the building?
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the situation and fill in C

the given information.
h
120è
52è 60è
A B D
20 x – 20
x
2 Check that one of the criteria for the sine rule has The sine rule can be used for triangle ABC since
been satisfied for triangle ABC. two angles and one side length have been given.
3 Determine the value of angle ACB, using the fact ±ACB = 180è - (52è + 120è)
that the angle sum of any triangle is 180è. = 8è
4 Write down the sine rule to find b (or AC). To find side length b of triangle ABC:
b c
=
sin B sin C
b 20
sin 120 ° sin 8 °
20 × sin 120 °
6 Transpose the equation to make b the subject. b=
sin 8 °
8 Draw a diagram of the situation, that is, triangle C
ADC, labelling the required information.
Note: There is no need to solve the rest of the 124.45 m
triangle in this case as the values will not assist in h
finding the height of the building.
52è
A D
9 Write down what is given for the triangle. Have: angle and hypotenuse
10 Write down what is needed for the triangle. Need: opposite side
O
11 Determine which of the trigonometric ratios is sin θ =
required (SOH–CAH–TOA). H
h
12 Substitute the given values into the appropriate sin 52 ° =
ratio. 124 . 45
13 Transpose the equation and solve for h. 124.45 sin 52è = h

h = 124.45 sin 52è
14 Round off the answer to 2 decimal places. ö 98.07
15 Answer the question. The height of the building is 98.07 m.

remember
1. Angles of 30è, 45è and 60è have exact values of sine, cosine and tangent.
q 30è 45è 60è
1 1 2 3
sin q =
2 2 2 2
3 1 2 1
cos q =
2 2 2 2
1 3
tan q = 1 3
3 3
2. The sine rule states that for any triangle ABC:

a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
3. When using this rule it is important to note that, depending on the values given, any
combination of the two equalities may be used to solve a particular triangle.
4. The sine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) two angles and one side length
(b) two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths.
5. The ambiguous case exists if C is an acute angle and a > c > a sin C.
Exercise
22A The sine rule
Fluency
1 WE 1 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, b = 12 and B = 58è. Find A, C and c.
2 In the triangle ABC, c = 17.35, a = 26.82 and A = 101è47Å. Find C, B and b.
3 In the triangle ABC, a = 5, A = 30è and B = 80è. Find C, b and c.
4 In the triangle ABC, c = 27, C = 42è and A = 105è. Find B, a and b.
5 In the triangle ABC, a = 7, c = 5 and A = 68è. Find the perimeter of the triangle.
6 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 57è, B = 72è and a = 48.2.
7 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 105, B = 105è and C = 15è.
8 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given a = 32, b = 51 and A = 28è.
9 Find the perimeter of the triangle ABC if a = 7.8, b = 6.2 and A = 50è.
In a triangle ABC, B = 40è, b = 2.6 and c = 3. The value of C is approximately:
A 47è B 48è
C 132è D 133è
11 WE 2 In the triangle ABC, a = 10, c = 8 and C = 50è. Find two possible values of A, and hence
two possible values of b.
12 In the triangle ABC, a = 20, b = 12 and B = 35è. Find two possible values for the perimeter of
the triangle.
13 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 27è, B = 43è and c = 6.4.
14 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 100è, b = 2.1 and C = 42è.
15 Find all unknown sides and angles for the triangle ABC, given A = 25è, b = 17 and a = 13.

understanding
16 We 3 To calculate the height of a building, Kevin measures the angle of elevation to the top
as 48è. He then walks 18 m closer to the building and measures the angle of elevation as 64è.
How high is the building?
reasoning
17 A river has parallel banks which run directly east–west. Kylie takes a bearing to a tree on the
opposite side. The bearing is 047è T. She then walks 10 m due east, and takes a second bearing
to the tree. This is 305è T. Find:
a her distance from the second measuring point to the tree
b the width of the river, to the nearest metre.
18 A ship sails on a bearing of S20èW for 14 km; then it changes direction and sails for 20 km
and drops anchor. Its bearing from the starting point is now N65èW.
a How far is it from the starting point?
b On what bearing did it sail the 20 km leg?
19 A cross-country runner runs at 8 km/h on a bearing of 150è T for 45 mins; then he changes
direction to a bearing of 053è T and runs for 80 mins at a different speed until he is due east of
the starting point.
a How far was the second part of the run?
b What was his speed for this section?
c How far does he need to run to get back to the starting point?
20 From a fire tower, A, a fire is spotted on a bearing of N42èE. From a second tower, B, the fire
is on a bearing of N12èW. The two fire towers are 23 km apart, and A is N63èW of B. How far
is the fire from each tower?
21 mC A boat sails on a bearing of N15èE for 10 km and then on a bearing of S85èE until it is
due east of the starting point. The distance from the starting point to the nearest kilometre is:
A 10 km B 38 km
C 113 km D 114 km
22 mC A hill slopes at an angle of 30è to the horizontal. A tree which is 8 m tall is growing at an
angle of 10è to the vertical and is part-way up the slope. The vertical height of the top of the
tree above the slope is:
A 7.37 m B 8.68 m
C 10.84 m D 15.04 m
23 A cliff is 37 m high. The rock slopes outward at an
angle of 50è to the horizontal and then cuts back at an
angle of 25è to the vertical, meeting the ground directly
below the top of the cliff.
Carol wishes to abseil from the top of the cliff to the
ground as shown in the diagram. Her climbing rope is
45 m long, and she needs 2 m to secure it to a tree at the
top of the cliff. Will the rope be long enough to allow
her to reach the ground?
50è
25è Rock
eBook plus
Rope 37 m
Digital doc reFleCtion
WorkSHEET 22.1 In what situations can the
doc-5403
sine rule be used?

22b The cosine rule

■■ In any non–right-angled triangle ABC, a perpendicular line can be drawn from angle B to
side b. Let D be the point where the perpendicular line meets side b, and let the length of the
perpendicular line be h. Let the length AD = x units. The perpendicular line creates two right-
angled triangles, ADB and CDB.
B
c h a
A D C
x b–x
b
■■ Using triangle ADB and Pythagoras’ theorem, we obtain:

c2 = h2 + x2 [1]
Using triangle CDB and Pythagoras’ theorem, we obtain:
a2 = h2 + (b - x)2 [2]
Expanding the brackets in equation [2]:
a2 = h2 + b2 - 2bx + x2
Rearranging equation [2] and using c2 = h2 + x2 from equation [1]:
a2 = h2 + x2 + b2 - 2bx
= c2 + b2 - 2bx
= b2 + c2 - 2bx
From triangle ABD, x = c cos A; therefore a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bx becomes
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
■■ This is called the cosine rule and is a generalisation of Pythagoras’ theorem.
■■ In a similar way, if the perpendicular line was drawn from angle A to side a or from angle C
to side c, the two right-angled triangles would give c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C and
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B respectively. From this, the cosine rule can be stated:
In any triangle ABC
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
B
c a
A b C
■■ The cosine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
1. three sides of the triangle
2. two sides of the triangle and the included angle (the angle between the given sides).
Worked Example 4
Find the third side of triangle ABC given a = 6, c = 10 and B = 76è.

Think Write/draw
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle ABC and B

fill in the given information. c = 10 a=6
76è
A b C

2 Check that one of the criteria for the cosine rule Yes, the cosine rule can be used since two side
has been satisfied. lengths and the included angle have been given.
3 Write down the appropriate cosine rule to find To find side b:
side b. b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
4 Substitute the given values into the rule. = 62 + 102 - 2 ì 6 ì 10 ì cos 76è
5 Evaluate. ö 106.969 372 5
b ≈ 106.969 372 5
■■ Note: Once the third side has been found, the sine rule could be used to find other angles if
necessary.
■■ If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the cosine rule
to make cos A, cos B or cos C the subject.
b2 + c2 − a2
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A À cos A =
2bc
2
a + c2 − b2
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B À cos B =
2ac
2
a + b2 − c2
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C À cos C =
2ab
Worked Example 5
Find the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 4 cm, 7 cm and 9 cm.
Think Write
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it C

ABC and fill in the given information. b=7 a=4
Note: The smallest angle will correspond to the
smallest side. A c=9 B
Let a = 4
b=7
c=9
2 Check that one of the criteria for the cosine rule The cosine rule can be used since three side
has been satisfied. lengths have been given.
b2 + c2 − a2
3 Write down the appropriate cosine rule to find cos A =
angle A. 2bc
72 + 92 − 4 2
4 Substitute the given values into the rearranged =
rule. 2×7×9
114
5 Evaluate. =
126
 114 
Transpose the equation to make A the subject by A = cos-1 
 126 
6
taking the inverse cos of both sides.
ö 25.208 765 3è

Worked Example 6
Two rowers, Harriet and Kate, set out from the same point. Harriet rows N70èE for 2000 m and
Kate rows S15èW for 1800 m. How far apart are the two rowers?
Think Write
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it N

2000 m A Harriet
ABC and fill in the given information.
C 70°
15°
1800 m
B Kate
2 Check that one of the criteria for the cosine rule The cosine rule can be used since two side
has been satisfied. lengths and the included angle have been
given.
3 Write down the appropriate cosine rule to find To find side c:
side c. c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
4 Substitute the given values into the rule. = 20002 + 18002 - 2 ì 2000 ì 1800 cos 125è
5 Evaluate. ö 11 369 750.342
c ≈ 11369750.342
7 Answer the question. The rowers are 3391.91 m apart.
remember
1. In any triangle ABC:
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
2. The cosine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) three sides of the triangle
(b) two sides of the triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two
given sides).
3. If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the
cosine rule to make cos A, cos B or cos C the subject.
b2 + c2 − a2
2bc
a2 + c2 − b2
2ac
a2 + b2 − c2
2ab

Exercise
22B The cosine rule
Fluency
1 WE 4 Find the third side of triangle ABC given a = 3.4, b = 7.8 and C = 80è.
2 In triangle ABC, b = 64.5, c = 38.1 and A = 58è34Å. Find a.
3 In triangle ABC, a = 17, c = 10 and B = 115è. Find b, and hence find A and C.
4 WE 5 Find the smallest angle in the triangle with sides 6 cm, 4 cm and 8 cm.
(Hint: The smallest angle is opposite the smallest side.)
5 In triangle ABC, a = 356, b = 207 and c = 296. Find the largest angle.
6 In triangle ABC, a = 23.6, b = 17.3 and c = 26.4. Find the size of all the angles.
7 WE 6 Two rowers set out from the same point. One rows N30èE for 1500 m and the other
rows S40èE for 1200 m. How far apart are the two rowers?
8 Maria cycles 12 km in a direction N68èW and then 7 km in a direction of N34èE.
a How far is she from her starting point?
b What is the bearing of the starting point from her finishing point?
understanding
9 A garden bed is in the shape of a triangle, with sides of length 3 m, 4.5 m and 5.2 m.
a Calculate the smallest angle.
b Hence, find the area of the garden.
(Hint: Draw a diagram, with the longest length as the base of the triangle.)
10 A hockey goal is 3 m wide. When Sophie is 7 m from one post and 5.2 m from the other, she shoots
for goal. Within what angle, to the nearest degree, must the shot be made if it is to score a goal?
11 An advertising balloon is attached to two ropes 120 m and 100 m long. The ropes are anchored
to level ground 35 m apart. How high can the balloon fly?
12 A plane flies in a direction of N70èE for 80 km and then on a bearing of S10èW for 150 km.
a How far is the plane from its starting point?
b What direction is the plane from its starting point?
13 Ship A is 16.2 km from port on a bearing of 053è T and ship B is 31.6 km from the same port
on a bearing of 117è T. Calculate the distance between the two ships.
14 A plane takes off at 10.00 am from an airfield and flies at 120 km/h on a bearing of N35èW. A
second plane takes off at 10.05 am from the same airfield and flies on a bearing of S80èE at a
speed of 90 km/h. How far apart are the planes at 10.25 am?
Reasoning
15 Three circles of radii 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm are positioned so that they 5 cm
just touch one another. Their centres form the vertices of a triangle. 6 cm
Find the largest angle in the triangle.
16 For the given shape at near right, 8

determine: 150è x 8 cm
a the length of the diagonal B
7
b the magnitude (size) of angle B 60è
c the length of x. 10 m
17 From the top of a vertical cliff 68 m high, an observer
notices a yacht at sea. The angle of depression to the reflection  
yacht is 47è. The yacht sails directly away from the cliff, In what situations would you
and after 10 minutes the angle of depression is 15è. How use the sine rule rather than
fast does the yacht sail? the cosine rule?

22c Area of triangles

1
■■ The area of any triangle is given by the rule area = 2 bh, where b is the base and h is the
perpendicular height of the triangle.
■■ However, often the perpendicular height is not given directly B

and needs to be calculated first. In the triangle ABC, b is the
base and h is the perpendicular height of the triangle. c h a
■■ Using the trigonometric ratio for sine:
h A C
sin A = b
c
Transposing the equation to make h the subject, we obtain:
h = c sin A
■■ Therefore, the area of triangle ABC becomes:
1
area = 2 bc sin A
■■ Depending on how the triangle is labelled, the formula could read:
1 1 1
area = 2 ab sin C area = 2 ac sin B area = 2 bc sin A
■■ The area formula may be used on any triangle provided that two sides of the triangle and the
included angle (that is, the angle between the two given sides) are known.
Worked Example 7
Find the area of the triangle shown.

7 cm 9 cm
120è
Think Write
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it B

ABC and fill in the given information. c = 7 cm 120è a = 9 cm
A C
Let a = 9 cm, c = 7 cm, B = 120è
2 Check that the criterion for the area rule has been The area rule can be used since two side
satisfied. lengths and the included angle have been given.
1
3 Write down the appropriate rule for the area. Area = 2 ac sin B
1
4 Substitute the known values into the rule. = 2 ì 9 ì 7 ì sin 120è
5 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ö 27.28 cm2

■■ Note: If you are not given the included angle, you will need to find it in order to calculate the
area. This may involve using either the sine or cosine rule.

Worked Example 8
A triangle has known dimensions of a = 5 cm, b = 7 cm and B = 52è. Find A and C and hence
the area.
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it B

ABC and fill in the given information. a=5
52è
A b=7 C
Let a = 5, b = 7, B = 52è
2 Check whether the criterion for the area rule has The area rule cannot be used since the included
been satisfied. angle has not been given.
a b
=
sin A sin B
5 7
sin A sin 52 °
5 Transpose the equation to make sin A the subject. 5 sin 52è = 7 sin A
5 sin 52 °
sin A =
7
 5 sin 52 ° 
6 Evaluate. A = sin −1  
 7
ö 34.254 151 87è
8 Determine the value of the included angle, C, C ö 180è - (52è + 34è15Å)
using the fact that the angle sum of any triangle = 93è45Å
is 180è.
1
9 Write down the appropriate rule for the area. Area = 2 ab sin C
1
10 Substitute the known values into the rule. ö 2 ì 5 ì 7 ì sin 93è45Å
11 Evaluate. Round off the answer to 2 decimal ö 17.46 cm2
Heron’s formula
■■ If we know the lengths of all the sides of the triangle but none of the angles, we could use the
cosine rule to find an angle and then use 1 bc sin A to find the area. Alternatively, we could
2
use Heron’s formula to find the area.
■■ Heron’s formula states that the area of a triangle is:
Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle; that is,
s = 12 (a + b + c)
Note: The proof of this formula is beyond the scope of this course.

Worked Example 9
Find the area of the triangle with sides of 4 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
Think Write/draw
1 Draw a labelled diagram of the triangle, call it C

ABC and fill in the given information. 4 cm 6 cm
B 8 cm A
Let a = 4, b = 6, c = 8
2 Determine which area rule will be used. Since three side lengths have been given, use
Heron’s formula.
3 Write down the rule for Heron’s formula. Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
4 Write down the rule for s, the semi-perimeter of s = 12 (a + b + c)
the triangle.
5 Substitute the given values into the rule for the = 12 (4 + 6 + 8)
semi-perimeter.
=9
6 Substitute all of the known values into Heron’s Area = 9(9 − 4)(9 − 6)(9 − 8)
formula.
7 Evaluate. = 9 × 5× 3×1
= 135
ö 11.618 950 04
8 Round off the answer to 2 decimal places and ö 11.62 cm2
include the appropriate unit.
remember
1. If two sides of any triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two
given sides) are known, the following rules may be used to determine the area of that
triangle.
1 1 1
Area = 2 ab sin C Area = 2 ac sin B Area = 2 bc sin A
2. Alternatively, if the lengths of three sides of a triangle are known, Heron’s formula may
be used to find the area of the triangle:
Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
s = 12 (a + b + c)
Exercise
22c Area of triangles
Fluency
1 WE 7 Find the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7, b = 4 and C = 68è.
2 Find the area of the triangle ABC with a = 7.3, c = 10.8 and B = 104è40Å.
3 Find the area of the triangle ABC with b = 23.1, c = 18.6 and A = 82è17Å.
4 A triangle has a = 10 cm, c = 14 cm and C = 48è. Find A and B and hence the area.

5 We 8 A triangle has a = 17 m, c = 22 m and C = 56è. Find A and B and hence the area.
6 A triangle has b = 32 mm, c = 15 mm and B = 38è. Find A and C and hence the area.
7 mC In a triangle, a = 15 m, b = 20 m and B = 50è. The area of the triangle is:
A 86.2 m2 B 114.9 m2 C 149.4 m2 D 172.4 m2
8 We 9 Find the area of the triangle with sides of 5 cm, 6 cm and 8 cm.
9 Find the area of the triangle with sides of 40 mm, 30 mm and 5.7 cm.
10 Find the area of the triangle with sides of 16 mm, 3 cm and 2.7 cm.
11 mC A triangle has sides of length 10 cm, 14 cm and 20 cm. The area of the triangle is:
A 41 cm2 B 65 cm2 C 106 cm2 D 137 cm2
12 A piece of metal is in the shape of a triangle with sides of length 114 mm, 72 mm and 87 mm.
Find its area using Heron’s formula.
13 A triangle has the largest angle of 115è. The longest side is 62 cm and another side is 35 cm.
Find the area of the triangle.
14 A triangle has two sides of 25 cm and 30 cm. The angle between the two sides is 30è. Find:
a its area
b the length of its third side
c its area using Heron’s formula.
understanding
15 The surface of a fish pond has the shape shown in the diagram at right. 1m
How many goldfish can the pond support if each fish requires 0.3 m2
2m
surface area of water? 5m
4m
16 Find the area of this quadrilateral.

3.5 m
8m
4m
60è
5m
reasoning
17 A parallelogram has diagonals of length 10 cm and 17 cm. An angle between them is
125è. Find:
a the area of the parallelogram
b the dimensions of the parallelogram.
18 A lawn is to be made in the shape of a triangle, with sides of length 11 m, 15 m and 17.2 m. How
much grass seed, to the nearest kilogram, is needed if it is sown at the rate of 1 kg per 5 m2?

19 A bushfire burns out an area of level grassland shown in the diagram. (Note: This is a
sketch of the area and is not drawn to scale.) What is the area, in hectares, of the land that
is burned?
km
1.8
2 km
River
400 m
200 m
Road
20 An earth embankment is 27 m long and has a vertical cross-section

2m 130è 100è
shown in the diagram. Find the volume of earth needed to build the
50è 80è
embankment.
5m
21 mC A parallelogram has sides of 14 cm and 18 cm and an angle between them of 72è. The
area of the parallelogram is:
A 118.4 cm2 B 172.4 cm2 C 239.7 cm2 D 252 cm2
22 mC An advertising hoarding is in the shape of an isosceles triangle, with sides of length 15 m,
15 m and 18 m. It is to be painted with two coats of purple paint. If the paint covers 12 m2 per
eBook plus
litre, the amount of paint needed, to the nearest litre, would be:
A 9 L
Digital doc B 18 L reFleCtion
WorkSHEET 22.2
C 24 L List three formulas for finding the area of a triangle.
doc-5404
D 36 L
22d the unit circle 90è

y
■ A unit circle is a circle with a radius of 1 unit.
■ The unit circle can be divided into 4 quadrants.
■ As you can see from the diagram, all angles in
2nd 1st
quadrant 1 are between 0è and 90è. All angles in
quadrant quadrant 0è
quadrant 2 are between 90è and 180è, in quadrant 3 180è x
between 180è and 270è, and in quadrant 4 between 3rd 4th
360è
quadrant quadrant
270è and 360è.
270è
Chapter 22 trigonometry II 749

Worked Example 10
State the quadrant of the unit circle in which each of the following angles is found.
a 145è b 282è
Think Write
a The given angle is between 90è and 180è. a 145è is in quadrant 2.

State the appropriate quadrant.
b The given angle is between 270è and 360è. b 282è is in quadrant 4.
State the appropriate quadrant.
■■ So far we have looked at triangles constructed in quadrant 1 of the unit circle, with the angle
q being less than 90è. However, triangles can be drawn in other parts of the circle and we
need to know what happens when angles become greater than 90è.
■■ We can certainly use a calculator to find sine, cosine and tangent values for angles greater
than 90è, but it is important to understand where these values have come from.
■■ If a right-angled triangle containing angle q is
90è
constructed in quadrant 1 of the unit circle, then y
the value of sin q can be found by measuring the 1
length of the opposite side and the value of cos q by P
measuring the length of the adjacent side.
sin q
■■ The point of intersection of the radius (which is one q 0è
180è
of the arms of angle q ) with the unit circle is P. From –1 cos q 1 x
360è
the diagram at right observe that cos q represents
the x‑coordinate of point P and sin q represents its
y‑coordinate. This observation provides us with the –1
technique for finding sine and cosine of any angle in 270è
the unit circle, as shown at right.
■■ To find the value of sine and/or cosine of any angle q from the unit circle, follow these steps:
1. Draw a unit circle.
2. Construct the required angle so that its vertex is at the origin and the angle itself is
measured from 0è (as marked on the x-axis) in an anticlockwise direction. Label the point
of intersection of the radius and the unit circle, P.
3. Use a ruler to find the coordinates of point P.
4. Interpret the results: x = cos q and y = sin q, where x and y are coordinates of P.
The 4 quadrants of the unit circle

For the following activity and exercise, we will need to be able to read values for sine and cosine
from a unit circle.
Constructing your own unit circle
Step 1. Using graph paper, carefully draw a circle centred at the origin and with a radius of 5
cm. Label the x- and y-axes.
Step 2. On your graph, mark in 0è, 90è, 180è, 270è and 360è.
Step 3. Since we need a unit circle, 5 cm will represent 1 unit; that is, 5 cm = 1 unit. Carefully
mark a scale on each axis, where each centimetre represents 0.2 units. (Draw as carefully
as possible, since you will need to read values from your axes in exercise 22D.)
Use a unit circle to investigate the following.
1. If P has coordinates (x, y) and is located on the unit circle, what is the highest value that the
x-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the largest value that the cosine of an angle can take?
2. What is the lowest value that the x-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the smallest value that
the cosine of an angle can take?

3. What is the highest value that the y-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the largest value that
the sine of an angle can take?
4. What is the lowest value that the y-coordinate can take? Hence, what is the smallest value that
the sine of an angle can take?
5. Note that P could be in any of the four quadrants (depending on the size of the angle). Hence,
its coordinates could take either positive or negative values, or zero.
Copy and complete the table below to summarise whether sine and cosine are positive or
negative for angles in each of the four quadrants.
1st quadrant 2nd quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
sin q positive (+) negative (-)
cos q positive (+) negative (-)
6. Copy and complete the following sentences.
Sine is positive in the ______ and _______ quadrants and is negative in the _____ and
_______ quadrants.
Cosine is positive in the ______ and ______ quadrants and is negative in the ____ and
_______ quadrants.
sin θ
7. Use the identity tan q = to work out whether the tangent of an angle in each quadrant
cos θ
is positive or negative. Copy and complete the following sentence: Tangent is positive in
the _____ and ____ quadrants and is negative in the _______ and _______ quadrants.
Worked Example 11
Find the value of each of the following using the unit circle.
a sin 200è b cos 200è
Think Write/draw
Draw a unit circle and construct an angle of 200è. 90è

Label the point corresponding to the angle of 200è y
on the circle P. Highlight the lengths, representing 1
the x- and y-coordinates of point P. q = 200è
x 0è
180è y
-1 1 x
360è
-1
270è
a The sine of the angle is given by the a sin 200è = -0.3

y-coordinate of P. Find the y-coordinate of P
by measuring the distance along the y-axis.
State the value of sin 200è. (Note: The sine
value will be negative as the y-coordinate is
negative.)
b Cosine of the angle is given by the b cos 200è = -0.9
x-coordinate of P. Find the x-coordinate
of P by measuring the distance along the
x-axis. State the value of cos 200è. (Note:
Cosine is also negative in quadrant 3, as the
x-coordinate is negative.)

■■ The results obtained in worked example 11 can be verified with the aid of a calculator:
sin 200è = -0.342 020 143 and cos 200è = -0.939 692 62.
Rounding these values to 1 decimal place would give -0.3 and -0.9 respectively, which
match the values obtained from the unit circle.
remember
1. The unit circle is divided into four quadrants, as shown.
90è 90è
y y
1
P
2nd 1st
sin q
quadrant quadrant 0è q 0è
180è x 180è
3rd 4th –1 cos q 1 x
360è 360è
quadrant quadrant
–1
270è 270è
2. Sine and cosine of any angle, q, are given as follows: x = cos q and y = sin q, where x
and y are coordinates of point P on the unit circle, corresponding to the given angle.
3. -1 Ç sin q Ç 1 and -1 Ç cos q Ç 1.
4. Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2 and negative in quadrants 3 and 4.
5. Cosine is positive in quadrants 1 and 4 and negative in quadrants 2 and 3.
Exercise
22d The unit circle
Fluency
1 WE 10 State which quadrant of the unit circle each of the following angles is in.
a 60è b 130è
c 310è d 260è
e 100è f 185è
g 275è h 295è
2 MC If q = 43è, the triangle drawn to show this would be in:
A quadrant 1 B quadrant 2
C quadrant 3 D quadrant 4
3 MC If q = 295è, the triangle drawn to show this would be in:
A quadrant 1 B quadrant 2
C quadrant 3 D quadrant 4
4 WE 11 Find the value of each of the following using the unit circle.
c cos 100è d sin 100è
e sin 320è f cos 320è
g sin 215è h cos 215è
5 Use the unit circle to find each of the following.
c sin 180è d cos 180è
e sin 270è f cos 270è
g sin 360è h cos 360è

understanding
6 On the unit circle, use a protractor to measure an angle of y
30è from the positive x‑axis. Mark the point P on the circle.
Use this point to construct a triangle in quadrant 1 as shown. P
a Find cos 30è. (Remember that the length of the adjacent
sin 30è
side of the triangle is cos 30è.) 30è
O x
b Find sin 30è. (This is the length of the opposite side of cos 30è
the triangle.)
c Check your answers in a and b by finding these values
with a calculator.
7 Using your graph of the unit circle, measure 150è with y
a protractor and mark the point P on the circle. Use this
point to draw a triangle in quadrant 2 as shown.
P
a What angle does the radius OP make with the 150è
negative x-axis? sin 150è
b Remembering that x = cos q, use your circle to find O x
cos 150è
the value of cos 150è.
c How does cos 150è compare to cos 30è?
d Remembering that y = sin q, use your circle to find
the value of sin 150è.
e How does sin 150è compare with sin 30è? y
8 On the unit circle, measure 210è with a protractor and
mark the point P on the circle. Use this point to draw a
triangle in quadrant 3 as shown. 210è
a What angle does the radius OP make with the cos 210è
negative x-axis? O x
sin 210è
b Use your circle to find the value of cos 210è.
c How does cos 210è compare to cos 30è? P
d Use your circle to find the value of sin 210è.
e How does sin 210è compare with sin 30è?
9 On the unit circle, measure 330è with a protractor and y
mark the point P on the circle. Use this point to draw a
triangle in quadrant 4 as shown.
a What angle does the radius OP make with the positive
x-axis? 330è cos 330è
b Use your circle to find the value of cos 330è. O x
c How does cos 330è compare to cos 30è? sin 330è
d Use your circle to find the value of sin 330è. P
e How does sin 330è compare with sin 30è?
10 On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the
angle of 20è in quadrant 1. y
a Find sin 20è.
b Find cos 20è.
tan 20è
sin 20è
c Draw a tangent line and extend the hypotenuse of the

triangle to meet the tangent as shown. 20è
Accurately measure the length of the tangent between x
cos 20è
the x-axis and the point where it meets the hypotenuse
and, hence, state the value of tan 20è.
sin 20è
d What is the value of ?
cos 20è
sin 20è
e How does tan 20è compare with ?
cos 20è

11 On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle of 135è in quadrant 2.
y
tan 135è
135è
a Find sin 135è.

b Find cos 135è.
c Draw a tangent line and extend the hypotenuse of the triangle to meet the tangent as
shown.
Accurately measure the length of the tangent to where it meets the hypotenuse to find
the value of tan 135è.
sin 135è
cos 135è
sin 135è
cos 135è
f How does tan 135è compare with tan 45è?
12 On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle y
of 220è in quadrant 3.
a Find sin 220è.
b Find cos 220è. 220è
triangle to meet the tangent as shown. x
tan 220è
Find tan 220è by accurately measuring the length of
the tangent to where it meets the hypotenuse.
sin 220è
cos 220è
sin 220è
cos 220è
f How does tan 220è compare with tan 40è? (Use a calculator.)
13 On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for the angle y
of 300è in quadrant 4.
a Find sin 300è.
b Find cos 300è. 300è
x
triangle to meet the tangent as shown.
Find tan 300è by accurately measuring the length of
tan 300è
the tangent to where it meets the hypotenuse.

sin 300è
cos 300è
sin 300è
cos 300è
f How does tan 300è compare with tan 60è?
(Use a calculator.) reflection  
14 MC In a unit circle, the length of the radius is equal to: What is the length of the
A sin q B cos q diameter of the unit circle?
C tan q D 1

22e trigonometric functions

sine and cosine graphs
■ The graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x are shown below, sketched from 0è to 360è
eBook plus
y y
y = sin x y = cos x
Interactivity 1 1
Trigonometric
functions
int-2796
x x
90è 180è 270è 360è 90è 180è 270è 360è
-1 -1
■ Trigonometric graphs repeat themselves continuously in cycles, and hence they are called
periodic functions.
■ The period of the graph is the distance between repeating peaks or troughs. In the example
above, the period between the repeating peaks is 360è
■ The amplitude of the graph is half the distance between the maximum and minimum values
of the function. In the example above, the distance is half of two units (the distance between
-1 and 1), hence the amplitude is 1 unit. Amplitude can also be described as the amount by
which the graph goes above and below its mean value. In the above example, the mean value
lies along the x axis.
Worked examPle 12
Sketch the graphs of a y = 2 sin x and b y = cos 2x for 0è Ç x Ç 360è
think Write/draW
a 1 The graph must be drawn from a y

0è to 360è. y = 2 sin x
2
2 Compared to the graph of y = sin x
each value of sin x has been multiplied
by 2, therefore the amplitude of the x
180è 360è
graph must be 2.
3 Label the graph y = 2 sin x. -2
b 1 The graph must be drawn from b y

y = cos 2x
0è to 360è. 1
2 Compared to the graph of y = cos x,
each value of x has been multiplied
by 2, therefore the period of the graph x
90è 180è 270è 360è
must become 180è.
3 Label the graph y = cos 2x. -1
360°
■ For the graph of y = asin nx, or y = acos nx, the amplitude is a and the period becomes .
n
■ If the graph has a negative value of a, the amplitude is the positive value of a. i.e. The
amplitude is always | a |

Worked Example 13
For each of the following graphs, state:

i the amplitude
ii the period.
a y = 2 sin 3x
x
b y = cos
3
c y
3
2
1
x
180è 360è 540è 720è
-1
-2
-3
Think Write
a The value of a is 2. a i Amplitude = 2

360° 360
Period is . ii Period =
n 3
= 120è
b The value of a is 1. b i Amplitude = 1
360° 360
Period is . ii Period =
n 1
3
= 1080è
c Half the distance between the maximum c i Amplitude = 2.5
and minimum values is 2.5. The graph goes ii Period = 720è
2.5 units above and below the mean value.
The distance between repetitions is 720è
remember
1. Trigonometric graphs repeat themselves continuously in cycles and hence they are
called periodic functions.
2. The period of the graph is the distance between repetitions. For y = sin x and y = cos x,
this is 360è.
3. The amplitude of the graph is the amount the graph goes above and below its mean
value. It is half the distance between the maximum and minimum values. For y = sin x
and y = cos x the mean value is along the x-axis, hence the amplitude is 1 unit.
360°
4. For the graph of y = asin nx, or y = acos nx the amplitude is a and the period is
n

Exercise
22e Trigonometric functions
Fluency
1 Using your calculator (or the unit circle if you wish), complete the following table.
x 0è 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è 210è 240è 270è 300è 330è 360è
sin x
x 390è 420è 450è 480è 510è 540è 570è 600è 630è 660è 690è 720è
sin x
2 On graph paper, rule x- and y-axes and carefully mark a scale along each axis. Use 1 cm = 30è
on the x-axis to show x-values from 0è to 720è. Use 2 cm = 1 unit along the y-axis to show
y-values from -1 to 1. Carefully plot the graph of y = sin x using the values from the table in
question 1.
3 How long does it take for the graph of y = sin x to complete one full cycle?
4 From your graph of y = sin x, find the value of y for each of the following.
a x = 42è b x = 130è c x = 160è d x = 200è
e x = 180è f x = 70è g x = 350è h x = 290è
5 From your graph of y = sin x, find the value of x for each of the following.
a y = 0.9 b y = -0.9 c y = 0.7
d y = -0.5 e y = -0.8 f y = 0.4
x 0è 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è 210è 240è 270è 300è 330è 360è
cos x
x 390è 420è 450è 480è 510è 540è 570è 600è 630è 660è 690è 720è
cos x
y-values from -1 to 1. Carefully plot the graph of y = cos x using the values from the table in
question 6.
8 If you were to continue the graph of y = cos x, what shape would you expect it to take?
9 Is the graph of y = cos x the same as the graph of y = sin x? How does it differ? What features
are the same?
10 Using the graph of y = cos x, find a value of y for each of the following.
a 48è b 170è c 180è d 340è
e 240è f 140è g 40è h 165è
11 Using the graph of y = cos x, find a value of x for each of the following.
a y = -0.5 b y = 0.8 c y = 0.7
d y = -0.6 e y = 0.9 f y = -0.9
x 0è 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è 210è 240è 270è 300è 330è 360è
tan x
x 390è 420è 450è 480è 510è 540è 570è 600è 630è 660è 690è 720è
tan x

y-values from -2 to 2. Carefully plot the graph of y = tan x using the values from the table in
question 12.
14 If you were to continue the graph of y = tan x, what shape would you expect it to take?
15 Is the graph of y = tan x the same as the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x? How does it differ?
What features are the same?
16 Using the graph of y = tan x, find a value of y for each of the following.
a 60è b 135è c 310è d 220è
e 500è f 590è g 710è h 585è
17 Using the graph of y = tan x, find a value of x for each of the following.
a y = 1 b y = 1.5 c y = –0.4
d y = –2 e y = 0.2 f y = –1
18 WE 12 Sketch the following graphs

a y = cos x, for x Æ [-180è, 180è] b y = sin x, for x Æ [0è, 720è]
c y = sin 2x, for x Æ [0è, 360è] d y = 2 cos x, for x Æ [-360è, 0è]
19 WE 13 For each of the graphs in question 18, state
i the period ii the amplitude.
20 For each of the following, state:
i the period ii the amplitude.
x
a y = 3cos 2x b y = 4sin 3x c y = 2cos
2
1 x
d y = sin e y = -sin x f y = -cos 2x
2 4
21 MC Parts a to c refer to the graph below.
y
3
2
1
x
90è 180è
-1
-2
-3
a The amplitude of the graph is:

A 180o b 90è c 3 d -3 e 6
b The period of the graph is:
A 180o b 360è c 90è d 3 e -3
c The equation of the graph could be:
x
A y = cos x b y = sin x c y = 3cos
3
d y = 3cos 2x e y = 3sin 2x
understanding
22 Sketch each of the following graphs, stating the period and amplitude of each.
x
a y = 2cos , for x Æ [0è, 360è]
3
b y = -3sin 2x, for x Æ [0è, 360è]

x
c y = 3sin , for x Æ [-180è, 180è]
2
d y = -cos 3x, for x Æ [0è, 360è]
e y = 5cos 2x, for x Æ [0è, 180è]
f y = -sin 4x, for x Æ [0è, 180è]
23 Use technology to sketch the graphs of each of the following for 0è Ç x Ç 360è
a y = cos x + 1 b y = sin 2x - 2
c y = cos (x - 60è) d y = 2sin 4x + 3
reasoning
24 a Sketch the graph of y = cos 2x for x Æ [0è, 360è]
ii What is the minimum value of y for this graph?
ii What is the maximum value of y for this graph?
b Using the answers obtained in part a write down the maximum and minimum values of
y = cos 2x + 2.
c What would be the maximum and minimum values of the graph of y = 2sin x + 3. Explain
how you obtained these values.
25 a Complete the table below by filling in the exact values of y = tan x
x 0è 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è

y = tan x
b Sketch the graph of y = tan x for [0è,180è]
c What happens at x = 90è?
d For the graph of y = tan x, x = 90è is called an asymptote. Write down when the next
asymptote would occur.
e State the period and amplitude of y = tan x reFleCtion
26 a Sketch the graph of y = tan 2x, for [0è,180è] For the graph of y = a tan nx, what
b When do the asymptotes occur? would be the period and amplitude?
c State the period and amplitude of y = tan 2x
22F solving trigonometric equations

eBook plus solving trigonometric equations graphically
Interactivity
■ Because of the periodic nature of circular functions, there are infinitely many solutions to
Trigonometry trigonometric equations.
int-2797 ■ Equations are usually solved within a particular domain (x values), to restrict the number of
solutions.
■ The sine graph below shows the solutions between 0è and 360è for the equation sin xè = 0.6
y
1
0.6
x
180è 360è
-1
■ In the example above, it can clearly be seen that there are two solutions to this equation,
which are approximately x = 37è and x = 143è
■ The smaller the period, the greater the number of solutions within a particular domain.
■ It is difficult to obtain accurate answers from a graph. More accurate answers can be obtained
using technology.

Solving trigonometric equations algebraically

Exact answers can be found for some trigonometric equations using the table at the top of page 739.
Worked Example 14
Solve the following equations

3
a sin x = , x Æ [0è, 360è]
2
1
b cos 2 x = - , x Æ [0, 360è]
2
Think Write
 3
a The inverse operation of sine is sin-1. a x = sin-1 
 2 
1
2 The first solution in the given domain from

the table at the top of page 739 is x = 60è.
3 Since sine is positive in the first and There are two solutions in the given domain,
second quadrants, another solution must x = 60è and x = 120è.
be x = 180è - 60è = 120è.
b 1 The inverse operation of cosine is cos-1. b 2x = cos-1  −1 

 
2
1
2 From the table of values, cos-1 = 45è.
2
3 Cosine is negative in the second and 2x = 135è, 225è
third quadrants, which give the first two
solutions to the equation as:
180è - 45è and 180è + 45è.
4 Solve for x by dividing by 2. x = 67.5è, 112.5è
360°
5 Since the domain in this case is [0è, 360è], The period = = 180è
and the period has been halved, there 2
must be 4 solutions altogether. The other x = 67.5è + 180è, 112.5è + 180è
2 solutions can be found by adding the x = 67.5è, 112.5è, 247.5è, 292.5è
period on to each solution.
remember
1. Because of the periodic nature of circular functions, there are infinitely many solutions
to trigonometric equations.
2. Equations are usually solved within a particular domain (x values), to restrict the
number of solutions.
3. The smaller the period, the greater the number of solutions within a particular domain.
4. Solutions can be found for some trigonometric equations algebraically, using the exact
values table.

Exercise
22f Solving trigonometric equations
Fluency
1 Use the graph at right to find approximate y
answers to the following equations for the 1
domain 0 Ç x Ç 360è. Check your answers
using a calculator.
iii cos x = 0.9 x
iii cos x = 0.3 180è 360è
iii cos x = -0.2
iv cos x = -0.6 -1
2 Solve the following equations for the domain

0è Ç x Ç 360è
1 3 1 1
a sin x = b sin x = c cos x = - d cos x = -
2 2 2 2
1 1
e sin x = 1 f cos x = -1 g sin x = - h sin x = -
2 2
3 3
i cos x = j cos x = - k sin x = 1 l cos x = 0
2 2
understanding
3 WE 14 Solve the following equations for the given values of x.
3 3
a sin 2x = , x Æ [0è, 360è] b cos 2x = - , x Æ [0è, 360è]
2 2
1 −1
c sin 2x = , x Æ [0è, 720è] d sin 3x = , x Æ [-180è, 180è]
2 2
1 1
e sin 4x = - , x Æ [0è, 180è] f sin 3x = - , x Æ [-180è, 180è]
2 2
g cos 4x = -1, x Æ [0è, 90è] h cos 3x = 0, x Æ [0è, 360è]
Reasoning
4 Solve the following equations for x Æ [0è, 360è]
a 2sin x - 1 = 0 b 2cos x = 3
c 2cos x - 1 = 0 d 2sin x + 1 = 0
5 Sam measured the depth of water at the end of the Intergate jetty at various times on Friday
13 August 2010. The table below provides her results.
Time 6 am 7 8 9 10 11 12 pm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Depth 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.5
a Plot the data.

b Determine: reflection  
ii the period ii the amplitude.
Explain why sine and cosine
c Sam fishes from the jetty when the depth is a
functions can be used to
maximum. Specify these times for the next 3 days. model situations which
d Sam’s mother can moor her yacht when the depth is occur in nature such as tide
above 1.5 m. During what periods can she moor the heights and sound waves.
yacht on Sunday 16 January?

Summary
The sine rule
■■ Angles of 30è, 45è and 60è have exact values of sine, cosine and tangent.
q 30è 45è 60è
1 1 2 3
sin q =
2 2 2 2
3 1 2 1
cos q =
2 2 2 2
1 3
tan q = 1 3
3 3
■■ The sine rule states that for any triangle ABC:

a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
■■ When using this rule it is important to note that, depending on the values given, any
combination of the two equalities may be used to solve a particular triangle.
■■ The sine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) two angles and one side length
(b) two side lengths and an angle opposite one of these side lengths.
■■ The ambiguous case exists if C is an acute angle and a > c > a sin C.
The cosine rule

■■ In any triangle ABC:
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
■■ The cosine rule can be used to solve non–right-angled triangles if we are given:
(a) three sides of the triangle
(b) two sides of the triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two given
sides).
■■ If three sides of a triangle are known, an angle could be found by transposing the cosine rule
to make cos A, cos B or cos C the subject.
b2 + c2 − a2
2bc
a2 + c2 − b2
2ac
a2 + b2 − c2
2ab
Area of triangles
■■ If two sides of any triangle and the included angle (that is, the angle between the two given
sides) are known, the following rules may be used to determine the area of that triangle.
1 1 1
Area = 2 ab sin C Area = 2 ac sin B Area = 2 bc sin A

■■ Alternatively, if the lengths of three sides of a triangle are known, Heron’s formula may be
used to find the area of the triangle:
Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
s = 12 (a + b + c)
The unit circle

■■ The unit circle is divided into four quadrants, as shown.
90è 90è
y y
1
P
2nd 1st
sin q
quadrant quadrant 0è q 0è
180è x 180è
3rd 4th –1 cos q 1 x
360è 360è
quadrant quadrant
–1
270è 270è
■■ Sine and cosine of any angle, q, are given as follows: x = cos q and y = sin q, where x and y
are coordinates of point P on the unit circle, corresponding to the given angle.
■■ -1 Ç sin q Ç 1 and -1 Ç cos q Ç 1.
■■ Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2 and negative in quadrants 3 and 4.
■■ Cosine is positive in quadrants 1 and 4 and negative in quadrants 2 and 3.
Trigonometric functions
■■ Trigonometric graphs repeat themselves continuously in cycles and hence they are called
periodic functions.
■■ The period of the graph is the distance between repetitions. For y = sin x and y = cos x, this is
360è.
■■ The amplitude of the graph is the amount the graph goes above and below its mean value. It is
half the distance between the maximum and minimum values. For y = sin x and y = cos x the
mean value is along the x-axis, hence the amplitude is 1 unit.
360°
■■ For the graph of y = asin nx, or y = acos nx the amplitude is a and the period is
n
Solving trigonometric equations
■■ Because of the periodic nature of circular functions, there are infinitely many solutions to
trigonometric equations.
■■ Equations are usually solved within a particular domain (x values), to restrict the number of
solutions.
■■ The smaller the period, the greater the number of solutions within a particular domain.
■■ Solutions can be found for some trigonometric equations algebraically, using the exact values
table.


Chapter review
Fluency 10 MC The value of sin 53è is equal to:
A cos 53è B cos 37è
1 Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
C sin 37è D tan 53è
sin 53è
11 Simplify .
55è sin 37è
x 12 Draw a sketch of y = sin x from 0è Ç x Ç 360è.
13 Draw a sketch of y = cos x from 0è Ç x Ç 360è.
14 Draw a sketch of y = tan x from 0è Ç x Ç 360è.
75è
12 cm Non-calculator questions
x y
15 Label this triangle so that = .
2 Find the value of q, correct to the nearest minute. sin 46è sin 68è
B
105è 3.7 m
10.2 m
A
3 Find all unknown sides and angles of triangle ABC,
given a = 25 m, A = 120è and B = 50è. C
4 Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place. 16 State the period and amplitude of each of the
following graphs.
4.8 cm a y = 2sin 3x b y = -3cos 2x
40è c y
x 1
5.6 cm
x
90è 180è 360è
5 Find the value of q, correct to the nearest degree.
-1
6 cm
6 cm 17 Sketch the following graphs.
a y = 2sin x, x Æ [0è, 360è]
10 cm b y = cos 2x, x Æ [-180è, 180è]
18 Use technology to write down the solutions to the
6 A triangle has sides of length 12 m, 15 m and 20 m. following equations for the domain 0è Ç x Ç 360è to
Find the magnitude (size) of the largest angle. 2 decimal places.
7 A triangle has two sides of 18 cm and 25 cm. The a sin x = -0.2 b cos 2x = 0.7
angle between the two sides is 45è. Find: c 3cos x = 0.1 d 2sin 2x = 0.5
a its area 19 Solve each of the following equations.
b the length of its third side 1
c its area using Heron’s formula. a sin x = - , x Æ [0è, 360è]
2
8 If q = 290è, the triangle to show this would be
3
drawn in which quadrant? b cos x = , x Æ [0è, 360è]
2
9 On the unit circle, draw an appropriate triangle for 1
the angle 110è in quadrant 2. c cos x = , x Æ [0è, 360è]
a Find sin 110è and cos 110è, correct to 2
2
decimal places. 1
d sin x = , x Æ [0è, 360è]
b Find tan 110è, correct to 2 decimal places. 2

20 mC The equation which represents the graph Problem solVing

below could be: 1 A satellite dish is placed on top of an apartment
y building as shown in the diagram below. Find the
3 height of the satellite dish.
2
1
0.22è
x
60è 120è
-1
-2 48.3è
-3
450 m
2 A yacht sets sail from a mariner and sails on a

A y = 3sin 2x B y = 2cos 3x
bearing of 065èT for 3.5 km. It then turns and sails
C y = 3cos 2x D y = 2sin 2x
on a bearing of 127èT for another 5 km.
E y = 2sin 3x
a How far is the yacht from the mariner?
21 a Use technology to help sketch the graph of b On what bearing to the nearest minute should
y = 2sin 2x - 3 the yacht travel if it was to sail directly back to
b Write down the period and the amplitude of the the mariner?
graph in part a.
3 Australian power points supply voltage, V, in volts,
22 Sketch the graphs of each of the following, stating where V = 240 sin 18 000t and t is measured in
ii the period seconds.
ii the amplitude. a Complete the table below and sketch the graph,
a y = 2cos 2x, x Æ [0è, 360è] showing the fluctuations in voltage over time.
b y = 3sin 4x, x Æ [0è, 180è]
c y = -2cos 3x, x Æ [-60è, 60è] t V
d y = 4sin 2x, x Æ [-90è, 90è] 0.000
23 Solve each of the following equations for the given 0.005
values of x.
3 0.010
a cos 2x = , x Æ [0è, 360è]
2 0.015
1 0.020
b sin 3x = , x Æ [-90è, 90è]
2 0.025
1 0.030
c sin 2x = - , x Æ [0è, 360è]
2 0.035
1 0.040
d cos 3x = , x Æ [0è, 180è]
2
b Find the times at which the maximum voltage
e sin 4x = 0, x Æ [0è, 180è]
output occurs.
f cos 4x = -1, x Æ [0è, 360è]
c How many seconds are there between times of
24 Solve the following for x Æ [0è, 360è] maximum voltage output?
a 2cos x - 1 = 0 d How many periods eBook plus
b 2sin x = - 3 (or cycles) are there
Interactivities
c - 2cos x + 1 = 0 per second?
d 2sin x + 1 = 0 int-2885
25 Sketch the graph of y = tan 2x, x Æ [0è, 180è]. int-2883
Write down the period, amplitude and the equations Crossword Chapter 22
of any asymptotes. int-2884

Are you ready? 22E Trigonometric functions
Digital docs (page 732) Interactivity
• SkillSHEET 22.1 (doc-5398): Labelling right-angled • Trigonometric functions (int-2796) (page 755)
triangles
22F Solving trigonometric equations
• SkillSHEET 22.2 (doc-5399): Calculating sin, cos or
tan of an angle Interactivity
• SkillSHEET 22.3 (doc-5400): Finding side lengths • Trigonometry (int-2797) (page 759)
in right-angled triangles Chapter review
• SkillSHEET 22.4 (doc-5401): Calculating the angle
from a sin, cos or tan ratio (page 765)
Interactivities
• SkillSHEET 22.5 (doc-5402): Finding angles in • Test yourself Chapter 22 (int-2885): Take the
right-angled triangles end-of-chapter test to test your progress
22A The sine rule word search involving words associated with this
Digital doc chapter
• WorkSHEET 22.1 (doc-5403): The sine rule • Crossword Chapter 22 (int-2884): an interactive
(page 740) crossword using the definitions associated with the
chapter
22C Area of triangles
Digital doc To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
• WorkSHEET 22.2 (doc-5404): Cosine rule and area www.jacplus.com.au
of triangles (page 749)

23
23A Bivariate data
23B Lines of best fit
23C Time series
What do you know ?

1 List what you know about interpreting
bivariate data. Create a concept map to
show your list.
Interpreting
data interpreting bivariate data.
opening question
Does an athlete’s performance continue

to improve with increasing age?
statistics and probability • data representation and interpretation
are you ready?

eBook plus
Digital doc
SkillSHEET 23.1 Substitution into a linear rule
doc-5405
1 Substitute -1 for x in each of the following equations to calculate the value of y.
a y = 4x - 2 b y = 3 - x c y = -2 - 5x
eBook plus
Solving linear equations that arise when finding x- and y-intercepts
2 For each of the following equations, substitute:
Digital doc
i x = 0 to find the corresponding value of y
SkillSHEET 23.2
doc-5406 ii y = 0 to find the corresponding value of x
a 2x + 3y = 6 b x - 3y = 9 c 4y = 3x - 6
eBook plus
Transposing linear equations to standard form
3 Write the following equations in the form y = mx + c.
Digital doc a 2y + 4x = 8 b 8x - 2y = 10 c 2x + 3y + 5 = 0
SkillSHEET 23.3
doc-5407
eBook plus
Measuring the rise and the run
4 Find the gradient for each of the following straight lines.
Digital doc a y b y c y
SkillSHEET 23.4 10 20 10
doc-5408
5 10 5
-10 -5 0 5 10 x -10 -5 0 5 10 x -10 -5 0 5 10 x

-5 -10 -5
-10 -20 -10
eBook plus
Finding the gradient given two points
5 Find the gradient of the line passing through each of the following pairs of points.
Digital doc a (1, 2) and (3, 7) b (-1, -4) and (2, 3) c (6, -1) and (-2, 1)
SkillSHEET 23.5
doc-5409
eBook plus
Graphing linear equations using the x- and y-intercept method
6 Graph each line with the following equations using the x- and y-intercept method.
Digital doc a 5y - 4x = 20 b 4y - 2x = 5 c 3y + 4x = -12
SkillSHEET 23.6
doc-5410

23A Bivariate data

■■ Bivariate data is really ‘two-variable data’.
■■ The list of bivariate data can be considered as numerical pairs of the type:
(x1, y1), (x2, y2), . . . , (xn, yn)
■■ The easiest way to visualise bivariate data is by constructing a scatterplot.
Scatterplots
■■ Each piece of data on a scatterplot is shown by a point on a Cartesian plane.
■■ The x-coordinate of the point is the value of the independent variable, while the
y-coordinate is the corresponding value of the dependent variable.
Worked Example 1
The following table shows the total revenue from selling tickets for a number of different chamber
music concerts. Represent these data on a scatterplot.
Number of tickets sold 400 200 450 350 250 300 500 400 350 250
Total revenue ($) 8 000 3 600 8 500 7 700 5 800 6 000 11 000 7 500 6 600 5 600
Think Write
1 Determine the nature of the variables with The total revenue depends on the number of
reasoning. tickets being sold, so the number of tickets is the
independent variable and the total revenue is the
dependent variable.
2 Rule up a set of axes on graph paper. Title the Revenue obtained from selling
graph. Label the horizontal axis ‘Number of tickets music concert tickets
11 000
sold’ and the vertical axis ‘Total revenue ($)’.
10 000
3 Scale the horizontal and vertical axes. 9000
Total revenue ($)
4 Plot the points on the scatterplot. In each pair 8000

of values, treat the number of tickets as the 7000
horizontal coordinate and the corresponding total 6000
revenue as the vertical coordinate. For example, 5000
the first pair of values in the table is represented 4000
by the point with coordinates (400, 8000).
3000
0
200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Number of tickets sold
Correlation
■■ It is useful to determine whether any relationship exists between the two variables, and if it
does, what type of relationship it is.
■■ The relationship between the variable is called correlation, and can be classified according to
three properties.
•• Form — whether it is linear or non-linear
•• Direction — whether it is positive or negative
•• Strength — whether it is strong, moderate or weak.
These classifications are qualitative rather than quantitative.
Chapter 23 Interpreting data 769

Linear and non-linear relationships

■■ If the scatterplot is in the shape of a straight, narrow band and a straight line seems to have a
reasonable fit, the relationship between the two variables can be called linear.
y y
x x
Linear relationships
■■ If this is not the case, the relationship is non-linear.
y y
x x
Non-linear relationships
■■ Non-linear relationships can be classified further as being quadratic, exponential and so on.
■■ No correlation exists between the two variables if the points on the scatterplot appear to be
randomly spread over the set of axes.
y
x
No correlation
Positive and negative correlation

■■ Positive correlation occurs if one variable increases as the other variable increases. The data
points on a scatterplot appear to form a path, directed from the bottom left to the top right
corner.
y
x
Positive correlation
■■ Negative correlation occurs if one variable tends to decrease with the increase of the other.
The points on the scatterplot form a path directed from the top left to the bottom right
corner.
y
x
Negative correlation

Strength of the correlation

■■ The narrower the path, the stronger the correlation between the two variables.
y y y
x x x
Strong correlation Moderate correlation Weak correlation
■■ A perfectly linear correlation exists if the points on the scatterplot form a straight line.
y y
x x
Perfectly linear relationships
Worked Example 2
State the type of the relationship between the variables x and y, y

suggested by the scatterplot at right.
Think Write
Carefully analyse the scatterplot and comment The points on the scatterplot form a narrow path that
on its form, direction and strength. resembles a straight ‘corridor’ (that is, it would be
reasonable to fit a straight line to it). Therefore the
relationship is linear.
The path is directed from the bottom left corner to
the top right corner and the value of y increases as x
increases. Therefore the correlation is positive.
Furthermore the points are quite tight; that is, they
form a thin corridor. So the correlation can be classified
as being strong.
There is a strong, positive, linear relationship between
x and y.
Correlation and causation

■■ Even a strong correlation does not necessarily mean that the increase or decrease in the level
of one variable causes an increase or decrease in the level of the other. It is best to avoid
statements such as:
‘An increase in rainfall causes an increase in the wheat growth.’
■■ The following guidelines should be closely followed in order to draw a conclusion about the
relationship between the two variables based on the scatterplot.
•• If the correlation between x and y is weak, we can conclude that there is little evidence to
show that the larger x is, the larger (positive correlation) or smaller (negative correlation) y is.

•• If the correlation between x and y is moderate, we can conclude that there is evidence to show
that the larger x is, the larger (positive correlation) or smaller (negative correlation) y is.
•• If the correlation between x and y is strong, we can conclude that the larger x is, the larger
(positive correlation) or smaller (negative correlation) y is.
Worked Example 3
Mary sells business shirts in a department store. She always records the number of different styles of
shirt sold during the day. The table below shows her sales over one week.
Price ($) 14 18 20 21 24 25 28 30 32 35
Number of shirts sold 21 22 18 19 17 17 15 16 14 11
b State the type of correlation between the two variables and, hence, draw a corresponding conclusion.
Think write
a Draw the scatterplot showing ‘Price ($)’ a

(independent variable) on the horizontal 28
26
Number of shirts sold
axis and ‘Number of shirts sold’ 24
(dependent variable) on the vertical 22
axis. 20
18
16
14
12
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Price ($)
b 1 Carefully analyse the scatterplot b The points on the plot form a path that resembles a
and comment on its form, direction straight, narrow band, directed from the top left corner
and strength. to the bottom right corner. The points are close to
forming a straight line. There is a strong, negative, linear
correlation between the two variables.
2 Draw a conclusion corresponding The price of the shirt appears to affect the number sold;
to the analysis of the scatterplot. that is, the more expensive the shirt the fewer sold.
remember
1. Bivariate data involve two sets of related variables for each piece of data.
2. Bivariate data are best represented on a scatterplot. On a scatterplot each piece of data
is shown by a single point whose x-coordinate is the value of the independent variable,
and whose y-coordinate is the value of the dependent variable.
3. The relationship between two variables is called correlation. Correlation can be
classified as linear, non-linear, positive, negative, weak, moderate or strong.
4. If the points appear to be scattered about the scatterplot in no particular order, then no
correlation between the two variables exists. If the points form a straight line, then the
relationship between the variables is perfectly linear.
5. When drawing conclusions based on the scatterplot, it is important to distinguish between
the correlation and the cause. Strong correlation between the variables does not necessarily
mean that an increase in one variable causes an increase or decrease in the other.

exercise
23a bivariate data
eBook plus fluency
Digital doc 1 For each of the following pairs, decide which of the variables is independent and which is
SkillSHEET 23.7 dependent.
doc-5411 a Number of hours spent studying for a Mathematics test and the score on that test.
b Daily amount of rainfall (in mm) and daily attendance at the Botanical Gardens.
c Number of hours per week spent in a gym and the annual number of visits to the doctor.
d Amount of computer memory taken by an essay and the length of the essay (in words).
e The cost of care in a childcare centre and attendance at the childcare centre.
f The cost of the property (real estate) and the age of the property.
g The entry requirements for a certain tertiary course and the number of applications for
that course.
h The heart rate of a runner and the running speed.
2 We1 The following table shows the cost of a wedding reception at 10 different venues.
Represent the data on a scatterplot.
No of guests 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Total cost (ì $1000) 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.3 2.9 4 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.6
3 We2 State the type of relationship between x and y for each of the following scatterplots.
a y b y c y
x x x
d y e y f y
x x x
g y h y i y
x x x
j y k y l y
x x x
m y n y o y
x x x
chapter 23 Interpreting data 773

eBook plus
4 We3 Eugene is selling leather bags at the local market. During the day he keeps records
of his sales. The table below shows the number of bags sold over one weekend and their
Digital doc corresponding prices (to the nearest dollar).
SkillSHEET 23.8
doc-5413 Price ($) of a bag 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Number of bags sold 10 12 8 6 4 3 4 2 2 1 1

b State the type of correlation between the two variables and,
hence, draw a corresponding conclusion.
understanding
5 The table below shows the number of bedrooms and the price of each of 30 houses.
Number of Price Number of Price Number of Price

bedrooms (ì $1000) bedrooms (ì $1000) bedrooms (ì $1000)
2 180 3 279 3 243
2 160 2 195 3 198
3 240 6 408 3 237
2 200 4 362 2 226
2 155 2 205 4 359
4 306 7 420 4 316
3 297 5 369 2 200
5 383 1 195 2 158
2 212 3 265 1 149
4 349 2 174 3 286

b State the type of correlation between the number of bedrooms and the price of the house
and, hence, draw a corresponding conclusion.
c Suggest other factors that could contribute to the price of the house.
6 The table below shows the number of questions solved by each student on a test, and the
corresponding total score on that test.
Number of questions 2 4 7 10 5 2 6 3 9 4 8 3 6
Total score (%) 22 39 69 100 56 18 60 36 87 45 84 32 63

b What type of correlation does the scatterplot suggest?
c Give a possible explanation as to why the scatterplot is not perfectly linear.

7 A sample of 25 drivers who had obtained a full licence within the last month was asked to
recall the approximate number of driving lessons they had taken (to the nearest 5), and the
number of accidents they had had while being on P plates. The results are summarised in the
table which follows.
Number of Number of Number of Number of

lessons accidents lessons accidents
5 6 5 5
20 2 20 3
15 3 40 0
25 3 25 4
10 4 30 1
35 0 15 4
5 5 35 1
15 1 5 4
10 3 30 0
20 1 15 2
40 2 20 3
25 2 10 4
10 5
a Represent these data on a scatterplot.

b Specify the relationship suggested by the scatterplot.
c Suggest some reasons why this scatterplot is not perfectly linear.
Reasoning
8 Each point on the scatterplot below shows the time (in weeks) spent by a person on a healthy
diet and the corresponding mass lost (in kg).
Loss in mass
Number of weeks
Study the scatterplot and state whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a The number of weeks that the person stays on a diet is the independent variable.
b The y-coordinates of the points represent the time spent by a person on a diet.
c There is evidence to suggest that the longer the person stays on a diet, the greater the loss
in mass.
d The time spent on a diet is the only factor that contributes to the loss in mass.
e The correlation between the number of weeks on a diet and the number of kilograms lost
is positive.

9 mc The scatterplot that best represents the relationship between the amount of water
consumed daily by a certain household for a number of days in summer and the daily
temperature is:
A
Temperature (èC)
B
Water usage (L)

Water usage (L) Temperature (èC)
d
Temperature (èC)
C
Water usage (L)
Temperature (èC) Water usage (L)
10 mc The scatterplot below shows the number of

sides and the sum of interior angles for a number 1300
1200
of polygons. 1100
Which of the following statements is not true?
Sum of angles (è)

1000
A The correlation between the number of 900
sides and the angle sum of the polygon is 800
perfectly linear. 700
600
B The increase in the number of sides causes 500
the increase in the size of the angle sum. 400
C The number of sides depends on the sum of 300
the angles. 200
d The correlation between the two variables is 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
positive. Number of sides
11 mc After studying a scatterplot, it was concluded that
there was evidence that the greater the level of one
variable, the smaller the level of the other variable. The reflection
scatterplot must have shown a: How could you determine
A strong, positive correlation whether the change in one
B strong, negative correlation variable causes the change
C moderate, positive correlation in another variable?
d moderate, negative correlation
23b lines of best fit

■ Although a relationship between two variables can be linear, quadratic, exponential and so on,
eBook plus
only linear relationships will be considered here.
Interactivity ■ The method used is to fit a straight line to the scatterplot. This is positioned by eye, so that
Applying
lines of
there are approximately an equal number of points on either side of the line, with the points
best fit being as close to the line as possible. Such a line is called a line of best fit. It should be noted
int-2798 that the position of this line is rather subjective.
■ Once a line of best fit has been placed on the scatterplot, an equation for this line can be
established, using the coordinates of any two points on the line. These two points do not
necessarily have to be actual data points, but if any data points do lie on the line, these are
chosen as their values are known accurately.

■■ The equation for the line passing through these two selected points can then be calculated.
The equation through the two points (x1, y1) and (y2, y2) is given by:
y −y
y = mx + c, where m = 2 1 .
x2 − x1
Worked Example 4
The data in the table below show the cost of using the internet at a number of different internet cafes
based on hours used per month.
Hours used per month 10 12 20 18 10 13 15 17 14 11
Total monthly cost ($) 15 18 30 32 18 20 22 23 22 18
b Draw in the line of best fit.
c Find the equation of the line of best fit in terms of the variables n (number of hours) and
C (monthly cost).
Think Write/draw
a Draw the scatterplot placing the a

32
independent variable (hours used per 30
Total monthly cost ($)
month) on the horizontal axis and the 28

dependent variable (total monthly cost) 26
on the vertical axis. 24
22
20
18
16
14
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Hours used per month
b 1 Carefully analyse the scatterplot. b
32
2 Position the line of best fit so there 30
Total monthly cost ($)
is approximately an equal number 28 (20, 30)

of data points on either side of the 26
24
line and so that all points are close 22
to the line. 20 (13, 20)
Note: With the line of best fit, 18
there is no single definite solution. 16
14
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Hours used per month
c 1 Select two points on the line which c Let (x1, y1) = (13, 20) and (x2, y2) = (20, 30).
are not too close to each other.
y2 − y1
2 Calculate the gradient of the line. m=
x2 − x1
30 − 20
m=
20 − 13
10
=
7
3 Write the rule for the equation of a y = mx + c
straight line.

10
4 Substitute the known values into y= x+c
the equation. 7
10
5 Substitute one pair of coordinates 20 = (13) + c
(say, 13, 20) into the equation to 7
130
calculate c. c = 20 -
7
140 − 130
=
7
10
=
7
10 10
6 Write the equation. y= x+
7 7
10 10
7 Replace x with n (number of C= n+
hours used) and y with C (the total 7 7
monthly cost) as required.
■■ The line of best fit can be used to graphically predict the value of one variable from that
of another. Because of the subjective nature of the line, it should be noted that predictions
are not accurate values, but rough estimates. Although this is the case, predictions using
this method are considered valuable when no other methods are available.
Worked Example 5
Use the given scatterplot and line of best fit to predict: y

a the value of y when x = 10
45
b the value of x when y = 10. 40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 x
Think write
a 1 Locate 10 on the x-axis and draw a y

a vertical line until it meets with
45
the line of best fit. From that point, 40
draw a horizontal line to the y-axis. 35
Read the value of y indicated by 30
the horizontal line. 25
20
15
10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 x
2 Write your answer. When x = 10, y = 35

b 1 Locate 10 on the y-axis and draw a b y

horizontal line until it meets with
45
the line of best fit. From that point 40
draw a vertical line to the x-axis. 35
Read the value of x indicated by 30
the vertical line. 25
20
15
10
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 x
2 Write your answer. When y = 10, x = 27
■■ If the equation of the line of best fit is known, or can be calculated, predictions can be made
algebraically by substituting known values into the equation.
Worked Example 6
The table below shows the number of boxes of tissues purchased by hayfever sufferers and the
number of days affected by hay fever during the blooming season in spring.
Number of days affected by

3 12 14 7 9 5 6 4 10 8
hayfever (d)
Total number of boxes of

1 4 5 2 3 2 2 2 3 3
tissues purchased (T )
a Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw a line of best fit.

b Determine the equation of the line of best fit.
c Interpret the meaning of the gradient.
d Use the equation of the line of best fit to predict the number of boxes of tissues purchased by people
suffering from hayfever over a period of:
i 11 days
ii 15 days.
Think write
a 1 Draw the scatterplot showing the a T

independent variable (number of
5
days affected by hayfever) on the
horizontal axis and the dependent 4
variable (total number of boxes of
tissues purchased) on the vertical 3
axis.
2
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 d

2 Position the line of best fit on the T

scatterplot so there is approximately 5
an equal number of data points on (14, 5)
either side of the line. 4
1 (3, 1)
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 d
b 1 Select two points on the line which are b Let (x1, y1) = (3, 1) and (x2, y2) = (14, 5).
not too close to each other.
y2 − y1
2 Calculate the gradient of the line. m=
x2 − x1
5 −1 4
m= =
14 − 3 11
3 Write the rule for the equation of a y = mx + c
straight line.
4
4 Substitute the known values into y= x+c
the equation, substituting a known 11
coordinate pair (say, 3, 1) to calculate c. 4
1 = (3) + c
11
12
c=1-
11
−1
=
11
4 1
y= x-
11 11
4 1
5 Replace x with d (number of days T= d-
with hay fever) and y with T (total 11 11
number of boxes of tissues used) as
required.
c 1 Using the line of best fit, interpret the c The gradient indicates an increase in consumption
meaning of the gradient. of tissues as the length of the illness continues. A
4
hayfever sufferer is using on average 11 (or about
0.36) of a box of tissues per day.
d i 1 Substitute the value d = 11 into the d i When d = 11,
equation and evaluate. 4 1
T= × 11 −
11 11
1
=4−
11
10
= 3 11
2 Interpret and write your answer. In 11 days the hayfever sufferer will need about
4 boxes of tissues.

ii 1 Substitute the value d = 15 into the ii When d = 15,

equation and evaluate. 4 1
T= × 15 −
11 11
60 1
= −
11 11
4
= 5 11
2 Interpret and write your answer. In 15 days the hayfever sufferer will need
6 boxes of tissues.
eBook plus interpolation and extrapolation

Interactivity
■ Interpolation is the term used for predicting a value of a variable from within the range of the
Extrapolation given data.
int-1154 ■ Extrapolation occurs when the value of the variable being predicted is outside the range of the
given data.
T
■ In the previous worked example, the values of the
given set of data ranged from 3 days to 14 days. 5
Extrapolation (14, 5)
This means that the predicted value for 11 days
4 (outside the
was an example of interpolation, whereas the given range)
predicted value for 15 days was an example of 3 Interpolation
extrapolation. (inside the
■ Predictions involving interpolation are considered 2 given range)
to be quite reliable. Those involving extrapolation
can be viewed with caution, as they rely on the 1 (3, 1)
trend of the line remaining unchanged beyond the 0
range of the data. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 d
reliability of predictions
■ When predictions of any type are made, it is always good to know whether they are reliable
or not.
■ If the line of best fit is used to make predictions, they can be considered to be reliable if each
of the following is observed.
• The number of observations (that is, points constituting the scatterplot) is reasonably
large
• the scatterplot indicates reasonably strong correlation between the variable
• the predictions are made using interpolation.
least squares lines y

■ Least squares regression involves an exact
mathematical approach to fitting a line of best
fit to bivariate data which shows a strong linear
correlation.
■ Consider the regression line shown at right.
The vertical lines give an indication of how
well the line best ‘fits’ the data. The line of best
fit is placed so that these ‘error’ lines are
minimised, by balancing the errors above and
below the line. x

■■ Least-squares regression takes these error lines, forms squares, and minimises the sum of the
squares. y
x
■■ The actual calculation of the equation of a least squares regression line is complicated;
however, a calculator can generate the equation with ease.
Correlation coefficient
■■ Once a relationship between two variables has been established, it is helpful to develop a quantitative
value to indicate the strength of the relationship. One method is to calculate a correlation coefficient
(r). This is easily done using a calculator, but a manual method is shown below.
■■ The formula for the correlation coefficient r is:
r=
∑ ( x − x )( y − y )
∑ ( x − x )2 ∑ ( y − y )2
where x and y are the two sets of scores
x and y are the means of those scores
the symbol “ representing the sum of the expressions indicated.
■■ The correlation coefficient is a value in the range −1 to +1. The value of −1 indicates a perfect
negative relationship between the two variables, while the value of +1 indicates a perfect
positive relationship. For values within this range, a variety of descriptors are used, typically
as described in the following table, for positive values of r.
Value of r Description
1 Perfect
0.9 – <1.0 Very strong/very high
0.7 – <0.9 Strong/high
0.4 – <0.7 Moderate/reasonable
0.2 – <0.4 Weak/slight/low
0.0 – <0.2 Negligible/very weak
0 Nil/no
Similar descriptors can also be used for negative values of r.
Worked Example 7
The percentages from two tests (an English and Maths) Student English (%) Maths (%)
for a group of 5 students are as shown:
1 95 85
a Calculate the correlation coefficient between the
two sets of results. 2 85 95
b Based on this value, describe the relationship 3 80 70
between the English and Maths results for this 4 70 65
group of students. 5 60 70

Think write
a 1 Draw up a table a
x y (x - x ) (x - x )2 (y - y ) (y - y )2 (x - x )(y - y )
to calculate all the
necessary data: 95 85 17 289 8 64 136
x , y , (x - x ), (y, - y ),
85 95 7 49 18 324 126
(x - x )2, (y - y )2
80 70 2 4 -7 49 -14
70 65 -8 64 -12 144 96
60 70 -18 324 -7 49 126
“ 390 385 730 630 470
Mean 78 77
2 Substitute into the r=

∑ ( x − x )( y − y )
formula to calculate ∑ ( x − x )2 ∑ ( y − y )2
the correlation 470
coefficient r. =
730 × 630
= 0.69
b Describe the relationship. b A correlation coefficient of 0.69 indicates that the relationship
between English and Maths marks for this group of students is only
moderate. This seems to indicate that students who are good at
English are not necessarily good at Maths, and vice versa.
remember
1. If the scatterplot indicates a linear relationship between two variables, the linear model
of the relationship can be established as follows:
(a) position a line of best fit into the scatterplot
(b) select any two points on the line and determine the equation of the line. The
equation of the line passing through two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by:
y − y1
y = mx + c where m = 2 .
x2 − x1
2. The line of best fit can be used for predicting the value of one variable when given the
value of the other. This can be done graphically, or if the equation of the line is known,
algebraically (by substituting known values into the equation of the line of best fit).
3. When the value that is being predicted using the line of best fit is within the given
range, the process is called interpolation. When the value that is being predicted using
the line of best fit is outside the given range, the process is called extrapolation.
4. Only predictions made using interpolation can be considered reliable.
5. Least squares regression involves a mathematical approach to fitting a line of best fit
to bivariate data which shows a strong linear correlation. It takes error lines, forms
squares, and minimises the sum of the squares. A calculator is best used for the
calculations.
6. The correlation coefficient r is a quantitative measure of the correlation between
two variables. The value of r lies in the range -1 to +1. The closer the value of r lies to
zero, the weaker the correlation between the two variables.

exercise
23b lines of best fit
eBook plus understanding
Digital doc 1 We4 The data in the table below show the distances travelled by 10 cars and the amount of
SkillSHEET 23.5 petrol used for their journeys (to the nearest litre).
doc-5409 a Construct a scatterplot of the data.
b Draw in the line of best fit.
c Determine the equation of the line of best fit in terms of the variables d (distance
travelled) and P (petrol used).
Distance travelled (km) d 52 36 83 12 44 67 74 23 56 95
Petrol used (L) P 7 5 9 2 7 9 12 3 8 14
2 A random sample of ten Year 10 students who have part-time jobs was selected. Each student
was asked to state the average number of hours they work per week and their average weekly
earnings (to the nearest dollar). The results are summarised in the table below.
Hours worked h 4 8 15 18 10 5 12 16 14 6
Weekly earnings ($) E 23 47 93 122 56 33 74 110 78 35
a Construct a scatterplot of the data using technology.
b Draw in the line of best fit using technology.
c Write the equation of the line of best fit, in terms of variables h (hours worked) and
E (weekly earnings).
d Interpret the meaning of the gradient.
3 We5 Use the given scatterplot and line of best fit to predict:
y
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x
a the value of y when x = 45
b the value of x when y = 15.
4 Analyse the graph below and use the line of best fit to predict:
y
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 x
a the value of y when the value of x is:
i 7 ii 22 iii 36
b the value of x when the value of y is:
i 120 ii 260 iii 480.
c Determine the equation of the line of best fit, if it is known that it passes through the
points (5, 490) and (40, 80).
d Use the equation of the line to verify the values obtained from the graph in parts a and b.

5 WE6 The table below shows the average weekly expenditure on food for households of
various sizes.
Number of people in a household 1 2 4 7 5 4 3 5
Cost of food ($ per week) 70 100 150 165 150 140 120 155
Number of people in a household 2 4 6 5 3 1 4
Cost of food ($ per week) 90 160 160 160 125 75 135
a Construct a scatterplot of the data and draw in the line of

best fit.
b Determine the equation of the line of best fit. Write it
in terms of variables n (for the number of people in a
household) and C (weekly cost of food).
d Use the equation of the line of best fit to predict the weekly
food expenditure for a family of:
i 8 ii 9 iii 10.
6 The following table shows the gestation time and the birth mass of 10 babies.
Gestation time
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
(weeks)
Birth mass (kg) 1.080 1.470 1.820 2.060 2.230 2.540 2.750 3.110 3.080 3.370
Use technology to answer the following questions.

a Construct a scatterplot of the data. What type of correlation does the scatterplot suggest?
b Draw in the line of best fit and determine its equation. Write it in terms of the variables
t (gestation time) and M (birth mass).
c What does the value of the gradient represent?
d Although full term of gestation is considered to be 40 weeks, some pregnancies last
longer. Use the equation obtained in part b to predict the birth mass of babies born after
41 and 42 weeks of gestation.
e Many babies are born prematurely. Using the equation obtained in part b, predict the
birth mass of a baby whose gestation time was 30 weeks.
f If the birth mass of the baby was 2.390 kg, what was his or her gestation time (to the
nearest week)?
7 WE7 The number of hours spent studying, and the marks obtained by a group of students on a
test are shown in this table.
Hours spent studying 45 30 90 60 105 65 90 80 55 75
Marks obtained 40 35 75 65 90 50 90 80 45 65
a Calculate the correlation coefficient between the two sets of data.
b Based on this value, describe the relationship between the number of hours spent
studying, and the mark obtained.
Reasoning
8 As a part of her project, Rachel is growing a crystal. Every day she measures the crystal’s
mass using special laboratory scales and records it. The table below shows the results of her
experiment.
Day number 1 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 11 12 15 16
Mass (g) 2.5 3.7 4.2 5.0 6.1 8.4 9.9 11.2 11.6 12.8 16.1 17.3

Measurements on days 6, 7, 13 and 14 are missing, since these were 2 consecutive weekends
and, hence, Rachel did not have a chance to measure her crystal, which is kept in the school
laboratory.
a Construct the scatterplot of the data and draw in the line of best fit.
b Determine the equation of the line of best fit. Write the equation, using variables d (day
of the experiment) and M (mass of the crystal).
d For her report, Rachel would like to fill in the missing measurements (that is, the mass of
the crystal on days 6, 7, 13 and 14). Use the equation of the line of best fit to help Rachel
find these measurements. Is this an example of interpolation or extrapolation? Explain
your answer.
e Rachel needed to continue her experiment for 2 more days, but she fell ill and had to miss
school. Help Rachel to predict the mass of the crystal on those two days (that is, day 17
and 18), using the equation of the line of best fit. Are these predictions reliable? Explain
your answer.
9 mc Consider the figure at right. y
The line of best fit on the scatterplot at right is
used to predict the values of y when x = 15, x = 40
and x = 60.
a Interpolation would be used to predict the value of
y when the value of x is:
A 15 and 40 B 15 and 60
C 15 only d 40 only
e 60 only 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x
b The prediction of the y-value(s) can be considered
reliable when:
A x = 15 and x = 40 B x = 15, x = 40 and x = 60
C x = 40 d x = 40 and x = 60
e x = 60
10 mc The scatterplot at right is used to predict y
the value of y when x = 300. 500
This prediction is:
400
A reliable, because it is obtained using
300
interpolation
B not reliable, because it is obtained using 200
extrapolation 100
C not reliable, because only x-values can be 0
predicted with confidence 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 x
eBook plus
d reliable because the scatterplot contains large
Digital doc
number of points reflection
WorkSHEET 23.1
doc-5412 e not reliable, because there is no correlation
Why is extrapolation considered
between x and y to be not reliable?
23c time series

■ A time series is a sequence of measurements taken at regular intervals (that is, daily, weekly,
eBook plus
monthly and so on) over a certain period of time.
eLesson ■ Time series plots are similar to scatterplots. However, they are usually drawn as a series
Fluctuations
of points with straight lines joining adjacent points in time. Time is plotted on the x-axis,
and cycles
eles-0181 with the other relevant data plotted on the y-axis. Plots of this type are frequently seen in
newspapers and magazines. They include daily temperatures, monthly employment rates and
daily share prices.

■■ The purpose of these plots is to analyse general trends, and to make predictions for the
future. The value of the variable may go up and down in an erratic pattern. These are called
fluctuations. However, over a long period of time, the time series will usually suggest a
certain trend, called a long-term trend.
■■ Trends can be classified as being:
•• linear or non-linear
Data Data
Linear trend t Non-linear trend t
•• downward or upward
Data Data
Downward trend t Upward trend t
•• stationary in the mean (that is, no trend).
Data
Stationary in the mean t

(no trend)
Worked Example 8
Classify the trend suggested by the time series graph below as being linear or non-linear, and
upward, downward or stationary in the mean (no trend).
Data

Think Write
Carefully analyse the given graph and comment on The time series graph does not resemble a straight
whether the graph resembles a straight line or not line and overall the level of the variable, y,
and whether the values of y increase or decrease over decreases over time. The time series graph suggests
time. a non-linear downward trend.
Worked Example 9
The data below show the average daily mass of a person (to the nearest 100 g), recorded over a
period of 4 weeks.
63.6, 63.8, 63.5, 63.7, 63.2, 63.0, 62.8, 63.3, 63.1, 62.7, 62.6, 62.5, 62.9, 63.0,
63.1, 62.9, 62.6, 62.8, 63.0, 62.6, 62.5, 62.1, 61.8, 62.2, 62.0, 61.7, 61.5, 61.2
a Plot these masses as a time series graph.
b Comment on the trend.
Think Write/draw
a 1 Draw the points on a scatterplot with day a

64.0
on the horizontal axis and mass on the 63.8
vertical axis. 63.6
63.4
63.2
63.0
62.8
Mass (kg)
62.6
62.4
62.2
62.0
61.8
61.6
61.4
61.2
61.0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Day
2 Join the points with straight line

segments.
b 1 Carefully analyse the given graph and b The graph resembles a straight line that slopes
comment on whether the graph resembles downwards from left to right (that is, mass
a straight line or not and whether the decreases with increase in time). Although a
values of y (in this case, mass) increase or person’s mass fluctuates daily, the time series
decrease over time. graph suggests a downward trend. That is,
overall, the person’s mass has decreased over
the 28-day period.
Trend lines
■■ Trend lines can be compared with lines of best fit. They indicate the general trend of the data.
■■ The main use of trend lines is in forecasting, or making predictions about the future. This
obviously involves extrapolation, which has limited reliability. In this case, no future
information is available, so the predictions are based on the assumption that the current trend
will continue into the future.

Worked Example 10
The graph at right shows the average cost of renting a

one-bedroom flat, as recorded over a 10-year period. 300
a If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and comment 280
on the type of the trend. 260
Cost of rent ($)

b Assuming that the current trend will continue, 240
use the line of best fit to predict the cost of rent in
220
5 years’ time.
200
180
160
140
1 5 10 15
Year
Think Write/draw
a 1 Analyse the given graph and observe a

what occurs over a period of time. Decide 300
whether a straight line can fit the data. 280
Draw a line of best fit if appropriate. 260
Cost of rent ($)
240
220
200
180
160
140
1 5 10 15
Year
2 Comment on the type of trend observed. The graph illustrates that the cost of rent
increases steadily over the years. The plot
indicates a linear trend. The time series graph
indicates an upward linear trend.
b 1 Extend the line of best fit drawn in part a. b
The last entry corresponds to the 10th year
and we need to predict the cost of rent in
5 years’ time; that is, in the 15th year.
2 Locate 15th year on the time axis and
300
draw a vertical line until it meets with the
line of best fit. From the trend line (line 280
of best fit) draw a horizontal line to the 260
Cost of rent ($)
cost axis. 240

220
200
180
160
140
1 5 10 15
Year

3 Read the cost from the vertical axis.

4 Write your answer. Assuming that the cost of rent will continue to
increase at the present rate, in 5 years we can
expect the cost of rent to reach $260 per week.
remember
1. Time series graphs are line graphs with the time plotted on the horizontal axis.
2. Time series are used for analysing general trends and for making predictions for the
future.
3. Predictions involving time series graphs are always based on the assumption that the
current trend will continue in the future.
Exercise
23c Time series
fluency
1 WE 8 Classify the trend suggested by each time series graph as being linear or non-linear, and
upward, downward or stationary in the mean (no trend).
a Data b Data
t t
c Data d Data
t t
e Data f Data
t t
g Data h Data
t t

2 WE 9 The data below show the average daily

temperatures recorded in May.
17.6, 17.4, 18.0, 17.2, 17.5, 16.9, 16.3, 17.1, 16.9, 16.2,
16.0, 16.6, 16.1, 15.4, 15.1 15.5, 16.0, 16.0, 15.4,
15.2, 15.0, 15.5, 15.1, 14.8, 15.3, 14.9, 14.6, 14.4,
15.0, 14.2
a Plot these temperatures as a time series graph.
b Comment on the trend.
Understanding
3 The data below show the quarterly sales (in thousands of dollars) recorded by the owner of a
sheepskin product store over a period of 4 years.
Quarter 2006 2007 2008 2009
1 57 59 50 52
2 100 102 98 100
3 125 127 120 124
4 74 70 72 73
a Plot the time series.
b The time series plot displays seasonal fluctuations of period 4 (since there are four
quarters). Explain in your own words what this means. Also write one or two possible
reasons for the occurrence of these fluctuations.
c Overall, does the time series plot indicate upward, downward or no trend?
4 The table below shows the total monthly revenue (in thousands of dollars) obtained by the
owners of a large reception hall. The revenue comes from rent and catering for various
functions over a period of 3 years.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
2007 60 65 40 45 40 50 45 50 55 50 55 70
2008 70 65 60 65 55 60 60 65 70 75 80 85
2009 80 70 65 70 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100
a Construct a time series plot for these data.
b Describe the graph (peaks and troughs, long-term trend, any other patterns).
c Try to give possible reasons for monthly fluctuations.
d Does the graph show seasonal fluctuations of period 12? Are there any patterns that
repeat from year to year?
5 The owner of a motel and caravan park
90
Number of rooms/sites occupied
in a small town keeps records of the total

number of rooms and total number of 80
camp sites occupied per month. The time 70
series plots based on his records are shown 60
at right. 50
a Describe each graph, discussing general
40
trend, peaks and troughs and so on.
30
Explain particular features of the
graphs and give possible reasons. 20
b Compare the two graphs and write a 10
short paragraph commenting on any
Jan April Aug Dec
similarities and differences between Month
them. Camp sites Motel rooms

6 WE 10 The graph below shows enrolments in the Health and Nutrition course at a local
college over a 10-year period.
120
100
90
80
70
Enrolment
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Year
a If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and comment on the type of the trend.
b Assuming that the trend will continue, use the line of best fit to predict the enrolment for
the course in 5 years’ time; that is, in the 15th year.
Reasoning
7 In June a new childcare centre was opened. The number of children attending full time
(according to the enrolment at the beginning of each month) during the first year of operation
is shown in the table below.
June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May
6 8 7 9 10 9 12 10 11 13 12 14
a Plot this time series.

b Is the child care business going well? Justify your answer.
c Draw a line of best fit and find its equation, using coordinates of any two points on the
line. (Let June = 1, July = 2 and so on.)
d Use your equation of the line of best fit to predict the enrolment in the centre during the
second year of operation at the beginning of:
i August ii January
What assumptions have you made?
8 The graph below shows the monthly sales of a certain book since its publication. Explain in
your own words why linear trend forecasting of the future sales of this book is not appropriate.
Sales
Time

9 a Choose an object or subject that is of interest to you and which can be observed and
measured during one day. For example, you might decide to measure your own pulse rate.
b Prepare a table where you will record your results every hour within the school day. For
example, for the pulse rate the table might look like this.
Time 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm
Pulse rate
c Take your measurements at the regular time intervals you have decided on and record
them in the table.
d Plot the time series obtained as a result of your experiment.
e Describe the graph and comment on the trend.
eBook plus f If appropriate, draw in a line of best fit and predict the values (that is, your pulse rate) for
the next 2–3 hours.
Digital doc g Take the actual measurements during the hours you have made predictions for. Compare
WorkSHEET 23.2
doc-5415
your predictions with the actual measurements. Were your predictions accurate? Why or
why not?
reflection
Why are predictions in the future
appropriate for time series even
though they involve extrapolation?

Summary
Bivariate data
■■ Bivariate data involve two sets of related variables for each piece of data.
■■ Bivariate data are best represented on a scatterplot. On a scatterplot each piece of data is
shown by a single point whose x-coordinate is the value of the independent variable, and
whose y-coordinate is the value of the dependent variable.
■■ The relationship between two variables is called correlation. Correlation can be classified as
linear, non-linear, positive, negative, weak, moderate or strong.
■■ If the points appear to be scattered about the scatterplot in no particular order, then no
correlation between the two variables exists. If the points form a straight line, then the
relationship between the variables is perfectly linear.
■■ When drawing conclusions based on the scatterplot, it is important to distinguish between the
correlation and the cause. Strong correlation between the variables does not necessarily mean
that an increase in one variable causes an increase or decrease in the other.
Lines of best fit

■■ If the scatterplot indicates a linear relationship between two variables, the linear model of the
relationship can be established as follows:
(a) position a line of best fit into the scatterplot
(b) select any two points on the line and determine the equation of the line. The equation of
the line passing through two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by:
y − y1
y = mx + c where m = 2 .
x2 − x1
■■ The line of best fit can be used for predicting the value of one variable when given the value
of the other. This can be done graphically, or if the equation of the line is known, algebraically
(by substituting known values into the equation of the line of best fit).
■■ When the value that is being predicted using the line of best fit is within the given range, the
process is called interpolation. When the value that is being predicted using the line of best fit
is outside the given range, the process is called extrapolation.
■■ Only predictions made using interpolation can be considered reliable.
■■ Least squares regression involves a mathematical approach to fitting a line of best fit to
bivariate data which shows a strong linear correlation. It takes error lines, forms squares, and
minimises the sum of the squares. A calculator is best used for the calculations.
■■ The correlation coefficient r is a quantitative measure of the correlation between
two variables. The value of r lies in the range -1 to +1. The closer the value of r lies to zero,
the weaker the correlation between the two variables.
Time series
■■ Time series graphs are line graphs with the time plotted on the horizontal axis.
■■ Time series are used for analysing general trends and for making predictions for the
future.
■■ Predictions involving time series graphs are always based on the assumption that the current
trend will continue in the future.


Chapter review
Fluency 3 The graph shows the number of occupants of a
large nursing home over the last 14 years.
1 As preparation for a Mathematics test, a group of
20 students was given a revision sheet containing
60 questions. The table below shows the number 130
of questions from the revision sheet successfully 120
completed by each student and the mark, out of
Number of occupants
110
100, of that student on the test.
100
Number of 90
9 12 37 60 55 40 10 25 50 48 60
questions 80
Test result 18 21 52 95 100 67 15 50 97 85 89 70
Number of 60
50 48 35 29 19 44 49 20 16 58 52 50
questions
Test result 97 85 62 54 30 70 82 37 28 99 80
a State which of the variables is dependent and
19 6
19 7
19 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
20 6
20 7
20 8
09
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
which is independent.
Year
b Construct a scatterplot of the data.
c State the type of correlation between the two
variables suggested by the scatterplot and draw a Comment on the type of trend displayed.
a corresponding conclusion. b Explain why it is appropriate to draw in a line
d Suggest why the relationship is not perfectly of best fit.
linear. c Draw a line of best fit and use it to predict the
number of occupants in the nursing home in
2 a Use the line of best fit shown on the graph below
3 years’ time.
to predict the value of y, when the value of x is:
d What assumption has been made when
i 10 ii 35.
predicting figures for part c ?
b Use the line of best fit to predict the value of x,
when the value of y is: 4 The table below shows the advertised sale price
i 15 ii 30. (‘000s dollars) and the land size (m2) for ten vacant
c Find the equation of a line of best fit if it is blocks of land.
known that it passes through the points (5, 5)
Land size (m2) Sale price (ì $1000)
and (20, 27).
d Use the equation of the line to algebraically 632 36
verify the values obtained from the graph in 1560 58
parts a and b.
800 40
y
50 1190 44
45 770 41
40
1250 52
35
30
1090 43
25 1780 75
20 1740 72
15
920 43
10
5 a Construct a scatterplot and determine the
equation of the line of best fit.
x
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 b What does the gradient represent?

c Using the line of best fit, predict the c Using your line of best fit, predict the number
approximate sale price, to the nearest 000’ of pirouettes that could be complete if a student
dollars for a block of land with an area of undertakes 14 hours of training.
1600 m2. d Professional ballet dancers may undertake up
d Using the line of best fit, predict the to 30 hours of training a week. Using your line
approximate land size, to the nearest 10 square best fit, predict the number of pirouettes they
metres, you could purchase with $50 000. should be able to do in a row. Comment on
5 The table below shows, for fifteen students, the your findings.
amount of pocket money they receive and spend at 7 The table below shows the heights of 10 students
the school canteen in an average week. and the distances along the ground between their
feet as they attempt to do the splits.
Pocket money ($) Canteen spending ($)
30 16 Height (cm) Distance stretched (cm)
40 17 134.5 150
15 12 156 160
25 14 133.5 147
40 16 145 160
15 14 160 162
30 16 135 149
30 17 163 163
25 15
138 149
15 13
152 158
50 19
159 160
20 14
35 17 Using the data, estimate the distance a person
1.8-m tall can achieve when attempting the splits.
20 15
Write a detailed analysis of your result. Include:
10 13 – an explanation of the method(s) used
a Construct a scatterplot and determine the – any plots or formula generated
equation of the line of best fit. – comments on validity of the estimate
b What does the gradient represent? – any ways the validity of the estimate could be
c Using your line of best fit, predict the amount improved.
of money spent at the canteen for a student
receiving $45 pocket money a week. problem solving
d Using your line best fit, predict the amount of 1 For his birthday, Ari was given a small white rabbit.
money spent at the canteen by a student who To monitor the rabbit’s growth, Ari decided to
receives $100 pocket money each week? Does measure it once a week. The table below shows the
this seem reasonable? Explain. length of the rabbit for various weeks.
6 The table below shows, for 10 ballet students, the
Week
number of hours a week spent training and the 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 13 14 17 20
number n
number of pirouettes in a row they can complete.
Length (cm) l 20 21 23 24 25 30 32 35 36 37 39
Training (h) 11 11 2 8 4 16 11 16 5 3
Number of b Draw a line of best fit and determine its equation.
15 13 3 12 7 17 13 16 8 5 c As can be seen from the table, Ari did not
pirouettes
measure his rabbit on weeks 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 15,
a Construct a scatterplot and determine the 16, 18 and 19. Use the equation of the line of
equation of the line of best fit. best fit to predict the length of the rabbit for
b What does the gradient represent? those weeks.

d Were the predictions made in part c an example e Is a line of best fit a good way to predict future
of interpolation or extrapolation? Explain. improvement in this situation? What problems
e Predict the length of the rabbit in the next three are there with using a line of best fit?
weeks (that is, weeks 21–23), using the line of f There will also be Olympic Games held when
best fit from part c. Laurie is 24 years old and 28 years old. Using
f Are the predictions that have been made in part extrapolation, what length would you predict
e reliable? Explain. Laurie could jump at these two ages? Is this
g Check your results using technology. realistic?
2 Laurie is training for the long jump, hoping to g When Laurie was 14, he twisted a knee
make the Australian Olympic team. His best jump in training and did not compete for the
each year is shown in the table below. whole season. In that year, a national junior
championship was held. The winner of that
Age (a) Best jump (B) (metres) championship jumped 6.5 metres. Use your
8 4.31 line of best fit to predict whether Laurie would
have won that championship.
9 4.85
3 The existence of the following situations is often
10 5.29 considered an obstacle to making estimates from
11 5.74 data.
12 6.05 a Outlier
b Extrapolation
13 6.21
c Small range of data
14 — d small Number of data points
15 6.88 Explain why each of these situations is considered
an obstacle to making estimates of data and how
16 7.24
each might be overcome.
17 7.35
18 7.57
a Plot the points generated by the table on a

scatterplot.
b Join the points generated with straight line
eBook plus
segments.
c Draw a line of best fit and determine its Interactivities
equation. Test yourself Chapter 23
int-2888
d The next Olympic Games will occur when Word search Chapter 23
Laurie is 20 years old. Use the equation of the int-2886
line of best fit to estimate Laura’s best jump Crossword Chapter 23
that year and whether it will pass the qualifying int-2887
mark of 8.1 metres.

Digital docs
Are you ready?
• SkillSHEET 23.5 (doc-5409): Finding the gradient
Digital docs (page 768) given two points (page 784)
• SkillSHEET 23.1 (doc-5405): Substitution into a • WorkSHEET 23.1 (doc-5412): Lines of best fit
linear rule (page 786)
• SkillSHEET 23.2 (doc-5406): Solving linear
equations that arise when finding x- and 23C Time series
y-intercepts eLesson
• SkillSHEET 23.3 (doc-5407): Transposing linear • Fluctuations and cycles (eles-0181) (page 786)
equations to standard form Digital doc
• SkillSHEET 23.4 (doc-5408): Measuring the rise • WorkSHEET 23.2 (doc-5415): Time series
and the run (page 793)
• SkillSHEET 23.5 (doc-5409): Finding the gradient
given two points Chapter review
• SkillSHEET 23.6 (doc-5410): Graphing linear Interactivities (page 797)
equations using the x- and y-intercept method • Test yourself Chapter 23 (int-2888): Take the end-of-
chapter test to test your progress
23A Bivariate data
Digital docs word search involving words associated with this
• SkillSHEET 23.7 (doc-5411): Determining chapter
independent and dependent variables (page 773) • Crossword Chapter 23 (int-2887): an interactive
• SkillSHEET 23.8 (doc-5413): Determining the type crossword using the definitions associated with the
of correlation (page 774) chapter
23B Lines of best fit
Interactivities
• Applying lines of best fit (int-2798) (page 776) www.jacplus.com.au
• Extrapolation (int-1154) (page 781)

Answers
CHAPTER 1 6a 3 2a 4
g 5
h a6 i
Indices bc 3
Are you ready? 7b 3 2 m3 a 2
j 2ab2 k l
1 a Base is 3, power is 4 2a 4 3b 4 n5
b Base is 2, power is 5 1 6 3 4
c Base is 15, power is 7 2 a b c d
2 a 16 b 125 c 4096 a 2b3 x6 y n8 a2b5
3 a 3 b 11 c 17 5y 3 4 y12
e 2 y f g h
4 a 8 b 10 c 5 3x 6x3 m 2 n2 x5
5 a 2 b 5 c 9 8
6 a 4 b 6 c 1 1 1 4q 3
i j k l
7 a 5 b 10 c 6 3m3 n3 32a m 15 20
p 14
a8b12
d 4 e 2 f 5
27q 9 b6 1
8 a 4.7958 b 10.0995 c 6.3246 m n o
d 3.9149 e 2.2240 f 4.9324 8 p6 4 a8 8a6 b6
1 1 1 8
3 a b c d
8 36 81 9
Exercise 1A — Review of index laws
1 a a7 b a6 c b8 d a4b7 e 1
f 5 g 48 h 32
16 36 27
5 13 5 7 3
e m n f a b c g m6n4p5 h 6a2b
4 9 8 7 i 27
=12 j 4 k 125 l 3
i 10a b j 36m n k 12x6y6 l 4x8y6 25 25 4
2 a a b a 5
c b3 d 3 a4
4 4 a 0.001 371 742 b 0.000 048 225
1 2
c 0.000 059 499 d 256
e 3b4 f 4m5 g m3n h y e 7.491 540 924 f 5 419 228.099
2
i 3 3
x y j 7b3 k 5 2 2
m p l 1
xy2 5 a D b C c B
4 4 2 6 a B b D
3 a 1 b 1 c 1 c C d E
d 3 e 4 f -3 m2 n2 25
g 3 h -7 i 4 7 a b c 7 6
n 8 m a b
1 8
4 a a6 b 16a20 c m 8 a r6 - s6 b m10 + 2m5n5 + n10
81
c 1 d p2
d 4 n8 e a6b3 f 9a6b4 9 2 2r - 4
9
27 6 3 a4 10 63m
g 16m12n20 h m n i 11 x = 3
64
b6
3
12 a The power is reduced by 1.
625m 12 343 x 81a 4 b Each answer is divided by 2 to get the next answer.
j k l
n 8 8 y15 625b12 1
c If the pattern continues we will get 2-1 = ,
m -243 n 49 o -32 1 1 21
5 a D b D 2-2 = = 2 , etc. which illustrates a-n = n .
4 2 a
6 a C b E c B d D
7 a 64 b 72 c 625 Exercise 1C — Fractional indices
d 48 e 1600 f 27 1 a 4 b 5 c 9
125
g 20 h 1 i 4 d 2 e 4 f 3
8 a x 3yz b ab c manb g 2 h 125 i 216
j 10 000 000 k 8 l 9
a2 x 2 a 1.44 b 2.24 c 1.48
d 3 x e n3 - pm2 - q f amp + np
d 1.26 e 2.54 f 0.66
Answers
b
Answers 7A
g 0.54 h 0.81 i 0.86

9 1 ê 3 4 1 5
10 1 ô 1 2 ô 10 3 ô 11 4 ô 100 5 ô 101 3 a 4 5 b 2 2 c a 6
23 8 5
6 ô 110 7 ô 111 8 ô 1000 9 ô 1001 10 ô 1010
d x 20 e 10 m15 f 2b
7
1A ➜ 1C
Exercise 1B — Negative indices 20 9 7
1 1 2 g −4 y 9 h 0.02a 8 i 5 x 2
1 a 5 b 4 c 3 4 5 8 17
x y a9
7E
4 a ab 2 b x 5 y
9 c 6a 5 b 15
4 3x 2 1
d 3
e f 19 2 19 5 5 2 9
5a y 3
4 m3 n 4 d 2m 28 n 5 e x 6 y 6 z 6 f 8a 5 b 8 c
Answers 799
1 1
5
3a 2 m 2 n4
5 a 3 6 b 512 c 12 2 3 a b 8n2 c
3 5 11
2 3
d a 7 e x 4 f m 45 4 x5 36 x 6 y2
d e f
3 2 7 3y 8 y x4
1 1 3 5 20
g x 20 h n i b 17 7
2 3 4 b7 75q 5
5 7 7 4 3 11
g h i x 10 y 10
1 8 56 3a 4 2 p11
6 a x 3 y 5 b a 45 b 15 c m n
3 2 4 m5
4 a 4 a 3b 3 n9
2 3 11 7 5 1 5a b 4 7 b c d
2 x 15 y 4 1 1 15 4 m9 9 n15
d e a 20 b 20 f p 24 q 12
4 7 1
9 1 6 4 11 6 3 p4 2b 12
e f 48x y g h
7 a 2 20 b 56 c 75 81x 2 y14 5q 9 17
3 1 1 1 3a 24
1
d a 10 e m6 f 23 b 6
2 m 4 x 12
p
b a i 21
g 4 p5 h x i 3c mc
1 1 3 3 y 20
8 a a b 4 6 b a 3b 4 5 56a11b6 1024 b 2
5 a 13 b c
6 7 1 1 1 1 2a 81 81a
33 9
a b c 5 4
c x5y4 d
d
25 4 y 36 f 6m19n19
1 1 1
1 e
a2 128 x 23 y 4 27 x16
e 5 x y z 4 3 5 f 2
11 11
b3 16m12 n 4b 2
8 2 g h
3 1 7
m5 b5 3 2 c 30
g 7
h 8 125
n4 c 27 6 a 8
b 1
1 7 7 1
22x2 8 a 5y - 1 b y = 4
i 3
9 E
y8 10 A
9 a E b C c B 1
−
7
m
3
10 a E b B 11 a m 6 n 6 or 6 b g −6 h3 n 2
11 a a4 b b3 c m4 n7
7 7
d 4x2 e 2y3 f 2x2 y3 − − 1
g 3m3 n5 h 2pq2 i 6a2 b6 c 3 3 × 5 6 d 2-2 or 4
12 a 2.007 s b 20.07 s c 4.98 swings 14
a6 15 14
13 Check with your teacher. e a6b-8 or f d 15 or d
b8
12 a P0 = 20, k = 0.3 b 79 koalas
Exercise 1D — Combining index laws
c During the 6th year.
2 n13
1 a 54a10b9 b 48a5b16 c 13 a 79% b 56% c 31%
m9
15b 2 Chapter review
d 500p8q18 e 36a20b10 f
c 26 Fluency
7 11 15 15
6 1 D 2 C 3 C 4 C
g 12 x 8 y 15 h 8m 4 n 4 i 7
5 A 6 A 7 B 8 C
p12 9 B
13ab3c 2 15 6
c 1000 m n
7 5
10 a 9x10y10 b
j 8 p 45 q 18 6 27
x 16 p28
5
b
27 d
2 a c 81q12
8a 7 4 y6 128m29 n26
11 a 16 b - 2
3
64 y 36 27h12
d e 24a24b7 f
x 24 8g 6 8 y2 m12
12 a 11 2 b c
35 1 5 1 3 a b 5x 17
16 n8
625
g p 3 q 2 h i x 3 y 8 z 2 13 a 8 3 c 0
81b 20 c 28 b
2
800 Answers
1
41 33 d 43 — in this case, division is not closed on natural
4 2a 6
14 a 30a 20 b 20 b c numbers.
1 2 3
e -2 — in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural
x 20 y 9 b2 numbers.
15 a 1 b 4 f 4 — in this case, division is closed on natural
1 numbers.
3
16 a −2a + 2a 2 b 2 b 6xy2 11 a (a + 2b) + 4c = a + (2b + 4c)
2a13 9y 4 4 b (x ì 3y) ì 5c = x ì (3y ì 5c)
17 a b 15 c 2 3 m c 2p ó q ≠ q ó 2p
5b 2 32 x d 5d + q = q + 5d
1
18 a 46 b - 18 e 3z + 0 = 0 + 3z = 3z
1 1
Problem solving
f 2 x × = × 2x = 1
2x 2x
1
1 36 g (4x ó 3y) ó 5z ò 4x ó (3y ó 5z)
2 a 8 h 3d - 4y ≠ 4y - 3d
b 6 Exercise 2B — Adding and subtracting algebraic
c 2
fractions
Chapter 2
1 a 26
21 (1 )
5
21
b 49
72
c 1
Linear algebra d 17
e 1
f 6 − 5 x
99 35 30
Are you ready?
15 x − 4 15 − 16 x 15 − 2 x
1 a abc and 3acb b x2y and 14 yx 2 g h i
27 40 3x
c -2q2p and 2pq2
5y 3y 13 x
2 a -3x + 2 b -5a - 9 c -2p - 2q + 8 2 a b - c
3 a 6 b 3ab c -4pq 12 40 12
4 a 1 5 b 11 c 5 14 x 3w y
12 24 12 d e f -
5 a 1
b 1
c 2 23 9 28 5
4 9
6 a 5
b 1 19 c 2 89 y 32 x 7 x + 17
6 3 g h i
35 15 10
Exercise 2A — Substitution 7 x + 30 2 x − 11 19 x + 7
1 a 5 b 2 c 0 j k l
12 30 6
d 6 e -17 f 3
g 30 h 12 i -12 5 5 38
3 a b c
j 27 k 30 l -5 8x 12x 21x
2 a -11 b -1 c 1
8 7 9
d 30 e -24 f 36 d e f
g -125 h 1 i 15 3x 24x 20x
3 a 7
b - 121 c 1 37 51 1
12 12 g h i −
100x 10x 6x
d 1 1 e 1
f 48
3 576
3 x 2 + 14 x − 4 2 x 2 + 3 x + 25
4 a 17 b 30 c 8 d 4 e 1.5 4 a b
f 68 g 46 h 113.1 i 5 j 624.6 ( x + 4)( x − 2) ( x + 5)( x − 1)
5 a D b C c B
2 x 2 + 6 x − 10 4 x 2 − 17 x − 3
6 3.9 cm c d
(2 x + 1)( x − 2) ( x + 1)(2 x − 7)
7 65.45 cm3
8 361 m
Answers 1D ➜ 2B
9 a -1 — in this case, addition is closed on integers. 7x2 + x 2x2 + 6x + 7

e f
b -1 — in this case, subtraction is closed on integers. ( x + 7)( x − 5) ( x + 1)( x + 4)
c 2 — in this case, multiplication is closed on integers.
d -1 — in this case, division is closed on integers. − x 2 + 7 x + 15 x−7
e -2 — in this case, subtraction is closed on integers. g h
( x + 1)( x + 2) ( x + 3)( x − 2)
f - 12 — in this case, division is not closed on integers.
10 a 10 — in this case, addition is closed on natural x 2 + 3x + 9 5 − 5x 5
numbers. i j =
( x + 2)(3 x − 1) ( x − 1)(1 − x ) x − 1
b -4 — in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural
numbers. 3x + 7 3x − 4
c 12 — in this case, multiplication is closed on natural k l
numbers. ( x + 1)2 ( x − 1)2
Answers 801
Exercise 2C — Multiplying and dividing algebraic g j = -3 83 h k = -36 i f = -12 14
fractions
11 a x=2 b b=5 c w=2
4x 3x 4y 9x
1 a b c d d f=7 e t=3 f r = 2 13
y y x 4y
g g = -1 13 h h = -2 15 i a=0
−5 x 3w 6z 2z
e f g h 12 a x = -1 b c=2 c r = 2 23
4y 2x 7x 7x d k=1 e y = -118 f g=7
−3 x 12z −x g w=1 h m = 15 i p = 1 23
i j 245 k l
2y x 6w
13 a x = -15 b y = -4 45 c t = 21
2 5 9 1
2 a b c d d u = -2 75 e f = 12 12 f r = 7 12
3x − 2 x−3 2( x − 6) x+3
2x g d = -6 h h = -12 i x = 1
x +1 a 35d
e f g h 14 a A b D c B
( x + 1)2 2(2 x − 3) 10(a + 3) 8(d − 3)
9 3x Exercise 2E — Solving equations with algebraic
i 2 j fractions and multiple brackets
32 x ( x − 2) 10( x − 1)
3 2 1
1 a x = 20 b x = 3 5 c x = 29
31 8 36
3 a b 9
c d 3
5 3
d x = -7 e x = -2 8 f x = 10
11 43
4 y2 2y2
e 1
f 35
or 55 g h g x = -5 h x = -2 i x = 5 3
25 6 6 7 25 4
2
8y 32 xy 2 j x = 2 11 k x = -2 l x = -6
i j k l y2 12
9 15 3
2 a x = 4 b x = 18 c x = -172 d x = 3
9 1 2
4 a b 11
(3 x − 7)( x + 3) ( x + 2)( x − 9) e x = - 3 or x = -3 2 f x = 2
g x = 3
3 13
21( x − 3) 13 h x = 5
i x = 13
c d 7 20
x+5 9( x − 4)( x + 1) 5 10
3 a x = b x = 15 c x = -6 2 d x = -19
17 9
Exercise 2D — Solving linear equations
e x = -1 1 f x = -192 g x = 4
h x = 12
1 a a = 24 b k = 121 c g = 2.9 2 7
d r = 3 e h = 0.26 f i = -2 i x = 31 j x = 3 k x = 52 l x = 1 5
g t = 5 h q = 16 i x = 0 4 8
5
2 a f = 12 b i = -60 c z = -7 4 a x = b x = 1 31 c x = 4 11 d x = -315
19 58 14 17
d v = 7 e w = -5 13 f k = 10 e x = 5 20 f x = -110 g x = 1 2 h x = -4 9
43 13 61 26
g a = 0.425 h m = 16 85 i y = 21 12
i x = 1.5 j x = -4 1 k x = 3 l x = 1
3
3 a t = 100 b y = ê17 c q = 6.25
d f = ê1.2 e h = 16 f p = ê 83 Chapter review
49
225 Fluency
g g = 484
h j = ê14
31
i a = ê1 23 1 D 2 B 3 C 4 B
4 a a = 4 b b = 6 c i = 3 5 D
d f = 9 e q = 118 f r = 5 25 6 a 7c - 13 b -7k + 3m c -5d - 5c d 7y2 - 5y
g s = 4 65 h t = 9 45 i a = -7 12 7 35
8 a (a + 3b) + 6c = a + (3b + 6c)
5 a f = 40 b g = 30 c r = -10
b 12a - 3b ≠ 3b - 12a
d m = 18 e n = 28 f p = 62.4
1 1
6 a x = 1 13 b y = 9 c m = 4 25 c 7 p × = × 7p = 1
7p 7p
d k = 1 12 e n = 5 23 f c = 1 13 d (x ì 5y) ì 7z = x ì (5y ì 7z)
7 a k = 25 b m = 16 c p = -11 37 e 12p + 0 = 0 + 12p = 12p
f (3p ó 5q) ó 7r ≠ 3p ó (5q ó 7r)
d u = -418 e 8
x = 11 f v=3 g 9d + 11e = 11e + 9d
8 a B b E c C h 4a ó b ≠ b ó 4a
9 a x = -5 b d = -1 c p=7 9 a 96 — in this case, multiplication is closed on natural
d x = -11 e h = -2 f t=5 numbers.
g v = -20 h r = -3 i g = -0.8 b 1 — in this case, division is not closed on natural
3
10 a x = -1 b v=1 c l=2 numbers.
c -4 — in this case, subtraction is not closed on natural
d g = -2 e t=3 f e = -23 13
numbers.
802 Answers
7y 7 x + 18 4 a -2 b 2
10 a b
6 10 5 a y = 4 b x = 3
6 a 10 m b 5 cm
22 3 x 2 + 2 x − 17
c d Exercise 3A — Sketching linear graphs
15x ( x + 3)( x + 2)
8y 25z 5 1 a x y
y
11 a b c 35
x 4x x+3 -5 -25 y = 10x + 25 30
25
5 y2 2x -4 -15
d e f 20
6 50 ( x − 1)(9 x + 1) -3 -5 15
12 a p = 88 b s = 3.01 c b = 16 -2 5 10
5
d r = -35 e x = 144 f x = -132 -1 15
-5 -4 -2 -1-5 1 2 x
g y = 60 h a = ê6 i k = 12 0 25 -3
-10
13 a b = 4 b t = 2 c p = -2 1 35
-15
1 1 3 -20
14 a x = 2
b x = 6 5 c x = - 14
-25
2 1
d x = 1 e x = 12 9 f x = 1 6
6 1
15 a x = b x = 22 2 c x = 2 b x y
y
7
y = 5x - 12
d x = 5 e x = 3 8
3
f x = -16 -1 -17 10
21 5
0 -12
Problem solving 1 -7 -2 -1-5 1 2 3 4 5 x
1 a $3 per adult ticket; $5 per child’s ticket -10
b 240 2 -2
-15
c 60 3 3 -20
d P = 3a + 5c, where a = number of adults and 4 8
c = number of children
e $1380
2 a C = 250 + 40h c x y
y
14 y = -0.5x + 10
b 18 hours 45 minutes -6 13 12
c 18750 10
d Printing is the cheaper option by $1375. -4 12
8
-2 11 6
CHAPTER 3 0 10 4
2
2 9
Coordinate geometry -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
4 8
Are you ready?
1 a Rise = 6, run = 2 b Rise = -2, run = 5 y
d x y
2 a Positive b Negative 300 y = 100x - 240
y
3 a y = x + 3 6 0 -240 250
200
x -2 -1 0 1 2 4 y=x+3 1 -140 150
2 100
y 1 2 3 4 5 2 -40 50
-4 -2 0 2 4x
-2 3 60 0 12 3 4 5 x
-50
4 160 -100
-150
b y = x - 2 y
4
5 260
-200
y=x-2
x -2 -1 0 1 2 -250
Answers 2C ➜ 3A
y -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -4 -2 0 2 4x
-2 e y
x y 20
-4
15 y = -5x + 3
-3 18 10
c y = 2x y -2 13 5
4 y = 2x
-1 8 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 x
x -2 -1 0 1 2 2 -5
0 3 -10
y -4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4x
-2
1 -2
-4
2 -7
Answers 803
y e y f y
f x y 20
5 10 4x + 4y = 40
15 y = 7 - 4x
-3 19 10
5
-10 -5 0 5 10 x
-2 15 5 -5 2x - 8y = 20 -5 0 5 10 x
-5
-1 11 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
-5
g y h y
0 7 20 5
-x + 6y = 120 -2x + 8y = -20
1 3 10
-10 -5 0 5 10 x
2 -1 -5
-100 -50 0 50 x
-10
2 a x y
y
20
15 y = -3x + 2 i y j y
-6 20 5 10
10
5
-4 14 5 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 x 5x + 30y = -150
-2 8 -10 -5 0 5 10 x -5 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 x
-5
-10 -5
0 2 -10 10x + 30y = -150
-15 -10
2 -4 -20
k y l y
4 -10 10 10
5 5
6 -16 6x - 4y = -24
-10 -5 0 5 10 x -10 -5 0 5 10 x
b y -5 -5
x y -9x + 4y = 36
6
-3 6
5 m y
y = 2x - 10 n y
-2 5 4 20
0 5 x y = -5x + 20
3 y = -x + 3
-1 4 2
0 3 1
1 2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
2 1
3 0 -10 0 x
4
c x y
y
20 o y
y = - 1–2x - 4
-6 15 15 y = -2x + 3
10 -8 0 x
-4 11 5
-2 7 0 x
-10 -5 5 10 -4
-5
0 3 -10
2 -1
4 -5 4 a y y = 4x + 1 b y y = 3x - 7
5 (1, 5)
6 -9
01 x
3 a y 5x - 3y = 10 b y
1
4 4 (1, -4)
01 x 4
2
2
-2 0 2 4x 7
-2 -2 0 2 4x
-2
-4
5x + 3y = 10 c y d y
0 1 x
c y d y 3
4 4
1 (1, 1)
2 2 y = -5x - 4
01 x -4
-4 -2 0 2 4x -4 -2 0 2 4x
-2 -2
-5x + 3y = 10 -4 y = -2x + 3
-9 (1, -9)
-5x - 3y = 10
804 Answers
e y f y e y y = 100 f y
100 5
y = 1–2 x - 2 y = - 2–7 x + 3 y=0
50
3 -10 -5 0 5 10 x
-5
0 2 x (7, 1) -10 -5 0 5 10 x
-1 (2, -1) 1 -50
-2
0 7 x
g y h x = -100 y
10 10
g y h y x=0
(1, 8) 5 5
y = 0.6x + 0.5 8
x
3.5 -5 0 5 -100 -50 0 50 x
(5, 3.5) -5 -5
1.5 y = 8x
-10 -10
0 5 x
i y
0 1 x 0 x
i y
y = -12
y=x-7
-12
0 1 x
7 a x-intercept: -0.5; y-intercept: 0.4

b x-intercept: 0.5; y-intercept: -0.4
-6 c x-intercept: 0; y-intercept: 0
-7 (1, -6) d x-intercept: -3; y-intercept: 12
e x-intercept: -4; y-intercept: -4
f x-intercept: -1; y-intercept: -0.5
g x-intercept: 2.75; y-intercept: 2.2
5 a y y = 2x b y
y = 5x
h x-intercept: 7; y-intercept: 3.5
2 5 i x-intercept: 9.75; y-intercept: -3.9
23
j x-intercept: 13 ö 1.77; y-intercept: 4.6
0 1 x 8 a (2, 0), (0, -8)
0 1 x
b (- 12, 0), (0, 3)
c (-5, 0), (0, 25)
c y d y
y = 1–2 x
1– Exercise 3B — Determining linear equations
2
0 1 x
x
1 a y = 2x + 4 b y = -3x + 12 c y = -x + 5
0 1 1
-3 d y = 2x - 8 e y = 12 x + 3 f y = - 4 x - 4
y = -3x g y = 7x - 5 h y = -3x - 15
2 a y = 2x b y = -3x c y = 1 x d y = − 43 x
e y y = 2–3 x f y 2
2 3 a y = x + 3 b y = 2x - 1 c y = − 12 x + 7
2
1 1
0 1 x d y = x +
2 2
e y = -2x - 2 f y = -x - 8
0 x y = - –25 x
3 - –25 4 a y = 3x + 3 b y = -3x + 4
c y = -4x + 2 d y = 4x + 2
e y = -x - 4 f y = 0.5x - 4
6 a y b y
g y = 5x + 2.5 h y = -6x + 3
y = 10 5
10 i y = -2.5x + 1.5 j y = 3.5x + 6.5
Answers 3B ➜ 3C
5 -10 -5 0 5 10 x 5 a y = 5x - 19 b y = -5x + 31
-5 c y = -4x - 1 d y = 4x - 34
-10 -5 0 5 10 x e y = 3x - 35 f y = -3x + 6
-5 -10 y = -10 g y = -2x + 30 h y = 2x - 4.5
i y = 0.5x - 19 j y = -0.5x + 5.5
c y d y
10 10
Exercise 3C — The distance between two points on
5 5
a straight line
-5 0 5 10 x -10 -5 0 5x 1 AB = 5, CD = 2 10 or 6.32, EF = 3 2 or 4.24,
-5 -5
GH = 2 5 or 4.47, IJ = 5, KL = 26 or 5.10,
-10 x = 10 -10
x = -10 MN = 4 2 or 5.66, OP = 10 or 3.16
Answers 805
2 a 5 b 13 20 B 21 E
c 10 d 7.07 22 a y = -2x + 1 b 3y + 2x + 1 = 0
e 6.71 f 14.42
g 13 h 13 23 a, e; b, f ; c , h; d, g
1
24 y = − 2 x + 32
i a2 + 4b2 j 3 a 2 + b 2 8
25 a m = − 5
3, 4 and 5 Answers will vary.
6 a AB = 4.47, BC = 2.24, CD = 4.47, DA = 2.24 b m = 185
b AC = 5, BD = 5 26 E
c Rectangle 27 B
7 B 28 a 5.10 km b (6.5, 5.5) c 2
8 D d y = 2x - 18 e (10, 2) f 7.071 km
9 a 12 b 5 c 13 d -2.2 29, 30 Answers will vary.
10 Answers will vary. 31 Answers will vary.
Exercise 3D — The midpoint of a line segment Chapter review
1 a (-3, -3 12 ) b 1
(7 2 , 0) Fluency
c (-1, 1) 1 A 2 D 3 B
d (0, 1 12 ) 4 C 5 A 6 C
7 A 8 C 9 C
e (2a, 12b) f (a + b, 12a) 10
2 (-3, -10) x -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
3 a (3, 1) b 4.47
c 6.32 y 65 55 45 35 25 15 5 -5 -15 -25 -35
4 D
y
5 C 80
1
6 a i (-1, 4) ii (1 2, 1) 60
40
iii 3.9 iv 7.8 20
b Answers will vary.
ii (1, -0.5) -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
7 a i (1, -0.5) -20
-40
b Answers will vary. -60
8 a i (-2, 2) ii 8.94 -80
iii 9.55 iv 9.55
b Isosceles. PC could be the perpendicular height of the
triangle. 11 a y b y
y = -5x + 15
9 y = -3x - 2 y = 3x - 2 15
(0, 15)
10 3y - 2x + 14 = 0 ( 2– , 0) 1 (1, -1)
3 10 (1, 10)
Exercise 3E — Parallel and perpendicular lines 0 1 x
1 a No b Yes c No -2 (0, -2) (3, 0)
d No e Yes f No 0 1 x
2 b, f ; c , e
3 Answers will vary. c y d y
(0, 1)
4 Answers will vary.
5 Answers will vary. y =–2–3 x+1 4
6 a Yes b Yes c No 1 ( 3– , 0)
2 (2 1– , 0)
d Yes e Yes f No 0 x 7
-1 3
7 y = 2x - 9 (3, -1) 0 5 x
8 3x + 2y - 8 = 0 y = 7–5 x - 3
9 a y = 3x + 2 b y = -4x + 9 -3 (0, -3)
c 3x - 2y - 8 = 0 d 5y + 2x + 13 = 0
e x + 5y + 5 = 0 f x - 3y + 17 = 0 6
12 a x-intercept = 7 , y-intercept c = 6
g x - 3y - 14 = 0
40 1
10 a 2x - y + 5 = 0 b x + 2y = 0 b x-intercept = 3
(133), y-intercept c = -5
11 a 3x - 5y + 2 = 0 b 5x + 3y - 8 = 0 21 5 3
12 a x = 1 b y = -7 c x-intercept = 16
(116 ), y-intercept c = − 4
13 a B b C c D d B d x-intercept = -5.6, y-intercept c = 2.8
14 a (2, 5) b 1 13 a y b y
c Answers will vary. d Isosceles triangle 2x - 3y = 6 3
15 y = -x - 3
16 4x - 6y + 23 = 0 0 3 x
-2 -1 0 x
17 a y = -x + 5 b y=x+3 c (1, 4) y = -3x
806 Answers
c y d y c
50
5x + y = -3 x+y+3=0
40
Pay ($)
- –53 0 x 30
-3 0 x
20
10
-3 -3
0 1 2 3 4
Hours worked (h)
14 a y b y
d $91.13
(1, 1– 2 a Number
1– 2) 0 2 4 6 8 10
2 0 1 x of rides
0 1 x y = -4x
-4 Cost ($) 12.50 17.50 22.50 27.50 32.50 37.50
y = 1–2 x
b Cost = $2.50 ì number of rides + $12.50
c
Total cost ($)

40
c y d y
x = -2 30
7 y=7 20
10
-2 0 x
0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
Number of rides
15 y d $30
7 (0, 7) 3 a b C = 22.50h + 160
500
c Approx $436
•
- –27 0 x 400
Cost ($) 300

3(y - 5) = 6(x + 1) •
200
16 a y = 2x - 2 b y = -x - 4 •
100
1
c y = − 3 x + 2 d y = 4x
0
3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
e y = - 4 f x = 5 Time (hours)
17 a y = 3x - 4 b y = -2x - 5
4 a 7x - 3y - 1 = 0
c y = 12 x + 5 d y = 6 b 3x + 7y - 49 = 0
18 a y = 7x - 13 b y = -3x + 4 c -7
1 5 a a = -7
c y = 2 x + 6 d y = 35 x − 18
15 b B(-7, 50), C(-4, 90)
19 61 c 40.1 metres
20 Answers will vary. 6 a Since the gradient of SA = the gradient of SO = -0.8,
21 Answers will vary. the points S, A and O are collinear. Player Y will
22 (0, -18) displace guard ball A.
23 Answers will vary. b y = 45 x + 20
41
or 25x - 20y + 41 = 0
25 x + 2y - 2 = 0 c Since the gradient of the path AB is 45, which is
26 2x + 3y - 9 = 0 the same as the gradient of the known path of travel
27 3x + 2y - 21 = 0 from the common point A, the direction of travel is
28 3x - 2y + 16 = 0 toward B.
4 5
d dAB = 0.8 metres. Yes, guard ball A will collide with
29 a i − 5 ii 4 guard ball B as it will not be deviated from its linear
iii 4x + 5y - 61 = 0 iv 5x - 4y - 25 = 0 path under 1 metre of travel.
Answers 3D ➜ 3E
v (9, 5)
b Square CHAPTER 4
1 1
30 a i 10
ii (− 2 , 1) Simultaneous linear equations and
iii 1 1
(4 2 , 1 2 )
inequations
b Answers will vary. Are you ready?
1 a -6 b 4 c 3
Problem solving 2 a i y = 2 ii x = 3
1 a Number of hours 0 2 4 6 8 10 b i y = -3 ii x = 9
Pay ($) 0 27 108 135 c i y = - 3 ii x = 2
54 81 2
5
b Pay = $13.50 ì (number of hours worked) 3 a y = -2x + 4 b y = 4x - 5 c y = − 23 x − 3
Answers 807
4 a 1 b 2 c -1 2 a (-6, -23) b (5, 23) c (2, -6)
5 7 1 3 15  1
5 a b c -4 d  2
, − 2  e (1, -7) f (- 2 , -4)
2 3
6 a y  3
g  − 2, − 2 
1  1 4
 − 5 5 
h , i (-3, -1.5)
4
5y - 4x = 20  4 4
j (1, 0.3) k  − , 
5 5
l (1, -1)
-5 0 x
3 26 chickens
Exercise 4C — Solving simultaneous linear
equations using elimination
b y
4y - 2x = 5 1 a (3, 1) b (-2, 3) c (-2, 6)
1 1–4
2 a (5, -1) b (2, 3) c (-3, 1)
3 a (6, 3) b (-3, -7) c (2, -5)
-2 1–2 0 x
d (-3, 5) e (-5, -8) f (2, -2)
4
g (1 12, 3 12 ) h (2, 15 ) i (1, 1)
4 a (2, 1) b (3, 5) c (3, 3)
c y
d (1, 3) e (2, 4) f (5, 2)
1
g (4, 2) h (-3, 4) i (-3, -1 2 )
-3 0 x j (-6, -5) k (-3, 5) l (2, 1.8)
-4 5 a (5, 2) b (3, 3) c (-2, 6)
d (5, -1) e (7, 0) f (3, 1)
3y + 4x = -12
g (6, 3) h (2, -2) i (1, 3)
7 a False b False c True j (-1.5, -3) k (-8, 18) l (-3, 5)
6 a (1, 3) b (4, 0) c (-3, 5)
Exercise 4A — Graphical solution of simultaneous 1 1
linear equations d (4, 3) e (8, 5) f  ,
3
− 3 
1 a (2, 1) b (1, 1) c (0, 4) 7 Ann 61 kg, Beth 58 kg, Celine 54 kg
d (2, -1) e (-2, -4) f (-0.5, 1.5)
Exercise 4D — Problem solving using
2 a No b Yes c Yes d No
simultaneous linear equations
e Yes f No g No h Yes
1 Maths mark = 97, English mark = 66
i No j Yes 2 18 nuts, 12 bolts
3 a (3, 2) b (4, 3) c (-3, 4) d (-2, 2) 3 8 and 3 4 9 and 7
e (2, 0) f (3, 0) g (-2, 4) h (3, 8) 5 6 and 5
i (- 12 , 112) j (2, 5) k (5, 3) l (2, 2 ) 6 Length = 12 m and width = 8 m
3
4 a (3, 5) b (-2, 4) c (5, 7) d (-2, -5) 7 Lemons cost 55 cents and oranges cost 25 cents.
e (5, 1) f (6, -2) g (-4, 7) h (3, 4) 8 Length 60 m and width 20 m
9 Eight 20-cent coins and three 50-cent coins
5 a No solution b (2, -1)
10 Twelve $1 coins and nine $2 coins
c No solution d (1, 9)
11 Paddlepops cost $1.20 and a Magnum costs $2.10.
e (3, 1) f No solution
12 Cost of the Golden rough = 35 cents and cost of the
g No solution h (2, 1)
Redskin = 25 cents
6 y = 4x - 16 13 Fixed costs = $87, cost per person = $23.50
7 a Northern beach 14 PE mark is 83 and Science mark is 71.
120
C = 20 + 12t 15 Mozzarella costs $6.20, Swiss cheese costs $5.80.
D
Southern beach 100
16 x = 3 and y = 4
D = 8 + 18t 80
C
17 Fixed costs = $60, cost per person = $25
b Northern beaches
Cost
18 $4 each for DVDs and $24 each for zip disks

in red, southern 60
beaches in blue 40
Exercise 4E — Solving linear inequations
c Time > 2 hours C = 20 + 12t 1 a x > 2 b a > -1 c y í 7
d Time = 2 hours, 20 D = 8 + 18t d m í 4 e p < 1 f x < 7
cost = $44 g m Ç 9 h a Ç 7 i x > 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 j m í 2 k q í -4 l a > -8
Time (hours) 2 a m > 3 b p Ç 2 c a < 4
d x í 5 e p > -5 f x Ç -7
Exercise 4B — Solving simultaneous linear g m í -0.5 h b > -0.5 i m > 18
equations using substitution j x < 8 k a Ç -14 l m í 25
1 a (2, 3) b (2, -1) c (3, -2) 3 a m < 4.5 b x í 3 c p > 4
d (7, 6) e (3, 6) f (2, 1) d n Ç 2 e b < 5 f y > 2
g (-1, -2) h (-4, 0) i (-1, -2) g m Ç -1 h a í -5 i b < -4 1
1 3
j (6, -2) k (3, 1 2 ) l (-3, -5) j c Ç -1 k p > -2 l a í -7
808 Answers
4 a m > 3 b a í 2 c a < -1 g y h y
d a Ç -3 e x > 6 f x Ç 2
g b < 4 h a > 5 i m < 2
j m Ç 3 k b Ç -16 l m í 1 (-5, 0)
11 (7, 0)
5 a x Ç 7 b x í -18 c x < -10 0 x 0 x
d x > 10 1 e x í 5 f x < -1 4
2 5
6 a m < -2 b p í -3 c a Ç 5 (0, -7)
d p í -5 e y Ç -3 f x > 7
g p < 0 h a í 1 i x > -3 i y j y
5
j a Ç -11 k b Ç 3 l x < -3 (0, 7)
m k > 8 n x > -18 1 o a Ç 40
2
7 B 0 x (-7, 0) 0 x
8 a x < -1 b m Ç -3 c x > 17 (0, -2)
d a > 5 e m í 1 1 f m í -12
8 3
9 a k > 2 b a > -5 c m Ç 1 2
3 k y l y
d x > 5 e y í 7 f d < -2
g p í −6
7
h x í -5 i m < -2
(1, 3)
j a < 9 k p í 3 l x > -4 1 (6, 0) (0, 0)
2
0 x 0 x
10 a 5x > 10 b x - 3 Ç 5 c 7 + 3x < 42
11 a –6.5 < x < –2
−c − b −d − b
b < x <
a a
12 a S > 47 b No 3 a B b D c A
c Answers will vary. 4 a y = 12 x + 3
13 a CA = 700 + 20x b CB = 1200 + 15x b y í 12 x + 3, x > 2, y Ç 7
c 700 + 20x < 1200 + 15x, x < 100 5 a l + s Ç 30 b At least 12 small dogs
d x > 100 c l
e x = 100
30
Exercise 4F — Sketching linear inequations
1 a y b y
15
(-1, 0 ) (0, 1) (6, 0) 0 s

0 x 0 x 12 30
d 15 large and 15 small dogs
6 a y > x + 2 b Answers will vary.
(0, -6)
Exercise 4G — Solving simultaneous linear
inequations
c y d y
1 a True b False c False d True
e True f False g True h False
(0, 3)
i False j False
(-2, 0) 2 Note: the shaded region is the region required.
0 x 0 (3, 0) x a x + y > 3 y
6
Answers 4A ➜ 4G
(0, -2)
4
e y f y -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
(0, 4)
-4
(2, 0) b x + 2y Ç 6 y
0 x 0 x 3
(0, -2) 2
1 x
-4 -2-10 2 4 6
-2
Answers 809
c 3x - 2y > 12 y 4 Note: The shaded region is the region required.
2
1 a y
6 2x - y í 4
-4 -2 -10 2 4 x
-2 4
-3
-4 2
-5
-6 0 x
-7 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–2
x+y<3
–4
d 4x + y í -8 y
2 –6
1
-4 -2 -10 2 x
-2
b 6
y
-3
-4 4 3x + 2y > 12
-5
-6 2
-7 x
-8 0
-9 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2 x + 5y Ç 10
e y í x + 4 y -4
6 -6
4
2 c y
3
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x 2 2y > x - 2
-2
1
-4
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
f y < 3 - 3x y
-2
y<3-x
3 -3
1 d 6
y
y > 2x + 4
0 x 4
-1 1 2 3
-1 2
-2 0 x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-2
y < 4 - 2x
g y - 3x < 9 y -4
10 -6
9
8
7
6 e y y - 2x Ç 5
5 6
4
3 4
2
1 2 x+y>4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
-2
h 2x + y í 8 y
-4
10
9 -6
8
7
6
5 f y
4 20
3 18
2 16 3x + y > 17
1 14
0 x 12
-1 1 2 3 4 10
8
6 y<8
3 a A 4
b C 2 x
c B 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2 5 2–3
-4
d E
810 Answers
g y m y
15 10
8 x+y>7
10 6
4
2
5
x + 2y í 10 -2 -20 2 4 6 8 x
0 x -4
5 10 -6
-8
2x - 3y í 18
-5
-10
-10
3x + y > 15
-15 n y
6
5 y>4
4
h y y í 2x 3
7 2
6 y > 2x - 3 1
5 x
4 -2 -1 -10 1 2 3 4
3 -2
2 -3
1 -4
-5
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 x -6
-2
-3
x<5
-4 5 Note: The shaded region is the region required.
-5
a i y
i y í 2x - 2
y 2
18
16
14 –2 0 x
12 yÇx+2
10
8
6 3y - 2x < 6 ii y
4
2
x 4
-6 -3-20 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 y í 4 - 2x
-4
-6 0 x
2
j y-x>4
6
y
5
4
3
2 b y
1
0 x 4 yÇx+2
-6 -4 -2 -1 2 4 6
-2
2
-3 2x + 3y Ç 6 x
-4 -2 0 2
-5 y > 4 - 2x
-6
6 Note: The shaded region is the region required.

k y
6 y < 2x y
5
4 2
3
2 2x + y < 0 1 x - 2y > 0
1
x
-2 -1 -1 0 1 11– 2 3 x -1 0 1 2
-2 2
-3
y + 2x > 3
Answers 4G ➜ 4G
-4
-5 7 a r + x Ç 2000
-6 b r Ç 600
c r í 0, x í 0. Amount of money cannot be negative.
l y d x e Answers will vary.
10 y - 2x í 9 2000
8
6
4 Note: The shaded
2
region is the region
-6 -4 -2 -20 x
2 4 6 required.
-4
-6 x+yÇ4
-8
–10
0 600 2000 r
Answers 811
8 a 100a + 75b í 450 10
b 50a + 75b í 300 x -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
c b d Answers will vary.
6 y 65 55 45 35 25 15 5 -5 -15 -25 -35
Note: The shaded
4
80
required. 60
2
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 a
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-20
9 a p + c Ç 400 -40
b -60
Mass of chocolate chips in grams (c)
-80
700 Note: The shaded
600 region is the region
11 a y b y
500 required. y = -5x + 15
400 y = 3x - 2 15
300 1 (1, 1) 10 (1, 10)

200 0 1 x
100 p + c Ç 400 –2
0 1 x
0 100 200 300 400 500 600700
Mass of peanuts in grams (p)
c 0.3p + 0.6c í 180 c y d y
d
4
y =–2–3 x + 1
700 1
600 0 3 x
-1 0 x
500 (3, -1) 5
400 y= 7– x -3
-3 5
300
0.3p + 0.6c í 180
200
6
100 12 a x-intercept = 7 , y-intercept c = 6
40 1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600700 b x-intercept = 3
(133), y-intercept c = -5
Mass of peanuts in grams (p) 21 3 5
c x-intercept = y-intercept c = - 4
16
(116 ),
e d x-intercept = -5.6, y-intercept c = 2.8
700 13 a y b y
600 2x - 3y = 6 3
500 0 x
3
400 -2 x
-1 0
300 y = -3x
200
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600700 c y d y

Mass of peanuts in grams (p) 5x + y = -3 x+y+3=0
f Answers will vary. - –53 0 x 0 x

-3
Chapter review -3 -3
Fluency
1 A
2 D 14 a y b y
3 B
4 A (1, 1–2 )
5 C 1–
2 0 1 x
6 E 0 1 x y = -4x
7 C -4
y = 1–2 x
8 D
9 A
812 Answers
c y d y 24 a (2, 7) b (-5, -3) c (-2, 2)
x = -2
7 y=7  7 7 5
d  − ,  e (-14, -53) f ( 2, -7)
3 3
-2 0 x
0 x 25 a (5, 2) b (-2, 3) c (-3, -1)
d (1, 3) e (2, -2) f (4, 2)
15 y 26 a (0, 3) b (-3, -3) c (2, 1)
7 (0, 7) 27 a y Note: The shaded
6
x yí3 4 required.
- –27 0
2
3(y - 5) = 6(x + 1)
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 x
16 a y = 2x - 2 b y = -x - 4 -2
yÇx+4
-4
c y = − 13 x + 2 d y = 4x
-6
3
e y = - 4 f x = 5
17 a y = 3x - 4 b y = -2x - 5 b y
1 7
c y = 2 x + 5 d y = 6 6
2y - 3x í 12
5
18 a y = 7x - 13 b y = -3x + 4 4
1 3 18 3
c y = 2 x + 6 d y = 5 x - 5 2
1
19 a y = -x + 8 b y = - 32 x + 12 -6 -4 -2 -10 2 4 6 x
2 27 -2
c y = 5 x + -3 y + 3x > 0
5 -4
20 Note: The shaded region is the region required.
a b y
c 5x + y < 10 y
y
10
1 yÇx+1 10 9
y í 2x + 10 8
7
-1 0 x -5 0 x 6
5
4
3
2
c y d y y = 5x 1
5
-8 -6 -4 -2
-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
y > 3x - 12
-2
0 4 x 0 1 x x + 2y < 11
y < 5x
Problem solving
-12
1 a Number of hours 0 2 4 6 8 10
e y x=7 f y
Pay ($) 0 27 54 81 108 135
1
y Ç –21 x + 1 b Pay = $13.50 ì (number of hours worked)
0 7 x -2 0 x c
xí7 50
40
Pay ($)
30
20
g y h y 10
5
9 2x + y í 9 0 1 2 3 4
Hours worked (h)
•
0 x 0 12 x
–9
2 d $91.13
Answers 4G ➜ 4G
–16• 4x - 3y í 48 2 a Number of
0 2 4 6 8 10
rides
i y
Cost ($) 12.50 17.50 22.50 27.50 32.50 37.50
y > -12
0 x b Cost = $2.50 ì number of rides + $12.50

-12
c
40
Cost ($)
30
(12.50) (10, 37.50)
20
21 a (3, 1) b (2, 3) 10
22 a No b Yes
0
23 a (-2, 1) 2 4 6 8 10
Number of rides
b (0, -2)
c (5, 2) d $30
Answers 813
3 a 5 a b
500 N
180
20è
•
km
400
N N
300 B 120è S
Cost
• 70
200 25è 7. km 60è
5
m
• km
5k
100 A C
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time Exercise 5A — Pythagoras’ theorem
b Cost = 22.5 ì time + 160 1 a 7.86 b 33.27 c 980.95
c $435.63 d 12.68 e 2.85 f 175.14
4 a Numbers are 9 and 14. 2 a 36.36 b 1.62 c 15.37
b Length = 11 metres, width = 6 metres d 0.61 e 2133.19 f 453.90
c Chupa-chups cost 45 cents and Whizz fizzes cost 3 23.04 cm
55 cents. 4 12.65 cm
5 Milk $1.75, bread $2.35
5 a 14.14 cm b 24.04 cm c 4.53 cm
6 13 kangaroos and 8 cockatoos
7 Rollercoaster ride $6, Ferris wheel ride $4, Gravitron 6 a 97.47 cm b 334.94 cm c 6822.90 cm2
ride $8 7 a 6.06 b 4.24 c 4.74
8 a d = b + 10 8 18.03 cm 9 17.32 cm 10 19.23 cm
b 7000 = 70b + 40d 11 65.82 cm; 2501.16 cm2
c b = 60 and d = 70 12 39 m 13 Yes 14 4.34 km
d Number of seats in ‘Bleachers’ is 4200; the number of 15 38.2 m 16 20.61 m 17 130 mm
seats in the ‘Dress circle’ is 2800. 18 a 386.13 mm b 62.09 cm c 2.33 km
e $644 000
d 16.15 cm e 541.70 cm f 2615.61 m
9 a CG = 114 + 0.20k
b CS = 90 + 0.32k g 478.97 mm h 369.87 km
c 200 km 19 54.67 mm
d 114 + 0.20k < 90 + 0.32k \ k > 200 20 a 28 cm b 588 cm2
e k < 200 21 36.37 cm
10 a 5400 + 260d = CH 22 552.86 cm2
b 61 days 23 21.46 diagonals, so would need to complete 22
11 a n < 16 800 km 24 1600 mm 25 5889.82 m 26 7.07 cm
b Mick travelled less than 16 800 km for the year and his
27 $81.60 28 185 cm 29 Students own
costs stayed below $16 000.
working.
CHAPTER 5 Exercise 5B — Pythagoras’ theorem in three

dimensions
Trigonometry I 1 a 17.32 b 12.25 c 15.12
2 12.21, 12.85
Are you ready? 3 4.84 m, 1.77 m
1 a 0.685 b 1.400 4 11.31, 5.66
c 0.749
5 31.62 cm
2 a i 15è33Å ii 15è32Å41ë
b i 63è16Å ii 63è15Å32ë 6 6 cm
c i 27è10Å ii 27è10Å16ë 7 12.65 cm
3 a b A 8 23 mm
H q 9 No: maximum stick can be only 115 cm long.
O
q H 10 3.41 cm
A 11 a i 283.02 m ii 240.21 m iii 150.33 m
O
b 141.86 m
c 12 14.72 cm
O 13 13.38 cm
14 42.27 cm
H 15 1.3 m, 5.98 m2
A 16 Students’ own working
q
Exercise 5C — Trigonometric ratios
4 a x = 30 ì tan (15è) 1 a 0.5000 b 0.7071 c 0.4663
d 0.8387 e 8.1443 f 0.7193
4.2 2 a 0.6494 b 0.5885 c 0.5220
b x =
tan(28°) d -1.5013 e 0.9990 f 0.6709
c x = 5.3 ì tan (64è) g 0.8120 h 0.5253 i -0.8031
814 Answers
j 0.4063 k 0.9880 l -0.9613 Exercise 5E — Using trigonometry to calculate
m 1.7321 n -0.5736 o 0.1320 angle size
3 a 50è b 24è c 53è 1 a 67è b 47è c 69è
d 71è e 86è f 41è 2 a 54è47Å b 33è45Å c 33è33Å
4 a 54è29Å b 6è19Å c 0è52Å 3 a 75è31Å21ë b 36è52Å12ë c 37è38Å51ë
d 72è47Å e 44è48Å f 26è45Å 4 a 41è b 30è c 49è
5 a 26è33Å54ë b 64è1Å25ë c 64è46Å59ë d 65è e 48è f 37è
d 48è5Å22ë e 36è52Å12ë f 88è41Å27ë 5 a a = 25è47Å, b = 64è13Å b d = 25è23Å, e = 64è37Å
6 a 2.824 b 71.014 c 20.361 c x = 66è12Å, y = 23è48Å
d 2.828 e 226.735 f 1.192 6 a r = 57.58, l = 34.87, h = 28.56
g 7.232 h 32.259 i 4909.913 b 714 cm2 c 29.7è
j 0.063 k 0.904 l 14.814 7 a i 29.0è ii 41.4è iii 51.3è
e d e b i 124.42 km/h ii 136.57 km/h
7 a i sin (q) = ii cos (q) = iii tan (q) = iii 146.27 km/h
f f d
i h i Exercise 5F — Angles of elevation and depression
b i sin (a) = ii cos (a) = iii tan (a) =
g g h 1 8.74 m 2 687.7 m
l j l 3 a 176.42 m b 152.42 m
c i sin (b ) = ii cos (b ) = iii tan (b ) =
k k j 4 65è46Å 5 16.04 m
n o n 6 a h = x tan (47è12Å) m; h = (x + 38) tan (35è50Å) m
d i sin (g ) = ii cos (g ) = iii tan (g ) =
m m o b x = 76.69 m c 84.62 m
b a b 7 a h = x tan (43è35Å) m; h = (x + 75) tan (32è18Å) m
e i sin (b ) = ii cos (b ) = iii tan (b ) = b 148.40 m c Approx. 143.1 m
c c a
v t v 8 0.033 km or 33 m 9 21è
f i sin (g ) = ii cos (g ) = iii tan (g ) = 10 a 8.43 m b 56.54 m
u u t
8 a sin (q ) = 12 b cos (q ) = 25
c tan (q ) = 45 11 44.88 m
15 30
12 a
2.7 17 x
d tan (q ) = e sin (35è) = f sin (a ) = 14 .3
42è
p t 17.5
1.76 m 15 m
7 20 3.1
g sin (15è) = h tan (q ) = 31 i cos (a ) = 9.8
x b 15.27 m
9 a a
H
O
13 66 m
41è 14 a 54è b 0.75 m
A 15 a 2.16 m/s, 7.77 km/h b 54.5è
b O = 34 mm, A = 39 mm, H = 51 mm Exercise 5G — Bearings and compass directions
c i sin (41è) = 0.67 ii cos (41è) = 0.76 1 a 020èT b 340èT c 215èT
iii tan (41è) = 0.87 d 152èT e 034èT f 222èT
d a = 49è 2 a N49èE b S48èE c S87èW
e i sin (49è) = 0.76 ii cos (49è) = 0.67 d N30èW e N86èE f S54èW
iii tan (49è) = 1.15 3 a 3 km 325èT b 2.5 km 112èT
f They are equal. c 8 km 235èT d 4 km 090èT, then 2.5 km 035èT
g They are equal. e 12 km 115èT, then 7 km 050èT
h The sin of an angle is equal to the cos of its f 300 m 310èT, then 500 m 220èT
complement angle. 4 a N b N
Exercise 5D — Using trigonometry to calculate 100è 135è

side lengths N 30 km N
23
1 a 8.660 b 7.250 c 8.412

0
Answers 5A ➜ 5G
km
km
40è
2 a 0.79 b 4.72 c 101.38
40
m
3 a 33.45 m b 74.89 m c 44.82 m 0k 240è
14
d 7.76 mm e 80.82 km f 9.04 cm
4 a x = 31.58 cm b y = 17.67 m c N d N
c z = 14.87 m d p = 67.00 m N
120è 260è
e p = 21.38 km, q = 42.29 km
8k
N
m
0.8 km
5k
N 30è
f a = 0.70 km, b = 0.21 km
km
40è
32è
2.1
5 a 6.0 m b 6.7 m 1.3

km
6 1.05 m 7k
50è m
7 a x = 30.91 cm, y = 29.86 cm, z = 39.30 cm
S
b 2941.54 cm2
Answers 815
e N 16 67.98 km 17 4.16 km
70è180 km 18 40è32Å
Problem solving
22
0k
N 30è 1 a h = tan (47è48Å)x m
m
20è h = tan (36è24Å) (x + 64) m
km
S
b 129.10 m c 144.32 m
320
2 a 11.04 cm b 15.6 cm c 59è2Å

3 a 27.42 km b N43èW or 227èT
5 a i 13.38 km ii 14.86 km iii 222èT 4 a 1280.6 m b 12:02:16.3 pm
b i N ii 51.42 km 5 33.29 m, 21.27 m
iii 61.28 km
130è
N B iv 310èT
Chapter 6
42è 80
km Surface area and volume
km
20
A
Are you ready?
C 1 a 3.6 ì 106 mm2 b 2 ì 10-6 km2
c i ii 38.97 km c 5.2 ì 10 m 4 2
N
iii 22.5 km 2 a 24 m2 b 30 cm2 c 4.9 cm2
3 a 150 cm2 b 232 cm 2 c 1.22 m2
N B 130è iv 030èT
4 a 3.4 ì 106 cm3 b 2.5 ì 10-4 m3
42è 80
km
c 6.5 ì 103 mm3
km
5 a 125 cm3 b 160 cm3 c 0.03 m3

20
A N
Exercise 6A — Area
C
1 a 16 cm2 b 48 cm2 c 75 cm2
210è 2 2
d 120 cm e 706.86 cm f 73.5 mm2
km
g 254.47 cm2 h 21 m2 i 75 cm2

45
D 2 Part e = 225p cm2; part g = 81p cm2

6 215èT 7 1.732 km 3 a 20.7 cm2 b 7.64 cm2
8 a 9.135 km b 2.305 km c 104è11Å1.13ë T 4 a 113.1 mm2 b 188.5 mm2
or 104è11Å T 5 a i 12p cm2 ii 37.70 cm2
9 684.86 km b i 69π mm2 ii 108.38 mm2
10 a 60è43Å T b 69è27Å T c 204è27Å T 2
11 a q = 60è, a = 40è b 2.5 km c i 261p cm2 ii 819.96 cm2
c 2.198 km d 1.22 km 6 E
Exercise 5H — Applications 7 D
1 a 36è52Å b 53è8Å c 2.4 m 8 a 123.29 cm2 b 1427.88 m2 c 52 cm2
d 30.4 m2 e 78 cm2 f 2015.5 cm2
2 a 14è29Å b 31 cm
9 a 125.66 cm2 b 102.87 m2 c 13.73 m2
3 6.09 m
d 153.59 m2 e 13.86 m2 f 37.5 m2
4 19è28Å
10 11 707.92 cm2 11 21 m2 12 60
5 62è33Å
6 a 11è32Å b 4è25Å 13 $840
7 a i 35.36 cm ii 51.48 cm iii 51.48 cm 14 a 260.87 m2 b 195.71 m2
iv 57.23 cm v 29è3Å vi 25è54Å c 130.43 m2 d 97.85 m2
b i 25.74 cm ii 12.5 cm iii 25è54Å e 37.5% f 18.83 m
iv 28.61 cm 15 a 50 = x + y b y = 50 – x
8 a 77è b 71è56Å c 27.35 cm c Area = 50x − x2
9 a 7.05 cm b 60è15Å c 8.12 cm d
10 a 28.74 cm b 40.64 cm c 66è37Å
11 a 26.88 cm b 11.07 cm x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
d tan θ Area
12 a 90 m b h = ì tan q2 0 225 400 525 600 625 600 525 400 225 0
tan θ1 + tan θ 2 (m2)
c 250 m e No, impossible to make a rectangle.
Chapter review f 600
Fluency 500
1 E 2 D 3 E 4 E 5 D 6 B 400
Area
7 E 8 B 9 B 10 A 300
200
11 a x = 113.06 cm b x = 83.46 mm 100
12 9.48 cm 13 8.25 mm
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 x
14 17.6 m 15 26.86 m
816 Answers
g x = 25 h y = 25 c Vnew = 2p r2h, the volume will be twice as large as the
i Square j 625 m2 original volume.
k r = 15.915 m l 795.77 m2 d Vnew = p r2h, the volume will remain the same.
m 170.77 m 2 e Vnew = 3lwh, the volume will be 3 times as large as the
16 a Students’ work original value.
b 2020.83 m; horizontal 9 E
17 a Circular area, 1790.49 m2; rectangular area, 1406.25 m2 10 7438.35 cm3
11 4417.9 L
 1 2 12 10 215.05 cm3
b Circular area,  n m2; rectangular (square)
4π  13 a H = 6 m
 1 2 b 112 m3
4
area,  n  m2. Circular area is always or 1.27 c 19 bins
 16  π d 112 000 L
 1 1 e 1.95 m from floor
 4π ÷ 16  times larger. 14 a i 4.57 cm ii 262.5 cm2
b i 14.15 cm ii 323.27 cm2
Exercise 6B — Total surface area c i 33.3 cm ii 434.28 cm2
1 a 600 cm2 b 384 cm2 c 1440 cm2 d Sphere. Costs less for a smaller surface area.
d 27 m 2
15 Required volume = 1570.80 cm3; tin volume =1500 cm3;
2 a 113.1 m2 b 6729.3 cm2 c 8.2 m2 muffin tray volume = 2814.72 cm3. Marion should use
2
d 452.4 cm the tin with approximately 70 cm3 mixture left over.
3 a 1495.4 cm2 b 502.7 cm2 16 Increase radius of hemispherical section to 1.92 m.
4 a 506.0 cm2 b 9.4 m2 c 340.4 cm2 17 Cut squares of side length, s = 0.3 m or 0.368 m from the
d 224.1 cm2 corners.
5 a 13.5 m2 b 90 m2 c 11 309.7 cm2 18 Volume of water needed; 30.9 m3.
d 9852.0 mm2 e 125.7 cm2 f 1531.4 cm2
6 a 880 cm2 b 3072.8 cm2 c 75 cm2 Chapter review
d 70.4 cm2 e 193.5 cm2 f 1547.2 cm2 Fluency
7 B 8 63 1 D 2 C 3 E
9 11 216 cm2 4 A
10 a 70.0 m2 b $455 5 a 84 cm2 b 100 cm2 c 6.5 cm2
11 a 3063.1 cm2 b $168.47 d 56.52 cm2 e 60 cm2 f 244.35 cm2
6 a 300 cm2 b 224.52 cm2 c 160 cm2
12 a q = 120 è b x = 1; y = 3 c 3 3 cm2 7 a 499.86 cm2 b 44.59 cm2 c 128.76 cm2
d 6 3 cm2 e 32 8 a 18 692.48 cm2
b 1495.40 cm2 c 804.25 cm2
7 d 642 cm2 e 873.36 mm2 f 760 cm2
13 a 8p m2 b m
2 9 a 343 cm3 b 672 cm3 c 153 938.04 cm3
c 2 7π m2 d 1.45 m3 e 1800 cm3 f 1256.64 cm3
g 297 cm3 h 8400 cm3 i 7238.23 mm3
d 7 × 7 × 1
Problem solving
14 Calculation is correct. 1 a 62 m2 b $7290
15 a 6.6 m2 3 2
c Cheapest: 30 cm by 30 cm, $269.50; 20 cm by 20 cm 2 V = π r h, the volume will be 1.5 times as large as the
(individually) $270; 20 cm by 20 cm (boxed) $276.50 2
original volume.
3 3a 3 V = 3lwh, the volume will be 3 times as large as
16 r = (or triple) the original volume.
2
4 a 3605.55 cm2 b $180.33
Exercise 6C — Volume c 18062.1 cm3 d 9155.65 cm3
1 a 27 cm3 b 74.088 m3 5 a 1.33 m b 910.81 m2 c $655.85
c 3600 cm3 d 94.5 cm3 d 303.48 m3 e 11 trucks f 12 minutes
Answers 5H ➜ 6C
2 a 450 mm3 b 360 cm2
3 a 6333.5 cm3 b 19.1 m3
Chapter 7
c 280 cm3 d 288 mm3
4 a 7.2 m3 b 14 137.2 cm3 Quadratic expressions
c 1436.8 mm3 d 523 598.8 cm3
5 a 377.0 cm3 b 2303.8 mm3 Are you ready?
6 a 400 cm3 b 10 080 cm3 c 576 cm3 1 a 12x + 20 b 10x2 - 15x c -12x + 8x2
7 a 1400 cm3 b 10 379.20 cm3 c 41.31 cm3 2 a x - 4
2
b 4x - 12x + 9 c 6x2 - 11x - 10
2
d 48.17 cm3 e 218.08 cm3 f 3691.37 cm3 3 a 4x(x + 2) b -3x(5x + 3)

8 a Vnew = 27l3, the volume will be 27 times as large as the c x(6x - 1)
original volume. 4 a (x + 2)(3x + 4) b (x - 1)(4x - 1)
b Vnew = 18l2, the volume will be 18 of the original volume. c -(x + 3)(2x + 1)
Answers 817
1 x+2 15 a = 4, b = 4, c = -24, d = 0, e = 3
5 a x + 3 b c
( x − 3)( x + 7) 2( x + 3) 16 a (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 3)
b 56 cm3
6 a 2 6 b 6 3 c 36 3
c 0
Exercise 7A — Expanding algebraic expressions d No; you can’t have a negative volume.
1 a 2x + 6 b 4x - 20 c 21 - 3x e x > 3 f 18 cm3
d -x - 3 e x2 + 2x f 2x2 - 8x g x = 6 h x3 - 2x2 – 5x + 6
g 15x2 - 6x h 10x - 15x2 i 8x2 + 2x
Exercise 7B — Factorising expressions
j 4x3 - 6x2 k 6x3 - 3x2 l 15x3 + 20x2 with three terms
2 a x - x - 12
2 b x - 2x - 3
2
1 a (x + 2)(x + 1) b (x + 3)(x + 1)
c x2 - 5x - 14 d x2 - 6x + 5 c (x + 8)(x + 2) d (x + 4)2
e -x2 - x + 6 f x2 - 6x + 8 e (x - 3)(x + 1) f (x - 4)(x + 1)
g 2x2 - 17x + 21 h 3x2 - x - 2 g (x - 12)(x + 1) h (x - 6)(x + 2)
i 6x - 17x + 5
2 j 21 - 17x + 2x2 i (x + 4)(x - 1) j (x + 5)(x - 1)
k 15 + 14x - 8x 2
l 110 + 47x - 21x2 k (x + 7)(x - 1) l (x + 5)(x - 2)
3 a 2x - 4x - 6
2
b 8x2 - 28x - 16 m (x - 3)(x - 1) n (x - 4)(x - 5)
c -2x2 + 12x + 14 d 2x3 - 2x o (x + 14)(x - 5)
e 3x3 - 75x f 6x3 - 54x 2 a -2(x + 9)(x + 1) b -3(x + 2)(x + 1)
g 2x - 12x + 18x
3 2 h 5x3 - 30x2 + 40x c -(x + 2)(x + 1) d -(x + 10)(x + 1)
i -6x3 - 6x2 + 120x e -(x + 2)(x + 5) f -(x + 12)(x + 1)
4 a x3 + 2x2 - x - 2 b x3 - 2x2 - 5x + 6 g -(x + 3)(x + 4) h -(x + 2)(x + 6)
c x3 - 5x2 - x + 5 d x3 - 6x2 + 11x - 6 i 2(x + 2)(x + 5) j 3(x + 1)(x + 10)
e 2x - 7x - 5x + 4
3 2 f 6x3 - 7x2 + 1 k 5(x + 20)(x + 1) l 5(x + 4)(x + 5)
5 a x - x - 2
2 b -2x2 + 4x + 10 3 a (a - 7)(a + 1) b (t - 4)(t - 2)
c 5x2 - 6x - 5 d 19x - 23 c (b + 4)(b + 1) d (m + 5)(m - 3)
e -5x - 1 f -2x + 6 e (p - 16)(p + 3) f (c + 16)(c - 3)
g x2 - 2x - 3 + 3x g (k + 19)(k + 3) h (s - 19)(s + 3)
i (g + 8)(g - 9) j (v - 25)(v - 3)
h 6 + 2 2 x − 3 3 x − 6 x 2 − 5 x
k (x + 16)(x - 2) l (x - 15)(x - 4)
6 a A b C
4 a C b B
7 B
5 C
8 a x2 - 2x + 1 b x2 + 4x + 4 6 i d ii b iii b
c x2 + 10x + 25 d 16 + 8x + x2 iv a v c vi d
e 49 - 14x + x2 f 144 - 24x + x2 7 a (2x + 1)(x + 2) b (2x - 1)(x - 1)
g 9x - 6x + 1
2 h 144x2 - 72x + 9
c (4x + 3)(x - 5) d (2x - 1)(2x + 3)
i 25x + 20x + 4
2
j 4 - 12x + 9x2
e (x - 7)(2x + 5) f (3x + 1)(x + 3)
k 25 - 40x + 16x2 l 1 - 10x + 25x2
g (3x - 7)(2x - 1) h (4x - 7)(3x + 2)
9 a 2x2 - 12x + 18 b 4x2 - 56x + 196
i (5x + 3)(2x - 3) j (4x - 1)(5x + 2)
c 3x + 6x + 3
2
d -4x2 - 12x - 9
k (3x + 2)(4x - 1) l (3x - 1)(5x + 2)
e -49x2 + 14x - 1 f 8x2 - 24x + 18
8 a 2(x - 1)(2x + 3) b 3(3x + 1)(x - 7)
g -12 + 108x - 243x2 h -45 + 330x - 605x2
i -16x - 16x - 4
2 c 12(2x + 1)(3x - 1) d -3(3x + 1)(2x - 1)
10 a x2 - 49 b x2 - 81 c x2 - 25 e -30(2x + 1)(x - 3) f 3a(4x - 7)(2x + 5)
d x - 1
2
e 4x - 9
2
f 9x2 - 1 g -2(4x - 3)(x - 2) h -(2x - 7)(5x + 2)
g 49 - x2 h 64 - x2 i 9 - 4x2 i -(8x - 1)(3x - 4) j -2(3x - y)(2x + y)
11 a (x + 1)(x - 3) b x2 - 2x - 3 k -5(2x - 7y)(3x + 2y) l -12(5x + 3y)(10x + 7y)
c 6 cm, 2 cm, 12 cm2 9 a w2 + 5w - 6 b (w + 6)(w - 1) c (x + 5)(x - 2)
12 a b 10 a x(x + 5) b x(x + 5)
c (x - 1)2 d (x + 9)(x + 5)
(x + 1) m e (x - 15)(x - 6) f (x - 10)(x - 3)
11 (x - 0.5)(x + 1.5)
xm (x + 2) m 12 a (x - 5)(x + 1)
c (x + 1)(x + 2) d x2 + 3x + 2 b (x - 5) cm
e 4 m2, 12 m2 c x = 15 cm
13 a (x + 2)2 b 5(x + 2)2 c 5x2 + 20x + 20 d 160 cm2
d 500 cm 3 2
e 100 cm , 100 tiles e 3000(x - 5)(x + 1) cm2
14 a x2 + x b 5x2 + 21x + 20 c i
x
ii 1.50 m or (3000x2 - 12 000x - 15 000) cm2
2 13 a (2x + 3)(3x + 1) b P = 10x + 8 c x = 8 metres
818 Answers
14 a SA = 3x2 + 16x b Total area = 3x2 + 6x + 16 e (5p - 4 + 3t)(5p - 4 - 3t)
c (3x + 4)(x + 4) d l = 21 m; w = 7 m; d = 2 m f (6t − 1 + 5v )(6t − 1 − 5v )
e 275 m2 f 294 m3 13 a E
15 a Yellow = 3 cm ì 3 cm b Yellow = 0.36 m2 b A
Black = 3 cm ì 6 cm Black = 0.72 m2 c D
White = 6 cm ì 6 cm White = 0.36 m2
c 14 B
15 a (x - 5)(x + 5)
b (x - 5) cm, (x + 5) cm
c 2 cm, 12 cm
d 24 cm2
Exercise 7C — Factorising expressions with two e 120 cm2 or 6 times bigger
or four terms 16 a r metres
1 a x(x + 3) b x(x - 4) c 3x(x - 2) b (r + 1) m
d 4x(x + 4) e 3x(3x - 1) f 8x(1 - x) c A1 = pr2 m2
d A2 = p(r + 1)2 m2
g 3x(4 - x) h 4x(2 - 3x) i x(8x - 11)
e A = p(r + 1)2 - pr2 = p(2r + 1) m2
2 a (x - 2)(3x + 2) b (x + 3)(5 - 2x) f 34.56 m2
c (x - 1)(x + 5) d (x + 1)(x - 1) 17 a Annie = (x + 3)(x + 2) m2 Bronwyn = 5(x + 2) m2
e (x + 4)(x - 2) f (x - 3)(4 - x) b (x + 3)(x + 2) – 5(x + 2)
3 a (x + 1)(x - 1) b (x + 3)(x - 3) c (x + 2)(x - 2) = x2 – 4
c (x + 5)(x - 5) d (x + 10)(x - 10) d Width = 5 m
e ( y + k)( y - k) f (2x + 3y)(2x - 3y) e Annie has 30 m2 and Bronwyn has 25 m2.
g (4a + 7)(4a - 7) h (5p + 6q)(5p - 6q) Exercise 7D — Factorising by completing
i (1 + 10d)(1 - 10d) the square
4 a 4(x + 1)(x - 1) b 5(x + 4)(x - 4) 1 a (x + 5)2 - 25
c a(x + 3)(x - 3) d 2(b + 2d )(b - 2d ) b (x + 3)2 - 9
e 100(x + 4)(x - 4) f 3a(x + 7)(x - 7) c (x - 2)2 - 4
g 4p(x + 8)(x - 8) h 4(3x + 2)(3x - 2) d (x + 8)2 - 64
i 3(6 + x)(6 - x) e (x - 10)2 - 100
f (x + 4)2 - 16
5 a C b B c B
g (x - 7)2 - 49
6 C h (x + 25)2 - 625
7 a (x + 11)(x - 11) b (x + 7)(x - 7) i (x - 1)2 - 1
c (x + 15)(x - 15) d (2x + 13)(2x - 13) 2 a (x - 2 + 11)(x - 2 - 11)
b (x + 1 + 3)(x + 1 - 3)
e (3x + 19)(3x - 19) f 3(x + 22 )(x - 22)
c (x - 5 + 13)(x - 5 - 13)
g 5(x + 3)(x - 3) h 2(x + 2)(x - 2)
d (x + 3 + 19)(x + 3 - 19)
i 12(x + 3)(x - 3) e (x + 8 + 65)(x + 8 - 65)
8 a (x - 3)(x + 1) b (x - 4)(x + 6)
f (x - 7 + 6)(x - 7 - 6)
c (x - 5)(x + 1) d (x - 1)(x + 7)
e (6 - x)(x + 8) f (10 - x)(x + 2) g (x + 4 + 7)(x + 4 - 7)
g 8(x - 3) h (7 - x)(5x + 1) h (x - 2 + 17 )(x - 2 - 17)
i (x - 22)(9x + 2) i (x - 6 + 11)(x - 6 - 11)
9 a (x - 2y)(1 + a) b (x + y)(2 + a)
3 a (x - 1 + 5
)(x -1- 5
)
c (x - y)(a + b) d (x + y)(4 + z) 2 2 2 2
e (f - 2)(e + 3) f (n - 7)(m + 1) b (x - 3 + 21
)(x -3- 21
)
2 2 2 2
g 3(2r - s)(t + u) h 7(m - 3)(n + 5)
c (x + 1 + 21
+1- 21
Answers 7A ➜ 7D
i 2(8 - j)(4 + k) j a(3 - b)(a + c) )(x )

2 2 2 2
k x(5 + y)(x + 2) l m(m + n)(2 - n)
10 a (y + 7)(x - 2) b (m + 2)(n - 3) d (x + 3 + 13
)(x +3- 13
)
2 2 2 2
c (q + 5)( p - 3) d (s + 3)(s - 4t) e (x + 5 +
17
)(x +5- 17
)
2
e (b + d)(a2 - c) f (1 + 5z)(xy - z) 2 2 2
11 a (a - b)(a + b + 4) b ( p - q)( p + q - 3) f (x + 5 + 33
)(x +5- 33
)
2 2 2 2
c (m + n)(m - n + l) d (x + y)(7 + x - y)
e (1 - 2q)(5p + 1 + 2q) f (7g + 6h)(7g - 6h - 4) g (x - 7 + 53
)(x -7- 53
)
2 2 2 2
12 a (x + 7 + y)(x + 7 - y)
b (x + 10 + y)(x + 10 - y) h (x - 9 + 29
)(x -9- 29
)
2 2 2 2
c (a - 11 + b)(a - 11 - b)
i (x - 1 + 13
)(x -1- 13
)
d (3a + 2 + b)(3a + 2 - b) 2 2 2 2
Answers 819
4 a 2(x + 1 + 3)(x + 1 - 3) Chapter review
Multiple choice
b 4(x - 1 + 6)(x - 1 - 6) 1 E 2 D 3 E 4 C
c 5(x + 3 + 2 2)(x + 3 - 2 2) 5 C 6 A 7 E 8 C
d 3(x - 2 + 17)(x - 2 - 17 ) 9 a 3x2 - 12x b -21x2 - 7x
e 5(x - 3 + 7)(x - 3 - 7) c x2 - 6x - 7 d 2x2 - 11x + 15
e 12x2 - 23x + 5 f 6x2 - 3x - 84
f 6(x + 2 + 5)(x + 2 - 5) g 2x3 + 15x2 - 8x - 105 h 3x2 - 5x + 65
g 3(x + 5 + 2 3)(x + 5 - 2 3) i 5x2 + 12x - 3
h 2(x - 2 + 11)(x - 2 - 11) 10 a x2 - 14x + 49 b 4 - 4x + x2
i 6(x + 3 + 14)(x + 3 - 14) c 9x2 + 6x + 1 d -18x2 + 24x - 8
5 i d ii b iii c e -28x2 - 140x - 175 f -160x2 + 400x - 250
iv a v c vi d g x - 81
2
h 9x2 - 1
vii d viii e i 25 - 4x 2
6 a B b E 11 a 2x(x - 4) b -4x(x - 3)
c ax(3 - 2x) d (x + 1)(x + 2)
7 E
e 2(2x - 5)(4 - x) f (x - 4)(x + 1)
8 a = 0.55; b = 5.45
12 a (x + 4)(x - 4) b (x + 5)(x - 5)
Exercise 7E — Mixed factorisation c 2(x + 6)(x - 6) d 3(x + 3y)(x - 3y)
1 3(x + 3) 2 (x + 2 + 3y)(x + 2 - 3y) e 4a(x + 2y)(x - 2y) f (x - 1)(x - 7)
3 (x + 6)(x - 6) 4 (x + 7)(x - 7) 13 a (x - y)(a + b) b (x + y)(7 + a)
5 (5x + 1)(x - 2) 6 5(3x - 4y) c (x + 2)( y + 5) d (1 + 2q)(mn - q)
7 (c + e)(5 + d) 8 5(x + 4)(x - 4) e (5r + 1)( pq - r) f (v - 1)(u + 9)
9 -(x + 5)(x + 1) 10 (x + 4)(x - 3) g (a - b)(a + b + 5) h (d - 2c)(d + 2c - 3)
11 (m + 1)(n + 1) 12 (x + 7)(x - 7) i (1 + m)(3 - m)
13 4x(4x - 1) 14 5(x + 10)(x + 2) 14 a (2x + 3 + y)(2x + 3 - y)
15 3(3 - y)(x + 2) 16 (x - 4 + y)(x - 4 - y) b (7a - 2 + 2b)(7a - 2 - 2b)
17 4(x2 + 2) 18 (g + h)(f + 2) c (8s - 1 + 3t )(8s - 1 - 3t )
19 (x + 5)(x - 5) 20 5(n + 1)(2m - 1) 15 a (x + 9)(x + 1) b (x - 9)(x - 2)
21 (x + 5)(x + 1) 22 (x + 1)(x - 11) c (x - 7)(x + 3) d (x + 7)(x - 4)
23 (x + 2)(x - 2) 24 (a + b)(c - 5) e -(x - 3)2 f 3(x + 13)(x - 2)
25 (y + 1)( x - 1) 26 (3x + 2)(x + 1) g -2(x - 5)(x + 1) h -3(x - 6)(x - 2)
27 7(x + 2)(x - 2) 28 -4(x + 6)(x + 1) i (4x - 1)(2x + 1) j (3x - 1)(2x + 1)
29 (2 + r)( p - s) 30 3(x + 3)(x - 3) k 4(2x + 3)(x - 1) l 5(7x - 3)(3x + 1)
m -2(3x - 5)(2x - 7) n -3(3x - 1)(5x + 2)
31 (u + v)(t - 3) 32 (x + 11 )(x - 11)
o -30(2x + 3)(x + 3)
33 (4x - 1)(3x - 1) 34 (x + 1)(x - 3)
35 (x + 6)(x - 2) 36 4(x - 1)(x + 4) 16 a (x + 3 + 2 2)(x + 3 - 2 2)
37 3(x + 2)(x + 8) 38 (3 + x)(7 - x) b (x - 5 + 2 7)(x - 5 - 2 7)
39 4(3 - x + 2y)(3 - x - 2y) 40 3(y + x) (y - x)
41 4(x + 2) 42 (3x - 4y)(x - 2y) c (x + 2 + 6)(x + 2 - 6)
43 (x + 7)(x + 4) 44 (x + 2)(x - 5) d (x - 25 + 17
)(x - 25 - 17
)
2 2
45 (2x + 3)(x + 3)
( x + 5)( x − 2) ( x + 2)( x + 2) e (x + 72 + 53
)(x + 72 - 53
)
46 a × 2 2
( x + 2)( x − 2) ( x − 4)( x + 2)
f 2(x + 92 + 85 )(x + 92 - 85 )
( x + 5) ( x − 2) ( x + 2) ( x + 2) 2 2
b × 17 a 3x(x - 4)
( x + 2) ( x − 2) ( x − 4 ) ( x + 2) b (x + 3 + 7 )(x + 3 - 7 )
x+5 c (2x + 5)(2x - 5) d (2x + 5)(x + 2)
c
x−4 e (a + 2)(2x + 3) f -3(x - 2)(x + 3)
x −1 x +1 18 ( x − 2)( x − 1)
47 a b c 18 a 2( x + 4) b 7 c
x−6 2x + 3 x ( x − 5) 8 x ( x − 4)
5( x + 1)
2x − 1 x+2 x−6
d e f Problem solving
x+4 x+5 x+3
1 a (x + 2)2 b 32(x + 2)2
4(b + 2) p( p + 7) 5(m + 2 + n) c 32x2 + 128x + 128 d 32 768 cm3
g h i
5 ( p + 3)( p − 2) 2(2m − 5) 2 a 4r b 2r + 2
[5(3d − 2)(d − 3 + 5e)] c 4pr 2 d (4pr 2 + 8r + 4)p
j
[4(d − 2)(4 d + 3)] e 4p (2r + 1) f 28p m2
820 Answers
3 a (x – 7)(x + 2) b x – 7 cm
c 35 d 1036 cm2 g - 32 + 37
2
,
3
- 2 -
37
2
h 5
2
+
37 5
2
,2 -
37
2
9 65 9 65
4 Division by zero in Step 5 i + ,2 -
2 2 2
CHAPTER 8 11 a -3, 1 b -4.24, 0.24 c -1, 3

d -0.73, 2.73 e 0.38, 2.62 f -0.30, 3.30
Quadratic equations g -1.19, 4.19 h -2.30, 1.30 i -2.22, 0.22
12 No real solutions — when we complete the square we get
Are you ready? the sum of two squares, not the difference of two squares
1 a x(x - 3) b 4x(x + 3) c 12x(3x - 1)
and we cannot factorise the expression.
2 a -2 and 3 b -2 and -3 c 2 and -3 13 8 and 9 or -8 and -9
3 a 2 6 b 10 2 c 36 2 14 6 and 8, -6 and -8
4 a 0 b -16 c -38 15 9 or -10
5 a x = -2 b x = 3 c x = 1.5 16 2 or -2 23
Exercise 8A — Solving quadratic equations 17 8 or -10 12
1 a -7, 9 b -2, 3 c 2, 3
d 0, 3 e 0, 1 f -5, 0 18 6 seconds
g 0, 3 h -2, 0 i - 12 , 12 19 a l = 2x
b m c
j -1.2, -0.5 k 0.1, 0.75 l - 2 , 3 45 x cm
1
2 a 2
, 1 b -2, - 23 c 1
4
, 7 2x cm
d - 67 , 1 12 e 3 2
, f - 85, 23 c + (2x)2 = 452, 5x2 = 2025
x2
5 3
d Length 40 cm, width 20 cm
g 0, 12 , 3 h 0, 12 , - 25 i 0, -3, 25 20 8 m, 6 m
3 a 0, 2 b -5, 0 c 0, 7 21 a - 73 b x = 0 c x = ê 11
3
22 a
d - 23 , 0 e 0, 1 12 f 0, 13
2m
7
g 0, 2
h - 33 , 0 i 0, 1 14
4m
4 a -2, 2 b -5, 5 c -2, 2 b (2 + x) m, (4 + x) m
c (2 + x)(4 + x) = 24
d -7, 7 e -1 13 , 1 13 f -2 12 , 2 12 d x = 2, 4 m wide, 6 m long
g - 23 , 23 h - 12 , 12 i - 15 , 15 23 a (l - 4) cm b l - 8, l - 4
c (l - 8)(l - 4) = 620 d 31 cm
j -4, 4 k − 5, 5 l - 11
, 11 e 836 cm2
3 3 24 a CAnnabel(28) = $364 800, CBetty(28) = $422 400
5 a -2, 3 b -4, -2 c -1, 7 b 10 knots
d 3, 5 e 1 f -1, 4 c Speed can only be a positive quantity, so the negative
g 5 h -2, 5 i 2, 6 solution is not valid.
j -3, 7 k -5, 6 l 3, 4 Exercise 8B — The quadratic formula
6 B 1 a a = 3, b = -4, c = 1 b a = 7, b = -12, c = 2
7 C c a = 8, b = -1, c = -3 d a = 1, b = -5, c = 7
8 a - 12 , 3 b 23, -1 c -2, 15 e a = 5, b = -5, c = -1 f a = 4, b = -9, c = -3
g a = 12, b = -29, c = 103
d 13, 1 12 e - 143 , 1 f 14 , 13 h a = 43, b = -81, c = -24
g -1 13 , 2 12 h -1 43 , -113 i - 25 , 1 i a = 6, b = -15, c = 1
2
−5 ± 21 −3 ± 13 5 ± 17
j 1 12, 2 23 k - 25 , 16 l 3, 4 2 a b c
2 2 2
9 a 2 + 2 , 2 − 2 b −1 + 3 , −1 − 3 7 ± 45
Answers 7E ➜ 8B
d 2 ± 13 e −1 ± 2 3 f
c −3 + 10 , − 3 − 10 d 4 + 2 3 , 4 − 2 3 2
9 ± 73
e 5 + 2 6 , 5 − 2 6 f 1 + 3 , 1 − 3 g h 3 ± 2 3 i −4 ± 31
2
g −1 + 6 , −1 − 6 h −2 + 10 , − 2 − 10 1 ± 21 5 ± 33
j k l −1 ± 2 2
i −2 + 15 , − 2 − 15 2 2
3 a -0.54, 1.87 b -1.20, 1.45 c -4.11, 0.61
10 a 3
+ 5 3
, - 5
b - 25 + 29
2
, - 25 - 29
2 d -0.61, 0.47 e 0.14, 1.46 f 0.16, 6.34
2 2 2 2
7 33 7 33 1 21 1 21 g -1.23, 1.90 h -1.00, 1.14 i -0.83, 0.91
c + , - 2
d 2
+ ,
2 2
- 2 j -0.64, 1.31 k -0.35, 0.26 l -1.45, 1.20
2 2 2
m 0.08, 5.92 n -0.68, 0.88 o -0.33, 2.00
e 11
2
+ 117 11
2
, 2 - 117
2
f - 12 + 2
5
, - 12 - 2
5
4 C
Answers 821
5 C 6 B 5 a a = 3, b = 2, c = 7
7 C b -80
8 a 0.5, 3 b 0, 5 c No real solutions
c -1, 3 d 0.382, 2.618 6 a a = -6, b = 1, c = 3 b 73
e 0.298, 6.702 f 2, 4 1 ± 73
g No real solution h -1, 8 c 2 real solutions d
12
i -4.162, 2.162 j -2, 1 7 A 8 C
k -7, 1.5 l No real solution 9 C 10 k = -1
m 2, 7 n - 12 , 13 11 m = 1, 8
o No real solution 12 n > - 49
9 a 2p r2 + 14p r - 231 = 0 13 p2 can only give a positive number which, when added to
b 3.5 cm 24, is always a positive solution.
c 154 cm2 14 a 0.4 m b 0.28 m
10 a x(x + 30) c 2.20 m d 2.5 m
b x(x + 30) = 1500 e i Yes ii No f 1.25 m
c 265 mm Exercise 8E — Solving a quadratic equation and a
11 a Pool A: 3 23 m by 6 23 m; Pool B: 3 13 m by 7 13 m linear equation simultaneously
1 (-4, 1) and (1, 6)
b The area of each is 24 49 m2. 2 a (-4, 12) and (-3, 10)
12 25 m, 60 m b (-2, -5) and (6, 35)
c (3, -2) and (5, 0)
Exercise 8C — Solving quadratic equations by 3 (2, 4)
inspecting graphs 4 D = -8
1 a x = -2, x = 3 b x = 1, x = 10 5 a (-2, 4) and (5, 18)
c x = -5, x = 5 d x = 2 b (-2, -9) and (-1, -8)
e x = -1, x = 4 f x ö -1.4, x ö 4.4 c (4, 10)
g x = -25, x = 10 h x = 0 d (-7, 18) and (-1, 6)
i x ö -2.3, x ö 1.3 j x ö -1.5, x = 1 e (1, 1) and (3, 9)
2 a–j Confirm by substitution of above values into f (1, 4) and (10, 22)
quadratic equations. 6 (-3, 1) and (-2, 1)
3 150 m 7 a (1, -5)
4 7 m b No, but the straight line is vertical and intersects at one
5 b x = -0.72, 1.39 point only.
c The answer for part b are the x-coordinates of the 8 (-2, 0) and (2, 0)
intersection of the quadratic in part a. 9 a y
(3, 32)
Exercise 8D — Finding solutions to quadratic
equations by interpolation and using the
discriminant (2, 21)
1 a -4.5, 1.5 b -0.87, 1.5 c -4.6, 1.1
2 a -11 b 0 c 169
d 0 e 37 f 0 5
g 52 h -7 i -4
-3 -2 -1 x
j 109 k 129 l 1 —1
11
3 a No real solutions b 1 rational solution
c 2 rational solutions d 1 rational solution b y
e 2 irrational solutions f 1 rational solution
g 2 irrational solutions h No real solutions (2, 8)
i No real solutions j 2 irrational solutions
k 2 irrational solutions l 2 rational solutions
4 a No real solutions b 2 12 -6 x
(1, 0)
c -11, 2 d - 23
-6
−3 ± 37 -8
e ö -4.541, 1.541
2
1 1 ± 13
f 5 g ö -0.869, 1.535
3 c y
h No real solutions
i No real solutions
14
−5 ± 109
j ö -2.573, 0.907
6 -2 5
-7 x
−7 ± 129
k ö -4.589, 1.089 l 5, 6 (-3, -4)
4
822 Answers
d y j y
10
(-2, 28)
6
2 5
3– x
2
10
6
—6
11
k y
2 5 x
21
e y
11 (5, 16)
(-2, 9)
3 -3 7 x
-1 6 x
-6
l y 54
—
13
f y 6 8 x
(3, -15)
(3, 70)
-48
-54
40 (-2, -80)
28 m y
16
(-4, 0)
x (-1, 7)
-7 -4
-2
g y - 16
— 6 x
9
(5, 14) (-4, -20)
-9 4 x n y
-36
(-8, 20) (1, 20)
12
-61
h y
x
-4 -3
-2
o y
-17–4 8 x
-16 9
-17
(1, -21)
Answers 8C ➜ 8E
9–
4
i y -5 1 x
(9, 39)
p y
(6, 16)
- 3–4 3
-4 6 x
(-3, -9)
4
2 4 x
-24 (2, 0)
Answers 823
10 1.322 km and 2.553 km Exercise 9A — Plotting parabolas
x2 1 y x = 0, (0, 0)
11 y = , (2, 2) and (-2, 2) y = x2
2 10
8
Chapter review 6
Fluency
4
1 B 2 B
2
3 A 4 D (0, 0)
5 (3x + 4) m -4 -3–2-1 1 2 3 x
-2
6 a -5, -3 b -6, -1 c -8, -3
d 2, -6 e 5, -2 f 4, -7 2 a y b 1
y = 3x2 y y = –4 x2
g 3, 1 h 5, 6 i 7, -5 30
1 25
7 a -2, -6 b -2, -1 c 2
, -3 20 2
15
1 2
d 2, -7 e - 2 , 4 f - 3, 2 10
5
1
5 5 1
g 2, 1 h , i -7, -3 -2-1 0 1 2 3 x
3 2 2 -3 -2-1 0 1 2 3 x
1
8 a -4 ê 17 b -1 ê 6 c -1, 4

9 4 x = 0, (0, 0) x = 0, (0, 0)
10 a -0.651, 1.151 b -0.760, 0.188 3 Placing a number greater than 1 in front of x2 makes the
c 0.441, -0.566 graph thinner. Placing a number greater than 0 but less
11 a -0.571, 0.682 b -0.216, 3.836 than 1 in front of x2 makes the graph wider.
c -0.632, 0.632
12 -3, 7 4 a y b 12
y
13 -3, 1 10
10 y = x2 + 3
14 a 2 irrational solutions b 2 rational solutions 8
y = x2 + 1 8
c No real solutions 6
6
15 a (-8, 22) and (2, 2) b (5, 10) 4
4
c No solution 2
2 (0, 3)
Problem solving -3-2-10 1 2 3 x
-3-2-10 1 2 3 x
1 -8 and 7 x = 0, (0, 1), 1
2 Length = 6 m, width = 3 m x = 0, (0, 3), 3
3 a 2p r(r + 10) = 245 b 3.0 cm c y d y y = x2 - 1
c 188 cm2 y = x2 - 3 8
4 - 25
8
6 6
5 k > 9 and k < 1 4 4

6 a 6 m b 6 m 2 2
(0, -1)
7 24 -3-2-10 1 2 3 x -3-2-1 1 2 3 x
8 a y = 2x2 - 5x - 2 -2 -2
b No parabola is possible. The points are on the same
straight line. x = 0, (0, -3), -3 x = 0, (0, -1), -1
9 12( 5 + 2) cm 5 Adding a number raises the graph of y = x2 vertically that
number of units. Subtracting a number lowers the graph
of y = x2 vertically that number of units.
Chapter 9 6 a y b y
20 y = (x + 2)2
Functions (-5, 16) y = (x
16
+ 1)2
16
Are you ready? 12 12
1 a 0 b -16 c -38 8 8
2 a x = -2 b x = 3 c x = 32 or x = 1.5 4 (1, 4) 4
2

+ 1 b  x −  +
3 7 -6-5-4-3-2-1 01 2 x -6 -4 -2 0 2 x
3 a (x +1)2 c 2(x - 1)2 + 4
 2 4
−1 ± 5 2± 2 x = -1, (-1, 0), 1 x = -2, (-2, 0), 4
4 a b
2 2 c y d y
10 y = (x - 2)
2
10 y = (x - 1)
2
c 1 ± 7 −1 ∓ 7
= 8 8
−3 3 6 6
5 a x = -2 or x = -3 b x = 1 or x = -2 4 4
c x = 2 or x = -2 2 2
1 1
6 a x = - 2 or x = -2 b x = 2 or x = - 3
0 12345 x 0 12345 x
2
c x = 32 or x = 3 x = 2, (2, 0), 4 x = 1, (1, 0), 1
824 Answers
7 Adding a number moves the graph of y = x2 horizontally d y x = 1, (1, 2), max, -1
to the left by that number of units. Subtracting a number 5
moves the graph of y = x2 horizontally to the right by that -2 0 2 4 x
number of units. -5
8 a y b -10
y -15
1 0 -20
-2-1 1 2 3 4 5 x y = -3(x - 1)2 + 2
-3-2-1 01 2 3 4 x -2 -25
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4
-5
-5 e y x = -2, (-2, -9), min, -5
-6
-6 -7
-7 -8
y = x2 + 4x - 5
-8 y = -x2 + 1 -9 10
y = -(x - 1)2
5
x = 0, (0, 1), 1 x = 1, (1, 0), -1 x
-6 -4 -2 0
-5
c y d y -10

0 12345 x
-6 -4 -2 0 1 x -2 f y x = -1, (-1, 16), max, 15
-2
-4 20
-4
-6
-6 15
-8 10
-8
-10 5
y = -(x + 2)2 -12 y = -x2 - 3
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
x = -2, (-2, 0), -4 x = 0, (0, -3), -3 -5 y = -x2 - 2x + 15
-10

9 The negative sign inverts the graph of y = x2.
g y = -3x2 - 6x + 24 y x = -1, (-1, 27), max, 24
The graphs with the same turning points are: 25
y = x2 + 1 and y = -x2 + 1; y = (x - 1)2 and 20
y = -(x - 1)2; y = (x + 2) and y = -(x + 2)2; 15
10
y = x2 - 3 and y = -x2 - 3. 5
They differ in that the first graph is upright while the -6 -4 -2 -5 0 2 x
-10
second graph is inverted. -15
-20
-25
10 a y
y = (x - 5)2 + 1

26 h y x = 2, (2, 1) min, 5
20 y = (x - 2)2 + 1
16
12
1 8
0 12 3 4 5 6 x
4
x = 5, (5, 1), min, 26 -2 0 2 4 x

b y 11 a I f the x2 term is positive, the parabola has a minimum
y = 2(x + 2)2 - 3
turning point. If the x2 term is negative, the parabola
16 has a maximum turning point.
12 b If the equation is of the form y = a(x - b)2 + c, the
8 turning point has coordinates (b, c).
4 c The equation of the axis of symmetry can be found
x
from the x-coordinate of the turning point.
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 That is, x = b.
Answers 9A ➜ 9A
-4

x = -2, (-2, -3), min, 5 12 C 13 B
14 C 15 A
c y 16 a
4 h
3 18 h = -(t - 4)2 + 16
2 16
1 14
12
0 123456 x 10
-2 8
-3 6
-4 4
-5 2
0 1234567 8 t
y = -(x - 3)2 + 4

x = 3, (3, 4), max, -5 b i 16 m ii 8 s
Answers 825
17 a h c It is possible to have 0, 1 or 2 points of intersection.
18
16 y
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 t
0 x
b i 18 m
ii Yes, by 3 m
iii 1.5 s
iv 3 s y
18 a y
0 x
0 x
y
y
0 x
0 x
Exercise 9B — Sketching parabolas

y using the basic graph of y = x 2
1 a Narrower, TP (0, 0) b Wider, (0, 0)
c Narrower, TP (0, 0) d Narrower, TP (0, 0)
e Wider, TP (0, 0) f Wider, TP (0, 0)
g Narrower, TP (0, 0) h Narrower, TP (0, 0)
0 x 2 a Vertical 3 up, TP (0, 3)
b Vertical 1 down, TP (0, -1)
c Vertical 7 down, TP (0, -7)
1 1
d Vertical 4 up, TP (0, 4 )
1
e Vertical 2 down, TP (0, - 12 )
y f Vertical 0.14 down, TP (0, -0.14)
g Vertical 2.37 up, TP (0, 2.37)
h Vertical 3 up, TP (0, 3)
3 a Horizontal 1 right, (1, 0)
b Horizontal 2 right, (2, 0)
0 x c Horizontal 10 left, (-10, 0)
d Horizontal 4 left, (-4, 0)
1 1
e Horizontal 2 right, ( 2 , 0)
1 1
f Horizontal 5 left, (- 5 , 0)
b An infinite number of points of intersection occur g Horizontal 0.25 left, (-0.25, 0)
when the two equations represent the same parabola, h Horizontal 3 left, (− 3, 0)
with the effect that the two parabolas superimpose. 4 a (0, 1), max b (0, -3), min
For example y = x2 + 4x + 3 and 2y = 2x2 + 8x + 6. c (-2, 0), max d (0, 0), min
826 Answers
e (0, 4), max f (0, 0), max f i Horizontal translation 4 right
g (5, 0), min h (0, 1) min ii (4, 0)
5 a Narrower, min b Narrower, max iii y
c Wider, min d Wider, max y = x2 y = (x - 4)
2
e Narrower, max f Wider, min

g Narrower, min h Wider, max
6 a i Horizontal translation 1 left
ii (-1, 0)
iii y y = (x + 1)2 0 (4, 0) x

g i Reflected, wider (dilation)
y = x2 ii (0, 0)
iii y 2 y=x
(-1, 0) 0 x

b i Reflected, narrower (dilation) (0, 0) x
ii (0, 0) y = - 2– x2
5
iii y

h i Narrower (dilation)
y=x 2 ii (0, 0)
iii y y = 5x2
y = x2
0 x
y = -3x2
(0, 0) x

c i Vertical translation 1 up i i Reflected, vertical translation 2 up
ii (0, 1) ii (0, 2)
iii y y = x2 + 1
iii y y = x2
(0, 2)
y = x2
0 x
(0, 1)
0 x
y = -x + 2 2
d i Wider (dilation) j i Reflected, horizontal translation 6 right

ii (0, 0) ii (6, 0)
iii y iii y y = x2
y = x2
(6, 0)
0 x
y = 1–3 x2
Answers 9B ➜ 9B
(0, 0) x
y = -(x - 6) 2
e i Vertical translation 3 down k i Reflected, vertical translation 4 down

ii (0, -3) ii (0, -4)
iii y iii y y = x2
y = x2
0 x
y = x2 - 3 y = -x2 - 4
0 x
(0, -3)
Answers 827
l i Reflected, horizontal translation 1 left p i Narrower (dilation), reflected, horizontal translation
ii (-1, 0) 1 right, vertical translation 3 down
2
iii y y = x2 ii (1, - 32 )
iii y y = x2
(-1, 0)
0 x
y = -(x + 1)2
0 (1, - 3 ) x
2
m i Narrower (dilation), horizontal translation 1 left, y = - 74 (x - 1)2 - 32
vertical translation 4 down
ii (-1, -4)
iii y

7 a 10 cm
y = x2 b 5 cm
c 5 cm
d y = (x - 5)2
0 x
2 Exercise 9C — Sketching parabolas in
y = 2(x + 1) - 4
turning point form
1 a (1, 2), min b (-2, -1), min
c (-1, 1), min d (2, 3), max
(-1, -4) e (5, 3), max f (-2, -6), min
1 3 1 2
g (- 2 , - 4 ), min h ( 3 , 3 ), min
n i Wider (dilation), horizontal translation 3 right, i (-0.3, -0.4), min
vertical translation 2 up 2 a i (-3, -5) ii Min iii Narrower
ii (3, 2) b i (1, 1) ii Max iii Same
iii y c i (-2, -4) ii Max iii Narrower
d i (3, 2) ii Min iii Wider
e i (-1, 7) ii Max iii Wider
1 1
(3, 2)
f i (- 5, - 2 ) ii Min iii Wider
y = x2
1
y = –2 (x - 3)2 + 2 3 i b y = -(x - 2)2 + 3 ii e y = -x2 + 1
iii f y = (x + 1)2 - 3 iv d y = -(x + 2)2 + 3
0 x v c y = x2 - 1 vi a y = (x - 1)2 - 3
4 a A b C c B
d C e B
5 a i -3 ii -3, 1

b i 12
ii 2
c i -18
ii No x-intercepts
o i Wider (dilation), reflected, horizontal translation d i -5 ii -1, 5

1
2 left, vertical translation 4 up e i 4
ii No x-intercepts
ii (-2, 14 ) f i 4 ii -3 - 5, -3 + 5

(approx. -5.24, -0.76)
iii y y = x2 6 a i (4, 2) ii Min iii Same width
iv 18 v No x-intercepts
vi y y = (x - 4)2 + 2
18
(-2, 14 )
0 x
(4, 2)
0 12 34 x

y = – 13 (x + 2)2 + 4
b i (3, -4) ii Min iii Same width
iv 5 v 1, 5
828 Answers
vi y h i (1, 3) vi y y = 2(x - 1)2 + 3
y = (x - 3)2 - 4 ii Min
5 iii Narrower 5
iv 5
v No x-intercepts (1, 3)
0 1 2 3 45 x
-4 (3, -4) 0 x

c i (-1, 2) ii Min iii Same width i i (-2, 1) ii Max iii Narrower
iv 3 v No x-intercepts iv -11
vi y = (x + 1)2 + 2 y 1 1
v -2 - , -2 + (approx. -2.58, -1.42)
3 3
vi y
3 (-2, 1)
2 0 x
(-1, 2) 1 1
1 -2 - — -2 + —
3 3
-1 0 x

d i (-5, -3) ii Min iii Same width -11
iv 22 y = -3(x + 2)2 + 1
v -5 - 3, -5 + 3 (approx. -6.73, -3.27)

7 a 2(x - 43 )2 - 73
=0
vi y = (x + 5)2 - 3 y 8
22 b x = 43 ê 73
4
c ( 43 , - 73
8
), minimum
-5 + 3
8 a y = -23(x + 4)2 + 6
0x b (-7, 0)
(-5, -3)
-5 - 3 9 a p ($) b $1.90
e i (1, 2) ii Max iii Same width 1.9 c $1
iv 1 1.4 d 3 pm
1.0 e $1.40
v 1 - 2, 1 + 2 (approx. -0.41, 2.41)
vi y
0 3 5 t (Hours
(1, 2) after 12 pm.)
1- 2 2 1+ 2
1 10 a 0.5 m
-1 0 1 x b (15 + 4 15) m
c Maximum height is 8 metres when horizontal distance
is 15 metres.
y = -(x - 1) + 2 2
Exercise 9D — Sketching parabolas
f i (-2, -3) ii Max iii Same width of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c
iv -7 v No x-intercepts 1 a y = (x + 2)2 - 6, (-2, -6)
vi y b y = (x + 6)2 - 40, (-6, -40)
-2 0 x c y = (x - 4)2 - 10, (4, -10)
(-2, -3)
-3
d y = (x - 1)2 + 11, (1, 11)
3 5 3 5
e y = (x + 2 )2 - 4 , (- 2 , - 4 )
9 1 9
f y = (x + 12 )2 - 4 , (- 2 , - 4 )
Answers 9C ➜ 9D
-7
7 41 7 41
y = -(x + 2) - 3
2 g y = (x + 2 )2 - 4
, (- 2 , - 4 )
g i (-3, -2) ii Max iii Same width h y = 2(x + 1)2 + 6, (-1, 6)
iv -11 v No x-intercepts i y = 3(x - 2)2 - 6, (2, -6)
vi y 2 a y = (x + 1)2 - 6, x-intercepts y = x2 + 2x - 5 y
-3 -2 -1 0 x are -1 ê 6 (ö -3.4, 1.4)
-2
-1 0 x
(-3, -2) -1 - 6
-1 + 6
-11 -5
y = -(x + 3)2 - 2 (-1, -6) -6

Answers 829
b y = (x - 2)2 + 3, no x-intercepts h y = -5(x - 1)2 - 30, no x-intercepts
y y = x2 - 4x + 7 y
0 1 x
7 (1, -30)
(2, 3) -30
-35
0 x
y = -5x2 + 10x - 35
c y = (x + - 12, x-intercepts are

3)2 1
i y = -7(x + 2 )2 + 50 4 , x-intercepts are
3
−6 ± 48
= -3 ê 2 3 (ö -6.5, 0.5) −1 ± 29
2 (ö -3.2, 2.2)
y 2
y
(-1– , 50 3–) 49
2 4
-3 + 2√3
0 x -1 - √29 -1 + √29
-3 - 2√3 –3 – 1–
2 2 2
(–3, –12) 0 x
y = -7x2 - 7x + 49
5 1
d y = (x - 2 )2 - 5 4 , x-intercepts y y = x2 -5x + 1 3 a b
y = x2 + x - 12 y y = x2 - 12x + 32
y
5 ± 21
are (ö 0.2, 4.8) 5 - √21 0 x 32
2 -4 3
2 5 + √21
1 2
0 1 x
2 –2
-12 0 4 8 x
(2 1–2, -5 1–4)
(- 1–, -12 1–) (6, -4)
5 1
2 4
e y = -(x + 2 )2 + 7 4 , x-intercepts are
c y d y
y = x2 - 8x - 9
−5 ± 29 (-3, 1)
(ö -5.2, 0.2)
2 -4 -2 0 x
y -1 0 9 x
(-21–2 , 71–4 )
71–4 (0, -9)
-5 - √29
-5 + √29 -8
2 (4, -25)
1 2
y = -x2 - 6x - 8
1 0 x
-2 –2
e (-3, 36) y f y (1, 36)
35
y = -x2 -5x + 1
27
1 3
f y = -(x - 2 )2 - 2 4 , no x-intercepts
y
0 x
1–
2
-9 0 3 x -5 0 7 x
y = -x2 - 6x + 27 y = -x2 + 2x + 35
( 1–2, -2 3–4)
-3 g y
y = x2 + 4x - 5
-5 0 1 x
y = -x2 + x - 3
1 3
g y = 3(x + 2 )2 - 12 4 , x-intercepts are -5
−1 ± 17
(ö -2.6, 1.6) (-2, -9)
2
y 4 a y b y y = 3x2 - 23x + 14
-1 + √17 -1– 14
y = 3x2 + 3x - 12 2 y = 2x2 - 17x - 9
2
0 x
0 9 x
- 1– -9
2
-3 - √17 02
– 7 x
2 3
-12 1)
(- 1–, -12 3–) (4 1–4, -451–8 ) (3 5–6, -30—
2 4 12
830 Answers
c d 10 a y
y y
y = 5x2 + 27x + 10 y = 6x2 + 7x - 3 14
10 12
x x 10
-5 - 2–5 0 - 3–
0 1
–
2 3
-3 8
(-2 — 9)
7 , -26— 1)
7 , -5 —
(-—
10 20 12 24 6
e y f y (2 3– , 36 1–8 )
(1 3– , 10 1–8 ) 4 4
4
21 2
4
-5 0 5x
- 1– 0 4 x
2 - 3– 0 7 x -2
2
y = -2x2 + 7x + 4 y = -2x2 + 11x + 21
y = x2 + 2x + 5 y = x2 - 2x + 5
g y 5 — 1 h y 31
(1— 25 y= x2 + 4x + 5 y = x2 - 4x + 5
36, 4872)
(— —
12, 724)
6 b If p < 0, the turning point is on the right side of the
y-axis. If p > 0 the turning point is on the left side of
the y-axis. As the magnitude of p increases the turning
point moves away from the y-axis. All graphs have the
0 2– 7– x
- 2– 0 3
–
x same y-intercept (0, 5).
3 2 -14 9 2
y = -6x2 + 5x + 6
2
y = -18x + 67x - 14 11 a h (25, 2500) b h = 0

2500 c 2500 m
i y d 25 s after launching
y = 2x2 - 7x + 8
e 50 s
8
0 50 t
(13–4 , 17–8 )
0 x 12 a A = xy m2 b 2x + y = 40 m

c y = (40 - 2x) m d A = 2x(20 - x) m2
5 a B b C e (10, 200) f y
(10, 200)
6 a iv g Maximum area is 200
b vii 200 m2, paddock is
c vi 10 m wide and 20 m
d iii long.
e i
f viii 0 20 x

g ii
13 a h b 2 s
h v
h = -4.9t2 + 1.5t + 17 c 0.15 s
7 a A: y = 2(x - 3)2 + 4, y = 2x2 - 12x + 22; 17
d 17.11 m
B: y = -3(x + 1)2 - 1, y = -3x2 - 6x - 4
b Translated 4 units to the left and 5 units down,
reflected in the x-axis, and dilated by 32 in the
y-direction.
-1.72 0 2.02 t
8 (-0.32, 3.18) and (-4.68, -1.18)
9 a (-2, -3)
b y
14 a A = 2x(150 - x) m2
Answers 9C ➜ 9D
b A
f1(x) = x2 + 6·x + 5
(75, 11 250)
11 250
f2(x) = 2·x + 1
1
0 1 x
0 150 x

(-2, -3)
c 11 250 m2, 75 m and 150 m
−5
, c = −85
45
15 a a = 64 , b = 16 16
b (18, 20)
−5
c y = 64 (x - 18)2 + 20
Answers 831
Exercise 9E — Exponential functions and their 6 y
y = 3 ì 2x
graphs 10 y ì 2x
1 a y 8
y = 10x 6
100
4
2 y = 1–5 ì 2x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
1
x 2x 3 ì 2x 5
ì 2x
(0, 1) 10
-3 0.125 0.375 0.025
-2 -1 0 1 2 x
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 0.25 0.75 0.05

1 1 1 1
y 10 000 10 00 10 0 10
1 10 100 1000 10 000 -1 0.5 1.5 0.1
b Providing a realistic scale is difficult.
y y = 4x
0 1 3 0.2
2 a
100
80 1 2 6 0.4
60
40 2 4 12 0.8
20
(0, 1) (1, 4)
3 8 24 1.6
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x
y y = 5x 7 The coefficient, k, affects the steepness of the graph: the

b larger the value of k, the steeper the graph.
100
80 8 -x y
y=2
60 10
40 8
(0, 1) 20 6
(1, 5)
4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x (0, 1)
2
c y y = 6x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
100
80
y-intercept at (0, 1)
60 Equation of horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
40 9 y
y = 3-x y = 3x
(0, 1) 20 (1, 6) 10
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x 8
6
3 y = 4-x y y = 4x 4
y = 3-x y = 3x (0, 1)
100 2
80 0 x
60
y = 2-x 40 y = 2x
(0, 1) 10 The negative index reflects the graph in the y-axis.
20
11 a 1 x y
y = ( –2 )
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x 10
8
4 Increasing the value of a increases the steepness of the 6
graph where x is positive and flattens the graph where x is 4
negative. 2
5 a y
60 x y=2ì3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
50
40
30 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
20
y 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125
(0, 2) 10
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 x  1
b   = (2−1 ) x = 2− x
b 2 c y = 0  2
832 Answers
12 y y = (1.8)x b y
y = (1.5)x 10
8 y = 2x
y = (1.2)x
6
1 y = 2x - 1
4
0 x
2
(0, 1)
13 a y (0, 0)
y = 10 ì (1.3)x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-2
10
c (0, 16) y
15
0 x 10 y = 2x
y = 2x + 4
5
(0, 1)
b 10 x
c y = 0 -10 -5 0 5 10
-5
14 a, b, c y
d y = 2x
10 y
8 (0, 1) 2 y = 2x - 1
6 1
(0, 0.5)
4 x
y = 3x + 2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
2 -1
y = 3x
x 23 a
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-2 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = 3x - 3 -4 A 1000 1100 1210 1331 1464.10 1610.51 1771.56
15 a y = 0 b A
b y = 2 A = 1000 ì (1.1)n
c y = -3
16 Moves the graph vertically 1000
17 a ç iv b ç i
c ç ii d ç iii
18 B
19 B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
20 a, b, c y
c $1331
10 24 a
8 y = 4x - 3
n 0 1 2 3 4 5
6 y = 4x
V 40 000 34 000 28 900 24 565 20 880 17 748
4
y = 4x + 1 b V
2
40 000
x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
-2
15 000
21 Moves the graph horizontally V = 40 000 ì (0.85)n
Answers 9E ➜ 9E
22 a y 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
9
8
7 c As n increases, the value of the car decreases.
6 d $17 748
y = 2x + 4 5 25 a 190 s (bacteria A); 110 s (bacteria B)
4 b Bacteria A starts at 20 000; bacteria B starts at 260 000.
3
c Bacteria A
2
1 d 240 s
y = 2x
26 a 65 536
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5x b 2.3 ì 1018
-2 x
c 2048 ì ( 2 )
-3
d i 18 days ii 25 days iii 38 days
Answers 833
Exercise 9F — The hyperbola 5 y
1 See the table at the bottom of the page*.
y 10 y = -10
—–
x
1 2 3 2 3
10 y = 10
—
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 x
-3 -2 -1
0 -10
1 2 3 x
-10
6 y
2 a i (1, 6)
y
6
y=—
x
5 5
y=— 0 x
x
0 1 x (1, -6)
y = -6
—
x
k
7 The negative reflects the curve y = in the x-axis.
x
8
ii y
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
20 y = 20
—
x
y -0.25 -0.33 -0.5 -1 Undefined 1 0.5 0.33
0 1 x y
1
y = ——
x-1
1
-1
iii y 0 1 2 x
-1
100 y = 100
—–
x
x=1
0 1 x Equation of vertical asymptote is x = 1.

9 a y
1
y = ——
x-2
b i x = 0, y = 0 1
0
ii x = 0, y = 0 1 x
-— 2 3
iii x = 0, y = 0 2
3 y
x=2
(1, 4)
(1, 3)
y=—4 b y
x 3
y=—
(1, 2) x 2 1
y=— y = ——
0 x x x-3
1
0
1 x
-—
3 34
x=3
4 It increases the y-values by a factor of k and hence dilates
the curve by a factor of k.
1 *
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y -2 -2.5 -3.3 -5 -10 Undefined 10 5 3.3 2.5 2
834 Answers
c y e y f y
5 1
1 3–
y = ——
x+1
3
1 -5 5 x
-2 -1 1
0 -3 –
1 3– x
1 x 3 3
-1 -5 1
-3 –
3
x = -1
Centre (0, 0), radius 5 Centre (0, 0), radius 103
2 a y b y
10 The a translate the graph left or right, and x = a becomes 7 3
the vertical asymtote. 5
11 a -8 -2 4 x
y (1, 2) 6 -3
-4 6 x
-4 -3
y = ——
x+1 -9
(-2, 4)
c y d y
-1 0 x
8 3
-4
7 -4 4 12 x
-5 8
1
-3 4 x
-10
-13
-6
b y
2 e y f y
y = ——
x-1 10
-1 2 x 10
(2, 2) -2
2
-3 -5 5 15 x
0 1 x
-2 -10
-5
3 a (x + 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 22 b (x - 5)2 + (y - 1)2 = 42

y y
c y
x
5
-4 -2 -2 1
1 5 x
2—
2 -4 -3 1 9
-6
-2 0 x
5
y = ——
x+2
c (x - 7)2 + (y + 3)2 = 72 d (x + 4)2 + (y - 6)2 = 82
y y
(-3, -5) 14
4
7
x 6
-3 14
12 Check with your teacher. -10 x
1 1 12 -2 4
Possible answers: a y = b y =
x−3 x + 10 e x2 + (y - 9)2 = 102 f (x - 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 32
y y
Exercise 9G — The circle 19 1
1 a y b y
4 -2 1 4 x
7 9 -2
Answers 9F ➜ 9G
-5
x
-7 7 x -4 4 x -10 -1 4 10
-7 -4 4 D
5 B
Centre (0, 0), radius 7 Centre (0, 0), radius 4
6 (x - 5)2 + (y - 3)2 = 16
c y d y
6 9 Chapter review
Fluency
1 D
-6 6 x -9 9 x 2 A
-9
3 D
-6
4 A
Centre (0, 0), radius 6 Centre (0, 0), radius 9 5 B
Answers 835
6 a (4, -15) 11 y
y = 10 ì 3x
b (-2, 9) 450
400
7 x -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 350
300
y 16 7 0 -5 -8 -9 -8 -5 0 7 16 250
200
y 150 (0, 10)
16 100
50
14
12 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
10
8 12
6 y = 10-x y
4 140
2 120
x 100
-8 -6-4 -2 0
-2 2 4 6 8 80
-4 60
-6
40 (0, 1)
-8
(-4, -9) -10 20

-3 -2 -1 0 x
TP (-4, -9); x-intercepts: -7 and -1 1 2 3
8 a TP (3, 1); no x-intercepts; y-intercept: (0, 10)

y
13 a y
10
10 y = (x - 3)2 + 1
8
6
y = (1.5)x
(0, 1) 4
(3, 1) 2 y = (1.2)x
0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
5 5
b TP (-1, -5); x-intercepts: −1 − , −1 + ; b Increasing the value of a makes the graph steeper
y-intercept: (0, -5) 2 2 for positive x-values and flatter for negative
y
x-values.
y = 2(x + 1)2 - 5 14 a y
36
5– 32
-1 + 28
2
24
0 x 20
-3 16 y = 5 ì 3x
5–
-1 - 12 y = 2 ì 3x
2 8
(-1, -5) 4 y = 1–2 ì 3x
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
9 TP (-1, 16); x-intercepts: -5 and 3; y-intercept: (0, 15)
y b Increasing the value of k makes the graph steeper.
(-1, 16) y = -x2 - 2x + 15 15 a
15 -x y x
y = (2.5) y = (2.5)
45
40
35
30
-5 0 3 x 25
20
15
10
5
-3 -2 -1 0 x
10 a 1 2 3
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 b Changing the sign of the index reflects the graph in the

y 0.008 0.04 0.2 1 5 25 125 y-axis.
16 a y
b y
y = 5x
160 (1, 4)
140
120
100
80
60
0 x
4
40 y=—
(1, 5) x
(0, 1) 20
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4x
836 Answers
b y 2 a h (2, 4)
y = -2
— h = 4t - t2
x
0 x 0 4 t

(1, -2)
b 4 m
c 2 s
d 4 s
17 y 3 a h (2, 25)
21
-3 2
h = -x + 4x + 21
3 y = ——
x-2
—
2
0 2 x x
-3 0 7
(3, -3)
1
18 Check with your teacher. Possible answer is y = . b 25 m
19 a x+3
y c 2 m
4 x + y = 16
2 2
d 7 m
4 a h
-4 0 4 x (2, 20)
h = -5t2 + 20t
-4
b y (x - 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = 64
0 4 t
0 8 x
(5, -3)
b 4 s
c 2 s
20 a y d The ball is never above a height of 20 m.
x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 2y = 4
5 a [0, 12]
(-2, 1) b 32 m
3 c 11:41 am to 6:19 pm
0 x 6 a P < x2 - 5x
b 6.25 m
c i Check with your teacher.
b y
ii Dilation by a factor of 0.48
d 28.6%
8 0 x
7 a Check with your teacher.
(-4, -4)
b When x = 0.3, b = 10.7. Therefore if p is greater than
10.7 cm the platform would hit the bridge.
x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 8y = 32
21 x2 + y2 = 36 Chapter 10
Problem solving
Deductive geometry
Answers 10A ➜ 10A
1 a y = -(x - 2)2 + 3 = -x2 + 4x - 1

b y Are you ready?
6
1 a DABC b ±ACB c AC
4 2 a CA b PQ
c ±BCA d ±QPR
2 AD AE DE
3 DADE ~ DABC, = =
AB AC BC
-2 0 2 4x 4 a Parallelogram b Trapezium
-2 c Kite
-4
Exercise 10A — Congruence review
y = -x2 + 4x - 1 1 a I and III, SAS b I and II, AAS
y = x2 - 4x + 7 c II and III, RHS d I and II, SSS
Answers 837
2 a x = 3 cm AD AB
b x = 85è c =
AB AC
c x = 80è, y = 30è, z = 70è \AB2 = AD ì AC
d x = 30è, y = 7 cm d ±BDC = 90è given
e x = 40è, y = 50è, z = 50è, m = 90è, n = 90è ±ABC = 90è given
3 a Use SAS ±ACB = 90è - x
b Use SAS. ±DCB = 90è - xè
c Use ASA. À ±DBC = xè
d Use ASA. ±BAC = xè given
e Use SSS. \ DBCD ~ DACB
4 C, D e
CD BC
=
5 a x = 110è, y = 110è, z = 4 cm, w = 7 cm BC AC
b x = 70è \ BC2 = CD.AC
c x = 30è, y = 65è f AB2 + BC2 = AD ì AC + CD ì AC
6 The third sides are not necessarily the same. = AC (AD + CD)
7 Corresponding sides are not the same. = AC ì AC
8 Use SSS. \ AB2 + BC2 = AC2.
g Students to do.
Exercise 10B — Similarity review
Exercise 10D — Quadrilaterals: definitions and
1 a i and iii, RHS
properties
b i and ii, SAS
c i and iii, SSS 1 a True
d i and iii, AAA b True
e i and ii, SSS c True
d False
2 a Triangles PQR and ABC
e False
b Triangles ADB and ADC
f False
c Triangles PQR and TSR
d Triangles ABC and DEC g False
e Triangles ABC and DEC h False
3 Check with your teacher. 2 None are true.
AB BC AC 3 a, c, f
4 a = = 4 a, b, c, f, g, h
AD DE AE
b f = 9, g = 8 5 a, c, d, e, f
5 x = 4 6 a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h
1
6 x = 20è, y = 2 4 7 Rhombus, square
7 x = 3, y = 4 8 Rectangle, square
9 Parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square
Exercise 10C — Congruence and proof 10 Square
1 Use AAS. 11 a
2 Check with your teacher.
3 Use SAS; then corresponding sides in congruent triangles
are equal. NO = OP.
5 Use SAS; then alternate angles in congruent triangles are
equal. Hence AB || CD.
6 Use AAS. b 6 sides
7 Use RHS. c 7 sides
8 Use AAS. d
9 Use RHS or AAS; then corresponding sides and angles in Table size Number of sides hit
congruent triangles are equal. 5 cm ì 3 cm 6
10 Use RHS.
11 a B 7 cm ì 2 cm 7
y x 4 cm ì 3 cm 5
4 cm ì 2 cm 1
x y
A D C 6 cm ì 3 cm 1
b ±ADB = 90è given 9 cm ì 3 cm 2
±ABC = 90è given
±BAD = xè given 12 cm ì 4 cm 2
±BAC = xè given
À ±ABD = 90è - x and ±ACB = 90è - x. e I f the ratio of the sides is written in simplest form then
À DBAD ~ DCAB. the pattern is m + n - 2.
838 Answers
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_Ans.indd 838 13/05/13 11:53 AM

f There are two routes for the ball when hit from B. 4 a Similar, scale factor = 1.5
Either 2 or 3 sides are hit. The ball does not end up in b Not similar
the same hole each time. c Similar, scale factor = 2
A suitable justification would be a diagram — 5 a x = 48è, y = 4.5 cm
student to draw. b x = 86è, y = 50è, z = 12 cm
g Isosceles triangles and parallelograms. The triangles c x = 60è, y = 15 cm, z = 12 cm
are congruent. 6 Use equiangular test.
h The shapes formed are parallelograms. There is only 7 Use equiangular test.
one possible path although the ball could be hit in
8 A
either of two directions initially.
i Given m : n is the ration length to width in simplest
form. When m is even and n is odd the destination
pocket will be the upper left. When m and n are both
odd, the destination pocket will be the upper right.
When m is odd and n is even the destination pocket
will be the lower right. B
D
C
j Students to investigate.
Exercise 10E — Quadrilaterals and proof Bisect ±BAC
1 Use AAS to show DZWX @ DZYX. AB = AC (given)
2 Use AAS to show DAED @ DCEB and hence AE = EC ±BAD = ±DAC
and DE = EB. AD is common.
3 a Use SAS. \ DABD @ DACD (SAS)
b ±AED = ±CED (corresponding angles in congruent \ ±ABD = ±ACD (corresponding sides in congruent
triangles equal) and ±AED + ±CED = 180è (angle triangles are equal)
sum of straight lines is 180è) 9 A, B, C, D
\ ±AED = ±CED = 90è 10 a False
c Corresponding angles in congruent triangles are equal. b True
4 Use SAS to show DDAE @ DBAE. Hence, DE = EB. (See c True
previous question.) 11 a Use SAS.
5 Use co-interior angles and parallel lines. b Use SAS.
6 Use SAS. AC = BD (corresponding sides in congruent c Use SAS.
triangles are equal). d They are all the same length.
7 AX || DY because ABCD is a parallelogram e B and C
AX = DY (given) 12 Use SAS.
\ AXYD is a parallelogram since opposite sides are PQ = PS (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are
equal and parallel. equal)
8 a Use SAS. 13 Rhombus, square
b Use SAS. 14 A quadrilateral is a rhombus if:
c Opposite sides are equal. a all sides are equal
9 AC = DB (diameters of the same circle are equal) b the diagonals bisect each other at right angles
AO = OC and OD = OB (radii of the same circle are c the diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
equal) 15 WZ || XY (co-interior angles are supplementary) and
\ ABCD is a rectangle. (Diagonals are equal and bisect WZ = XY (given)
each other.) \ WXYZ is a parallelogram since one pair of sides is
10 Check with your teacher. parallel and equal.
11 PS = QR (corresponding sides in congruent triangles are
equal) 16 A B
PS || QR (alternate angles are equal)
\ PQRS is a parallelogram since one pair of opposite
sides are parallel and equal.
D C
12 MP = MQ (radii of same circle)
Answers 10B ➜ 10E
PN = QN (radii of same circle)

±ABD = ±ADB (angles opposite the equal sides in an
and circles have equal radii.
isosceles triangle are equal)
\ All sides are equal.
±ABD = ±BDC (alternate angles equal as AB || DC)
\ PNQM is a rhombus.
\ ±ADB = ±BDC
Chapter review \ Diagonals bisect the angles they pass through.
Fluency 17 Corresponding sides are not the same.
1 a I and III, ASA or SAS 18 ±FEO = ±OGH (alternate angles equal as EF || HG)
b I and II, RHS ±EFO = ±OHG (alternate angles equal as EF || HG)
2 a x = 8 cm ±EOF = ±HOG (vertically opposite angles equal)
b x = 70è \ DEFO ~ DGHO (equiangular)
c x = 30è, y = 60è, z = 90è 19 A rhombus is a parallelogram with two adjacent sides
3 a Use SAS. equal in length.
b Use ASA. 20 Rectangle, square
Answers 839
CHAPTER 11 16 400 students
17 11.75 cm
Problem solving I 18 a (y-intercept -12) and f (y-intercept = 2), gradient = –2;
1 23.83 cm b (y-intercept 5) and d (y-intercept = 6), gradient = -1;
2 81x4 - 216x3y + 216x2y2 - 96xy3 + 16y4 c (y-intercept - 13 ) and g (y-intercept = 72 ), gradient = 3;
3 y 3 + ø 9 - 8g
4 e (y-intercept - 45 ) and h (y-intercept = 14 ), gradient = - 20
1
;
g
19 a A = 80p cm2
0 x b If radius and height are both halved, the surface area is
one-quarter its original value.
3 - ø 9 - 8g 2
− 4k  h
4 ( 43 , g - 98 ) 20 y =  x − 2  + k
h2 
3 ± 9 − 8g 2 2
x-intercepts: x = ; e f
4 21   ≤ A ≤  
3 9  4  4
y-intercept: y = g; turning point:  , g −  7 18
4 8 22 y = - x +
4 1231.5 cm3 5 5
5 54.28è 23 229.1 m
6 8.3 cm by 1.7 cm P P
24 by
f + 3be  f + 3be  4 4
7 x = ; y = a  − 3b 25 Any false statement that occurs during the solving of
ae + d  ae + d  simultaneous equations indicates the lines are parallel,
8 a x = 8 b x = -4 c x = 12 and have no points of intersection.
9 No, Mary will need 64.5 cm of ribbon. 26 47 cm for the circle and 53 cm for the square
10 17.05è 27 a y = x2 + 2x
11 -q Ç x Ç p b y = -4x2 + 14x - 15
2 3 c y = x2 - 4x + 4
 L − l 4π  L − l  28 a 1072 cm3
12 π   l+   cm 3
 2  3  2  b 9.4 cm
13 a This is a quadratic equation, which means that there is 29 a 28.3 m
a possibility of two different answers. Marlon has one b The image width doubles.
of the two parts of the answer correct. 30 a Total length = 4l - 8, where l is the length of the lawn.
b No. b Cost = 23(4l - 8) + 100
x(x - 3) = 10 c $1296
x2 - 3x = 10 31 a a = 2
x2 - 3x - 10 = 0 b b = 4
(x - 5)(x - 2) = 0 c c = -3
(x - 5) = 0 or (x - 2) = 0 d The equation of the quadratic is y = 2x2 + 4x - 3.
x = 5 x = 2
y
14 y
25
20
15
x 10
0 1
5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3x
-6 -5
y = -8
130 − x 2
32 a L =
2x
15 a 4 2b 130 x − x 3
b 19.5è, 70.5è, 90è. b V =
1 2
c Area = 2 base ì height
c x = 6.6 cm, L = 6.55 cm

1
= 2 ì 2b ì 4 2b 33 Check with your teacher.
1
= 4 2b2 cm2. 34 V = 3 p r2 s 2 − r 4
840 Answers
35 a b2 + 8b + 28a + 4c - 4ac - 12 < 0 b Solving 36x2 - 6x - 6 = 97 026 using any method
b b2 + 8b + 28a + 4c - 4ac - 12 = 0 gives x = -51.833 metres and x = 52. Ignore the
c b2 + 8b + 28a + 4c - 4ac - 12 > 0 negative solution because x > 0 for measurement units.
36 a 55 bottles Possible dimensions could be:
b 20r cm 3(2x - 1) by 2(3x + 1)
c 17.32r cm 2(2x - 1) by 3(3x + 1)
d 3nr cm 6(2x - 1) by 1(3x + 1)
37 132 passengers — 72 Virgin Green passengers, 60 Qintas (2x - 1) by 6(3x + 1).
passengers Or any possible combination for numbers whose
38 a 75è58Å b 73 cm product is 6, such as 1.5 and 4
39 a 3rd is (x + 2) cm; 4th is (x + 3) cm; 5th is (x + 4) cm 50 a i Width: 2.95 m to 3.05 m, length: 4.45 m to 4.55 m
b 5 cm ii 0.67%
100 b 49.23 m2 c $760
c Circumference of 4th circle is % larger than the
3rd circle’s circumference. x +3 51 a p = 72è, s = 108è
19 b ABCD is trapezoidal with AD||BC.
40 a ±BAD = ±CDA = 72è
24 ±ABC = ±BCD = 108è
5 52 The square numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, ………… The
b difference between these numbers is
24 3, 5, 7, 9, 11... If this continues to 75, it is the 37th
c 32 3 cm number, so 382 – 372 = 75. So, the two natural numbers
are 37 and 38.
1 ± 10 53 a Mr Barnes has (x + 2)(x + 5) m2; Mr Snowdon has
41 x =
3 4(x + 2) m2.
42 a 7 3 metres b (x + 2)(x + 5) - 4(x + 2)
c (x + 2)(x + 1)
b 35 15 m2 d The carpet has a width of 3 m.
7 3 e Mr Barnes bought 18 m2 and Mr Snowdon bought
c i metres 12 m2.
6
54 The side of the square is 4 5 cm.
ii 18
43 a A = nx + 96.25n
b $3500
57 Use similar triangles.
44 a B (12.5, 0) and C (37.5, 0)
58 240 students
22 2 94
b i x - x + 90 = 0 59 a V = x(x + 10)(x + 7) b 44 400 cm3
375 15 c 40 cm
ii (17.1, 18)
60 a k = 12
c i Translated 25 units to the right
k = 12 makes the two equations represent the same
ii ( 75
2
, 125
6
) line, giving an infinite number of solutions. All other
values of k generate two parallel lines.
100 b k ≠ 12
45 a x 2 =
3 61 a N
10
b
π 163è20Å
c The cylinder has larger surface area by 57.25 cm2.
46 a 97.2 km/h b 140.4 km/h in 2 seconds 16è40Å
25 km
47 a r N
b 43 r b km
121è40Å
c Check with your teacher.
a km 19 km
48 a At t = 0, h = h0 = the starting height.
b h d km
30 c km
Answers 11 ➜ 11
58è20Å
20
10 b 23.3 km east and 33.9 km south of its starting point

c 145è30ÅT
0 1 2 3 t 62 a (x - 5)(x + 2)
b (x - 5) is the shorter length.
c 22.25 m c x = 17 d 228 cm2
d 0.375 seconds 63 The rug is 80 cm wide and 400 cm long.
e 1.55 seconds
64 a 4r cm
(2 x − 1)(3 x + 1) 1 b (2r + 20) cm
49 a =
6(2 x − 1)(3 x + 1) 6 c 4p r2 cm2
Answers 841
d (4p r2 + 80p r + 400p ) cm2 73
e 80p (r + 5) cm2 74 a The struts each need to be m long.
2
f 1.131 m2
g 30 cm b The chain length is (2 3 − 1) m, so (8 3 − 4) m of
chain is required.
65 The factors of 24 are: 1 and 24; 2 and 12, 3 and 8 and
4 and 6. c (2 73 + 30 ) m of pipe is required.
To make the first bracket equal 1, then x must be 7 and 75 Approximately 98.3 cm
to make the second bracket equal 24, then y must be 28. 76 a b = -8, c = 12
This pattern continues until all possibilities are found. b y = x2 - 8x + 12
They are: c (4, -4)
d y
Factors x y
15
1 24 7 28
10
2 12 8 16
3 8 9 12 5
4 6 10 10
6 4 12 8
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
-5
8 3 14 7
12 2 18 6 77 a 8 m b 57è
24 1 30 5 c 7.6 m
78 a First ripple’s radius is 3 cm, second ripple’s radius is
66 5704 mm 15 cm.
67 360 adults and 190 children b y
15
68 a The cloth is x cm wide and 4x cm long.
b P = 10x, A = 4x2 10
c Length = 120 cm, width = 30 cm.
d Perimeter = (10x + 48) cm, 5
area = (4x2 + 60x + 144) cm2
e The area has increased by 1944 cm2. -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 x
25 9 -5
69 a r = -4 b s < 8
c t = - 32
70 Dan is 25 years old. -10
71 19.85 m
72 a xm 1m -15
c 2.4 cm/s
xm
d 1 minute 23 seconds after it is dropped
79 The centre of the racket travels 5.24 m.
80 a i 6 cm
3m
10 cm 8 cm 10 cm
b (x + 1)(x + 3) c 5 m by 3 m
12 cm
d 5.24 m by 3.24 m
73 a T ii
25
Temperature degrees celsius
10 cm 8 cm
20
15
10 cm 8 cm
10
5 12 cm
iii 6 cm
0 2 4 6 8h
Hours
b 21èC
10 cm 8 cm 10 cm
c Decreasing
d Increasing
e 5 èC after 4 hours
f 21èC 12 cm 6 cm
842 Answers
b Area of rectangle = 12 ì 8 = 96 cm2. 90 a y = -2x2 - 12x - 14
Area of parallelogram = 12 ì 8 = 96 cm2, b a = -2, b = -12, c = -14
12 × 16 c (-3, 4) y
Area of triangle = = 96 cm2, 4
2 2 (-1.6, 0)
1 (-4.4, 0)
Area of trapezium = 2 (18 + 6) ì 8 = 96 cm2. 0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-2 1 2 3
c Perimeter of rectangle = 40 cm. Perimeter of -4
parallelogram = 44 cm, Perimeter of triangle = 48 cm, -6
-8
Perimeter of trapezium = 44 cm. The triangle has the y = -2x2 - 12x - 14
-10
largest perimeter, while the rectangle has the smallest. -12
81 a 0 b (6, 6) (0, -14)
-14
c h -16
8
91 180è
Height (metres)
6
92 The area of material required is 1.04 m2. If Tina is careful
4 in placing the pattern pieces, she may be able to cover the
footstool.
2 93 a Prove the equation is y = 15 - 0.15x2.
b The height at the edge of the road is 5.4 m.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 d
c The road needs to be 15.5 m wide.
Distance (metres) 94 - 49
d 12 m e 6 m f 6 m 95 a 50 minutes
82 a 60è b 3.98 km b 8.03 am or 8.07 am
c 71è d 1.34 km c 8.11 am
83 True: the tip travels 30.2 m. d 8.05 am
84 a 56 941 cm3 b 11 938 cm2 e 25 minutes
85 a y f Between 8.03 am and 8.07 am
12
96 For example: take the two numbers 48 and 60.
10 Their HCF is 12.
Difference = 60 - 48 = 12
Height (metres)
8 60 ó 12 = 5 and 48 ó 12 = 4
The two numbers are exactly divisible by 12.
6 This theorem says, then, that the HCF of 48 and 60 is
12, which is the case.
4
97 Matt is travelling at 45 km/h and Steve is travelling at
2 60 km/h.
98 The perimeter of the octagon is 61 cm.
0 x 99 Check with your teacher.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Horizontal distance (metres)
100 17.4 circuits
b 8 m c 11 m above the water 101 Approximately 40 400 years from now
d 5.83 m 102 Check with your teacher.
86 a 24.5 m3 103 The 8 different ways are:
b The dimensions of the smaller skip are half those of 1 1
= 13 1
+ 156
the larger one. 12
1
= 141 + 84
1
87 7.6è 12
88 x = 13.75, y = 11.4 1 1 1
89 a Centre is (1, 2). b Radius is 2. 12
= 15 + 60
c x-intercept 1; y-intercepts (− 3 + 2) and ( 3 + 2) 1
= 1 1
+ 48
12 16
d y 1 1 1
5 12
= 18
+ 36
1 1 1
4 = + 30
Answers 11 ➜ 11
12 20
1 1 1
3 12
= 21
+ 28
(1, 2) 1 1 1
2 12
= 24
+ 24
1 104 The factors of a number are generally written in pairs,
producing an even number of factors. With a perfect
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5x square, one of these factors will be paired with itself,
-1
producing an odd number of factors. This occurs for all
perfect squares.
-2 105 15.9 cm
106 The total number of tiles needed for r rows is r2.
Answers 843
107 a L
et the cost of an apple be a cents, and the cost of a 119 a There are 5 different shapes.
banana be b cents.
6a + 4b = 700 [1]
1a + 9b = 450 [2]
Subtract [2] from [1].
5a - 5b = 250
Divide through by 5.
a - b = 50
b An apple costs 50c more than a banana.
108 a 1.25 mL b 1.47 mL
c Answers may vary. The two answers are only
slightly different. Because of an inability to measure
to that degree of accuracy in the home, they both
provide a good guide to a safe amount to administer.
d Approx 1 and 10 years
109 y = 2x2 - 5x + 1
110
11 12 1
10 2
9 3
8 4
7 6 5
The total of the numbers here in each region is 26.

111 Call the people A, B, C and D who take times of 1, 2, 5
and 10 minutes respectively.
A and B go over 2 min
B returns 2 min
C and D go over 10 min
A returns 1 min
A and B go over 2 min b They all have a perimeter of 10 units, except for the
Total time = 2 + 2 + 10 + 1 + 2 = 17 min last one which has a perimeter of 8 units.
112 35 tennis balls 120 112 km
113 58 railings 121 Check with your teacher.
114 If the cut was vertical, a rectangle (or straight line if the 122 505
cut was on the very edge) would result. 1 1 1
A horizontal cut would result in a circle. 123 = +
n n + 1 n( n + 1)
A cut which goes through the sides at an angle would 124 Fold the left vertical line forward, so that page 3 sits on
produce an ellipse or a parabola. An ellipse results if the top of page 4.
cut is simply through the sides. A parabola results if the Fold the entire bottom half backwards, so that page 5
cut is through the side and the base (or top). sits behind page 4.
Fold forward the left vertical fold, so that page 3 sits on
top of page 2.
Finally, fold forward the left vertical fold, so that page
6 sits on page 7.
The pages are now in order from page 1 to page 8.
125 9 trains
126 The claim appears to be true. Further investigation
would need to be conducted to determine if it worked
in all cases — for example, if the lines were parallel, at
right angles, vertical or horizontal.
115 Answers may vary. The value of n must be greater than 127 6450 multi-packs
1 because the second number would be 0 if n were 1. 128 Take the total, subtract 16, then divide by 4 to get the
116 The deck should be 5 m wide and 10 m long on each first number in the square. The other numbers are 1, 7
side. and 8 larger.
117 The original number could have been 187, 781, 286, 129 11 times
682, 385, 583 or 484. 130 a x2 but no y2 gives vertical parabola, y2 but no x2
118 There is no solution to the equation. It is not possible gives a horizontal parabola.
for the square root of a number to be negative. Squaring b The value of a represents the horizontal stretching
both sides of the equation has produced an invalid factor. Positive a, open to right, negative a open to
solution. left.
844 Answers
5
c y 8 6
x + 4 = (y + 1)2 17 1 4
2 9 a 30
b 10 c 5
1 3 1 9 7
(0, 1) 10 a i 20 ii 5
iii 80 iv 40
(-3, 0)
1 17 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 x b i 16 ii 80
iii 16
(-4, -1) -1 11 A
1 1 1
-2 12 a 13
b 4
c 2
12 1
(0, -3) d e 0 f 2
-3 13
1 7
-4 13 a 5
b 20
11
c 20
d 0
Chapter 12 14 a C
b D
Probability c E
Are you ready? 15 a i Volleyball Walking x
1 a Set A: 3, Set B: 4, Set C: 4 b 4 c 2
1 10
2 a 1
b 9 c 23 15 38
4
8
3 a Not drawing an ace b Drawing a red card 2 17
c Obtaining a 4 or a 5
6
2 133 7 Tennis
4 a 3
b 156 c 13
1 5 1
5 a 12
b 312 c 8 ii Volleyball Walking x
Exercise 12A — Review of probability
10
1 15 38
x f Relative frequency
8
1 2 17
1 2 10
or 0.1
1 6
2 5 4
or 0.25 Tennis
3
3 6 or 0.3
10
iii Volleyball Walking x
3
4 3 20
or 0.15
1 15 10 38
5 4 5
or 0.2
8
2 17
“ f = 20 1.00
1 1 3 6
2 a 5 b 10 c 10 Tennis
3 a x
A B b 96
5
3 35 8 1
7 13
11 1 20 c i ii 96 = 12
4 96
15 9
16 63 21 23
17 d i = 32 ii 96
Answers 12A ➜ 12A
19 14 96
2 12
6 8 10 18 16 a x = 30
10 1 4 1 2 1 Volleyball Soccer
b i = ii = iii =
20 2 20 5 20 10
7 1 4
12 3 8 2
iv 20 = 5 v = 5
20 5
2 4
4 a A ¶ B b XÅ ¶ Y
c AÅ ¶ BÅ d A ¶ C ¶ BÅ 7
1 4 1 Tennis
5 a 6
b 17
c 8
1 1 1 2 7
6 A b i 2 ii 6 iii 30 iv 5 v 15
9 1 1 8
7 a 10
b 10 c i 2 ii 15
Answers 845
17 a x = 35 7 C
1 9 47
Calculator Graph book 8 a 10
b 10 c 50
9 D
9 41 12 13
7 18 5 10 a 50
b 50 c 25 d 25
15 7
5 11 a 16
b 9
12 No, getting 1 Tail is possible too.
1
b i 25 ii 23 13 a 8
18 5 1 12
c i 35
ii 7 iii 7
iv 35 b
7
8
1 6 1
d i ii iii 2
5 7 7 14 3
9 19 9
3 15 a b 25 c 25
18 a 10
b $50 c 9–4 25
7 2 3
19 4–3 16 a 26
b 13 c 13
1
20 a No. P(Azi rolls a 5) = 8 and P(Robyn rolls a 5) = 16 17 C
1
b Yes. P(Azi wins) = 2 and P(Robyn wins) = 12 5 4
18 a b 7
21 Yes. Both have a probability of 12. 9
8 4 2 1 10 5
22 a The person with the 6-sided die has less chance of 19 a or b 14 or 7 c 14 or
14 7 7
winning.
1
For the 8-, 12- & 16-sided dice: P(mult 4) = 4 ; for 20 a
1
b 4
1
c 13
4
1 13
6-sided die, P(mult 4) = 6
b Answers may vary, check with your teacher. 21 a Yes
i Example — rolling an even number 1
ii Example — rolling a 3 b 2
iii Example — rolling a number greater than 3
22 Answers may vary, check with your teacher.
23 P(Alex wins) = 15 ; P(Rene wins) = 25 a i No. There are many other foods one could have.
24 Yes, equivalent fractions; 166 = 83 ii Having Weet Bix and not having Weet Bix
25 b i No. There are other means of transport; for
A B A B
example, catching a bus.
ii Walking to a friend’s place and not walking to a
friend’s place
c i No. There are other possible leisure activities.
ii Watching TV and not watching TV
d i No. The number 5 can be rolled too.
Overlaying AÅ and BÅ shows The union of A and B is shown ii Rolling a number less than 5 and rolling a number
AÅ ¶ BÅ as the area surrounding in brown, leaving the surrounding 5 or greater
A and B area as (A ß B)Å
e Yes. There are only two possible outcomes; passing or
failing.
Exercise 12B — Complementary and mutually 23 No. The number 2 is common to both events.
exclusive events
24 a i T ii F iii T iv F
1 a P(A) b 47 c 0.35 d 1
v F vi F
2 a
3 5 3
M N b i 16
ii 1 iii 8 iv 16
8
5 3 3
c i 16 ii 16 iii 4
Exercise 12C — Two-way tables and tree diagrams

1 a 0.2 b 0.1
c 0.2 d 0.5
e 0.4 f 0.8
b P(M ) + P(N ) - P(M ¶ N ) 2 i Card outcomes
c i False ii True iii Cannot be determined Club, Spade, Diamond, Heart,
outcomes
1 12 H H, H, H, H,
3 a b
Coin
13 13
T T, T, T, T,
1
4 20% or 5
1
5 a i 2 ii 2
1
b Yes ii a 18
16 b 0.5
6 25 c 0.5
846 Answers
3 a 6 1 2 3 Outcomes Probability
Die 2 outcomes 1– 1–
2 R RRR 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 1– R 1– B RRB 1–
2 8
2 1–
1–
1– R 1– B
2 R RBR 8
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) 2 2 1– B RBB 1–
2 8
1–
2 R BRR 1–
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) 1– 8
Die 1 outcomes
1– 2 R
2 B 1– B BRB 1–
8
2 1–
1–
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) 1–
2 B
2 R BBR 8
1– B BBB 1–
2 8
(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) —
4 1
1 3 3
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) a 8
b 8 c 8
1 7 1
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6) d e 8 f
8 2

1
7 a 1 2 Outcomes Probability
b 12 1– R RR 1–
9
3
4 a Die outcomes 1–
6 G RG —1
R 18
1– 1–
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1– 2 B RB 6
3
outcomes
1– 1
H (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4) (H, 5) (H, 6) (H, 7) (H, 8) (H, 9) (H, 10) 3 R GR —
18
Coin
1– 1–
6 1
G 6 G GG —
36
T (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4) (T, 5) (T, 6) (T, 7) (T, 8) (T, 9) (T, 10) 1– 1
1–
2 B GB —
12
1 1 2
b 5
c 4
1–
3 R BR —1
6
1–
B 6 BG 1
5 a 1–
G —
12
1–
Green octahedron outcomes 2 B BB
— 4
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
b {(R, R), (R, G), (R, B)}
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) (1, 7) (1, 8) 1
c 3
7
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) (2, 7) (2, 8) d
Yellow octahedron outcomes
18
8 a 1 2 3 Outcomes Probability
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) (3, 7) (3, 8) 1– 1–
2 B BBB 8
1– B G BBG 1–
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) (4, 7) (4, 8) 2
1–
2 1–
8
1–
1– B 2 B BGB 8
2
1– G
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) (5, 7) (5, 8) 2 1–
2
G BGG 1–
8
1–
2 B GBB 1–
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6) (6, 7) (6, 8) 1–
2
1–
2 B 1– G GBG
8
1–
G 2 8
1–
1– 1–
(7, 1) (7, 2) (7, 3) (7, 4) (7, 5) (7, 6) (7, 7) (7, 8)
2 B GGB
7 2
G 8
1–
1–
2
G GGG 8
—
8 (8, 1) (8, 2) (8, 3) (8, 4) (8, 5) (8, 6) (8, 7) (8, 8) 1
b 3
b Green octahedron outcomes c 8
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 d They are equally likely.

7
e 8
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6) (1, 7) (1, 8)
9 a 1 2 Outcomes Probability
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6) (2, 7) (2, 8) 1– 1 11 1–
Yellow octahedron outcomes
2 4
Answers 12C ➜ 12C
1–
1–
1 4 2 12 8
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6) (3, 7) (3, 8) 1–
1– 1– 3 13 8
2 4
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6) (4, 7) (4, 8) 1–

2 1 21 1–
8
1– 1–
4 1
2 4 2 22 —
16
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6) (5, 7) (5, 8)
1– 3 23 — 1
1– 16
4
4
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6) (6, 7) (6, 8) 1–
2 1 31 1–
8
1–
3 4 2 32 —
16
1
7 (7, 1) (7, 2) (7, 3) (7, 4) (7, 5) (7, 6) (7, 7) (7, 8) 1

1– 3 33 —
16
4 —
1
8 (8, 1) (8, 2) (8, 3) (8, 4) (8, 5) (8, 6) (8, 7) (8, 8)
b No
1 1 1 3 9
c 8
c i 4 ii 2 iii 8 iv 16
Answers 847
10 1 2 Outcomes Probability 14 a 1 2 3 Outcomes Probability
1– 1
6 t tt —
36 1– F ACF —1
3 1– 18
1– 3 G ACG —1
6 t 5– t' tt' —5 18
6 36 C 1– H ACH —1
1– 1– 18
5 3 3
5–
6 t t't —
36 1–
6 t' 1– 3 1–
F ADF —1
18
3 3
5–
A D G ADG —1
6 t' t't' 25
—
18
36
— 1– H ADH —1
18
1 3
1– 1–
1– 3 3 1–
F AEF —1
t = outcome of 3 2 E 3 G AEG
18
—1
18
1 1– H AEH 1
a 36
3
—
18
1– F
3 BCF —1
5 –1 18
b 18
1–
2 1– C
3 G
BCG —1
18
3 1– H BCH 1
25 —
c 36 1–
1–
3
F BDF
18
—1
3 1– 18
11 B 3
D 3
d G BDG —1
18
36 1–
3
H BDH —1
18
11 a 1 2 Outcomes Probability 1–
3 E
1–
3
1–
F BEF —1
18
1– 1
4 S SS —
16 3 G BEG —1
18
1–
1– H BEH —1
S 3 3 18
4 3– S' SS' — —
4
16
1
1–
3
3–
S'
4 S S'S —
16 Sample space = {ACF, ACG, ..., BEG, BEH}
4
1 1
3– b 2 c 6
4 S' S'S' 9
—
16
—
1 15 There is a 50% chance that a third room will be needed.

16 Susan would have 16% chance of passing the exam if
S = outcome of spade
the last three questions had the standard 4 choices. This
Sample space = {SS, SSÅ, SÅS, SÅSÅ} chance is reduced to 48% with the inclusion of two
b
1 questions offering 6 possible answers.
16
9
17 i a Outcomes Probability
c 16 1–
3
1– R RR 4
d 8
2
1– R 1–
2 1– G RG 4
12 1 2 Outcomes Probability 2
1
1– Y XY —
12 1–
3 1– 1 1– 1–
3W XW —
12 2 G
2 R GR 4
X 1
1– 1–
3
Z XZ —
12 1–
4 1–
1–
X YX —1 2 G GG 4
3 1– 12 —
1– 1
1
4 Y 3W YW —
12
1– 1
3 Z YZ —
12 1 1
1– 1–
X 1 b 2 c 2
4 3
1– WX —
12
W 3Y WY —1
ii As the first counter is not replaced, the probability of
12
1–
4
1–
3 Z WZ —1
12 drawing the second counter is altered. This is reflected
1–
Z 3
1–
X ZX —1
12
in the probabilities along the branches of the tree
1
1–
3
Y ZY —1
12 diagram; P(2 counters of the same colour) = 3;
3 1
W ZW — 2
12
—
1
P(2 counters of different colours) = 3 .

Outcomes Probability
1 1 1–
a 4
b 4 c 1 1–
3
R RR 6
13 a 1 2 Outcomes Probability 2– R 1–
4 2– G RG 3
3
—2
3– B BB 15
9 2–
2– 1–
B 4 4 G
3 R GR 3
—4 6– G BG —
10 15
9 1– 1–
3 G GG 6
—
6
4–
—4 1
— 9 B GB 15
10 G
5– 1–
Exercise 12D — Independent and dependent
9 G GG 3
— events
1
1 a 0.28 b 0.12 c 0.42 d 0.18
2 1 1 1 1
b 15
c 3 2 a Yes b i 2 ii 6 c 12
8 1
d 15
e No 3 40
848 Answers
5
4 36 Exercise 12F — Subjective probability
16 64 1 4
1 a The outcome depends upon whether it is a Test match
5 a 25 b 125 c 25 d 25 or a one-day game and how effective the bowlers and
6 a C b D batsmen are; not forgetting the pitch usually favours
3 48 8 18 spin bowling.
7 a 77
b 77 c 77 d 77 b The outcome depends on which team is better on the
8 a
1
b 1369
1 73
c 1369 day and which team can adjust to the conditions.
37 c No. The third one has an equal chance of being a girl
9 0.9 or a boy.
1
10 14 d This is not necessarily true. Current position and form
1 1 1 1 of both teams should be used as a gauge.
11 a 5 b 5
c 10 d 3 e It does not mean it will rain again on Friday.
1 1 25 f There is no certainty about that. It depends upon the
12 a b c 102
17 221 condition and location of your house.
26 136 221
13 a b c 435 g Cricket games are not won or lost by the
145 435
attractiveness of the uniform.
14 No. Coin tosses are independent events. No one toss
h It is possible to get 6 Heads in a row on a normal coin.
affects the outcome of the next. The probability of a
i They will have a good chance but there is no certainty.
Head or Tail on a fair coin is always 0.5. Greg has a 50%
The country with the best competitors on the day of
chance of tossing a Head on the next coin toss as was the
each event will win.
chance in each of the previous 9 tosses.
j This is dependent on the person’s own interests.
15 No. As events are illustrated on a tree diagram, the
2 a You still have a chance.
individual probability of each outcome is recorded. The
b No horse is certain to win. Lots of problems can occur
probability of a dependent event is calculated (altered
on the track.
according to the previous event) and can be considered as
c This is not true. Even though Heads and Tails have
if it was an independent event. As such, the multiplication
equal chances, it does not mean half the results will
law of probability can be applied along the branches to
show Heads.
calculate the probability of successive events.
d Favourites do not always win.
Exercise 12E — Conditional probability e Sometimes outsiders pay well, if you back the right
41 one! You can lose more money than you win.
1 a P(J) = 90 3 Answers will vary. Class discussion required as there are
12 many factors to consider.
b P(H | J) = 41 4 a There is a contradiction. The job was never hers. She
had to do well to win the position.
2 a P(S) = 13
30 b The team may have had a lead but a match is only
won when finished.
b P(S | (C ß S)) = 13
28 c No horse is certain to win.
3 a 0.3 5 Experimental probability is based on data collected
3 from trials. The more trials undertaken, the closer
b 7 the experimental probability will reflect theoretical
9
probability.
4 a 13 Theoretical probability is based on mathematical
3
models. A theoretical probability does not guarantee a
b 5 particular outcome in real life situations.
15 Subjective probability is based on judgements and
5 0.58 or 26 opinions and hence may be biased. Subjective probability
5 may approach theoretical probability if the assigned
6 0.22 or 23 probability is based on real experiences and judgements
7 0.9 made from an objective and educated position.
8 0.8375 6 Answers will vary. Class discussion may be required.
9 a D Example only: medical — our town is so far away from
Answers 12D ➜ 12F
b i P(A | B) = 1 any major airports that it is unlikely our residents will

6 need immunisation from swine flu.
ii P(B | A) = 16 Chapter review
1 Fluency
iii P(C | A) = 6 1 A 2 B 3 B 4 D
iv P(C | B) = 0 5 B 6 B
7 a
10 A A B x
11 Conditional probability is when the probability of one
event depends on the outcome of another event.
12 a 0.0875
b 0.065
13 a 0.585
b 0.1525 or 15.25%.
Answers 849
b x 14 a
A B Die 2 outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
Die 1 outcomes
c x 3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
A B
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)

C
b 6
8 a 107 b 27 c 175 c No. Frequency of numbers is different.
9 a 4–7 d
b 1–6 Sum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
c 8–25
Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Problem solving 1 1
1 C 2 D 3 D 4 B e i 36
ii 6
iii 181
1 1
5 a 131 b 14 c 132 d 43 f i 36
ii 6
iii 181
g 50
6 a 3
b 47 c $28
7 15 a Die 2 outcomes
1
7 a 7776 0 1 2 3
7775
b 7776 0 (0, 0) (0, 1) (0, 2) (0, 3)
Die 1 outcomes
3
8 a 8
1 (1, 0) (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3)
b 85
9 a Yes 2 (2, 0) (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3)
1 1
b P(A) = and P(B) =
2 6 3 (3, 0) (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3)
c 23
10 a No b No
b P(A) = 14 , P(B) = 131 , P(A ¶ B) = 1
52
c 0 and 6
4 d 3
c 13 e 0 and 6, 1 and 5, 2 and 4
11 a W
hether it rains or not on Thursday is not determined 16 a 1 2 1–
3 Outcomes Probability
1
by what happened on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday. 8 f fff —–
512
It can still rain on Thursday. 1– f 7– fÅ fffÅ —–7

8 512
8 1–
b The team’s win or loss depends upon how other 1– f 8 f ffÅf —–7
512
7– fÅ
players bat and bowl or how the other team plays. 8
8 7– fÅ ffÅfÅ 49
—–
512
8
c There is an equal chance of having a boy or a girl. 1–
8 f fÅff —–7
1– 512
12 a If you were defeated, the opponent was the winner. 7– 8 f fÅ fÅffÅ 49
—–
8 fÅ 7– 512
b The slowest motocross rider could not win the race if 8 1–
49
7– 8 f fÅfÅf —–
he/she crossed the finish line first. 8 fÅ 512
343
7– fÅ fÅfÅfÅ —–
c The person elected was the most popular choice for 8 512
the position. f = outcome of 5

13 a i 50 ii 7 iii 25 iv 8 1
b i 512 ii 343
512
b i 12 3
ii 50 6
iii 25 21 11
1 iii iv 256
c i n(x ) = 50 ii 25 512
Fried Chicken 17 a Die outcomes

rice wings
10 4 12 1 2 3 4
2
outcomes
6 5
H (H, 1) (H, 2) (H, 3) (H, 4)
Coin
11
Dim sims T (T, 1) (T, 2) (T, 3) (T, 4)
850 Answers
b Outcomes Probability 4 a Mean = 2.5, median = 2.5
1–
1 H1
1– 1–
2 ì 4 = 8
1– b Mean = 4.09, median = 3
4 1–
4 2 H2 1–
ì 1–
= 1– c Median
2 4 8 2
H
1–
4 1– 1– 1– 5 a 72 3
3 H3 2 ì 4 = 8
1–
2
1–
1– 1– 1–
b 73
4 4 H4 2 ì 4 = 8 c 70 – <80
1– 1– 1– 6 124.83
1 T1 ì =
1–
1–
4 1–
2
1–
4
1–
8
1–
7 65 – <70
2 4 2 T2 2 ì 4 = 8 8 a B b B c C d D
1–
T 4
3 T3 1–
2 ì 1–
4 = 1–
8
9 a Mean = $32.93, median = $30
1–
1– 1– 1– b
4 4 T4 2 ì 4 = 8 Cumulative
—
1 Class interval Frequency frequency
1
c 4 0–9 5 5
1 21
18 a b 38 c 15
19 38 10–19 5 10
1
19 a 169 20–29 5 15
1
b 221
30–39 3 18
15 3
20 a =
25 5 40–49 5 23
8 4
b 10
= 5 50–59 3 26
21 0.847 60–69 3 29
Chapter 13 70–79 1 30
Univariate data Total 30
Are you ready? Mean = $32.50

c Median = $30
1 a 4.6 b 10.3375 c 143.25 30
2 a 6 b 12.5 25
c 61.5 d 9.4 20
3 a 3 b No mode c 2 and 3 15
4 Mean = 37, median = 39, mode = 43 10
5
Score Frequency Cumulative 5
(x) (f) fìx frequency 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
4 3 12 3 Amount spent ($)
5 3 15 6 d The mean is slightly underestimated; the median is

exact. The estimate is good enough as it provides a
6 3 18 9
guide only to the amount that may be spent by future
7 3 21 12 customers.
10 a 3
8 4 32 16
b 4, 5, 5, 5, 6 (one possible solution)
9 4 36 20 c One possible solution is to exchange 15 with 20.
11 a Frequency column: 16, 6, 4, 2, 1, 1
6 b 6.8
5
Frequency
4 c 0 –4 hours
3
2 d 0 –4 hours
Answers 13A ➜ 13A
1 12 a Frequency column: 1, 13, 2, 0, 1, 8

4 5 6 7 8 9 b 15
Age of emergency
Score ward patients
10
Frequency
Exercise 13A — Measures of central tendency

1 a i 7 ii 8 iii 8 5
b i 6.875 ii 7 iii 4, 7
c i 39.125 ii 44.5 iii No mode 0
7.5 22.5 37.5 52.5 67.5 82.5
d i 4.857 ii 4.8 iii 4.8 Age
e i 12 ii 12.625 iii 13.5 c Asymmetrical or bimodal (as if the data come from
2 Science: mean = 57.6, median = 57, mode = 42, 51 two separate graphs).
Maths: mean = 69.12, median = 73, mode = 84 d 44.1
3 a i 5.83 ii 6 iii 6 e 15–<30
b i 14.425 ii 15 iii 15 f 15–<30
Answers 851
g 26 8 55 IQR = 24
100%

24
22 50
20 45
18
16 40
14 35
12 50%
10 30
8 25
6
4 20
2 15
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 10
Age 5
0
h 28 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
i No Class interval
j Class discussion 9 a i Range = 23 ii IQR = 13.5
13 a Player A mean = 34.33, Player B mean = 41.83 b i Range = 45 ii IQR = 27.5
b Player B c i Range = 49 ii IQR = 20
c Player A median = 32.5, Player B median = 0 10 a 25.5 b 28 c 39 d 6
d Player A e The three lower scores affect the mean but not the
e Player A is more consistent. One large score can median or mode.
distort the mean. 11 a Men: mean = 32.3; median = 32.5; range = 38;
14 a Frequency column: 3, 8, 5, 3, 1 IQR = 14
b 50.5 Women: mean = 29.13; median = 27.5;
c 40 –<50 range = 36; IQR = 13
d 40 –<50 b Typically, women marry younger than men, although
e Ogive of pulse rate the spread of ages is similar.
of female athletes
Exercise 13C — Box-and-whisker plots
20 100% 1 a 13 b 5 c 26
15 2 a 122 b 6 c 27
10 50% 3 a 49.0 b 5.8 c 18.6
5
4 a 140 b 56 c 90
d 84 e 26
30 50 70 5 a 58 b 31 c 43
Beats per minute d 27 e 7
f Approximately 48 beats/min 6 B 7 C 8 D
15 A 9 a (22, 28, 35, 43, 48)
16 Check with your teacher. b 20 30 40 50 Sales
17 Answers will very. Examples given.
a 3, 4, 5, 5, 8
b 4, 4, 5, 10 10 a (10, 13.5, 22, 33.5, 45)
c 2, 3, 6, 6, 12 b 0 10 20 30 40 50 Rainfall (mm)
Exercise 13B — Measures of spread
1 a 15 11 a (18, 20, 26, 43.5, 74)
b 77.1 b 10 30 50 70 Age
c 9
2 a 7 b 7 c 8.5 d 39
c The distribution is positively skewed, with most of the
3 a 3.3 kg b 1.5 kg offenders being young drivers.
4 22 cm 12 a (124 000, 135 000, 148 000, 157 000, 175 000)
5 0.8 b 120 140 160 180 ($ì1000)
6 C
7 a
40
13 a Key: 12 | 1 = 121
35
30 Stem Leaf
25
12 1 5 6 9
20
15 13 1 2 4
10 14 3 4 8 8
5 15 0 2 2 2 5 7
0 16 3 5
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Battery life (h) 17 2 9
18 1 1 1 2 3 7 8
b i 62.5
b 120 140 160 180 Number sold
ii Q1 = 58, Q3 = 67
iii 9
iv 14 c On most days the hamburger sales are less than 160.
v 6 Over the weekend the sales figures spike beyond this.
852 Answers
14 a Key: 1* | 7 = 17 years 4 a Ford: median = 15; Holden: median = 16
Stem Leaf b Ford: range = 26; Holden: range = 32
1* 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 c Ford: IQR = 14; Holden: IQR = 13.5
2 0 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 d Ford
2* 5 5 8 9 Holden
3 1 2 3
0 5 10 15 20 2530 35 40
3*
4 5 a Brisbane Lions
4* 8 b Brisbane Lions: range = 63;
Sydney Swans: range = 55
b 15 25 35 45 Age c Brisbane Lions: IQR = 40;
ì Sydney Swans: IQR = 35
c The distribution is positively skewed, with first-time 6 a Girls
mothers being under the age of 30. There is one outlier Boys
(48) in this group.
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
15 C Height
Exercise 13D — The standard deviation
1 a 2.29 b 2.19 c 20.17 d 3.07 b Boys: median = 1.62; girls: median = 1.62
2 a 1.03 b 1.33 c 2.67 d 2.22 c Boys: range = 0.36; girls: range = 0.23
3 10.82 d Boys: IQR = 0.14; girls: IQR = 0.11
4 0.45% e Although boys and girls have the same median height,
5 0.06 m the spread of heights is greater among boys as shown
6 0.49 s by the greater range and interquartile range.
7 15.10 calls 7 a Summer: range = 23; winter: range = 31
8 B b Summer: IQR = 14; winter: IQR = 11
9 Adam is more consistent because he has the lower c There are generally more cold drinks sold in summer
standard deviation. (1.7 compared with 3.9) as shown by the higher median. The spread of data
10 C is similar as shown by the IQR although the range in
11 a Class A: 1.13; Class B: 1.74 winter is greater.
b Class A is more consistent because the standard 8 A
deviant is lower. 9 A, B, C, D
12 a 10 a Cory achieved a better average mark in Science
Life of battery (59.25) than he did in English (58.125).
(hours) Class centre Frequency b Cory was more consistent in English (s = 4.9) than he
0–<5 2.5 6 was in Science (s = 19.7)
11 a Back street: x = 61, s = 4.3;
5–<10 7.5 16 main road: x = 58.8, s = 12.1
10–<15 12.5 18 b The drivers are generally driving faster on the back
street.
15–<20 17.5 15 c The spread of speeds is greater on the main road as
20–<25 22.5 5 indicated by the higher standard deviation.
12 a Nathan: mean = 15.1; Timana: mean = 12.3
25–<30 27.5 5 b Nathan: range = 36; Timana: range = 14
b Mean = 13.4, standard deviation = 6.73 c Nathan: IQR = 15; Timana: IQR = 4
c The batch is unsatisfactory. Although the mean is d Timana’s lower range and IQR shows that he is the
greater than 13 hours, the batch fails as the standard more consistent player.
deviation is greater than the required 6 hours. 13 a Machine A
Exercise 13E — Comparing data sets Machine B

1 a Boys: median = 26; girls: median = 23.5
b Boys: range = 32; girls: range = 53 40 42 44 46 47 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
Number of Smarties in a box
c Both sets have similar medians but the girls have a far
Answers 13B ➜ 13F
greater range of absenteeism than boys. b Machine A: mean = 49.88,

2 a Morning: median = 2.45; afternoon: median = 1.6 standard deviation = 2.88;
b Morning: range = 3.8; afternoon: range = 5 Machine B: mean = 50.12,
c The waiting time is generally shorter in the afternoon. standard deviation = 2.44
One outlier in the afternoon data causes the range to c Machine B is more reliable, as shown by the lower
be larger. Otherwise the afternoon data are far less standard deviation and IQR. The range is greater on
spread out. machine B only because of a single outlier.
3 Key: 16 | 1 = 1.61 m 14 Students’ own work.
Leaf Stem Leaf Exercise 13F — Skewness
Boys Girls 1 a Yes b 8 c Both equal 8.
997 15 1256788 2 a No
98665540 16 4467899 b 31–40
4421 17 0 c No. They can, however, be calculated.
Answers 853
3 a 7
c Student comparison
6 Statistics
Frequency
5 Group A Group B
4
3 Five-point summary 13 27 36 43 62 17 23 30 35 42
2
1 x 35.85 hours 28.95 hours
0 1 2 3 4 5 Range 49 hours 25 hours
Number of goals IQR 16 hours 12 hours
s 13 hours 7 hours
b Yes
c 1, 2, 3 and 4 d Student decision, justifying answer
d Yes. Both equal 2.5. e Class discussion
4 a 4 b Negatively skewed
5 a Chapter review
35 Fluency
30
25 1 a Mean = 11.55; median = 10; mode = 8
Frequency
20
15
b Mean = 36; median = 36; mode = 33, 41
10 c Mean = 72.18; median = 72; mode = 72
5
2 a 6 b 6 c 20
3 a 4 b 8.5
1–10
11–20
21–30
31–40
41–50
4 a Year 10
Number of goals
Year 8
b Negatively skewed
6 B 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
7 a b Year 8: mean = 26.83, median = 27, range = 39,

10
9 IQR = 19, sd = 11.45
8 Year 10: mean = 40.7, median = 39.5, range = 46,
Frequency
7
6 IQR = 20, sd = 12.98
5 c The typing speed of Year 10 students is about
4
3 13 to 14 wpm faster than that of Year 8 students.
2
1 The spread of data in Year 8 is slightly less than in
Year 10.
1–50
51–100
101–150
151–200
201–250
5 a 20 b 24 c 8
6 a Key: 3* | 9 = 3.9 kg
Number of people Stem Leaf
b No 3* 9
c 201–250 4 0 0 2 3
d The distribution is negatively skewed. Reasons could 4* 5 6 7 8 8
include the size of cinemas or the target audience of 5 0 3
the movie. 5* 5 8 8 9
8 a No 6 1 2 2
b Science: positively skewed, Maths: negatively skewed 6* 8
c The science test may have been more difficult. b (3.9, 4.4, 4.9, 5.85, 6.8)
d Science: 61–70, Maths: 71–80 c 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 kg
e Maths has a greater standard deviation (12.6)
compared to Science (11.9).
9 Answers will vary. Check with your teacher. 7 a 24.4 b 1.1 c 7.3
10 a Key: 2 | 3 = 2.3 hours
8 A 9 B 10 0.05 mL
Leaf Stem Leaf
Group A Group B Problem solving
8 7 3 1 7 8 11 a Mean = 32.03; median = 29.5
9 5 1 2 0 1 2 4 5 5 8 8 b
8 7 5 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 4 5 5 5 6 8
7 5 4 2 2 2 4 2 0–9 2
5 10–19 7
2 2 6
20–29 6
b Five-point summary
Group A: 13 27 36 43 62 30–39 6
Group B: 17 23 30 35 42 40–49 3
Group B
50–59 3
Group A
Hours 60–69 3
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Total 30
Nouns
854 Answers
c Mean = 31.83 6 a 145 cm b 5 cm
d c 20 cm d 2 years
30
7 a 3 right, 2 up b 5 right
25
20
c 7 up d 2.5 right, 1.5 up
15
10
Exercise 14A — Identifying related pairs of
5 variables
0 1 a Quantitative, discrete
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 b Qualitative, nominal
Age
c Quantitative, continuous
e Median = 30 d Quantitative, continuous
f Estimates from parts c and e were fairly accurate. e Qualitative, nominal
g Yes, they were fairly close to the mean and median of f Quantitative, continuous
the raw data. g Quantitative, discrete
12 a HJ Looker: median = 5; h Quantitative, continuous
Hane and Roarne: median = 6 2 Discrete data can be counted in exact values; continuous
b HJ Looker data can be measured in a continuous scale.
c HJ Looker 3 a If data is nominal, it is qualitative in nature, so it
d Hane and Roarne had a higher median and a lower cannot also be discrete.
spread and so they appear to have performed better. b If data is ordinal, this implies an order, which is a
13 a English: mean = 70.25; Maths: mean = 69 qualitative classification. This means that it cannot
b English: range = 53; Maths: range = 37 also be continuous.
c English: s = 16.1; Maths: s = 13.4 4 a Dependent: time spent travelling to school;
d Kloe has performed more consistently in Maths as the independent: distance to school
range and standard deviation are both lower. b Dependent: heart rate of a runner; independent:
14 a Yes running speed
b Yes. Both are 3. c Dependent: value of CD collection; independent:
c 3 number of CDs in collection
15 a d Dependent: amount of computer memory used
9
8 by file; independent: length of file
Frequency
7 e Dependent: cost of second-hand car; independent:

6
5 age of car
4 5 a No relationship
3
2 b i There is a relationship between c and s.
1
ii Positive
12 34 5 iii Strong
Number of cars
c i There is a relationship between l and t.
b Positively skewed — a greater number of scores is ii Positive
distributed at the lower end of the distribution. iii Strong
16 Mean = 5, median = 5, mode = 2 and 5. The distribution d i There is a relationship between p and a.
is positively skewed and bimodal. ii Positive
17 C iii Moderate
18 A, B and C e i There is a relationship between h and a.
ii Positive
iii Strong
Chapter 14 f No relationship
Bivariate data 6 There is no relationship between sunburn and
ice-cream sales. The increase in both is influenced by
Are you ready? the weather.
1 a Numerical b Non-numerical
c Non-numerical d Numerical Exercise 14B — Graphing bivariate data
Answers 14A ➜ 14B
2 a Continuous b Continuous 1
c Continuous d Discrete Goals scored in a match
3 a Number of kilograms: independent; total cost: 50
dependent
Total number of goals
b Temperature: independent; number of swimmers: 40

dependent
c Age: independent; height: dependent 30
4 a 1 unit
20
b 0.1 of a unit
5 a $3.20 in March 10
b In February grapes cost $3.05.
c The cost of grapes was recorded over 5 months. 0
d Grapes cost the most in May when they were $4.33 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
per kilogram. Time after start of match (min)
Answers 855
2 a c The school canteen should stock more pies during
Goals scored in a match cooler weather, and fewer pies during hot weather.
50 Note: Best fit lines are indicated as a guide only.
3 a y b y
Total number of goals
40
30
20
10 x x
c y d y
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time after start of match (min)
b The trend is positive and strong, indicating that as the

match progressed goals were scored at a steady rate.
x
3 a Relationship between r and b x
70 e y
60
50
b
40
30
20
10
x
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 a 38 b 18
r 5 a i 460 ii 290 iii 130
b The trend is positive, but only moderate. b i 37 ii 24 iii 6
4 a Are long babies born to tall fathers? 6 a and b
b Do people with more formal education earn more Note: Answers may vary depending on the line of best
money? fit drawn.
c Does the amount of exercise performed decrease with 130
age? 120
5 a True b False c True 110
100
d False e True 90
Earnings ($)
6 B 7 C 80
8 D 9 A 70
60
10 a Number of tickets sold and the total money raised for 50
a number of different charity concerts. 40
30
b Number of items sold and the price of the item. 20
10
Exercise 14C — Scatterplots 0
1 a 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Hours worked
80
c i Approximately 16 hours
History
40 ii About $55
iii About $6.25
0
7 a and b
0 40 80 Note: Answers may vary depending on the line of best
English fit drawn.
b The direction of the relationship is positive; the 14
greater the English mark, the greater the history 13
mark, generally. However, as the points on the 12
11
scatterplot vary quite a bit from a straight line, the 10
Petrol used (L)
relationship is only moderate. 9

8
2 a 7
Number of
pies sold
6
80 5
4
3
0 2
0 20 40 1
Temperature (èC) 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b The direction of the relationship is negative; the Distance travelled (km)
greater the temperature, the fewer the pies sold. The c i About 8 litres
points on the scatterplot lie close to a straight line, so ii About 70 km
the relationship is strong. iii About 7 km/L
856 Answers
8 a 18 e i Quantitative, continuous
17 ii Quantitative, continuous
16
15
f 3 minutes
14 g The relationship is negative; as time increases the
13 size of the ice block decreases. It is moderately
12
strong, but not linear.
Mass (g)
11
10 8 D 9 D 10 C
9 11 a Positive, perfectly linear
8
7 b No relationship
6 c Negative, moderate
5
4
d Positive, strong
3 e No relationship
2 f Positive, moderate
1
g Negative, perfectly linear
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516
Day h Negative, moderate
i Negative, weak
b 7.1 g, 8.1 g, 13.9 g, 14.9 g j Positive, moderate
c 17.8 g, 18.8 g k Positive, moderate
d About 1 g l Negative, moderate
9 Prediction of y-values when x = 15 and x = 60 would be m Negative, strong
considered unreliable as these x-values are beyond the n Positive, weak
range of the data. For an x-value of 40, the predicted o Positive, moderate
y-value would be considered reliable as this is within the Problem solving
range of the data. 1 a Number of bags sold
10 This prediction would be considered unreliable, as b Does the number of bags sold depend on the price?
the scattering of the points indicates that there is no c
relationship between x and y.
12
Chapter review 11
10
Number of bags sold
Fluency 9
1 A 2 D 3 A 8
4 Independent Dependent 7
6
a Number of hours Test results 5
b Rainfall Attendance 4
3
c Hours in gym Visits in the doctor 2
d Lengths of essay Memory taken 1
e Attendance Cost of care 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
f Age of property Cost of property Cost ($)
g Number of applicants Cut-off ENTER score d As the price increases, the number of bags sold
h Running speed Heart rate decreases. This means that the relationship is
5 a 10 èC negative. The points vary quite a bit from a straight
b Day 5 line, so this indicates that the relationship is
c Day 7 moderately strong.
d Day 6 e Since the cheaper bags sell better, have a greater
e 10 èC stock of them than the more-expensive bags.
f Days 6 and 7 2 a i 12.5
6 a Height b Age ii 49
c Age and height of child b i 12
120 ii 22.5
3 a The two sets of data are quantitative and continuous.
100 b Birth mass
c What influence on the birth mass does the gestation
Answers 14C ➜ 14C
80
period have?
Height (cm)
60 d 3.6
3.4
3.2
40 3.0
2.8
20 2.6
Mass (kg)
2.4
2.2
0 2.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1.8
Age 1.6
1.4
d The relationship is positive and strong. As the child 1.2
grows older his/her height also increases. 1.0
7 a Minutes b mm3 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
c Time d 1 unit = 100 mm3 Weeks
Answers 857
e i 3.7 kg 3 a Numerical, continuous
ii 4 kg b Categorical, nominal
f 1 kg c Categorical, ordinal
g 36 weeks 4 a Most popular: cartoons
h During weeks 36 to 40 of the gestation period, least popular: documentaries and lifestyle programs
the birth mass increased about 0.3 kg per week. b 50
This is supported by readings from the line of c 40
best fit. 5 a Number of kilograms: independent
4 a The test result is the dependent variable, while the total cost: dependent
number of questions is the independent variable. b Temperature: independent
b Does completing more of these revision questions number of swimmers: dependent
contribute to a higher test mark? c Age: independent
c height: dependent
100
90
80
Exercise 15A — Populations and samples
70 1 a When was it first put into the machine? How old was
the battery before being purchased? How frequently
Test result
60
50 has the computer been used on battery?
40 b Can’t always see if a residence has a dog; A census is
30
20
very time-consuming; Perhaps could approach council
10 for dog registrations.
0 c This number is never constant with ongoing purchases,
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Number of questions
and continuously replenishing stock.
d Would have to sample in this case as a census would
d The relationship is positive, and moderately strong. involve opening every packet.
e There is evidence to suggest that completing more 2 These answers will vary with the samples chosen.
revision questions is beneficial, since the relationship 3 a Census. The airline must have a record of every
is positive and moderately strong. passenger on every flight.
5 a L b Survey. It would be impossible to interview
39 everyone.
38
37 c Survey. A census would involve opening every
36
35 bottle.
34
33 d Census. The instructor must have an accurate record of
32
each learner driver’s progress.
Length (cm)
31
30
29 4 a Survey
28
27 b Survey
26
25 c Census
24
23 d Survey
22
21 5 a About 25
20
b Drawing numbers from a hat, using a calculator, …..
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920 n 6 a The council is probably hoping it is a census, but it
Week
will probably be a survey because not all those over 10
b 25 cm, 27 cm, 29 cm, 31 cm, 33 cm, 36 cm, will respond.
37 cm, 39 cm, 40 cm b Residents may not all have internet access. Only those
c 42 cm, 43 cm, 44 cm who are highly motivated are likely to respond.
d The predictions for part b are quite reliable, 7 The sample could have been biased. The questionnaire
as they have been made within the limits of the may have been unclear.
data. The predictions in part c for the 3 weeks 8 Sample size, randomness of sample
beyond the upper limit of the data would not be 9 Answers will vary. Check with your teacher.
considered reliable. 10 Populations growing very rapidly, large number of
expatriate workers in China have a different background
and forms need to be modified for them, people from
Chapter 15 Hong Kong working on mainland China, large migrant
population in New Delhi, often migrants don’t have
Statistics in the media residency permits (so the truth of their answers is
Are you ready? questionable), many people live in inaccessible areas,
1 a Suitable some families in China have more than 1 child and do not
b Not suitable (irrelevant) disclose this.
c Suitable 11 There is quite a variation in the frequency of particular
1
numbers drawn. For example, the number 45 has not
2 Junior school: 2 been drawn for 31 weeks, while most have been drawn
13 within the last 10 weeks. In the long term, one should
Middle school: 43 find the frequency of drawing each number is roughly the
17 same. It may take a long time for this to happen, as only
Senior school: 86 8 numbers are drawn each week.
858 Answers
Exercise 15B — Primary and secondary data Mean salaries
1 These are simply examples of simulations which could be
conducted.
a Coin could be flipped (Heads represents ‘True’, while
Tails represents ‘False’)
b Coin could be flipped (Heads represents ‘red’, while
Tails represents ‘black’)
c Spinner with 4 equal sectors (each sector representing
a different toy)
d Roll a die (each face represents a particular person) 3 a Mean = $215 000, median = $170 000,
e Spinner with 3 equal sectors (each one representing a mode = $150 000. The median best represents these
particular meal) land prices. The mean is inflated by one large score,
f Spinner with 5 equal sectors (each one representing a and the mode is the lowest price.
particular destination) b Range = $500 000, interquartile range = $30 000.
g Spinner with 5 sectors, one which will have an angle The interquartile range is the better measure of
size of 120è, while the other 4 each have an angle size spread.
of 60è (each one representing a particular fast food) c
2 Answers will vary, however some possible suggestions
include: 150000 300000 450000 600000
Price
Which students have internet access at home?
Do the students need access at night? This dot plot shows how 9 of the scores are grouped
What hours would be suitable? close together, while the score of $650 000 is an
How many would make use of this facility? outlier.
3 Answers will vary. Check with your teacher. d The agent is quoting the modal price, which is the
4 Answers will vary, however some possible suggestions lowest price. This is not a true reflection of the average
include: price of these blocks of land.
a Census, survey, questionnaire, interview, observation, 4 a True. Mean = 1.82 m, lower quartile = 1.765 m,
experiment, on-line response, . . . median = 1.83 m
b i Measurement b True. This is the definition of interquartile range.
ii Observation c Players with heights 1.83 m, 1.83 m, 1.88 m, 1.88 m,
iii Newspaper recordings 1.88 m
iv Survey 5 a 7.1
5–7 Student’s own response b 7
8 The claim is false. It is not a logical deduction. c 7
9 Student’s own response d The mode has the most meaning as this size sells
10 Student’s own response the most.
6 Check with your teacher. Answers depend on groupings
11 Sealy Posturepremier 40% off ( 1000 ì 100%),
2499 used.
1600
Sealy Posturepedic 41% off ( 3899 ì 100%), 7 Player B appears to be the better player if the mean
result is used. However, Player A is the more-
800
Sleepmaker Casablanca 40% off (1999 ì 100%), consistent player.
8 a The statement is true, but misleading as most of the
1800
Sleepmaker Umbria 42% off ( 4299 ì 100%). employees earn $18 000.
There is at least 40% off these beds. b The median and modal salary is $18 000 and only
15 out of 80 (less than 20%) earn more than the
Exercise 15C — Evaluating inquiry methods and mean.
statistical reports 9 Points which could be mentioned.
1 a Primary. There is probably no secondary data ■■ 10.1% is only just ‘double digit’ growth.
available. ■■ 2006–08 showed mid to low 20% growth. Growth has
b, c Answers will vary. Check with your teacher. been declining since 2008.
2 Company profits ■■ Share price has rebounded, but not to its previous

Answers 15A ➜ 15C
high.
■■ Share price scale is not consistent. Most increments are
30c, except for $27.70 to $28.10 (40c increment). Note
also the figure of 20.80 — probably a typo instead of
26.80.
10 Shorten the y-axis and expand the x-axis.
US c
Aussie dollar
90 c
80 c
0 13 July 13 September
Time
Answers 859
Exercise 15D — Statistical investigations 11 a Girls
The questions in this exercise relate to student investigations, Boys
so there will be a variety of answers.
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
2 There have been 27 Prime Ministers of Australia since Height (m)
1901 until this day.
There have been 42 elections.
b Boys: median = 1.62 m; girls: median = 1.62 m
10 Prime Ministers have been defeated at a general
c Boys: range = 0.36 m; girls: range = 0.23 m
election. d Boys: IQR = 0.14 m; girls: IQR = 0.11 m
There have been 21 changes of Prime Minister without e Although boys and girls have the same median height,
an election. the spread of heights is greater among boys as shown
The average length these Prime Ministers served in office by the greater range and interquartile range.
is (This changes daily). 12 a Summer: range = 23; winter: range = 32
b Summer: IQR = 13; winter: IQR = 11
Chapter review c There are generally more cold drinks sold in summer
Fluency as shown by the higher median. The spread of data
1 a You would need to open every can to determine this. is similar as shown by the IQR although the range in
b Fish are continuously dying, being born, being caught. winter is greater.
c Approaching work places and public transport offices 13 A
2 a 50.5
b, c, d Answers will vary. Problem solving
3 a Survey 1 a Mean = 32.03; median = 29.5
b Census b
c Survey
4 Use a spinner of 3 equal sectors, each sector having an 0–9 2
angle size of 120° and representing a particular colour.
Twirl the spinner until a green/green combination has 10–19 7
been obtained. This is defined as one experiment. Count 20–29 6
the number of trials required for this experiment. Repeat
this procedure a number of times and determine an 30–39 6
average.
5 D 40–49 3
a This graph should look relatively flat, with little 50–59 3
decline in the Years 11 and 12 region. 60–69 3
b This graph should show a sharp decline in the Years 11
and 12 region. Total 30
7 a Boys: median = 26; girls: median = 23.5
b Boys: range = 32; girls: range = 53 c Mean = 31.83
c Both sets have similar medians, but the girls have a d
30
greater range of absenteeism than the boys. 25

8 a The sample is an appropriate size as 900 = 30. 20
b Key: 16 | 1 = 1.61 15
Leaf Stem Leaf 10
Boys Girls 5
997 15 1256788 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
98665540 16 4467899 Age
4421 17 0 e Median = 30
c The boys are generally better than the girls, with the f Estimates from parts c and e were fairly accurate.
mean of the boys being 1.66 m and that of the girls g Yes, they were fairly close to the mean and median of
being 1.62 m. The five-number summaries are: the raw data.
Boys: 1.57 m, 1.6 m, 1.66 m, 1.71 m, 1.74 m
2 Year 8: mean = 26.83, median = 27, range = 39, IQR = 19
Year 10: mean = 40.7, median = 39.5, range = 46,
Girls: 1.51 m, 1.56 m, 1.64 m, 1.68 m, 1.7 m
IQR = 20
9 a Ford: median = 15; Holden: median = 16
b Ford: range = 26; Holden: range = 32 The typing speed of Year 10 students is about 13
c Ford: IQR = 14; Holden: IQR = 13.5 to 14 wpm faster than that of Year 8 students. The
d spread of data in Year 8 is slightly less than the
Ford
spread in Year 10.
Holden 3 Hane and Roarne had a higher median and a lower
0 5 10 15 20 2530 35 40 spread, so they appear to have performed better.
Number of vehicles sold 4 They are all made in Australia and have comparable
10 a Brisbane Lions fat and saturated fat contents. The Byron Bay Chilli
b Brisbane Lions: range = 65; corn chips have a much lower salt content than the
Sydney Swans: range = 55 other three varieties. The verdict comments require a
c Brisbane Lions: IQR = 40; mention.
Sydney Swans: IQR = 35 5 Student’s plan for an investigation.
860 Answers
Chapter 16 Exercise 16B — Buying on terms
1 a i $3960
Financial maths ii $3720
Are you ready? iii $3950
1 a 0.24 b 0.175 c 0.03 d 0.0975 b The best deal is the one with the lowest cost — 20%
2 a $2100 b $10 640 c $22 800 d $1968.75 deposit and weekly payments of $20 over 3 years.
3 a $30 b $43.20 c $1.10 d $81.25 2 a $131.25 b $55.38 c $144.44
4 a 20% b 5% c 20% d 32.4% 3 a $13 600, $283.33 b $40 000, $666.67
5 a $2070 b $442.50 c $784 d $5437.50 c $5006.25, $278.13 d $80 000, $666.67
e $488 000, $2033.33
Exercise 16A — Purchasing goods 4 $5409.76 5 $4530.08
1 $2400 6 a $1260 b $19 504.80 c $20 764.80
2 a $1800 b $900 c $1920 d $8164.80
d $720 7 a $8409.96 b $2609.96 c $869.99
3 a $1500 b $125 c $281.25 d 15%
d $1080 8 a $2375 b $7125 c $2565
4 a $18.75 b $55.00 c $41.25 d $9690 e $269.17
d $125.33 e $99.58 9 a $2000 b $4000 c $540
5 $10 d $4540 e $252.22
6 a $700 b $10.50 c $710.50 10 a $226.80 b $141.90 c $360.94
d $3.16 e $913.66 d $87.11 e $85.13
7 a $52.50 b $50.79 c $35.92 11 a $4600 b $1656 c $130.33
d $14.87 d $7256
8 a 12 C
13 E. This option has the lowest interest rate and time frame
Balance Closing
when compared to all others.
Month owing Interest Payment balance
14 The larger the deposit the smaller the loan and hence the
January $7500.00 $112.50 $1000.00 $6612.50 interest charged. Loans generally offer a lower rate than
buying on terms.
February $6612.50 $99.19 $1000.00 $5711.69
March $5711.69 $85.68 $1000.00 $4797.37 Exercise 16C — Successive discounts
1 a 16.7% b 10.2% c 43.7%
April $4797.37 $71.96 $1000.00 $3869.33 d 15.4% e 7.6%
May $3869.33 $58.04 $1000.00 $2927.37 2 23.5%
3 C
June $2927.37 $43.91 $1000.00 $1971.28 4 a 32% b 19.04% c 16.75%
July $1971.28 $29.57 $1000.00 $1000.85 d 57.5%
5 19%
August $1000.85 $15.01 $1015.86 $0 6 a $3040 b 24%
b $515.86 7 a $90 b $85.50 c $14.50
c $8015.86 d 14.5%
9 8 a $1840 b $1748 c $252
d 12.6%
Possible Possible
9 a $212.50 b $201.88 c $48.12
Payment Immediate Immediate extra price d $200, no e 19.25% f Yes
option payment possession cost negotiation g 28%
Cash ✓ ✓ ✓ 10 a $18 168.75 b 27.325%
11 Yes. Both lead to a single discount of 14.69%
Lay-by ✓ 12 Single discount = 1 - (1 - a) ì (1 - b), where a and b are
Credit ✓ ✓ successive discounts (as decimals).
Answers 15D ➜ 16D
card
Exercise 16D — Compound interest
Payment Extra
1 a $3244.80 b $10 939.56 c $24 617.98
option Payment Possession cost Price
d $14 678.02 e $14 838.45 f $129 394.77
Cash immediate immediate nil negotiable 2 a $932.52 b $10 650.81 c $202 760.57
d $25 816.04 e $3 145 511.41
Lay-by intervals delayed limited –
3 $8784.60
Credit delayed immediate possible – 4 $3376.26
card 5 a $2837.04 b $837.04
6 $17 240.15 7 $605.42 8 $18 503.86
10 S1: Credit card — payment is delayed, but possession is 9 a 0.5833% b $42 891.60
immediate 10 B 11 B 12 C 13 C
S2: Lay-by, or cash if she has savings, would like to 14 a 0.0247% b $131 319.80
negotiate a lower price and has somewhere to store it. c $11 319.80 d $519.80
Answers 861
15 a i $17 745.95 ii $17 786.61 8 a $67 000 b $27 000 c $5400
iii $17 807.67 iv $17 821.99 d 15% p.a.
b The interest added to the principal also earns interest. 9 E
16 a $7920 10 a $261 b $221.85 c $68.15 d $23.5%
b David’s investment = $8108.46 11 $15 746.40
c Because David’s interest is compounded, the interest 12 a $25 808.37 b $26 723.16 c $27 211.79
is added to the principal each quarter and earns d $27 550.17
interest itself. 13 E
17 a $3750 interest 14 B
b i $3820.32 interest ii $3881.05 iii $3912.36 15 $24 403.80
c Compound quarterly gives the best return. Problem solving
d If we assume that interest is compounded annually, an 1 a $22 774.65 b 13%
equivalent return of R = 7% would be achieved. 2 $426
e i Yes ii No 3 a 3.95% p.a. flat rate
b 3.97% p.a. flat rate
Exercise 16E — Depreciation c 3.96% p.a. flat rate
1 a $14 936.14 b $3584.59 c $6596.65 Neither is correct. The best option is to choose
2 $17 694.72 3.895% p.a. compounding monthly.
3 a $19 118.26 b $19 281.74
4 a $3846.93 b $6353.07 c 38% CHAPTER 17
5 a $7216.02 b $45 283.98
6 a $1.8 million b $569 531.25 c $135 152.44 Problem solving II
7 B 1 4
8 A 2 a 4 am, 7 January
9 C b 1 am, 7 January (Perth is 3 hours behind Sydney
10 B during daylight saving time.)
11 A 3 a No. Greg’s first choice of a number is independent of
12 10 years his second choice of a number. The ten numbers will
13 a $385 million b 16 years always be in the hat on the first draw, thus he has an
14 a 27% equal chance to pick any of them.
n
b A = P (1 − R) b Greg’s second choice is dependent upon his first
A choice. When Greg chooses a number in the first draw
= (1 − R) n and does not replace that number, then he changes the
P
sample space and the probability for the second draw.
A 4 a $1175 b $3825
n = (1 − R)
P c 25% discount gives a final price of $3750. The
A customer would be $75 better off.
R = 1− n 5 16 ì $5 notes and 11 ì $10 notes
P
6 a y
15 a Approx 43% 2
b Trial and error: can be time consuming, answer is
often an estimate; algebraic solution: correct answer
calculated immediately from equation 1
y = 4-x
0.5
Exercise 16F — Loan repayments
1 $4500 0 1 2 3 x
2 a $8000 b $4950 c $1875
d $864 e $420
3 a $5760 b $17 760 c $4440 b y becomes smaller and approaches 0, but never
4 $2422 actually reaches 0.
5 $9264 c y approaches infinity as x becomes smaller.
1 4 1
6 a $12 000 b $32 000 7 a b c
5 5 25
c $8000 d $4966.87 8 a Since the interest rate is lower for Loan 2 than for Loan
7 a $2453 b $93 1, Thomas should choose Loan 2 if he decides to pay
8 a $6004.80 b $2001.60 c 8% the loan off at the end of the first, second or third year.
9 a 5.4% b 4.6% b Loan 1 at term amounts to $9444.63. Loan 2 at the
10 Loan B better (total savings $1053.50) end of 4 years amounts to $9523.42. Thomas should
11 Actual savings $355.15 choose Loan 1.
Chapter review c Thomas should choose Loan 1. At the end of its term
Fluency (3 years), it amounts to less than Loan 2 at 4 years,
1 $1000 2 C 3 16.875% 4 A 1 year before its term is finished.
5 $54 6 $7819 d Thomas may not have the money to pay off Loan 1 in
7 a $640 b $5760 c $2764.80 d $8524.80 3 years. He may need the extra 2 years to accumulate
e $177.60 his funds.
862 Answers
9 18
77 d Class Midpoint Frequency
27 interval x f fx
10 52 0–9 4.5 0 0
11 72
12 $20 960.94 10–19 14.5 4 58
13 a 1 - a b 1 c 0 20–29 24.5 7 171.5
14 a Future population in n years = 350(1 + 0.1)n. 30–39 34.5 5 172.5
b 12 years
c 19 years 40–49 44.5 4 178
d Lance has assumed that every 19 years there will be 50–59 54.5 4 218
approximately 2140 additional people.
e Lance has assumed that the growth is linear, whereas 60–69 64.5 6 387
it is actually exponential. Drawing a graph would help ∑ fx 1185
him see the growth. Anthea: Mean = = = 39.5
∑f 30
15 a $100 b 14.29%
16 2 ∑ x 1146
Elena: Mean = = = 38.2
17 a x + y í 20 and 3x + 8y Ç 110 n 30
b No more than 30 units of dye e Anthea used the midpoints of the class intervals,
c If y = 10, the first equation becomes x í 10 whereas whereas Elena used the exact values.
the second equation becomes x Ç 10. This means that 27 Prove P(AÅ) ì P(B) = P(AÅ ¶ B)
the only possible value for x here is equal to 10. 28 a $41 051 b Approx $4300
18 4
1 29 a i 4x + 6y = 12 ii 4x + 3y = 6
iii 2x + 6y = 6 iv 2x + 3y = 12
4
19 7 b i y
4
20 a $1500
b $1000
2x
c Since the depreciation of 40% is on a lower value 4x 2 +3
+6 y=
each year, the amount Jan can deduct from her taxable y= 6
income decreases every year. 12
21 a 0.27 m -4 -2 0 2 4 x
b Teacher to check.
17 -2
22 35
23 a p = 250n + 15, n is independent variable and p
dependent variable — number of people depend on -4
number of screens.
p
b t = ii y
100 4
c Integers
d At least 13
e 3 2 2x
+6
24 22% y=
25 a Stephanie can only work out which class interval her 6
test result is in — the 65% to 74% interval. -4 -2 0 2 4 x
b The median is the 50th percentile which corresponds
4x
to the 55% to 64% interval. -2

+3
c No.
y=
6
d 85th — the same as Stephanie.

-4
26 a Range of females = 45 years;
range of males = 53 years
Answers 16E ➜ 16F
b Females: 64 years; males: 22 years y

c iii 2x
Class +3 4
y=
Class interval mid-point Frequency 6
2x +
6y =
0–9 4.5 0 6 2
10–19 14.5 4
20–29 24.5 7 -4 -2 0 2 4 x
30–39 34.5 5
-2
40–49 44.5 4
50–59 54.5 4
-4
60–69 64.5 6
Answers 863
iv y 38 a W w
2x
+3 4
y= 2x w Ww ww
6 +3
y=
12 w Ww ww
2
b 50%
39 a $45 058.50 b $455 per year
-4 -2 0 2 4 x 40 a Mean = 5.4; median = 5.5; mode = 6
The median is best because it allows for the range of
-2 values and is also between the mean and mode.
b i 0.5 ii 2 or 3
c i 4 more games scoring at least 8 runs in each
-4 ii 2 3 4 5 6 6 8 8 8 8 8 9
d Not very likely
c i The two equations are the same, so the graphs lie 41 a 0.24 b 0.0462 c 0.0231
on top of each other. d
ii The gradient is doubled, the y-intercept is
unchanged, the x-intercept is halved. Potential Profit/
iii The gradient is halved, the y-intercept is halved, the Probability wins Outlay Winnings Loss
x-intercept is unchanged. 0.24 0.24 ì 20 $20 2.50 ì 4.8 $8 loss
iv The gradient is unchanged, the y-intercept is = 4.8 = $12
doubled, the x-intercept is doubled. These are
parallel lines. 0.0462 0.924 ö 1 $20 $5 $15 Loss
3
30 a 5 0.0231 0.462 $20 $0 $20 Loss
8
b 15 e 100 games — potentially 30 wins so get $85, but paid
31 a Method 2 $100 to play, so still losing.
b Difference of $3530 in favour of Method 2. f People look at short term gains, but fail to consider the
32 Annie is 18 and Barbara is 7. long term maths calculations.
33 a $5000 42 The numbers are 7 and 10.
b $1000, interest earned per annum. 43 a Yes, because the relationship involves a variable as an
c A = 5000 + 1000n exponent.
d R = 10.5%, This is the percentage interest rate per b 20 000 km2
annum. So, R = 10.41% p.a. c S = 11 975 km2
e Check with your teacher. d y
f Rosetta had a higher return in the first 13 years then 20000
Theo had the higher return after that.
34 a
Surface area (km2)
Xmin QL Median QU Xmax 15000
Test A 20 40 50 70 80
10000
Test B 10 50 60 80 90
b The interquartile range is the same for both tests 5000
(IQR = 30). This indicates that the spread of the results
across the middle group of the class for both tests is
the same. 0 20 40 60 80 100 x
c Based on the median score, the students appear to
Years
have done better in Test B. The middle groups stayed
the same, the strong maths students did better, but the e In 100 years, S = 118 km2
struggling students did worse. f No this is not a realistic model as is it does not take
d Test B may have been an easier test than Test A. into account changes to climate, rain, runoff from
e Students may have found topic B easier to understand. mountains, glaciers etc.
16 44 a About 8 apprentices can work for the same amount of
35 19 money.
 b   d 
c e b Experienced
36 (k + am)  1 + 1−
 100   100  bakers Apprentices
y
$1000 each 30 h ì $16 = $480 Total cost
37
8 Shrub 4 ($4000) 0 $4000
6 3 ($3000) 2 ($480) = $960 $3960
4 2 ($2000) 4 ($480) = $1920 $3920
Tree Stump
2 1 ($1000) 6 ($480) = $2880 $3880
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x 0 8 ($480) = $3840 $3840
864 Answers
45 a 12.2 m f y
b 10.4è
Percentage cumulative
100
c 12.72 m
80
d 10.3 km/h
frequency
46 a 8.25 hours 60
b Shift 2 offers $53.38 more. 40
47 149 cm and 171 cm. The average height of the two 20
students must equal 160 cm.
48 100 mini-laptops 0 5 10 15 20 25 x
49 a Toyota Nissan Number of computers
(22) (18) used
10 2 4 g 50th percentile is about 8.5 computers used,
30th percentile is 5 computers used. This means that
6 50% of the data lies below 8.5 and 30% of the data lies
4 6
below 5.
1 52 a Teacher to check.
2
(17)
b C = 100 ì 0.120.24t
Subaru c y
100
Concentration mg/L
2
b i 7 80
18 60
ii 35
40
11
c 35 20
50 a $900
b $16.50 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
c $916.50 Time (days)
d $5.80 d 7.85 mg/L
e $322.30 53 a Males
f $1222.30 Females
51 a
0−4 7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
x
Age
5−9 8
10−14 5 b Males Females
15−19 4 Mean 28.2 31.1
20–24 1
Range 70 57
Total 25
IQR 18 22
b, c y
8
c There is one outlier — a male aged 78.
d Typically males seem to enter hospital for the first
Frequency
6 time at a younger age than females.

54 a $9920
4
b Nathan will have $9993.03 at maturity.
2 c Because Nathan’s interest is compounded, the interest
is added to the principal each quarter and earns interest
itself.
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 x
Number of computers used
55 a 3
3 5 Black
Black
Answers 17 ➜ 17
5
d y 2 Red
Black
25 3 3 5
5 5 Black
2 Red
20 5 Red
2
3
15 5
5
3 Black
10 5 Black
2 2 Red
5 5 Red 3 5
5 Black
2 Red
0 5 10 15 20 25 x 5 2 Red
5
Number of computers
used b 0.216
e 10 students c 0.352
Answers 865
56 a $2090 67 a P = 2500, A = 1.065 b 6.5%
b 104.5% 68 a 0.000 495 b 0.001 981
c $2184.05 69 a
d A Frequency
Interval ( f ) Midpoint ì ( f )
12000
40–49 1 44.5 ì 1 = 44.5
Investment value ($)
10000
8000 50–59 1 54.5 ì 1 = 54.5
6000 60–69 1 64.5 ì 1 = 64.5
4000 70–79 2 74.5 ì 2 = 149
2000 80–89 4 84.5 ì 4 = 338
90–99 4 94.5 ì 4 = 378
0 10 20 30 40 x
Time (years) 100–109 8 104.5 ì 8 = 836
e Approximately 36.5 years 110–119 6 114.5 ì 6 = 687
57 a 3 120–129 8 124.5 ì 8 = 996
b 6
130–139 2 134.5 ì 2 = 269
n( n −1)
c 140–149 2 144.5 ì 2 = 289
2
58 a $0.165 150–159 0 154.5 ì 0 = 0
b 217 cups 160–169 1 164.5 ì 1 = 164.5
59 200
60 12 years TOTAL 40 4270
61 0.47 b 106.75 c 107.15
62 a 310 b 101 d The differences in this case were minimal; however,
c 23 weeks d No the grouped data mean is not based on the actual data
63 a Mean = 2.17, median = 2 but on the frequency in each interval and the interval
b Mean = 3.54, median = 2 midpoint. It is unlikely to yield an identical value to
c The median relies on the middle value of the data and the actual mean. The spread of the scores within the
won’t change much if an extra value is added. The class interval has a great effect on the grouped data
mean however has increased because this large value mean.
will change the average of the numbers. The mean is 70 a October 1: $89.10, October 8: $80.19,
used as a measure of central tendency if there are no October 12: $84.20, October 15: $75.78
outliers or if the data are symmetrical. The median b 23.5%
is used as a measure of central tendency if there are 71 a It is 3 times more likely that the spinner will land on
outliers or the data are skewed. A. Therefore I would not play this game as I should be
64 a $17 176.86 b $5176.86 winning $9 not $8.
c $357.85 b I would play this game as a fair game would only give
65 0.8 me $15. To get $18 would be in my favour.
66 a See the table at the bottom of the page*. 72 a y
500
b P
120000
100000 400
Prize money ($)
80000
Capacity (GB)
60000 300
40000
20000 200
0 n
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 100
Number of people
120 000
c P = 0 1/1/95 1/1/01 1/1/07 1/1/10 x
n
Date
d Inverse variation; k = 120 000
e $6000 b Approx. 5 GB
f 80 people c 8192 GB
66 a *
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
P 120 000 60 000 40 000 30 000 24 000 20 000 15 000 12 000 10 000
866 Answers
73 $1060.26, $2003.30, $7585.60 b 50
74 a 0.053 b 0.103
75 66.7% by volume and 81.1% by mass
40
76
Tovota LPG System
6 19 0 30
1 20
4 5
7
10
4 WD 18
0 8 10 12 14 16 18
17 1
a 60
b 3 Years of education
c
7
d
1 c Parents of year 10 students
12 2
7 2
e 10
f 5
1 59 8 10 12 14 16 18 x
g 12
h 60 Years of education
77 a $20 400
1 2 a
8 9.10% b 4.45%
b 79 weeks (1 2 years)
c 5.76%
c $340 000
83 a $18 000 b $48 000
d $306 000
c $9600 d $8117.09
e $2295 1 1
f $2406.67 84 a 3
b 2
g $305 888.33 85 a 171.6 cm
h Payments will be more than they are able to afford.
b 171 cm
i Find a less-expensive house, save more money then
c At the top end of the heights, there is a possible outlier
pay more off the principal each month, find a loan
of 189 cm. Removal of this value results in a mean of
with a lower interest rate, save for a larger deposit.
171 cm and a median of 171 cm. The mean is reduced
78 a Burritos Fajitas slightly, while the median is unchanged.
At the lower end of the heights, there are possible
9 15 12 outliers of 159 cm and 160 cm. Removal of these
values results in a mean of 172.5 cm and a median
11
13 7 of 171.5 cm. The mean and median are increased
slightly.
10 Removal of both the upper and lower outliers
results in a mean of 171.9 cm and a median of
Tacos 23 171 cm. The mean is increased slightly, while the
b 9 c 45 median is unchanged.
86 Option 2 is less expensive, despite having a higher annual
M
79 a Prove = 0.5 = (1.0122)-57.3 interest rate, because it is paid off in only 10 months
M0 instead of 2 years. The TV would cost $217 with option 1
b 21.54% and $212 with option 2.
80 a $0 87 a i 35 s
2
b This game has a total expected loss of $ 36 , so the game ii 29.5 s
is not fair and is biased against the player. iii 33.05 s
81 a iv 60 s
Years of Cumulative v 21 s
education Frequency frequency vi 39 s
9 2 2 vii 18 s
Answers 17 ➜ 17
10 4 6 b 21 29.5 39
11 8 14
t
12 17 31 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
13 6 37 c i 25%
14 5 42 ii 50%
iii 75%
15 4 46 d Categorical
16 3 49 e 35%
17 1 50 f Pictogram, pie chart or bar chart.
88 a 0.000 039 6
Total 50 b About once in 12.6 years
Answers 867
89 a 98
40 kg
Number of bacteria
800 99
40 steps
600 100
Student’s own work
a C = 1000 + 15s
101
400
b R = 25s

200
c 100
0

d 350 slippers
5 10 15 20 102
0.61
Time
103
a $397.50
y = 200 (1.086)t y = 500 (1.031)t
b $2252.50
b Approx 17.5 days
c $2929.50
c 17.63 days
d $279.50
90 a 0.65 W
e 6.2% p.a.
104
10.5 m
T
0.75
0.35 WÅ
1350 watts/m2
105
1
a P(A ¶ B) = 12 ò 0 so A and B are not mutually
106
0.40 W exclusive.
1
0.25 TÅ
b A and B are not independent because P(A ¶ B) = 12
5
0.60 WÅ and P(A) ì P(B) = 108.
b 0.5875 07 30.16%
1
c
8 108 25 mL
47
109 2 h 54 min
91 a 82.73 km/h b 30 cars 110 Student’s own work
c i $2 607 272.73 ii About 545 111 P($5) = 0.12503, P($10) = 0.039 063, P($15) =
92 $461.96 0.12502 ì 0.0156, P($20) = 0.039 062 ì 0.0156. The
10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 probabilities of obtaining any of the required scores
93 a to receive a payout are very low. Bianca and Hannah
10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
b 0.018 144 (about 1.8%) would be unlikely to have to pay out any money, so
94 a i R = 12.5t, t Ç 3 would collect $300 for their fundraising.
ii R = 14t - 4.50, t > 3 112 a 3
b 5.5 hours b 4.5%
c c $4130.10
Fees Fees Difference 113 6 games
Hours OLD NEW ($) 114 For each 30-sec block, the lowest-cost calls are shown
1 12.50 12.50 0 in blue, while the highest-cost calls are shown in red.
2 25.00 25.00 0 Call Andy
3 37.50 37.50 0 length (cents) Bill (cents) Cam (cents)
4 51.50 70.00 +18.50 30 sec 40 + 45 35 + 92 36 + 46
= 85 = 127 = 82
5 65.50 70.00 +4.50
6 79.50 70.00 -9.50 1 min 40 + 45 ì 2 35 + 92 36 + 46 ì 2
= 130 = 127 = 128
95 a i 0.25
ii 0.10 1 min 40 + 45 ì 3 35 + 92 ì 2 36 + 46 ì 3
iii 0.375 30 sec = 175 = 219 = 174
b 30 students 2 min 40 + 45 ì 4 35 + 92 ì 2 36 + 46 ì 4
96 a Based on the comparison between Class A’s IQR = 220 = 219 = 220
(16.5) and Class B’s IQR (32.5), Ms Vinculum was
correct in her statement. 2 min 40 + 45 ì 5 35 + 92 ì 3 36 + 46 ì 5
b No 30 sec = 265 = 311 = 266
97 a Reducing value allows you to claim $300, $210, $147 3 min 40 + 45 ì 6 35 + 92 ì 3 36 + 46 ì 6
over the 3 years for a total of $657. = 310 = 311 = 312
Straight line allows you to claim $200 each year over 5
years for a total of $1000. If calls last a full number of minutes, as opposed to
Although the reducing value depreciation is greater in half-minute calls, Bill’s plan seems to be a good one.
the years 1 and 2, the sum over the life of the item is The 30-sec plans seem to be best for calls lasting just
greater in the straight line case. over the minute.
b Reducing value: $1000, $800, $640, $512, $409.60 for 15
1 58
a total of $3361.60 116 $120
Straight line allows $835 per year over 6 years for a 117 70
total of $5000 (actually $5010). 118 7
In this case the reducing value method is only better in 119 $13 profit
the 1st year. 120 July
868 Answers
121 a The draw for 9 players could look like this. 27
1 320
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 128 12
X X 129 37
130 Looking back 5 generations, there would be 8 ancestors
X
X Bye for the male bee.
X
X M F F M F F M F
X 5th generation
X 4th generation F M F M F
Champion
X X Bye rd
X 3 generation F M F
X
X 2nd generation M F
X X
X X 1st generation F
Bye
X X
Male bee
b 4
c 3 ChApter 18
122 a Date Deposit Withdrawal Balance
real numbers
1/7 $4200
Are you ready?
3/7 $100 $4300 1 a, b and d
7/7 $500 $4800 2 a 4 3 b 7 2 c 10 3 d 18 2
21/7 $725 $4075 3 a 3 3 − 3 6 b 28 2 − 39 5
28/7 $85 $4160 2
4 a 70 b 24 2 c 3 d
31/7 $4160 2
5 a 49 b 81
b Total interest earned is $13.24. c 244.140 625 d 0.0081
4a2
Number Interest Interest 6 a x10 b 20y11 d 4m8 c
Date of days Balance calculation earned b4
2 Exercise 18A — Number classification review
4200 × 3.5 × 1 a Q b Q c Q d I e I
365
2/7 2 $4200
100
$0.81 f Q g Q h I i Q j Q
k Q l Q m I n Q o I
4 p Q q Q r I s I t I
4300 × 3.5 × u Q v I w I x Q y I
6/7 4 $4300 365 $1.65
100 2 a Q b Q c Q d Q e Q
f I g I h Q i I j Undefined
14 k I l I m I n Q o Q
4800 × 3.5 ×
365 p Q q I r I s Q t Q
20/7 14 $4800 $6.44
100 u I v Q w Q x I y Q
3 B
7 4 D
4075 × 3.5 ×
27/7 7 $4075 365 $2.74 5 C
100 6 C
4 Exercise 18B — Surds
4160 × 3.5 × 1 b d f g h i l m o q s t w z
Answers 18A ➜ 18C
31/7 4 $4160 365 $1.60 2 A

100 3 D
4 B
23
1 24 votes
5 C
124 12
6 Any perfect square
125 16
7 m = 4
126 The faces adjacent to face number 6 would be 1, 4, 10, 8 Check with your teacher.
11 and 5.
1 Exercise 18C — Operations with surds
5 4
6 1 a 2 3 b 2 6 c 3 3 d 5 5
11 10 e 3 6 f 4 7 g 2 17 h 6 5
i 2 22 j 9 2 k 7 5 l 8 7
Answers 869
5_61_4178X_MQ10+10A_AC_Ans.indd 869 13/05/13 11:55 AM

2 a 4 2 b 24 10 c 36 5 d 21 6 5 6 4 15 5 7 8 15
i j k l
e −30 3 f −28 5 g 64 3 h 2 2 6 15 14 15
1 3 8 21 8 105 10
i 2 j 2 3 k 15 l 7 m n o
3 2 49 7 3
3 a 4a b 6a 2 c 3a 10 b 3 10 − 2 33
11 a 2 + 2 b
d 13a 2
2 e 13ab 2ab 2
f 2ab 17ab 6
g 5 x y 3 2
5 h 20 xy 5 x i 54 c3d 2 2cd 12 5 − 5 6 9 10
c d
10 5
j 18c d 3 4
5cd k 22ef l 7e f 5 5
2ef
3 10 + 6 14 5 6
4 a 7 5 b 8 3 c 15 5 + 5 3 e f
4 3
d 4 11 e 13 2 f −3 6
3 22 − 4 10 21 − 15
g 17 3 − 18 7 h 8 x + 3 y g h
6 3
5 a 10( 2 − 3 ) b 5( 5 + 6 ) 14 − 5 2 12 − 10
i j
c 7 3 d 4 5 6 16
e 14 3 + 3 2 f 3 6 + 6 3 6 15 − 25 30 + 7 2
k l
g 15 10 − 10 15 + 10 h −8 11 + 22 70 20
i 12 30 − 16 15 j 12 ab + 7 3ab 2 2+ 5
12 a 5 − 2 b
7 3
k 2+2 3 l 15 2
2 8 11 + 4 13 15 15 − 20 6
c d
6 a 31 a − 6 2a b 52 a − 29 3a 31 13
c 6 6ab d 32a + 2 6a + 8a 2 19 − 4 21
e 12 2 − 17 f
5
e a 2a f a + 2 2a
15 − 3 − 5 + 1 −6 + 6 2 + 10 − 2 5
g 3a a + a
2
3a 2
h (a + a) ab g h
4 2
i 4 ab ab + 3a 2 b b j 3 ab (2a + 1) 4 10 + 15 − 4 6 − 3
2 3
i
k −6ab 2a + 4 a b 3a l −2a b 29
7 a 14 b 42 c 4 3 d 10 Exercise 18D — Fractional indices
e 3 7 f 27 g 10 33 h 180 5 1 a 4 b 5 c 9
2 d 2 e 3 f 5
i 120 j 120 3 k 2 6 l 2 2 a 3 b 2 c 1.4
3
2 d 2.2 e 1.5 f 1.3
m 6 n x 2 y y 3 a 2.5 b 12.9 c 13.6
5 d 0.7 e 0.8 f 0.9
o 3a 4 b 2 2ab p 6a 5b 2 2b 4 a 7 b 2 3 c 6 2
2 2 9
q 3 x y 10 xy r a 2 b 4 5ab d 4 2 e 3 3 f 100 10
2
1 1 1
8 a 2 b 5 c 12 d 15 5 a 52 b 10 2 c x 2
e 18 f 80 g 28 h 200
3 1 1
9 a 5 b 2 c 6 d 4 d m 2 e 2t 2 f 6 3
3 5 4 1 5
e f g 2 3 h 1 6 a 4 5 b 2 2
4 2 c a 6
23 8 5
4 x 2
i 1 j 2 17 k l 3 4 d x 20 e 10 m15 f 2b 7
5 y x y 9 7
20
4 a g −4 y 9 h 0.02a 8 i 5 x 2
m 2 xy 3 y n 5
3 3 4
7 a ab 2 b x 5 y 9
5 2 7 3 4 11 4 6
10 a b c d 8 17 19 2
2 3 11 3 c 6a 5 b 15 d 2m 28 n 5
2 21 10 2 15 3 35 19 5 5 2 9
e f g h
7 2 5 5 e x 6 y 6 z 6 f 8a 5 b 8 c
870 Answers
1 5 1 1 3
6 a 4 b 6 4 c 3 8 d 16
8 a 3 6 b 512 c 12 2
3 5 11 4 16 27 125
e 9
f 81
g 64
h 1331
d a7 e x4 f m 45
3 5
1 20
3
1 3
2
5 20
7 7 a - 2 b - 3 c -4 d -10
g x h n i b
2 3 4 9 2 16
e 4
f 25 g - 3 h 121
5 7 7 4 3 11
1 8 56 8 As the value of n increases, the value of 2-n gets closer
9 a x3y5 b a 45 b 15 c m n
to 0.
3
2 3 11 7 5 1
1 1 Exercise 18F — Logarithms
d 2 x 15 y 4 e a 20 b 20 f p 24 q 12
4 7 1 a log4 16 = 2 b log2 32 = 5
9 1 6 c log3 81 = 4 d log6 36 = 2
10 a 2 20 b 56 c 75 e log10 1000 = 3 f log5 25 = 2
3 1 1 1 g log4 x = 3 h log5 125 = x
d a 10 e m6 f 2 3 b 6 i log7 49 = x j logp 16 = 4
1
2 m k log9 3 = 2
l log10 0.1 = -1
4 p5 p b a
g h x i 1 1
3c m c m log8 2 = 3 n log2 2 = -1
1 1 3 6 7
3
11 a a4b6 b a 3b 4 c x5y4 o loga 1 = 0 p log4 8 = 2
1 2 D
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a2 3 a 24 = 16 b 33 = 27 c 106 = 1 000 000
d 33 a 9 b 5 c 4 e x4 y3z 5 f 2 1
b3 d 53 = 125 e 16 2 =4 f 4x = 64
8 2 1 7 1 1
g
m5
h
b5
i
22 x 2 g 49 2 =7 h 35 = x i 812 = 9
7 8 3 1
n4 c 27 y8 j 10-2 = 0.01 k 81 = 8 l 64 3 = 4
12 a C, D 4 B
13 a a4 b b3 c m4 5 a 4 b 2 c 2 d 5
d 4x2 e 2y3 f 2x2y3 1
g 3m3n5 h 2pq2 i 6a2b6 e 5 f 7 g 0 h 2
14 a 0.32 m/s i -1 j 1 k -2 l 3
1
b 16 640 L/s
c 59 904 000 L/hr 6 a 0 b 1 c 2
That is 16 640 ì 60 ì 60. d 3 e 4 f 5
d The hydraulic radius is the measure of a channel 7 a 0 and 1 b 3 and 4
flow efficiency. The roughness coefficient is the c 1 and 2 d 4 and 5
resistance of the bed of a channel to the flow of e 2 and 3 f 4 and 5
water in it. 8 a log10 g = k implies that g = 10k so g2 = (10k)2. That is,
g2 = 102k; therefore, log10 g2 = 2k.
Exercise 18E — Negative indices 1
1 1 1 b logx y = 2 implies that y = x2, so x = y 2 and therefore

1 a = 0.2
5
b = 0.3 3
c 8
= 0.125 1
logy x = .
1 1 1 2
d 10
= 0.1 e 8
= 0.125 f 9
= 0.1 c The equivalent exponential statement is x = 4y, and we
1 1
know that 4y is greater than zero for all values of y.
g 25
= 0.04 h 10 000
= 0.0001 Therefore, x is a positive number.
Answers 18D ➜ 18G
2 a 0.167 b 0.143 c 0.0278 Exercise 18G — Logarithm laws

d 0.001 37 e 0.004 63 f 0.004 44 1 a 1.698 97
g 0.003 91 h 0.001 60 b 1.397 94
3 a 0.40 b 2.5 c 0.44 c 0.698 97
d 4.0 e 0.11 f 0.000 079 d 0.301 03
g 11 h 4100 2 Teacher to check.
4 a -0.33 b -0.20 c 0.25 3 a 1 b 3 c 2
d 0.063 e -0.67 f -0.45 d 3 e 4 f 1
g -1.7 h 1.4 4 a 2 b 3 c 1
5 1 10 1 8 1 20 7 d 4 e 3 f 5
5 a 4
or 1 4 b 3
or 3 3 c 7
or 1 7 d 13
or 113
1
5 a 2 b c 1 d 3
e 2 f 4 g 8 h 10 2
2 4 10 2 6 3
i 3
j 9
k 11
l 11 7 a 2 b 4 c 3 d 3
Answers 871
8 a 1 b 0 c -1 d The energy is increased by a factor of 31.62.
d 5 e -2 f 1 e It releases 31.623 times more energy.
g 0 h -2 i - 2
1 Chapter review
Fluency
j
1
k - 2
1
l
7 1 A
2 2
2 a Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and
9 a loga 40 b loga 18 c logx 48 d logx 4 non-terminating decimal
e loga x f 1 g -1 h 7 b Rational, since can be expressed as a whole number
i
1
j
3
k -6 l - 3
1 c Rational, since given in a rational form
2 2
d Rational, since it is a recurring decimal
10 a B b B, D c A, B d C, D e Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and
11 a log2 80 b log3 105 c log10 100 = 2 non-terminating decimal
d log6 56 e log2 4 = 2 f log3 3 = 1 3 D
g log5 12.5 h log2 3 i log4 5
20 3 m 20
1
j log10. 4 k log3 4 l log2 3 4 a 2m , , m , 3 8m b 25m , ,
m 16 m
1
m log3 20 n log4 2 = 2 5 a 5 2 b 6 5 c 8 2 d 20 5
12 a C b B c A 6 C
13 a 12 (Evaluate each logarithm separately and then find 1
the product.) 7 a 72 x 3 y 4 2 xy b − x 2 y 5 xy
4
b 4 (First simplify the numerator by expressing 81 as a
power of 3.) 8 a 25 3 b 3ab ab
c 7 (Let y = 5log 7 and write an equivalent statement in
5
9 a 15 b 6 42 c 30 15 d 5
logarithmic form.)
Exercise 18H — Solving equations 10 a 27 b 720 2
1 a 25 b 81 c
1
d
1 11 a 3 b 6
8 16
e 100, -100 f 16 g 26 h 127 10 30 1
c or d 2
1 1 4 3 12
i 2 j 0 k - 32 l - 9
m -624 n -2.5 6 2
12 a b c 2 5 + 4 d 2 − 3
2 a 3 b 2 c 125 d 625 3 4
e 2 f 8 g 6 h 4 13 a 4 b 4.5 c 2.2 d 2.7
3 a 3 b 2 c -1 d -2 14 a 7.4 b 1.7 c 0.8 d 0.8
1 2
e 2
f 5
g 0 h 0 15 a 2 b 3 2 c 5 5 d 16
i -1 j -2 16 a 1 b 4
1 1 1 1
4 a 5 b 6 c 10 d 8 e 4 17 a b c d
4 9 16 1000
2
f 2 g 9 h 5
i 500 j 128 18 a 0.0833 b 0.0204 c 0.800 d 625
1 3 4
k 5 l 6 m 1 n 2 19 a 12 b 17 c 5 d 13
5 a B b A c D d B
6 a 7 b 2 c -2 d 0 e 4 20 B
21 A
1 1 3 1 3
f 2
g 2
h 2
i - 2 j 2
22 A
1 1
k
3
l - 2
5
m 2
5
n - 2
9
o - 4
11 23 a 2 2 b 2 4
4
7 a 3.459 b -0.737 c 2.727 d 0.483 24 a
1
b
1
c
1
d 2
2 9 64
e 1.292 f -3.080 g -1.756 h 0.262
i 0.827 j 0.579 k -0.423 l 2.138 25 a 2 b 1 c 8 d 2
3
8 a 120 b 130 c 0.001 26 a loga 24 b 2
d 3 dB are added.
c loga x2 or 2 loga x d -5
e 10 dB are added.
1
f 100 27 a 512 b 25
c 5
9 a i 1.1
d 2 e 6 f 0
iii 1.3
28 a 6 b 35
iii 1.418
1 5
iv 1.77 29 a -2 b - 2 c 2
iv 2.43 30 a 4.644 b -3.809 c 0.079
vi 3.1
b No; see answers to 9a i & ii above. Problem solving
c i 22 387 211 kJ 1 a 9
ii 707 945 784 kJ b 6
iii 22 387 211 385 kJ. c 0
872 Answers
2 a, b, c d 2x3 + 10x2 + 12x
y y = 4x e 48x - 3x3
y=x
f 5x3 + 50x2 + 80x
g x3 + 4x2
y = log4x h 2x3 - 14x2
1
y=0 i -30x3 - 270x2
0 1 x j -7x3 - 56x2 - 112x
4 a x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42 b x3 - 3x2 - 18x + 40
c x3 + 3x2 - 36x + 32 d x3 - 6x2 + 11x - 6
x=0 e x3 + 6x2 - x - 6 f x3 + 5x2 - 49x - 245
g x + 4x - 137x - 660 h x3 + 3x2 - 9x + 5
3 2
i x3 - 12x2 + 21x + 98 j x3 + x2 - x - 1
Chapter 19
5 a x + 13x + 26x - 112
3 2
Polynomials b 3x3 + 26x2 + 51x - 20

c 4x4 + 3x3 - 37x2 - 27x + 9
Are you ready? d 10x3 - 49x2 + 27x + 36
1 a x2 - 2x - 3 e -6x3 - 71x2 - 198x + 35
b x2 + 12x + 36 f 21x4 - 54x3 – 144x2 + 96x
c 6x2 + 7x - 20 g 54x3 + 117x2 - 72x
2 a 0 b 18 c -1 h 24x3 - 148x2 + 154x + 245
3 a (x - 2)(x + 3) i 20x4 – 39x3 - 50x2 + 123x - 54
b (x + 1)(x - 6) j 4x3 + 42x2 + 146x + 168
c (2x + 1)(x - 3) 6 a x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
4 a (x + 2)(x - 2) b x3 + 15x2 + 75x + 125
b (5 + x)(5 - x) c x3 - 3x2 + 3x - 1
c 3(x + 7)(x - 7) d x4 – 12x3 + 54x2 - 108x + 81
5 a x = -1 or 3 e 8x3 - 72x2 + 216x - 216
b x = -3 or 5 f 81x4 + 432x3 + 864x2 + 768x + 256
3
c x = 2 or 2 Exercise 19C — Long division of polynomials
1 a x2 + 2x, 9 b x2 + x + 3, -2
Exercise 19A — Polynomials c x2 + 3x - 6, 19 d x2 - x + 5, -17
1 a 3 b 7 c 2 d 6 e 8 e x2 + 2x - 1, 6 f x2 + 4x - 6, 14
f 5 g 5 h 1 i 6 g x2 + 1, 2 h x2 + 5, -36
2 a x b x c x d x e y i x2 - x + 6, -11 j x2 + 4x - 17, 87
f u g e h g i f 2 a x2 + 4x + 3, -3 b x2 + 4x + 13, 48
3 a Polynomial 1h c x2 + 3x - 3, -11 d x2 - 3x + 7, 5
b Polynomial 1c e x2 - 2x - 3, -17 f x2 - 6x + 3, -4
c Polynomial 1a g x2 + 14x + 72, 359 h x2 + 8x + 27, 104
d Polynomials 1a, 1d and 1e 3 a 3x - 7x + 20, -35
2
b 4x2 - 8x + 18, -22
4 a N b P c P d N e N c 2x2 - 3x + 3, 7 d 2x2 - 9, 35
f P g P h N i N e 4x + 2x - 3, -1
2
f 3x2 + x - 1, -2
5 a 3 b x c 4 d 5 e 3x 4 a 3x2 - 2x + 1, 5 b 2x2 + 5x - 6, -7
f -2x3 c 4x2 - 7x - 2, -3 d x2 - 4x + 3, 8
6 a 7 b w c 7 d 0 e -9 e x2 + x - 6, -11 f 3x2 + 2x + 1, 13
f 6w7 5 a -x2 - 5x - 2, -14 b -3x2 - 2x + 4, -3
7 a 4 b 1 c x4 d 1 c -x2 + 5x + 6, 9 d -2x2 + 7x - 1, 1
8 a 6 b t c 6 6 a x2 - x - 2, 3 b x2, -7
d, e Check with your teacher. c x - x - 2, -8
2
d -x2 - x - 8, 0
e 5x - 2, 7 f 2x2 - 2x + 10, -54
Exercise 19B — Adding, subtracting and g -2x - 4x - 9, -16
2
h -2x2 + 4x - 1, 1
7 a x3 + 2x2 + 5x - 2, - 2
Answers 18H ➜ 19D
multiplying polynomials
1 a x4 + 2x3 - x2 - 10 b x3 + 2x2 - 9x - 18, 0
b x6 + 2x4 - 3x3 + 9x2 + 5 c x4 - 3x3 + 6x2 - 18x + 58, -171
c 5x3 - 5x2 + 7x - 13 d 2x5 - 4x4 + 7x3 - 13x2 + 32x - 69, 138
d 2x4 + 3x3 + 12x2 - 4x + 14 e 6x3 + 17x2 + 53x + 155, 465
7 7 20 20
e x5 + 13x4 - 10 f x3 - 3 x2 + 9 x + 3 27 , –3 27
2 a x4 + 2x2 + 2x + 4
b x6 - x5 + x3 + x2 + 2 Exercise 19D — Polynomial values
c 5x7 - 4x3 + 5x 1 a 10 b 11
d 10x4 - 7x2 + 20x + 5 c 18 d 43
e 2x3 + 6x2 - 10x + 15 e 3 f -22
3 a x3 + 7x2 + 6x g -77 h 2a3 - 3a2 + 2a + 10
b x3 - 7x2 - 18x i 16b3 - 12b2 + 4b + 10 j 2x3 + 9x2 + 14x + 18
c x3 + 8x2 - 33x k 2x3 - 21x2 + 74x - 77 l –128y3 - 48y2 - 8y + 10
Answers 873
2 to 6
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Column 7 Column 8 Column 9
Rem when Rem when Rem when Rem when
divided by divided by divided by divided by
P(x) P(1) P(2) P(-1) P(-2) (x - 1) (x - 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
a 4 15 0 -5 4 15 0 -5
b 10 28 -2 -8 10 28 -2 -8
c 3 11 -7 -21 3 11 -7 -21
d -7 -19 5 -7 -7 -19 5 -7
1 1
7 a P(-8) b P(7) c P(a) g − 2 , 0, 2 h - 4 , 0 i 0, 5
Exercise 19E — The remainder and factor theorems j 0, 2, 3 k 0, 4 l -7, 0, 1

1 a -30 b 0 c 0 d -24 e -24 m 0, 4, 5 n 0
f k3 + 3k2 - 10k - 24 2 a -4, 1, 4 b -2, 3, 5 c -5, 1, 5
g -n3 + 3n2 + 10n - 24 d -4, -2, 2 e -1, 2, 3 f -2, 1, 5
h -27c3 + 27c2 + 30c - 24 g -3, -2, -1 h -4, 5 i -2, 1, 4
1 1 3
2 a 58 b -8 c 11 d -9 e -202 j -7, 2, 3 k -6, - 2 , -1 l - 2 , 2 , 3
f 6 g 158 h -6 i 35 j 441 1
3 a 6 b 3 c 1 d -2 e 2 m -3, -2, 2
n -2, -1, 1
f 2 g -5, 2 h a = -5, b = -3 3 A, C
4 a D b C, D c D d A, C, D 4 B
5 a (x - 1) 5 a -3, 2 b -2, 3, 6
1
b (x - 3) or (x - 2)
c (x - 3) or (x + 2) c -4, 2 d 1
3
d (x - 6) or (x + 4) or (x + 5) e -4, -2, 1, 3 f -2, - 2 , 3, 4
6 Show P(-2) = 0, P(3) = 0 and P(-5) = 0.
7 a Show P(1) = 0 b Show P(7) = 0 g -3, -2, 1, 2 h -4, -1, 0, 2
c Show P(2) = 0 d Show P(–2) = 0 6 a -2, 1, 4 b -3, -1, 3
e Show P(–3) = 0 f Show P(1) = 0 c -3, 0, 2 d -4, -3, 0, 2
3
g Show P(4) = 0 h Show P(–5) = 0 e -2, 2 , 2 f -1, 1
Exercise 19F — Factorising polynomials Chapter review
1 a (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 6) b (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5) Fluency
c (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 9) d (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 4) 1 C
e (x + 3)(x + 4)(x + 7) f (x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 7) 1
g (x + 1)2(x + 2) h (x + 2)2(x + 3) 2 a 5 b - 7
i (x + 4)(x + 5)2 j x(x + 5)(x + 8) c 3 d x5
k x(x + 3)(x + 4) l x(x + 5)2 3 C
m x(x + 1)(x + 5) n x2(x + 6) 4 C
2 a (x - 1)(x + 1)2 b (x - 2)(x - 1)(x + 1) 5 a x3 + 6x2 - 36x + 40 b x3 + 10x2 + 19x - 30
c (x + 1)2(x + 5) d (x - 3)(x + 2)2 c x3 - 21x2 + 147x - 343 d -2x3 - x2 + 11x + 10
e (x + 1)(x + 4) 2
f (x - 5)(x - 2)(x + 2) 6 a D
g (x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 2) h (x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) b A
i (x - 1)(x + 2)2 j (x + 2)(x2 - x + 3) 7 a x2 - 16, 29
k (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5) l (x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 3) b x2 + 6x + 5, 8
m (x - 2)2(x + 3) n (x - 4)(x + 5)(x + 8) c -x2 + 2x + 2, -9
3 a (2x + 3)(x - 1)(x + 2) b (3x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 4) 8 B
c (3x + 2)(x - 2)(x + 2) d (4x + 3)(x + 3)(x + 5) 9 a -4
e (5x - 1)(x + 1)2 f (x + 1)(x2 + 1) b 216
g (x + 1)(2x + 3)2 h (x - 2)(2x - 1)(3x - 4) c -24a3 + 8a2 + 2a - 4
i (x + 4)(2x - 5)(5x + 2) j (7x - 2)(x - 2)(x + 4) 10 -7
4 a x(x - 2)(3x + 5) b 2x(x + 1)(2x - 1) 11 Show P(-3) = 0.
c 3x(x - 4)(x + 2) d -2x(x + 3)2 12 (x - 10)(x + 4)(x + 10)
e 6x2(x - 1) f -x(x + 4)(x + 3) 1
13 a - 2 , 3
g -(x - 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) h -2x(x - 3)(x - 2)
i -(x + 2)(2x - 1)(3x - 2) b 2, 3, 4
j -(x - 2)2(5x - 4) c –2, 1, 2, 3
k -(x - 1)(x + 3)(x - 5)(x + 2)2
Problem solving
Exercise 19G — Solving polynomial equations 1 Teacher to check.
1 a -2, 0, 2 b -4, 0, 4 c -5, 0, 5 For example, given P(x) = x3 - x2 - 34x - 56 and
d 3 e -5, 0 f 0, 2 P(7) = 0 À (x - 7) is a factor and 7 is a factor of 56.
874 Answers
Chapter 20 5
6 a 3 b 3 c − 2x
x
Functions and relations
10 10 10
Are you ready? d − x2 e − x−3 f − x +1
1 a Gradient = 3, y-intercept = 4 x2 x+3 x −1
b Gradient = -2, y-intercept = 3 7 a 3 b -3 or 3 c
1
3
c Gradient = 25 , y-intercept = -4 d 2 or 3 e -4 or 1 f -1
2 a y b y 8 a f (x) ç Ñ b f (x) ç 0 c f (x) ç 0
y = -4x + 2
d f (x) ç -Ñ e f (x) ç 0
1 y = 2x + 1 2 2
9 a (0, -4), (2, 0) b (1, -2), (- 3 , 3)
1
-— 0 x 0 1
—
x c (2, 0), (-2, 0) d (3, -4)
2 2
Exercise 20B — Exponential functions

c y 1 a 2000 b 486 000
y=2 c N d 1.26 h
2 12 000 N = 2000 ì 3x
10 000
0 x 8 000
6 000
3 a y b y 4 000
y = x2 - 4 2 000
y = x2
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
(1,1)
-2 0 2 x 2 a $5000 b $7717
0 x -4
c A d 10 years
14 000
A = 5000 ì (1.075)n
12 000
c y d y
10 000
y= -2x 2
4 8 000
0 x y = (x - 2)2 6 000
(1, -2) 4 000
2 000
0 2 x
0 2 4 6 8 10 n
3 a C b D
4 a y = (x + 3)2 + 2 4 A
b y = (x - 2)2 - 5 5 B
1 9
c y = (x + 2 )2 - 4 6 a $883.50 b $821.66
5 a Parabola b Neither c V = 950 ì (0.93)n d $397.67
c Straight line d Parabola 7 a 102 mg
e Straight line f Neither b 86.7 mg
6 (4, 11) c A = 120 ì (0.85)t
7 a 81 b 3 d 83.927 mg
1 e A
c 1 d 27
140
120
100 A = 120 ì (0.85)t
Exercise 20A — Functions and relations 80
1 a One-to-many b Many-to-one 60
c Many-to-one d One-to-one 40
Answers 19E ➜ 20B
e One-to-one f Many-to-one 20
g Many-to-many h Many-to-one 0 50 200 t

i One-to-one j Many-to-one f Approximately 210 years
k Many-to-one l Many-to-one 8 a i 96.04% ii 90.39%
2 b, c, d, e, f, h, i, j, k, l b C = 100(0.98)w
3 a i 1 ii 7 iii –5 iv 16 c C
b i 2 ii 1 iii 3 iv 0 100 C = 100 ì (0.98)w
80
c i 3 ii 2 iii 6 iv 9
60
d i 9 ii 1 iii 16 iv a2 + 6a + 9 40
e i 12 ii 6 iii -4 iv 2 20
4 A, C, D 0 5 10 15 20 w
5 a, b, c, f d 8 washings
Answers 875
9 a 118 (million) y y
k l
b a = 1.02; P = 118 ì (1.02)n 50
0 3 6 x
c Year 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Population 118 130 144 159 175
Calculated population is less accurate after 10 years.
d 288 (million) -54 0 x
10 a 32 b 0.98 c T = 32 ì (0.98)t -5 -2
d 26.1, 21.4, 17.5, 14.3; values are close except for t = 40.
2 a y b y
11 a 3 dogs b 27 dogs c 3 years 30
12 a i 39.85 mg ii 18.43 mg -7 0 1 2 x
-14
b More than 35.78 centuries
13 a A = 20 000 ì 1.06x b 30000 Investment ($)
c 7 years 25000
d 6 years — 1 year 20000
15000
quicker 10000 -5 -3 0 2 x
e 9.05% p.a. 5000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 c y d y
Years -6 0 2 x
14 a Approximately 20 200
b, c Teacher to check. -8 - 3– 0 8 x -24
2
15 a a = 100, b = 1.20, increase = 20%/min
-192
b N = 146 977 ì 0.70m
Exercise 20C — Cubic functions
1 a y b y
30 y
e y f
12
0 x
1 2 3
-1 0 2 x
-6
-2 0 3 5 x
c y d y -3 -2 0 1 x
108
g y h y
-6 -1 0 7 x
-42 150 0 x
4
-9 -4 -3 0 x -1
-10 -5 0 x
y y
e f 12
-8 -1 11
0 x y y
-88 i j 5–
3
- 9– 0 1 x
2
-45
-1 0 2 3 x
g y h y
-8 0 x
-6
60 0 5 x
- 7–
3 y y
k l
5– -210
2
-4 0 3 x
i j y 0 x
y
7 - 3–
7
12 3–
4 -7 0 1– x
x 6
- 1– 0 4
2
3 C
-2 - 1– 0
2
1–
2
x 4 C
-2 5 B
6 D
876 Answers
Exercise 20D — Quartic functions Exercise 20E — Transformations
1 a y b y 1 y
y = 2P(x)
24 y = P(x)
10
y = P(x) + 1
y = P(x) - 2
x x
-3 -1 0 2 4 -2-10 1 5
0 x
c y d y
y = -P(x)
32
x
-5 -2 0 3 2 y
y = P(x) + 1
x
-4 -2 0 1 2
y = P(x + 2) y = P(x)
e y f y
0 x
4 -1 1
- 3
x
-3 -1 0 3
y = -P(x)
-9 0 x
- 2 2 3 They have the same x-intercepts, but y = -P(x) is a
reflection of y = P(x) in the x-axis.
g y h y 4 They have the same x-intercepts, but the y-values in
36 y = 2P(x) are all twice as large.
5 The entire graph is moved down 2 units. The shape is
0 x
2 5– 3 identical.
2 x
-3 - 3–2 0 2–
3 2 6 a y = -P(x)
b y = P(x) - 3
c y = 2P(x)
2 a D
b B Chapter review
3 a y b y Fluency
1 a
-3 -2 0 2
x 2 a, c, d
3 a 2
b 3
0 x -24 c 0
1 (3, -30) y
4 a
c y d (-2, 400) y 6
400
300
200
-2 0 1 3 x
0 x
-1 1 100
(-1, 36)
y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x - 3)
0 1 x
-2 -1 2 3
b y
e y f y
25
Answers 20C ➜ 20E
−1 0 2 x
y = (2x + 1)(x + 5)2
-3 0 3 x
-5 - —
1 0 x
2
(-2, -16) −16 -27
g y h y
5 Check with your teacher. Possible answer is
(-3, 6) -2 0 2 x y = (x - 1)(x - 2)2.
0 x 6 a D
-2 3
b A
-24 c E
(-3, -45) d C
e B
4 a = 4, b = -19 7 D
5 a = 3, b = -1 8 A
Answers 877
9 a y d Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20
e No
f No. The line T = 0 is an asymptote.
-11 2 x
Chapter 21
b y
Circle geometry
Are you ready?
1 a True
8 b SSS (all corresponding sides equal in length), SAS
(two corresponding sides equal in length, included
angle equal), ASA (two angles equal, one pair of
-8 1 x
corresponding sides equal in length), RHS (right-
c y angled triangles with the hypotenuses and one other
pair of corresponding sides equal in length)
c AC is common.
±BAC = ±DAC (given)
AB = AD (given)
1– x DABC ô DADC (SAS)
2 2 a RP b BC
c ±RQP d ±BAC
3 a False. Sides may be different.
10 D b AAA or equiangular (all corresponding angles
11 A equal), SSS (all corresponding sides in same ratio),
12 y SAS (two pairs of corresponding sides in same ratio
and included angle equal), RHS (both right-angled
0 x
-1 2 4 triangles with the hypotenuses and one other pair of
corresponding sides in same ratio)
c ±QPR is common.
-16 ±PQR = ±PST (corresponding angles are equal as
QR || ST)
13 y ±PRQ = ±PTS (corresponding angles are equal as
QR || ST)
DPQR ~ DPST (equiangular)
4 a a = 84è b b = 88è
c c = 75è
0 x 5 a x = 62è b a = 77è, b = 103è
-1 1 c y = 45è
Exercise 21A — Angles in a circle
1 a x = 30è (theorem 2)
14 The entire graph is moved up 3 units. The shape is b x = 25è, y = 25è (theorem 2 for both angles)
identical. c x = 32è (theorem 2)
d x = 40è, y = 40è (theorem 2 for both angles)
Problem solving
e x = 60è (theorem 1)
1 a x = ê 3 b x = 23
1
c x = 28 f x = 40è (theorem 1)
g x = 84è (theorem 1)
2 As x ç Ñ, f (x) ç -Ñ h x = 50è (theorem 2); y = 100è (theorem 1)
As x ç -Ñ, f (x) ç 0 i x = 56è (theorem 1)
3 (2, 0) 2 a s = 90è, r = 90è (theorem 3 for both angles)
4 a 52.67 mg/L b 31.524 mg/L c 72.4 mg/L b u = 90è (theorem 4); t = 90è (theorem 3)
5 a 500 èC b 125 èC c m = 90è, n = 90è (theorem 3 for both angles)
c Between 5 and 6 hours once it has cooled to d x = 52è (theorem 3 and angle sum in a triangle = 180è)
below 15 èC e x = 90è (theorem 4)
d T = 50 ì 2x e 3200 èC f x = 90è (theorem 4); y = 15è (angle sum in a
6 a i 20 ii 25 triangle = 180è)
b i H = 25; D = 28 ii H = 28; D = 30 3 a x = z = 90è (theorem 4); y = w = 20è (theorem 5 and
c Hyenas after 3 years; dingoes after 4 years angle sum in a triangle = 180è)
d After about 23 months; 31 animals b s = r = 90è (theorem 4); t = 140è (angle sum in a
7 a T = 45 ì 0.95t quadrilateral = 360è)
b 45 èC c x = 20è (theorem 5); y = z = 70è (theorem 4 and angle
c 10 èC sum in a triangle = 180è)
878 Answers
d s = y = 90è (theorem 4); x = 70è (theorem 5); Exercise 21D — Tangents, secants and chords
r = z = 20è (angle sum in a triangle = 180è) 1 a x = 70è
e x = 70è (theorem 4 and angle sum in a b x = 47è, y = 59è
triangle = 180è); y = z = 20è (angle sum in a 2 a p = 6
triangle = 180è) b q = 8
f x = y = 75è (theorem 4 and angle sum in a 3 x = 42è, y = 132è
triangle = 180è); z = 75è (theorem 1) 4 MAC, NAC, FDA, FBA, EDG, EBG
4 D 5 B
5 B, D 6 D
6 a Base angles of a right-angled isosceles triangle 7 x = 42è, y = 62è
b r + s = 90è, s = 45è À r = 45è 8 Answers will vary.
c u is the third angle in DABD, which is right-angled. 9 60è
d m is the third angle in DOCD, which is right-angled. 10 x = 180è - a - b
e ±AOC and ±AFC stand on the same arc with ±AOC 11 x = 80è, y = 20è, z = 80è
at the centre and ±AFC at the circumference. 12 Answers will vary.
7 OR = OP (radii of the circle) 13 x = 85è, y = 20è, z = 85è
±OPR = x (equal angles lie opposite equal sides) 14 D
±SOP = 2x (exterior angle equals the sum of the two 15 x = 50è, y = 95è
interior opposite angles) 16 A
OR = OQ (radii of the circle) 17 C
±OQR = y (equal angles lie opposite equal sides) 18 x = 33è, y = 55è, z = 22è
±SOQ = 2y (exterior angle equals the sum of the two 19 x = 25è, y = 65è, z = 40è
interior opposite angles) 20 x = a, y = 90è - a, z = 90è - 2a
Now ±PRQ = x + y and ±POQ = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y). 21 Check with your teacher.
Therefore ±POQ = 2 ì ±PRQ.
8 Check with your teacher. Chapter review
9 Check with your teacher. Fluency
10 Check with your teacher. 1 a x = 50è b x = 48è, y = 25è
c x = y = 28è, z = 56è d x = 90è
Exercise 21B — Intersecting chords, secants and e y = 90è f x = 140è
tangents g x = 55è h x = 125è
1 a m = 3 b m = 3 i x = 70è j x = 100è
c m = 6 k m = 40è l x = 90è, y = 60è,
2 a n = 1 b m = 7.6 z = 40è
c n = 13 d m = 4 2 a x = 90è b x = 20è
3 a x = 5 b m = 7 c x = 55è d x = 125è
c x = 2.5, y = 3.1 3 a m = 3 b m = 12
4 a x = 2.8 b x = 3.3 c m = 9 d m = 11.7
c x = 5.6 d m = 90è 4 A, B, D 5 A, B, C
5 B, C, D 6 CE ì ED = AE ì EB
6 ST = 3 cm AE = CE (given)
7 Check with your teacher. \ ED = EB
8 Check with your teacher. 7 ±AYC = ±AXC
±BXD = ±BYD
Exercise 21C — Cyclic quadrilaterals But ±AXC = ±BXD
1 a x = 115è, y = 88è À ±AYC = ±BYD
b m = 85è 8 ±PQT & ±PST, ±PTS & ±RQS, ±TPQ & ±QSR,
c n = 25è ±QPS & ±QTS, ±TPS & TQS, ±PQS & ±PTS, ±PUT
d x = 130è & ±QUS, ±PUQ & TUS
e x = y = 90è
9 a x = 95è, y = 80è
f x = 45è, y = 95è
b x = 99è
Answers 21A ➜ 21D
2 a x = 85è, y = 80è
c x = 78è, y = 92è
b x = 110è, y = 115è
d x = 97è, y = 92è
c x = 85è
10 D
d x = 150è
e x = 90è, y = 120è Problem solving
f m = 120è, n = 130è 1 a x = 42è
3 D b y = 62è
4 a 2x c p = 65è
b 360è - 2x 2 a x = 5
c 180è - x b k = 12
d 180è c m = 6, n = 6
5 a A d x = 7
b A, B, C, D e b = 4, a = 2
6 Check with your teacher. f w = 3, x = 5
Answers 879
Chapter 22 Exercise 22C — Area of triangles
1 12.98
Trigonometry II 2 38.14
Are you ready? 3 212.88
1 a 4 A = 32è4Å, B = 99è56Å, area = 68.95 cm2
5 A = 39è50Å, B = 84è10Å, area = 186.03 m2
Hypotenuse
Opposite 6 A = 125è14Å, C = 16è46Å, area = 196.03 mm2
7 C
q 8 14.98 cm2
Adjacent 9 570.03 mm2
b 10 2.15 cm2
q
Hypotenuse 11 B
Adjacent 12 3131.41 mm2
13 610.38 cm2
Opposite 14 a 187.5 cm2

b 15.03 cm
2 a 0.39 b 0.68 c 0.36
c 187.47 cm2
3 a 3.4 cm b 38.5 cm
15 17 goldfish
4 a 60è b 60è c 45è
16 22.02 m2
5 a 36è52 b 58è13Å
17 a Area = 69.63 cm2
Exercise 22A — The sine rule b Dimensions are 12.08 cm and 6.96 cm.
1 44è58Å, 77è2Å, 13.79 18 17 kg
2 39è18Å, 38è55Å, 17.21 19 52.2 hectares
3 70è, 9.85, 9.4 20 175 m3
21 C
4 33è, 38.98, 21.98
5 19.12 22 B
6 C = 51è, b = 54.66, c = 44.66
7 A = 60è, b = 117.11, c = 31.38 Exercise 22D — The unit circle
8 B = 48è26Å, C = 103è34Å, c = 66.26; or B = 131è34Å, 1 a 1st b 2nd c 4th d 3rd
C = 20è26Å, c = 23.8 e 2nd f 3rd g 4th h 4th
9 24.17 2 A
10 B, C 3 D
11 A = 73è15Å, b = 8.73; or A = 106è45Å, b = 4.12 4 a 0.35 b 0.95 c -0.17 d 0.99
12 51.9 or 44.86 e -0.64 f 0.77 g -0.57 h -0.82
13 C = 110è, a = 3.09, b = 4.64 5 a 1 b 0 c 0 d -1
14 B = 38è, a = 3.36, c = 2.28 e -1 f 0 g 0 h 1
15 B = 33è33Å, C = 121è27Å, c = 26.24; or B = 146è27Å, 6 a 0.87 b 0.50
C = 8è33Å, c = 4.57 7 a 30è
16 43.62 m b -0.87
17 a 6.97 m b 4 m c cos 150è = -cos 30è
18 a 13.11 km b N20è47ÅW d 0.5
19 a 8.63 km b 6.48 km/h c 9.90 km e sin 150è = sin 30è
20 22.09 km from A and 27.46 km from B 8 a 30è
21 C b -0.87
22 B c cos 210è = -cos 30è
23 Yes, she needs 43 m altogether. d -0.50
e sin 210è = -sin 30è
Exercise 22B — The cosine rule 9 a 30è
1 7.95 b 0.87
2 55.22 c cos 330è = cos 30è
3 23.08, 41è53Å, 23è7Å d -0.50
4 28è57Å e sin 330è = -sin 30è
5 88è15Å 10 a 0.34 b 0.94
6 A = 61è15Å, B = 40è, C = 78è45Å c 0.36 d 0.36
7 2218 m e They are equal.
8 a 12.57 km b S35è1ÅE 11 a 0.71 b -0.71
9 a 35è6Å b 6.73 m2 c -1 d -1
10 23è e They are equal. f tan 135è = -tan 45è
11 89.12 m 12 a -0.64 b -0.77
12 a 130 km b S22è12ÅE c 0.84 d 0.83
13 28.5 km e They are approx. equal. f tan 220è = tan 40è
14 74.3 km 13 a -0.87 b 0.5
15 70è49Å c -1.73 d -1.74
16 a 8.89 m b 77è c x = 10.07 m e They are approx. equal. f tan 300è = -tan 60è
17 1.14 km/h 14 D
880 Answers
Exercise 22E — Trigonometric functions
1 x 0è 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è 210è 240è 270è 300è 330è 360è
sin x 0 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.87 -1 -0.87 -0.5 0
x 390è 420è 450è 480è 510è 540è 570è 600è 630è 660è 690è 720è
sin x 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.87 -1 -0.87 -0.5 0
2 y
y = sin x
14 The graph would continue repeating every 180è as above.
1 15 Quite different. y = tan x has undefined values
(asymptotes) and repeats every 180è rather than 360è. It
0 x also gives all y values, rather than just values between –1
90è
180è
270è
360è
450è
540è
630è
720è
and 1.
–1 16 a 1.7 b –1 c –1.2 d 0.8
e –0.8 f 1.2 g –0.2 h 1
3 360è 17 a 45è, 225è, 405è, 585è
4 a 0.7 b 0.8 c 0.35 d -0.35 b 56è, 236è, 416è, 596è
e 0 f 0.9 g -0.2 h -0.9 c 158è, 338è, 518è, 698è
5 a 64è, 116è, 424è, 476è b 244è, 296è, 604è, 656è d 117è, 297è, 477è, 657è
c 44è, 136è, 404è, 496è d 210è, 330è, 570è, 690è e 11è, 191è, 371è, 551è
e 233è, 307è, 593è, 667è f 24è, 156è, 384è, 516è f 135è, 315è, 495è, 675è
18 a y
6 See the table at the bottom of the page*. y = cos x
1
7 y
y = cos x
1
x
-180è -90è 90è 180è
0 x -1
90è
180è
270è
360è
450è
540è
630è
720è
–1
b y
y = sin x
8 The graph would continue with the cycle. 1
9 It is a very similar graph with the same shape; however,
the sine graph starts at (0, 0), whereas the cosine graph x
starts at (0, 1). 180è 360è 540è 720è
10 a 0.7 b -0.98 c -1 d 0.9 -1
e -0.5 f -0.8 g 0.8 h -0.96
11 a 120è, 240è, 480è, 600è
b 37è, 323è, 397è, 683è c y
y = sin 2x
c 46è, 314è, 406è, 674è 1
d 127è, 233è, 487è, 593è
e 26è, 334è, 386è, 694è 90è 180è 270è 360è
x
f 154è, 206è, 514è, 566è
-1
12 See the table at the bottom of the page**.
13 y = tan x
d y
y = 2 cos x
y 2
180è 360è 540è 720è

x
0º x -360è -270è -180è -90è
-2
90è 270è 450è 630è

Answers 22A ➜ 22E
6 *
x 0è 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è 210è 240è 270è 300è 330è 360è
cos x 1 0.87 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.87 -1 -0.87 -0.5 0 0.5 0.87 1
x 390è 420è 450è 480è 510è 540è 570è 600è 630è 660è 690è 720è
cos x 0.87 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.87 -1 -0.87 -0.5 0 0.5 0.87 1
12 **
x 0è 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è 210è 240è 270è 300è 330è 360è
tan x 0 0.58 1.73 undef. -1.73 -0.58 0 0.58 1.73 undef. -1.73 -0.58 0
x 390è 420è 450è 480è 510è 540è 570è 600è 630è 660è 690è 720è
tan x 0.58 1.73 undef. -1.73 -0.58 0 0.58 1.73 undef. -1.73 -0.58 0
Answers 881
19 a i 360è ii 1 23 a y
b i 360è ii 1 2 y = cos x + 1
c i 180è ii 1 1
d i 360è ii 2
20 a i 180è ii 3 x
-1 90è 180è 270è 360è
b i 120è ii 4 -2
c i 720è ii 2
1
d i 1440è ii
2
b y
e i 360è ii 1
f i 180è ii 1 x
-1 90è 180è 270è 360è
21 a C
b A -2
-3
c D y = sin 2x - 2
-4
22 a y Period = 1080è
2 y = 2 cos –x Amplitude = 2
3 c y
x 1 y = cos (x - 60è)
540è 1080è
-2
x
120è 240è 360è
-1
b y y = -3 sin 2x Period = 180è
3 Amplitude = 3
y
d y = 2sin 4x + 3
90è 180è 270è 360è x 5
4
-3
3
2
1
c y Period = 720è x
90è 180è 270è 360è
3 Amplitude = 3
y = 3 sin –2x
0 x 24 a y
y = cos 2x
-180è -90è 90è 180è
1
-3
x
180è 360è
d y Period = 120è -1
y = -cos 3x
1 Amplitude = 1
x
i –1 ii 1
120è 240è 360è b i 3 ii 1
-1 c Max value of sin x = 1, hence max value of
y=2ì1+3=5
Min value of sin x = -1, hence min value of
e y Period = 180è y = 2 ì -1 + 3 = 1

y = 5cos 2x
Amplitude = 5 25 a
5 x 0 30è 60è 90è 120è 150è 180è
3 3
x y 0 3 undef − 3 − 0
180è 3 3
-5
b y
y = tan x
y
f y = -sin 4x Period = 90è x
90è 180è
1 Amplitude = 1
x
90è 180è
c At x = 90è, y is undefined.
-1
d x = 270è
e The period = 180è, amplitude is undefined.
882 Answers
26 a y y = tan 2x 4 3.6 cm
5 34è
6 94è56Å
7 a 159.10 cm2 b 17.68 cm c 159.09 cm2
x
90è 180è 8 4th quadrant
9 a 0.94, -0.34 b -2.75
10 B
11 tan 53è
b c = 45è and x = 135è 12 y
c Period = 90è and amplitude is undefined. y = sinx
1
Exercise 22F — Solving trigonometric equations
1 Calculator answers 0 x
90è
180è
270è
360è
450è
iii 25.84è, 334.16è –1
iii 72.54è, 287.46è
iii 101.54è, 258.46è
iv 126.87è, 233.13è 13 y
2 a 30è, 150è b 60è, 120è y = cosx
c 120è, 240è d 135è, 225è 1
e 90è f 180è
g 210è, 330è h 225è, 315è 0 x
90è
180è
270è
360è
450è
i 30è, 330è j 150è, 210è –1
k 90è l 90è, 270è
3 a 30è, 60è, 210è, 240è
b 75è, 105è, 255è, 285è
c 15è, 75è, 195è, 255è, 375è, 435è, 555è, 615è 14 y = tan x
d -165è, -135è, -45è, -15è, 75è, 105è
y
e 52.5è, 82.5è, 142.5è, 172.5è
f -165è, -135è, -45è, -15è, 75è, 105è
180è 360è
g 45è
0è x
h 30è, 90è, 150è, 210è, 270è, 330è
4 a 30è, 150è
b 30è, 330è 90è 270è
c 45è, 315è
d 225è, 315è 15 B
5 a
3.0 y
2.6 m • • x
2.5 •
• A 46è
• • 68è
Depth (m)
2.0 1.05 m
• • • C
1.5 • 1.55 m 16 a Period = 120è, amplitude = 2
• b Period = 180è, amplitude = 3
1
ö 12–2 hours • 1.05 m
c Period = 180è, amplitude = 0.5
1.0 • 17 a y
•
• •
2
0.5 0.5 m 1 y = 2sin x
x
-1 180è 360è
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -2
Answers 22F ➜ 22F
am pm
Time (hours)
1 b y
b i 12 2 h ii 1.05 m y = cos 2x
1
c 10.00 am, 10.30 pm, 11.00 am, 11.30 pm,
noon
x
d Until 2.15 am; from 8.15 am to 2.45 pm; -180è 180è
after 8.45 pm -1
Chapter review
Fluency 18 a x = 191.54, 348.46
1 14.2 cm b x = 22.79, 157.21, 202, 79, 337.21
2 20è31Å c x = 88.09, 271.91
3 b = 22.11 m, c = 5.01 m, C = 10è d x = 7.24, 172.76, 187.24, 352.76
Answers 883
19 a 210è, 330è Problem solving
b 30è, 330è 1 3.9 m
c 45è, 315è 2 a 7.3 km b 281è57ÅT
d 45è, 135è 3 a
20 E t V
21 a y
0.000 0
x
-1 180è 360è 0.005 240
-2
-3 0.010 0
-4
-5
0.015 -240
y = 2sin 2x - 3
0.020 0
b Period = 180è, amplitude = 2 0.025 240
22 a y
y = 2cos 2x
i Period = 180è
2 ii Amplitude = 2 0.030 0
0.035 -240
x
180è 360è 0.040 0
-2
V (Volts)
b y
y = 3sin 4x
i Period = 90è 240
3 ii Amplitude = 3 .010 .020 .030 .040
t (second)
.005 .015 .035
x -240
90è 180è
-3
b Maximum voltage occurs at t = 0.005 s, 0.025 s
c 0.02 s
c y i Period = 120è d 50 cycles per second
y = -2cos 3x
2 ii Amplitude = 2
Chapter 23
x
-60è 60è
-2
Interpreting data
Are you ready?
1 a -6 b 4 c 3
d y i Period = 180è
y = 4sin 2x 2 a i y = 2 ii x = 3
4 ii Amplitude = 4 b i y = -3 ii x = 9
−3
c i y = ii x = 2
-90è 90è
x 2
3 a y = -2x + 4
-4 b y = 4x - 5
2 5
c y = − x −
23 a 15è, 165è, 195è, 345è 3 3
b -70è, 10è, 50è 4 a 1 b 2 c -1
c 112.5è, 157.5è, 292.5è, 337.5è 5 a 5
b 7
c −1
d 15è, 105è, 135è 2 3 4
e 0, 45è, 90è, 135è, 180è 6 a y
f 45è, 135è, 225è, 315è 4
5y - 4x = 20
24 a 60, 300 b 240, 300
c 45, 315 d 225, 315 -5 0 x
25 y y = tan 2x
b y
x 4y - 2x = 5
90è 180è
1 1–4
-2 1–2 0 x
Period = 90, amplitude is undefined.

Asymptotes are at x = 45è and x = 135è.
884 Answers
c y 5 a
420
400
380
360
-3 0 x 340
Price ($1000)
320
-4 300
280
3y + 4x = -12 260
240
220
Exercise 23A — Bivariate data 200
1 Independent Dependent 180
a Number of hours Test results 160
140
b Rainfall Attendance
c Hours in gym Visits to the doctor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of bedrooms
d Lengths of essay Memory taken
e Cost of care Attendance b Moderate positive linear correlation. There is evidence
f Age of property Cost of property to show that the larger the number of bedrooms, the
g Number of applicants Cut-off OP score higher the price of the house.
h Running speed Heart rate c Various answers; location, age, number of people
2 interested in the house, and so on.
4.6
6 a
100
4.4 90
4.2
Total score (%)

80
4.0 70
3.8 60
3.6 50
3.4
Cost ($1000)
40
3.2 30
3.0 20
2.8 10
2.6 0
2.4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.2 Number of questions completed
2.0
1.8 b Strong, positive, linear correlation
1.6 c Various answers — some students are of different
1.4
ability levels and they may have attempted the
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 questions but had incorrect answers.
Number of guests
7 a
Number of accidents
3 a Perfectly linear, positive 6

5
b No correlation 4
c Non-linear, negative, moderate 3
2
d Strong, positive, linear 1
e No correlation 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
f Non-linear, positive, strong Number of lessons
g Perfectly linear, negative
h Moderate negative, linear b Weak, negative, linear relation
i Weak, negative, linear c Various answers, such as some drivers are better than
j Non-linear, moderate, positive others, live in lower traffic areas, traffic conditions etc.
k Positive, moderate, linear 8 a T b F c T d F e T
l Non-linear, strong, negative 9 B
m Strong, negative, linear 10 C
n Weak, positive, linear 11 D
o Non-linear, moderate, positive
4 a Exercise 23B — Lines of best fit
Answers 23A ➜ 23B
12 Note: Answers may vary depending on the line of best fit

11 drawn.
10 1 a, b P
Number of bags sold
9 14
8 13
7 12
6 11
5 10
Petrol used (L)
4 9
3 8
2 7
1 6
5
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 4
Cost ($) 3
2
b Negative, linear, moderate. The price of the bag 1
0
appeared to affect the numbers sold; that is, the more 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 d
expensive the bag, the fewer sold. Distance travelled (km)
Answers 885
c Using (23, 3) and (56, 8), the equation is b M = 0.247t - 6.408
5 16 c With every week of gestation the mass of the baby
P = d − . increases by 247 g.
33 33
2 a, b E d 3.719 kg; 3.966 kg
130 e 1.002 kg
120
110
f 36 weeks
100 7 a r = 0.9
90 b There is a strong positive relationship between
Earnings ($)
80
70 the number of hours spent studying and the
60 marks obtained. This seems to indicate that,
50
40 greater dedication to studying will produce better
30 results.
20
10 8 a M
18
0 17
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 h
Hours worked 16
15
c Using (8, 47) and (12, 74), the equation is 14
13
E = 6.75h - 7. 12
d On average, students were paid $6.75 per hour.
Mass (g)
11
3 a 38 b 18 10
9
4 a i 460 ii 290 iii 130 8
b i 39 ii 24 iii 6 7
6
c y = -11.71x + 548.57 5
d y-values: 4
3
i 466.60 ii 290.95 iii 127.01 2
x-values: 1
i 36.60 ii 24.64 iii 5.86 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516 d
Day
5 a C
165
160 b M = 0.973d + 1.285
155 c Each day Rachel’s crystal gains 0.973 g in mass.
150
145 d 7.123 g; 8.096 g; 13.934 g; 14.907 g; interpolation
140 (within the given range of 1–16)
135
e 17.826 g; 18.799 g; predictions are not reliable, since
Cost of food ($)
130
125 they were obtained using extrapolation.
120
115
9 a D
110 b C
105
100
10 E
95
90
85
Exercise 23C — Time series
80 1 a Linear, downward
75
70
b Non-linear, upward
n
c Non-linear, stationary in the mean
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of people d Linear, upward
e Non-linear, downward
b Using (1, 75) and (5, 150), the equation is f Non-linear, stationary in the mean
C = 18.75n + 56.25. g Non-linear, stationary in the mean
c On average, weekly cost of food increases by $18.75 h Linear, upward
for every extra person.
2 a May temperature
d i $206.25 ii $225.00 iii $243.75 18.0
17.8
6 a M
3.6
17.6
17.4
3.4 17.2
17.0
3.2 16.8
Temperature (èC)
3.0 16.6
2.8 16.4
16.2
2.6
Mass (kg)
16.0
2.4 15.8
2.2 15.6
15.4
2.0 15.2
1.8 15.0
1.6 14.8
14.6
1.4 14.4
1.2 14.2
1.0 14.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 t Day
Weeks
Positive, strong, linear correlation b Linear downward trend
886 Answers
3 a 130
b Yes, the graph shows an upward trend.
125 4 45
120 c y = x +
115 7 7
110
105
d i 15
ii 18 (The assumption made was that business will
Sales (ì $1000)
100
95 continue on a linear upward trend.)
90
85 8 The trend is non-linear, therefore unable to forecast
80 future sales.
75
70
65
60 Chapter review
55
50 Fluency
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Quarter
1 a Number of questions — independent; mark on a test
2006 2007 2008 2009 Year — dependent
b Sheepskin products more popular in the third quarter b
100
(presumably winter) — discount sales, increase in 90
sales, and so on. 80
c No trend 70
Test result
4 a 100 60
95 50
90 40
85 30
Revenue ($1000)
80 20
75 10
70 0
65 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
60 Number of questions
55
50 c Strong, positive, linear correlation; the larger the
45 number of completed revision questions, the higher
40
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Month the mark on the test.
2007 2008 2009 Year d Different abilities of the students
b General upward trend with peaks around December 2 a i 12.5 ii 49
and troughs around April. b i 12 ii 22.5
c Peaks around Christmas where people have lots of 22 7
parties, troughs around April where weather gets c y = x −
15 3
colder and people less inclined to go out.
d Yes. Peaks in December, troughs in April. d i 12.33 ii 49
5 a Peaks around Christmas holidays and a minor peak at and
Easter. No camping in colder months. i 11.82 ii 22.05
b Check with your teacher. 3 a Linear downwards
6 a 120 b The trend is linear.
110
c About 65 occupants
100 d Assumes that the current trend will continue.
90
80
4 a P = 31.82a + 13 070.4, where P is the sale price and a
Enrolment
70 is the land area.

60 b The price of land is approximately $31.82 per square
50
40 metre.
30 c $64 000
20
10
d 1160 m2
0 5 a C = 0.15p + 11.09, where C is the money spent
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Year at the canteen and p represents the pocket money
Answers 23C ➜ 23C
Upward linear received.

b In 15th year the expected amount = 122 b Students spend 15 cents at the canteen per dollar
7 a 14 received for pocket money.
13
c $18
Number of children
12 (8, 11)
d $26. This involves extrapolation which is considered
11 unreliable. It does not seem reasonable that, if a
10 student receives more money, they will eat more or
9 have to purchase more than any other student.
8
(1, 7) 6 a P = 0.91t + 2.95, where P is the number of pirouettes
7 and t is the number of hours of training.
6
b Ballet students can do approximately 0.91 pirouettes
June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May for each hour of training.
Month c Approximately 15 pirouettes
Answers 887
d Approximately 30 pirouettes. This estimate is based b
8
on extrapolation which is considered unreliable. To
Best jump (metres)

7
model this data linearly as the number of hours of 6
training becomes large is unrealistic. 5
7 About 170 cm; Data was first plotted as a scatter plot. 4
(145, 160) was identified as an outlier and removed 3
from the data set. A line of best fit was then fitted to 2
1
the remaining data and its equation determined as
d = 0.5h + 80, where d is the distance stretched and h is 0 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
the height. Substitution was used to obtain the estimate. Age
The estimation requires extrapolation and cannot be c B
considered reliable. The presence of the outlier may 8
Best jump (metres)

indicate variation in flexibility rather than a strong linear 7
correlation between the data. Estimate is based on a small 6
5
set of data. More data should be collected in order to
4
determine the suitability of least squares regression. 3
2
Problem solving
1
1 a L
0 a
39 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
38
37 Age
36
35
34
33 d Yes. Using points (9, 4.85) and (16, 7.24),
32
B = 0.341a + 1.781; estimated best jump = 8.6 m.
Length (cm)
31
30
29 e No, trends work well over the short term but long term
28
27 are affected by other variables.
26
25 f 24 years old: 9.97 m; 28 years old: 11.33 m. It is
24
23 unrealistic to expect his jumping distance to increase
22 indefinitely.
21
20 g Equal first
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920 n 3 a Outliers can unfairly skew data and as such
Week dramatically alter the line of best fit. Identify and
remove any outliers from the data before determining
b L = 1.062n + 19.814
the line of best fit.
c 25.124 cm; 27.248 cm; 29.372 cm; 31.496 cm;
32.558 cm; 35.774 cm; 36.806 cm; 38.93 cm;
b Extrapolation involves making estimates outside the
data range and this is considered unreliable. When
39.992 cm
extrapolation is required, consider the data and
d Interpolation (within the given range of 1–20)
the likelihood that the data would remain linear if
e 42.116 cm; 43.178 cm; 44.24 cm
extended. When giving results, make comment on the
f Not reliable, because extrapolation has been used.
validity of the estimation.
2 a
8 c A small range may not give a fair indication if a data
Best jump (metres)
7 set shows a strong linear correlation. Try to increase

6 the range of the data set by taking more measurements
5
4
or undertaking more research.
3 d A small number of data points may not be able to
2 establish with confidence the existence of a strong
1 linear correlation. Try to increase the number of data
0 points by taking more measurements or undertaking
1 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Age
more research.
888 Answers
Glossary
2-dimensional: a description of a plane shape. The Area: the amount of flat surface enclosed by the shape. It is
dimensions are given in two directions, such as length and measured in square units, such as square metres, m2, or
width or length and height. square kilometres, km2.
3-dimensional: a shape that occupies space (a solid). That Area of triangle (using sin): if the perpendicular height of a
is, one that has dimensions in three directions — length, triangle is not known, but two sides and the included angle
width and height. are known, the area of any triangle ABC can be calculated
Addition law of probability: if A and B are mutually using the rule:
exclusive events, then P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) or 1 1 1
Area = ab sin C, Area = ac sin B or Area = bc sin A
P(A ß B) = P(A) + P(B) 2 2 2
Adjacent angles: angles at a point that share a common ray B
and a common vertex
A c
a
C A
b
O B C
Associative Law: a method of combining two numbers
Algebraic expression: an expression formed by numbers
or algebraic expressions is associative if the result of
and algebraic symbols using arithmetic operations. For
the combination of these objects does not depend on
example, 4x + 3y - 2 is an algebraic expression.
the way in which the objects are grouped. Addition and
Algebraic fractions: fractions that contain pronumerals multiplication obey the Associative Law, but subtraction
(letters) and division are not associative.
Algebraic term: an algebraic expression that forms a Asymptote: a line that a graph approaches but never meets
‘separable’ part of some other algebraic expression. For
Average: see Mean
example, in the expression 4x + 2y - 3, 4x and 2y are
algebraic terms, while -3 is a constant term. Average speed: The total distance travelled during a journey
divided by the total time taken. It is given by the formula:
Alternate angles: angles on alternate sides of a transversal.
total distance travelled .
On parallel lines, alternate angles are equal. average speed =
total time taken
Back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot: a method for comparing
two data distributions by attaching two sets of ‘leaves’
to the same ‘stem’ in a stem-and-leaf plot; for example,
comparing the pulse rate before and after exercise
Amplitude: half the distance between the maximum and Pulse rate
minimum values of a function Before After
Angle of depression: the angle measured down from the 9888 6
horizontal line (through the observation point) to the line 8664110 7
of vision 8862 8 6788
Horizontal
60 9 02245899
Angle of depression 4 10 0 4 4
0 11 8
Line of sight 12 4 4
13
Object 14 6
Angle of elevation: the angle measured up from the Bar graph: a graph drawn in a similar way to a column
horizontal line (through the observation point) to the line graph, with horizontal bars instead of vertical columns.
of vision Categories are graphed on the vertical axis and the
Object frequencies (numbers) on the horizontal axis.
Base: the digit at the bottom of numbers written in index
Line of sight form. For example, in 64, the base is 6. This tells us that 6
is multiplied by itself four times.
Bi-modal: describes data whose distribution has two modes
Angle of elevation
Bisect: cut into two equal parts
Horizontal Bivariate data: sets of data where each piece is represented
Arc (of a circle): a portion of the circumference of a circle by two variables
Glossary 889
Boxplots (box-and-whisker plots): a graphical Circumference: distance around the outside of a circle. It is
representation of the 5-number summary; that is, the given by the rule 2p r or p D, where r is the radius and D is
lowest score, lower quartile, median, upper quartile and the diameter of the circle.
highest score, for a particular set of data Class interval: a subdivision of a set of data. For example,
students’ heights may be grouped into class intervals of
150 cm - 154 cm, 155 cm - 159 cm.
Closure Law: when an operation is performed on an
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 element (or elements) of a set, the result produced must
Pulse rate also be an element of that set.
Brackets: also called grouping symbols Coefficient: the number part of a term, generally written in
front of the pronumeral
Capacity: the maximum amount of fluid that can be
contained in an object. It is usually applied to the Co-interior angles: angles that lie on the same side of a
measurement of liquids and is measured in units such as transversal that cuts across a pair of lines. For a pair of
millilitres (mL), litres (L) and kilolitres (kL). parallel lines, co-interior angles are supplementary
Cartesian coordinate system: the position of any point (add to 180è).
in the Cartesian plane can be represented by an ordered Q
pair of numbers (x, y). These are called the coordinates of
the point.
G D
y
5 b
4 x-coordinate C a B
3 F
(4, 2) A
2
1 y-coordinate
P
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5x Collinear points: points that all lie on the same straight line
-2 Column graph: a graph in which equal width columns are
-3 used to represent the frequencies (numbers) of different
-4 categories
-5 Common factor (common divisor): a factor that is common
to each element of the set; for example, 3x is a common
factor of the elements 9x2 and 12x
Cartesian plane: the area formed by a horizontal line
with a scale (x-axis) joined to a vertical line with a scale Commutative Law: a method of combining two numbers or
(y-axis). The point of intersection of the lines is called algebraic expressions is commutative if the result of the
the origin. combination does not depend on the order in which the
Categorical (data): data that cannot be measured or objects are given. For example, the addition of 2 and 3 is
counted but can be categorised; for example, eye colour or commutative, since 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. However, subtraction is
television programs not commutative, since 2 - 3 ò 3 - 2.
Census: collection of data from a population (e.g. all Compass (conventional) bearings: directions measured in
Year 10 students) rather than a sample degrees from the north–south line in either a clockwise
or anticlockwise direction. To write the compass bearing
Centre (of circle): middle point of a circle,
we need to state whether the angle is measured from the
equidistant (equal in distance) from all points on
north or south, the size of the angle and whether the angle
its circumference
is measured in the direction of east or west; for example,
Chord: straight line from one point on the circumference of N27èW, S32èE.
a circle to another point on the circumference
Complement (of a set): the complement of a set, A, written
P AÅ, is the set of elements that are in x but not in A
Complementary angles: two angles that add to 90è; for
example, 24è and 66è are complementary angles
Complementary events: events that have no common
elements and together make up the sample space.
O If A and AÅ are complementary events,
then P(A) + P(AÅ) = 1.
Completing the square: a procedure used to transform an
algebraic expression into a perfect square
Q Composite number: a number that has more than two
factors. For example, 6 is a composite number because it
Circle (equation): the general equation of a circle, with has factors 1, 2, 3 and 6.
centre (h, k) and radius r is: Composite figure: a figure made up of more than one basic
(x - h)2 + ( y - k)2 = r 2. shape
890 Glossary
Compound graphs: column and bar graphs that display two Constant of proportionality (or variation) k: used to prove
or more sets of data simultaneously. They are drawn with that a proportionality relationship (direct or inverse) exists
each column or bar representing combined sets of data. between 2 or more variables (or quantities)
Individual columns or bars are multicoloured, one colour Continuous (data): numerical data that can take any value
for each set. within a certain range. They are generally associated with
Compound interest: the interest earned by investing a sum measuring; for example, the heights of students.
of money (the principal) when each successive interest Coordinates (x, y): two numbers that give the position of
payment is added to the principal for the purpose of a point on the Cartesian plane. The first number is the
calculating the next interest payment. The formula used for x-coordinate and the second number is the y-coordinate.
compound interest is: A = P(1 + R)n, where A is the amount Correlation: a measure of the relationship between two
to which the investment grows, P is the principal or initial variables. Correlation can be classified as linear, non-
amount invested, R is the interest rate per compounding linear, positive, negative, weak, moderate or strong.
period (as a decimal) and n is the number of compounding
Correlation coefficient r: the value of r indicates the
periods. The compound interest is calculated by subtracting
strength of the relationship between two variables.
the principal from the amount: CI = A - P.
Its range is -1 Ç r Ç + 1, -1 being a strong negative
Concentration: a measure of the strength of a solution. The relationship and +1 being a strong positive relationship.
measured units can be, for example, g/mL. The closer the value of r is to 0, the less strong the
Concyclic (points): points that lie on the circumference of relationship between the variables.
a circle Corresponding angles: angles that are in corresponding
Conditional probability: where the probability of an event positions with respect to a transversal. On parallel lines,
is conditional (depends) on another event occurring first. corresponding angles are equal.
For two events A and B, the conditional probability of Q
event B, given that event A occurs, is denoted by P(B | A)
and can be calculated using the formula:
P ( A ∩ B)
P(B | A) = , P(A) ò 0. G
P( A) D
Cone: A solid formed by taking a circular base and a point
not in the plane of the circle, called the vertex, which lies C F B
above or below the circle, and joining the vertex to each
point on the circumference of the circle. A
Radius r
P
Cosine (cos) ratio: the ratio of the adjacent side to the
hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle.
adjacent
So, cos q = .
Height h hypotenuse
Slant height l
Hypotenuse
Opposite
q
Vertex Adjacent
Congruent figures: figures that are identical; that is, they
Cosine rule: in any triangle ABC, c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C.
have exactly the same shape and size
A D DÅ AÅ B
c
a
A
B C CÅ BÅ b
Congruent triangles: there are five standard congruence C
tests for triangles: SSS (side, side, side), SAS (side,
included angle, side), ASA (two angles and one side), Counting numbers: the non-negative integers; that is, one
AAS (two angles and a non-included side) and RHS of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
(right angle, hypotenuse, side) Cross-section: the shape (plane section) produced when a
Conjugate surds: surds that, when multiplied together, solid is cut through by a plane parallel to the base. For
example, the cross-section of a cone is a circle.
result in a rational number. For example, ( a + b ) and
( a − b ) are conjugate surds, because Cube: a polyhedron with 6 faces. All faces are squares of
the same size.
( a + b ) × ( a − b ) = a − b. Cubic functions: the basic form of a cubic function is
Constant: a term or expression whose value does not vary y = ax3. These functions can have 1, 2 or 3 roots.
Glossary 891
Cumulative frequency: the total of all frequencies up to Discrete data: numerical data in which the information can
and including the frequency for a particular score in a take only certain exact values, usually whole numbers.
frequency distribution They are associated with counting.
Cumulative frequency polygon: a line graph that is formed Discriminant: referring to the quadratic equation
when the cumulative frequencies of a set of data are ax2 + bx + c = 0, the discriminant is given by
plotted against the end points of their respective class D = b2 - 4ac. It is the expression under the square-root
intervals and then joined up by straight-line segments. It is sign in the quadratic formula and can be used to determine
also called an ogive. the number and type of solutions of a quadratic equation.
Cyclic quadrilateral: a quadrilateral that has all four Disjoint sets: these sets have no elements in common with
vertices on the circumference of a circle. That is, the each other.
quadrilateral is inscribed in the circle. Distance formula: the distance between two points A(x1, y1)
Cylinder: a solid that has parallel circular discs of equal and B(x2, y2) is given by the formula
radius at the ends. The centres of the discs form the axis
( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 .
of the cylinder.
Distributive Law: the product of one number with the sum
Axis of two others equals the sum of the products of the first
number with each of the others; for example 4(6 + 2) =
4 ì 6 + 4 ì 2. It is also applicable to algebra; for example,
3x(x + 4) = 3x2 + 12x.
Cross-section
Dividing by a fraction: when dividing by a fraction,
is a circle
multiply by the reciprocal of the fraction, then simplify
3 2
the expression. For example, 6 ó = 6 ì = 4.
2 3
Dodecahedron: a regular polyhedron (platonic solid) with
12 faces, all of which are regular pentagons.
Cylinder
Dot plot: this graphical representation uses one dot to
Data: various forms of information represent a single observation. Dots are placed in columns
Decimal number system: the base 10, place-value system or rows, so that each column or row corresponds to a
most commonly used for representing real numbers single category or observation.
Degree (angle): a unit used to measure the size of an angle
Degree (of a polynomial): the degree of a polynomial in x is
the highest power of x in the expression.
Denominator: the lower number of a fraction that represents
the number of equal fractional parts a whole has been
divided into
Density: the ratio of mass to volume of a substance. It is 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
given by the formula: Passengers
mass
density = . Edges: straight lines where pairs of faces of a polyhedron
volume meet
It is measured in units such as g/cm3.
Eighth Index Law: terms with fractional indices can be
Dependent events: successive events in which one event 1 m
affects the occurrence of the next written as surds. For example, a n = n a and a n = n a m .
Dependent variable: this variable is graphed on the y-axis.
Element: an element of a set is a member of that set; for
Depreciation: the reduction in the value of an item as it ages
example; 5 is an element of the set of counting numbers.
over a period of time. The formula used is A = P(1 - R)n,
where A is the depreciated value of the item, P is its initial Elimination method: a method used to solve simultaneous
value, R is the percentage the item depreciates each year equations. This method combines the two equations into a
(expressed as a decimal) and n is the number of years the third equation involving only one of the variables.
item has depreciated. Ellipse: a plane figure in the shape of an oval
Diameter: the straight line from one point on the Enlargement (dilation): a scaled-up (or down) version of a
circumference of a circle to another on the circumference, figure in which the transformed figure is in proportion to
passing through the centre. the original figure; that is, the two figures are similar
Dilated (Quadratics): occurs when graphs are made thinner Equally-likely outcomes: outcomes in a probability
or wider experiment that have the same chance of occurring
Dilation (Geometry): occurs when figures are made larger Equating: the process of writing one expression as equal to
(enlarged) or smaller (reduced) in proportion another
Direct variation: describes a particular relationship between Equation: a statement that asserts that two expressions are
two variables (or quantities); that is, as one variable equal in value. An equation must have an equal sign. For
increases so does the other variable. The graph of the example, x + 4 = 12.
relationship is a straight line, passing through the origin Equilateral triangle: a triangle with all sides equal in
and the rule used to relate the two variables is y = kx. length, and all angles equal to 60è
892 Glossary
Equivalent fractions: fractions that can be reduced to the Fourth Index Law: to remove brackets, multiply the indices
same basic fraction; that is, fractions that have the same inside the brackets by the index outside the brackets. Where
1 2 3 4 no index is shown, assume that it is 1. So, (am)n = amn.
value, for example, = = =
3 6 9 12 a
Fraction: numbers represented in the form , where a and b
Estimate: information about a population extrapolated from b
a sample of the population are whole numbers and b is not equal to zero.
Euler’s rule: a rule that links the number of faces, F, the Frequency: the number of times a particular score appears
number of vertices, V, and the number of edges, E, of a Frequency polygon: a special type of line graph, which uses
polyhedron. Euler’s formula: F + V − E = 2. the same scaled axes as the histogram. The midpoints of
Evaluate: determine a value for an expression the tops of the histogram columns are joined by straight
Event: a set of favourable outcomes in each trial of a line intervals. The polygon is closed by drawing lines at
probability experiment each end down to the score- or x-axis.
Expanding (algebra): this is the process of multiplying Frequency table: a means of organising a large set of data.
everything inside the brackets by what is directly outside It shows the number of scores (frequencies) that belong to
the brackets. Expanding is the opposite of factorising. each group or class interval.
Expected frequency: the number of times a particular event Function: a process that takes a set of x-values and produces
is expected to occur when a chance experiment is repeated a related set of y-values. For each distinct x-value, there
a number of times is only one related y-value. They are usually defined by a
Exponent: see Index formula for f (x) in terms of x; for example, f (x) = x2.
Exponential decay: a quantity that decreases by a constant Gradient (slope) m: this is a measure of the steepness of
percentage in each fixed period of time. This growth can a line or plane. The gradient of a line is given by
be modelled by exponential functions of the type y = kax, rise y2 − y1
m= = and is constant anywhere along that line.
where 0 < a < 1. run x2 − x1
Exponential functions: relationships of the form y = ax, y
where a ≠ 1, are called exponential functions with base a. B(x2, y2)
Exponential growth: a quantity that grows by a constant
percentage in each fixed period of time. This growth can
be modelled by exponential functions of the type y = kax, y2 - y1
where a > 1. (Rise)
Expression: this is a collection of two or more numbers or
variables, connected by operations. For example, 12 - 2, A(x1, y1)
x2 - x1
2a + 3b. Expressions do not contain an equal sign.
0 x
Extrapolation: the process of predicting a value of a (Run)
variable outside the range of the data Heron’s formula: this formula is used to find the area of a
Faces: 2-dimensional, closed shapes that form the surfaces triangle when all three sides are known. The formula is
of a polyhedron
A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) , where a, b and c are the
Factor: a factor of a given number is a whole number that lengths of the sides and s is the semi-perimeter or
divides it exactly. For example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 are the a+b+c
factors of 12. s= .
2
Factor theorem: if P(x) is a polynomial, and P(a) = 0 for
some number a, then P(x) is divisible by (x - a). Histogram: a special type of column graph, in which no
gaps are left between columns and each column straddles
Factorising: breaking down a number or expression into an x-axis score. The x-axis scale is continuous and usually
smaller factors that can be numeric or algebraic. The a half-interval is left before the first column and after the
process of factorising an algebraic expression involves last column.
changing it from a sum (or difference) into a product of
y
factors. 10
Fifth Index Law: to remove brackets containing a product,
raise every part of the product to the index outside the 8
Frequency
brackets. So, (ab)m = ambm.

Finite: a fixed number or amount. For example, the decimal 6
0.25 has a fixed number of decimal places.
4
First Index Law: when terms with the same base are
multiplied, the indices are added. So, am ì an = am + n. 2
Five-number-summary: a method for summarising a data
set using five statistics: the minimum value, the lower 0 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 x
quartile, the median, the upper quartile and the maximum
value Height
FOIL: a diagrammatic method of expanding a pair of Horizontal: a line is said to be horizontal if it is parallel to
brackets. The letters in FOIL represent the order of the the horizon of the Earth. Horizontal lines have a gradient
expansion: First, Outer, Inner and Last. of zero and are parallel to the x-axis.
Glossary 893
Hypotenuse: the longest side of a right-angled triangle. It is Inverse operation: the operation that reverses the effect
the side opposite the right angle. of the original operation. Addition and subtraction are
Icosahedron: a regular polyhedron (platonic solid) with inverse operations; multiplication and division are inverse
20 faces, all of which are equilateral triangles operations.
Identity Law: when 0 is added to an expression or the Isosceles triangle: a triangle with two sides equal in length
expression is multiplied by 1, the value of the variable Intercepts: points where a curve crosses the x- or y-axis
does not change. For example, x + 0 = x and x ì 1 = x. Kite: a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal.
Image (similar figures): the enlarged (or reduced) figure A kite may be convex or non-convex.
produced
Improper fraction: a fraction in which the numerator is
greater than the denominator
Independent events: successive events that have no effect
on each other
Independent variable: this is the x-axis (or horizontal)
variable
Index (power or exponent): the number expressing the
power to which a number or pronumeral is raised.
For example, in the expression 32, the index is 2. Like terms: terms that contain exactly the same pronumeral
Plural: indices. (letter) part; for example, 3ab and 7ab are like terms but
Inequality signs: signs used in inequations. They are 5a is not.
< (less than), > (greater than), Ç (less than or equal to) and Line of best fit: a straight line that best fits the data points
í (greater than or equal to). of a scatterplot that appear to follow a linear trend. It is
Inequations: similar to equations, but contain an inequality positioned on the scatterplot so that there is approximately
sign instead of an equal sign. For example, x = 3 is an an equal number of data points on either side of the
equation, but x < 3 is an inequation. line, and so that all the points are as close to the line as
possible.
Infinite: never-ending; for example, the decimal 0.3 is non-
terminating and therefore its number of decimal places Line of vision: the straight line from an observation point to
cannot be counted. the object being viewed
Line symmetry: a figure has line symmetry if one or more
Integers (Z): These include the positive and negative
lines (‘line of symmetry’ or ‘axis of symmetry’) can be
whole numbers, as well as zero; that is, . . ., -3, -2,
drawn that divide the figure into two mirror images.
-1, 0, 1, 2, . . .
Linear equation: an equation involving pronumerals of
Interpolation: the process of predicting a value of a variable
degree 1. The general form of a linear equation in one
from within the range of the data
variable is ax + b = 0.
Interquartile range: the difference between the upper
Linear graphs: consist of an infinite number of points that
(or third) quartile, QU (or Q3), and the lower (or first)
can be joined to form a straight line
quartile, QL (or Q1); that is, IQR = QU - QL = Q3 - Q1.
It is the range of approximately the middle half of Linear modelling: applies the principle of linear equations
the data. to represent practical situations
Intersection (of sets): region that represents the common Logarithm: the power to which a given positive number
elements of two or more sets. A ¶ B denotes the b, called the base, must be raised in order to produce the
intersection of sets A and B. number x. The logarithm of x, to the base b, is denoted by
logb x. Algebraically: logb x = y ä by = x; for example,
Inverse variation: describes a particular relationship
log10 100 = 2 because 102 = 100.
between two variables (or quantities); that is, as one
Logarithm Laws:
variable increases, the other decreases. The rule used to
k Law 1: loga x + loga y = loga (xy)
relate the two variables is y = . x
x Law 2: loga x - loga y = loga  
Irrational numbers (I): numbers that cannot be written as  y 
fractions. Examples of irrational numbers include surds, p Law 3: loga x n = nloga x
and non-terminating, non-recurring decimals. Law 4: loga 1 = 0
Isometric drawing: a 2-dimensional representation of Law 5: loga a = 1
a 3-dimensional shape in which vertical lines remain 1
Law 6: loga   = -loga x
vertical, horizontal lines are drawn at an angle and parallel x
edges remain parallel. Law 7: loga ax = x
Inverse Law: when the additive inverse of a number or Lower (or first) quartile: the score that marks the end of
pronumeral is added to itself, the sum is equal to 0. When the first quarter in an ordered set of data. It is denoted by
the multiplicative inverse of a number or pronumeral is QL or Q1. It is calculated by finding the median of the
multiplied by itself, the product is equal to 1. So, lower half of the data.
1 Lowest common denominator (LCD): the lowest number
x + (-x) = 0 and x ì = 1.
x that denominators of all fractions considered in a problem
Iterations: repeated calculations will divide equally into
894 Glossary
Lowest common multiple (LCM): the lowest multiple that Multiple: a number that is the product of a given number
two or more numbers have in common and any whole number greater than zero. For example, the
Many-to-one correspondence: a function or mapping that multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, . . .
takes the same value for at least two different elements of Multiplication law of probability: if events A and B are
its domain independent, then:
Maximum turning point: the highest point of a parabola P(A and B) = P(A) ì P(B) or P(A ¶ B) = P(A) ì P(B).
that is inverted Mutually exclusive events: events that cannot occur
Mean: one measure of the centre of a set of data. It is given together. On a Venn diagram, two mutually exclusive
sum of all scores ∑x events will appear as disjoint sets.
by mean = or x = . When data are Natural numbers: the set of positive integers, or counting
number of scores n
∑( f × x ) numbers; that is, the set 1, 2, 3, . . .
presented in a frequency distribution table, x = .
n Net: a 2-dimensional plan of a solid that can be cut out and
Measures of central tendency: mean, median and mode folded to form that solid. Below is the net of a cube.
Measures of spread: range, interquartile range, standard
deviation
Median: one measure of the centre of a set of data. It is the
middle score for an odd number of scores arranged in
numerical order. If there is an even number of scores, the
median is the mean of the two middle scores when they are
n +1
ordered. Its location is determined by the rule .
2
For example, the median value of the set 1 3 3 4 5 6 8 9 9
Nominal (data): a type of categorical data in which the
is 5, while the median value for the set 1 3 3 4 5 6 8 9 9 10
information is divided into subgroups; for example, eye
is the mean of 5 and 6 (5.5).
colour (hazel, blue, green)
Midpoint: the midpoint of a line segment is the point that Non-recurring decimals: decimals that have no repeating
divides the segment into two equal parts. The coordinates digits or pattern; for example 5.482 786 2. . .
of the midpoint M between the two points P(x1, y1) and
Non-terminating decimals: decimals that have an infinite
 x + x2 y1 + y2 
Q(x2, y2) is given by the formula  1 , . number of decimal places
 2 2  Null Factor Law: if a ì b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0
y or both a = 0 and b = 0; used when solving quadratic
y Q(x2, y2) equations
2
Numerator: the upper number of a fraction that represents
the number of equal fractional parts
M(x, y)
y Numerical (data): data that can be measured or counted
T
Object (similar figures): the original figure is classed as the
object
y1 Octahedron: a regular polyhedron (platonic solid) with
P(x1, y1) S
8 faces, all of which are equilateral triangles
Odds: relates to probabilities in gambling. They are given as
x2 x
5
0 x1 x ratios, such as 5-1, 1 or 5 : 1.
Mixed number (numeral): a number that consists of Ogive (cumulative frequency polygon): a graph formed
a whole number part and a fractional part, by joining the top right-hand corners of the columns of a
1
for example, 2 3 cumulative frequency histogram
One-to-one correspondence: refers to the relationship
Minimum turning point: the lowest point of a parabola between two sets such that every element of the
which is upright first set corresponds to one and only one element of
Minutes (angle): units of angular measurement, where the second set
1 degree (1è) = 60 minutes (60Å) Ordinal (data): a type of categorical data in which the
Modal class: the term used when analysing grouped data. It information is in some type of ranked order; for example,
is the class interval with the highest frequency. first, second, third, . . .
Mode: one measure of the centre of a set of data. It is Order of rotational symmetry: the number of times a
the score that occurs most often. There may be no figure coincides with its original position in turning
mode (all scores occur once), one mode or more than through one full rotation. For example, an equilateral
one mode (two or more scores occur equally triangle has rotational symmetry of order three and a
frequently). square has rotational symmetry of order four.
Monic: a monic pronumeral or monic expression is Orthogonal drawing: a drawing that consists of the front
one in which the coefficient of the leading term is 1. view, the top view and the side views of an object
For example, x2 + 4x - 3 is monic, while Outcome: the result obtained when a probability experiment
6x2 + 4x - 3 is not. is conducted
Glossary 895
Outlier: a piece of data that is considerably different from Most often this simply means adding a vertical percentage
the rest of the values in a set of data; for example, 24 is axis on the right-hand side of a cumulative frequency graph.
the outlier in the set of ages {12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 13, 13, Percentile: the value below which a given percentage of all
14, 14, 24}. scores lie. For example, the 20th percentile is the value
below which 20% of the scores in the set of data lie.
Perimeter: the distance around the boundary of a
2-dimensional shape
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Periodic functions: functions that have graphs that repeat
Age themselves continuously in cycles, for example, graphs
of y = sin x and y = cos x. The period of the graph is the
Palindromic numbers: numbers that are the same if read distance between repeating peaks or troughs.
forwards or backwards, for example 33, 16 561
Perpendicular: perpendicular lines are at right angles
Parabola: the graph of a quadratic function has the shape to each other. The product of the gradients of two
of a parabola. For example, the typical shape is that of the perpendicular lines is -1.
graph of y = x2.
Pi (π): the Greek letter p represents the ratio of the
y circumference of any circle to its diameter. The number
9 22
8 p is irrational, with an approximate value of , and a
decimal value of p = 3.141 59 . . .. 7
7
6 Pie chart (graph): see Sector graph
5 Platonic solids: five regular polyhedra, that is, five
4 polyhedra whose faces are regular congruent polygons:
3 tetrahedron (4 faces); cube (6 faces); octahedron (8 faces);
dodecahedron (12 faces); icosahedron (20 faces)
2
1 Plotting: placing points on a Cartesian plane, using their
coordinates
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
0 1 2 3 4x Polygon: a plane figure bounded by line segments
-2
Parallel: parallel lines in a plane never meet, no matter how

far they are extended. Parallel lines have the same gradient.
Parallel boxplots: two or more boxplots drawn on the same
scale to visually compare the five-number summaries of
the data sets. These boxplots compare the pulse rates of
the same group of people before and after exercise.
After
Polyhedron: a solid in which each face is a polygon; plural:

polyhedra
Population: the whole group from which a sample is drawn
Time
Power: see Index

Primary data: data collected by the user
Before
Prime factor: a prime number that divides a given number

exactly; for example, the prime factors of 42 are 2, 3 and 7
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Prime number: a number that has only two different factors
— itself and one. For example, 3 is a prime number
Pulse rate
because its only factors are 1 and 3. Note that 1 is not a
Parallelogram: a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite prime number because its two factors 1 ì 1 are the same.
sides parallel
Prism: A solid comprising two congruent parallel faces
A D (bases) and the (lateral) faces that connect them. The
lateral faces are parallelograms. If they are all right-angled
(i.e. rectangles) the prism is a right prism; if they are not
all right-angled, then the prism is an oblique prism.
B C
Payout: winnings paid, for example, on races. A payout
is made on the ratio given by the odds, with the initial
investment being returned plus the winning amount.
Percentage: a fraction whose denominator is 100; for
28
example, 28% = 100 Right Oblique Right
Percentage cumulative frequency polygon: a cumulative rectangular rectangular triangular
frequency polygon expressed as a percentage of the total. prism prism prism
896 Glossary
Probability: the likelihood or chance of a particular event while a negative value of a results in an inverted graph.
(result) occurring. A maximum of 4 roots can result.
number of favourable outcomes Quartiles: Values that divide an ordered set into four
P(event) = .
number of possible outcomes (approximately) equal parts. There are three quartiles —
The probability of an event occurring ranges from 0 the first (or lower) quartile Q1, the second quartile (or
(impossible — will not occur) to 1 (certainty — will median) Q2 and the third (or upper) quartile Q3.
definitely occur). Quotient: the result of dividing one number or algebraic
Product: the result of a multiplication expression by another
Pronumerals: letters used in place of numbers Radius: the straight line from a circle’s centre to any point
Proportion: corresponding elements are in proportion if on its circumference
there is a constant ratio; for example, circumference = p Random number: a number whose value is governed by
for all circles diameter chance, and cannot be predicted in advance
Pyramid: a group of solids with any polygon as the base. Range: the difference between the highest and lowest
Its other faces are triangles that meet at a common vertex. scores in a set of data; that is,
Pyramids are named according to their base. For example, range = highest score − lowest score
a pyramid with a square base is a square pyramid. Rate: a particular kind of ratio where the two quantities are
measured in different units; for example, km/h, $/g
Ratio: the comparison of two or more quantities of the same
kind. A ratio has no units.
Rational numbers (Q): numbers that can be written as
Square-based Triangular-based Hexagonal-based fractions, where the denominator is not zero
pyramid pyramid pyramid Rationalising the denominator: a method used to express
Pythagoras’ theorem: in any right-angled triangle, the the denominator as a rational number. Both the numerator
square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the and denominator of a fraction are multiplied by the surd
squares on the other two sides. This is often expressed as (or conjugate surd) contained in the denominator.
c2 = a2 + b2. Real numbers (R): the set of all rational and irrational
A numbers
1
Rectangular hyperbola: the graph of y = is called a
x
rectangular hyperbola. The x- and y-axes are asymptotes.
c b y
1
a y= x
B C
Quadrant: a sector with an arc equal to a quarter of a circle
(and therefore centre angle of 90è)
Quadrant 1: the quarter of the unit circle where the value of 0 x
the angle being considered is between 0è and 90è. That is,
the x- and y-coordinates are both positive.
Quadrants of a Cartesian plane: four regions of the
Cartesian plane produced by the intersection of the x- and
y-axes
Quadratic equation: the general form of the quadratic
equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0. Recurring decimals: These decimals have one or more
Quadratic formula: gives the roots of the quadratic digits repeated continuously; for example, 0.999 . . . . They
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. It is expressed as: can be expressed exactly by placing a dot or horizontal
line over the repeating digits; for example,
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac . ••
x= 8.343 434 = 8.34 or 8.34.
2a
Quadratic trinomial: an algebraic expression that contains Reflected (Quadratics): one parabola is a mirror image of
three terms, in which the highest power of the pronumeral the other.
is a squared term; for example, 4x2 - 3x + 7 Reflection (Geometry): the image is a mirror image of the
Quantiles: percentiles expressed as decimals. For example, object.
the 95th percentile is the same as the 0.95 quantile. Relative frequency: represents the frequency of a particular
Quantitative data: data that can be counted (discrete data) score divided by the total sum of the frequencies.
or measured (continuous data), for example, the number It is given by the rule:
of students enrolled in a school (discrete), the heights in frequency of the score
relative frequency of a score = .
centimetres of the students in a class (continuous) total sum of frequencies
Quartic functions: the basic form of a quartic function is Remainder theorem: if a polynomial P(x) is divided by
y = ax4. If the value of a is positive, the curve is upright, x - a, where a is any real number, the remainder is P(a).
Glossary 897
Revolution (angle): the size of a revolution is 360è. Sector graph: a type of graph mostly used to represent
categorical data. A circle is used to represent all the
data, with each category being represented by a sector of
the circle, whose size is proportional to the size of that
360è category compared to the total.
Segment: a region of a circle between a chord and the
circumference. The smaller segment is called the minor
segment and the larger one is called the major segment.
Rhombus: a parallelogram with all sides equal
Semicircle: part (half) of a circle bounded by a diameter and
an arc joining the ends of the diameter
Set: a collection of similar elements
Seventh Index Law: a term with a negative index can be
1
expressed with a positive index using this law. So, a-n = n
1 a
and −n = an.
a
Right angle: the size of a right angle is 90è. Similar figures: figures that have identical shape but
different size. The corresponding angles in similar figures
X are equal in size, and the corresponding sides are in the
same ratio, called a scale factor.
Similar triangles: triangles that have similar shape but
A different size. There are four standard tests to determine
whether two triangles are similar: AAA (angle, angle,
O angle), SAS (side, angle, side), SSS (side, side, side) and
RHS (right angle, hypotenuse side).
B Simple interest: the interest accumulated when the interest
payment in each period is a fixed fraction of the principal.
Rotation: turning a figure about a fixed point, called the P ×r ×T
centre of rotation The formula used is I = , where I is the interest
100
Sample: part of a population chosen so as to give
earned (in $) when a principal of $P is invested at an
information about the population as a whole
interest rate of r% p.a. for a period of T years.
Sample space: a list of all the possible outcomes obtained
Simple random sampling: a survey that ensures all subjects
from a probability experiment. It is written as x or S, and
have an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
the list is enclosed in a pair of curled brackets {}.
Simplify: to write an expression in its simplest form by the
Sampling: obtaining data from a small group of subjects
use of algebraic or arithmetical techniques
(often people) within a larger population. This smaller
group should be representative of the larger population. Simultaneous equations (linear): two (or more) linear
graphs that have the same solution
Scale factor: the ratio of the corresponding sides in similar
figures, where the enlarged (or reduced) figure is referred Sine (sin) ratio: the ratio of the opposite side to
to as the image and the original figure is called the object. the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle. So,
opposite
scale factor =
image length sin q = .
object length hypotenuse
a b c
Scalene triangle: a triangle with no two sides equal in Sine rule: in any triangle ABC, = =
sin A sin B sin C
length
B
Scatterplot: a graphical representation of bivariate data
that displays the degree of correlation between two
c
variables. Each piece of data on a scatterplot is shown
by a point. The x-coordinate of this point is the value a
of the independent variable and the y-coordinate is the
A
corresponding value of the dependent variable.
Scientific notation: a method of expressing a number as the b
product of a power of 10, and a decimal that has just one C
digit to the left of the decimal point; for example Sixth Index Law: to remove brackets containing a fraction,
54 267 would be written as 5.4267 ì 104 and 0.005 426 7 multiply the indices of both the numerator and denominator
as 5.4267 ì 10-3.  a m a m
Secant: a chord of a circle that is extended beyond the by the index outside the brackets. So,   = m .
b b
circumference on one side
Sketch: the drawing of a graph highlighting its special
Second Index Law: when terms with the same base are features; for example, the y-intercept and gradient or
divided, the indices are subtracted. So, am ÷ an = am – n. the x- and y-intercepts of a straight line. Sketches are
Secondary data: data collected by others not drawn on graph paper and scales are not shown
Sector: part of a circle bounded by two radii and an arc along the axes.
898 Glossary
Skewed: if a distribution’s shape is not symmetric, it can Subtended (angle): an angle standing on an arc of a circle,
be described as being positively skewed (tailing off to with its vertex on the circumference or at the centre of the
the upper end of the distribution) or negatively skewed circle
(tailing off to the lower end of the distribution). Supplementary (angles): angles that add to 180è
Summary statistics: measures such as mean, mode, median
Negative skew and range, used in analysing a set of data
Surds: roots of numbers that do not have an exact answer,
Shape
Positive skew so they are irrational numbers. Surds themselves are exact
numbers; for example, 6 or 3 5 .
Symmetric Symmetrical: the identical size, shape and arrangement of
parts of an object on opposite sides of a line or plane
70 90 110 130 150 Tangent (to a circle): a straight line that touches the
Values circumference of a circle or a curve at one point only
Slant height (of cone): the distance from any point on

the circumference of the circular base of the cone to the T
vertex of the cone
Solid: a 3-dimensional object
Solve: to find a solution to a problem or an equation
Speed: the rate that describes how quickly distance changes
over a period of time. It is given by the formula
distance
speed = .
time
Standard deviation: a measure of the variability of
spread of a data set. It gives an indication of the degree
Tangent (tan) ratio: the ratio of the opposite side to the
to which the individual data values are spread around
adjacent side in a right-angled triangle. So,
the mean. opposite
Stem-and-leaf plot: a display that provides simultaneously tan q = .
adjacent
a rank order of individual scores and the shape of the Terminating decimals: decimals that have a fixed number
distribution. The stem is used to group the scores and the of places; for example, 0.6 and 2.54
leaves indicate the individual scores within each group.
The stem-and-leaf plot for the pulse rates of a group of Tetrahedron: a regular polyhedron (platonic solid) with
students is shown. 4 faces, all of which are equilateral triangles
Theorems: rules or laws
Pulse rate Theoretical probability: given by the rule
6 8889 number of favourable outcomes
7 0114668 P(event = or
number of possible outcomes
8 2688 n( E )
P ( E ) = , where n(E) = number of times or ways an
9 06 n(S )
10 4 event, E, can occur and n(S) = number of elements in the
11 0 sample space or number of ways all outcomes can occur,
given all the outcomes are equally likely
A back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot has two sets of data
displayed — one on either side of the common stem. Third Index Law: any term (excluding 0) with an index of
0 is equal to 1. So, a0 = 1.
Stratified random sampling: sampling of a population that
consists of identifiable groups or strata, so that each group Time series: a sequence of measurements taken at regular
receives fair representation. Each group should make up intervals (daily, weekly, monthly and so on) over a certain
the same proportion of the sample as it does of the full period of time. They are used for analysing general trends
population. and making predictions for the future.
Subjective probability: probability that is based on one or Total surface area (TSA): the area of the outside surface of
more of the following: judgements, opinions, assessments, a 3-dimensional figure
estimations and conjectures by individuals. It may also Transformations (Quadratics): changes that occur to the
involve beliefs, emotions and bias. basic parabola y = x2 in order to obtain another graph.
Subset: a smaller set within another set. It is denoted by the Examples of transformations are translations, reflections
symbol ´. or dilations.
Substitution: the replacement of a variable by a number. For Translated (Quadratics): moving a parabola horizontally
example, substituting x = 2 in the expression 5x gives (left/right) or vertically (up/down)
5 ì 2 = 10. Translation (Geometry): occurs when an object moves up,
Substitution method: a method used to solve simultaneous down, left or right without flipping, turning or changing
equations. It is useful when one (or both) of the equations size
has one of the variables as the subject. Transposing: changing the order of terms in an equation
Glossary 899
Transversal: a line that meets two or more other lines in a Uniform cross-section: a solid has a uniform cross-section
plane if cross-sections taken parallel to its base are always the
same size and shape. Cross-sections parallel to the base of
prisms are uniform, whereas cross-sections parallel to the
base of pyramids are not.
Union (of sets): represents the combination of elements
of two or more sets. A ß B denotes the union of sets
A and B.
Unit circle: a circle with its centre at the origin and having a
radius of 1 unit
Trapezium: a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel
Unit fraction: a fraction that has a numerator of one; for
sides
1 1 1
example, , ,
2 5 10
Univariate data: data relating to a single variable
Universal set (x ): the largest set that contains all possible
elements of the data considered
Travel graphs: graphs that represent the relationship between Upper quartile: the score that marks the end of the third
distance and time. The distance covered is shown on the quarter in an ordered set of data. It is denoted by QU or
vertical axis and the time taken on the horizontal axis. Q3. It is calculated by finding the median of the upper half
of the data.
Tree diagrams: branching diagrams that list all the possible
outcomes of a probability experiment. This diagram shows Venn diagrams: a series of circles, representing sets, within
the outcomes when a coin is tossed twice. a rectangle, which represents the universal set. They show
Head, Head the relationships between the sets.
Head
Head Tail A B
Head, Tail
Tail, Head
Tail Head
Vertex: plural: vertices; a point where two or more
sides of a polygon or edges of a solid meet.
Tail For example, a square has 4 vertices and a cube
Tail, Tail
has 8 vertices.
Trend line: the line of best fit that is drawn on a time series
graph, which is used to forecast future values Vertical: vertical lines are parallel to the y-axis and have an
undefined (infinite) gradient.
Trial: the number of times a probability experiment is
conducted Vertical line test (function): the graph of a function cannot
be crossed more than once by any vertical line.
Triangle: a 3-sided polygon
Vertically opposite angles: when two lines intersect,
Trigonometric ratios: three different ratios of one side of
four angles are formed at the point of intersection, and
a triangle to another. The three ratios are the sine, cosine
two pairs of vertically opposite angles result. Vertically
and tangent ratios.
opposite angles are equal.
Trinomial: an expression consisting of three terms; for
example, x2 + 3x - 5 Y B
True bearings: directions that are written as the number
of degrees (3 digits) from north in a clockwise direction, O
followed by the word true or T; for example, due east
would be 090è true or 090èT
Truncated cone: a cone with its top cut off A X
Turning point: the point at which the graph of a quadratic
Volume: the amount of space a 3-dimensional object
function (parabola) changes direction (either up or down)
occupies. The units used are cubic units, such as cubic
Two-way tables: a table that lists all the possible outcomes centimetres (cm3) and cubic metres (m3).
of a probability experiment in a logical manner
Wedge: a piece of wood, metal etc., thick at one end,
Hair colour Hair type Total tapering to a thin edge.
Red 1 1 2 x-intercept: the point where a graph intersects the x-axis
Brown 8 4 12 y-intercept: the point where a graph intersects the
Blonde 1 3 4 y-axis. In the equation of a straight line, y = mx + c,
Black 7 2 9 the constant term, c, represents the y-intercept of
Total 17 10 27 that line.
900 Glossary
Index
Addition Law of probability 398–400 census 499, 501
algebra see linear algebra central tendency, measures of 431–9, 464
algebraic expressions, expanding 221–7, 242 exercises 435–9
binomial expansion 221–2 grouped data 433–5
difference of two squares rule 223–4 mean 432, 433
FOIL method 222–3 median 431, 433
perfect squares 223 modal class 433–5
algebraic fractions mode 431
adding and subtracting 33–6, 50 ungrouped data 431–3
exercises 36–7, 39–40 chords
multiplying and dividing 37–9, 50 intersecting 708–9, 724
simplifying 220 as parts of a circle 701, 725
alternate segment theorem 718–19 and radii 711–13
amplitude of graphs 755 circle geometry
angles, naming 326 angles in a circle 701–8, 724
angles of depression 161–4, 178 constructing a tangent 704–6
angles of elevation 161–4, 178 cyclic quadrilaterals 715–18, 725
arcs 702 eBookplus activities 730
area 185 exercises 706–8, 713–15, 720–3, 726–9
common shapes 184 intersecting chords, secants and tangents 708–15, 724
composite figures 187–8 parts of a circle 701–2
exercises 189–93 tangents, secants and chords 718–23, 725
Heron’s formula 746–7 theorem 1 703
of triangles 745–9, 762–3 theorem 2 703
using formulas to find 184, 185–7 theorem 3 704
see also total surface area theorem 4 704
area units, conversion of 184 theorem 5 705
Associative Law 30 theorem 6 709
theorem 7 710
bar graphs, reading 498 theorem 8 711
bearings 165 theorem 9 712
and compass directions 165–72, 178 theorem 10 712
exercises 169–72 theorem 11 715
true bearings 165, 166 theorem 12 716
bi-modal graphs 459 theorem 13 718–19
binomial expansion 221–2 theorem 14 719
bivariate data 474, 769, 794 circles 315, 320
correlation 769–72 angles in 703–4, 724
drawing column graphs from data tables 477–8 area formula 185
eBookplus activities 496 centre of 701
exercises 476–7, 481–3, 773–6, 784–6 equation of 315–18
graphing 477–83, 491 exercises 317–18
identifying related pairs of variables transformation 686
474–7, 491 translation 687
identifying a relationship 475–6 see also unit circles
lines of best fit 776–86 circumference 701
review exercises 492–5 climate change project 534–5
scatterplots 483–90, 769 Closure Law 30
variables 474–5 column graphs
box-and-whisker plots 464 drawing from data tables 477–8
exercises 447–9 reading 472
five-point summary 444–5 using to create a scatterplot 478–80
identification of extreme values 445–7 Commutative Law 29–30
multiple or parallel 454 compass directions
buying on terms 542–5, 560 and bearings 165–72, 178
exercises 169–72
capacity, volume 207–8 true bearings 165, 166
Cartesian plane 57 complementary events 382, 396–7, 423
cash payments 540 determining 380
causation, and correlation 771–2 exercises 400–3
Index 901
composite figures data interpretation see interpreting data
area 187–8 data organisation, in statistical investigations 522
volume 206–7 data sets
composite solids, total surface area 196–9 comparing 454–9, 464–5
compound interest 549–53, 560 exercises 455–9
conditional probability 417–20, 424 data types
cones, total surface area 195 distinguishing between 498
congruence exercises 508–10
exercises 329–32, 338–9 qualitative data 472
and proof 336–9, 347 quantitative data 472
review 327–32, 347 see also primary data; secondary data
congruent triangles deductive geometry
corresponding sides and angles congruence and proof 336–9, 347
326, 700 congruence review 327–32, 347
tests to prove 327–9, 700 eBookplus activities 351
continuous data 472 eBookplus ICT activity 352–3
coordinate geography exercises 349–50
determining linear equations 64–8 quadrilaterals: definitions and properties 340–3, 347
distance between two points 68–71 quadrilaterals and proof 344–6, 347–8
eBookplus activities 88 similarity review 332–6, 347
exercises 85–7 dependent events 413–17, 423
midpoint on line segment 71–4 dependent variables 472, 474–5, 498
parallel and perpendicular lines 74–82 depreciation 553–6, 560
sketching linear graphs 57–63 depression, angles of 161–4, 178
coordinate points, plotting 473 diagrams, drawing from given directions 132
correlation 769 diameter 701
and causation 771–2 discounts
linear and non-linear relationships 770 percentage discounts 538
successive 546–8, 560
positive and negative correlation 770
discrete data 472
strength of 771
disjoint sets 386
correlation coefficient 782–3
distance between two points 68–71
cosine, calculating 732
cosine graphs 755–9
elevation, angles of 161–4, 178
cosine ratio (CAH) 147–9, 177
ellipse, area formula 185
calculating the angle from 732
equation of a straight line 64–6
cosine rule 741–4, 762 equations 40
credit card payments 540 solving using laws of logarithms and indices 624–9, 631
cube roots expanding brackets 220
calculating 2 expanding a pair of brackets 220
estimating 2 experimental probability 381–2
linking with cubes 2 experiments, primary data 504
using a calculator to evaluate 2 exponential functions 306, 694
cubes exercises 309–12, 675–8
linking with cube roots 2 exponential decay 671
total surface area 184, 193 exponential growth 671
volume 184, 203 and their graphs 306–12, 319
cubic functions 679–83, 694 transformation 688–9
reflection 690 extrapolation 781
transformation 689–90 extreme values, identification of 445
translation 689
cuboid 193 factor theorem 649–51, 659
cyclic quadrilaterals 715–18, 725 factorising
cylinders by completing the square 236–40, 242–3
total surface area 194 by taking out a common binomial factor 220
volume 203 by taking out the highest common factor 220, 248
difference of two squares expressions 636
data see bivariate data; univariate data finding a factor pair that add to a given number 248
data analysis 512 mixed factorisation 240–1
graphing statistical data 512–15 polynominals 651–5
in statistical investigations 522 quadratic trinomials 636
data collection factorising expressions with two terms 231–2, 242
evaluating methods of 511–12 a2 - b2 232
in statistical investigations 521 exercises 234–6
902 Index
factorising expressions with three terms 227–31, 242 Heron’s formula 746–7
ax 2 + bx + c when a = 1 227–8 highest common factor, finding 28
ax 2 + bx + c when a ò 1 228–9 horizontal lines 77–9
exercises 229–31 hyperbolas 312–15, 320
factorising expressions with four terms 231, 232–6, 242 dilation 688
figures, naming 326 negative values of k 688
financial maths transformation 688
buying on terms 542–5, 560 hypotenuse, finding 134
compound interest 549–53, 560
depreciation 553–6, 560 Identity Law 30
eBookplus activities 564 independent events 413–17, 423
exercises 540–2, 543–5, 547–8, 551–3, 554–6, 558–9, independent variables 472, 474–5, 498
562–3 index expressions, substitution into 664
loan repayments 556–9, 560 index form 2
payment options 540 evaluating numbers in 590
purchasing goods 539–42, 560 using calculator to evaluate numbers in 2
successive discounts 546–8, 560 index laws 3–7, 23
five-point summary, box-and-whisker plots 444–5 First Index Law 3
flood in backyard project 352–3 Second Index Law 3
FOIL method, expanding algebraic expressions 222–3 Third Index Law 3
formulas, rearranging 132 Fourth Index Law 4
fractional indices 12–16, 23, 609–14, 630 Fifth Index Law 4
fractions Sixth Index Law 4
addition 28, 380 Seventh Index Law 8
division 28 Eighth Index Law 12–13
multiplication 28 combining 17–20, 23
multiplying for calculating probabilities 380 exercises 5–7, 20–22, 24–5
simplifying 380 using 590
subtraction 28, 380 indices
frequency distribution table combining index laws 17–23
calculation of mean, median and mode from 432–3 eBookplus activities 26
presentation of data 430 exercises 24–5
function notation 667 fractional indices 12–16
functions 666–9 negative indices 7–12
circles 315–18, 320 review of index laws 3–7
cubic functions 679–83, 694 inequations 106
eBookplus activities 324 inquiry methods, evaluating 511–15, 518–21, 527
evaluating 667 integers 592
exercises 321–3 interest
exponential functions 671–8, 694 compound interest 549–53, 560
exponential functions and their graphs 306–12, 319 simple interest 538
function notation 667 interpolation 781
hyperbola 312–15, 320 interpreting data
identifying features of 667–8 bivariate data 769–76, 794
plotting parabolas 281–6, 319 eBookplus activities 798
points of intersection 668–9 exercises 773–6, 790–3, 795–7
quartic functions 683–6, 694 lines of best fit 776–86, 794
sketching parabolas of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c time series 786–93, 794
298–306, 319 interquartile range 440–2
sketching parabolas in turning point form 292–8, 319 Inverse Law 30
sketching parabolas using basic graph of y = x 2 287–92 irrational numbers 592–3
transformations 686–93, 695
vertical line test 666 lay-by payments 540
functions and relations 665–71, 694 least squares regression 781–2, 794
eBookplus activities 698 like terms, collecting 28
exercises 696–7 line graphs, reading 473
relations 665–6 line segments, midpoint of 71–4
line of vision 161
gradient linear algebra
finding 664 adding and subtracting algebraic fractions 33–7
finding given two points 90, 768 eBookplus activities 54
linear graphs 57 exercises 52–3
lines 56 multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions 37–40
Index 903
linear algebra (continued) Manning’s formula 589
solving equations with algebraic fractions and multiple many-to-many relations 665
brackets 45–9 many-to-one relations 665
solving linear equations 40–4 mean
substitution 29–33 calculation from frequency distribution
linear equations table 432–3
horizontal and vertical lines 77–9 grouped data 433–5
parallel lines 74–5, 79–82 of small data set 430
perpendicular lines 75–6, 79–82 of stem-and-leaf plot 430
transposing to standard form 90, 768 ungrouped data 431
linear equations, determining 64–6 measurement, primary data 504
equation of a straight line 64–6 measures of central tendency see central tendency, measures of
exercises 67–8 measures of spread see spread, measures of
point–gradient method 66 media reports, investigating 523–5
straight line parallel or perpendicular to another median
straight line 76–7 calculation from frequency distribution table 432–3
linear equations, solving 40–7, 50 grouped data 433–5
exercises 43–4, 48–9 small data set 430
involving algebraic fractions 45–9, 50 of stem-and-leaf plot 430
with multiple brackets 45, 50 ungrouped data 431
that arise when finding x- and y- intercepts 56, 90, 768 midpoint formula 71
where pronumeral appears on both sides 41–3 mixed factorisation 240–1
linear graphs 57 modal class, grouped data 433–5
Cartesian plane 57 mode
gradient/slope 57 calculation from frequency distribution table 432–3
quadrants 57 small data set 430
linear graphs, sketching 57–62 of stem-and-leaf plot 430
exercises 62–3 ungrouped data 431
gradient–intercept method 59–60 Multiplication Law of probability 413, 418
x- and y-intercept method 58–9, 90 mutually exclusive events 397–8, 400–3, 423
y = c and x = a form 61–2
negative correlation 770
y = mx form 60
negative indices 7–12, 23, 614–17, 631
linear inequations
non-integer rationals 592
exercises 108–10, 113–16, 118–22
non-linear relationships 770
multiplying or dividing both sides by negative
normal distribution 459
numbers 107–8
Null Factor Law 249
sketching 110–16, 124
number classification
solving 106–10, 123
exercises 594–5
solving simultaneous 116–22, 124 integers 592
linear relationships 770 irrational numbers 592–3
lines non-integer rationals 592
describing gradient 56 p (pi) 593
identifying equations of straight lines 664 rational numbers 591
naming 326 review 591–4, 630
plotting using table of values 56 number laws 29–30
sketching straight lines 664 Associative Law 30
lines of best fit 485, 776–86, 794 Closure Law 30
correlation coefficient 782–3 Commutative Law 29–30
exercises 784–6 Identity Law 30
interpolation and extrapolation 781 Inverse Law 30
least squares regression 781–2
reliability of predictions 781 observation, primary data 504
loan repayments 556–9, 560 odds 390–2
loans 543 for and against 390
logarithm laws 619–24, 631 payouts 390
exercises 622–4 one-to-many relations 665
Law 1 620 one-to-one relations 665
Law 2 620–1 outliers 445
Law 3 621
Law 4 622 parabolas 287
Law 5 622 identifying equations of 664
Law 6 622 parabolas, plotting 281, 281–6, 319
Law 7 622 dilation 281, 287
logarithms 617–19, 631 exercises 284–6
904 Index
finding turning point when equation is not in turning in statistical investigations 521
point form 298–302 surveys 504
horizontal translation 288–9 probability
maximum turning point 281 Addition Law of 398–400
minimum turning point 281 complementary events 382, 396–7, 400–3, 423
reflection 281, 289–90 conditional probability 417–20, 423
transformation 281 eBookplus activities 428
translation 281, 287–9 equally-likely outcomes 381
turning points 281, 298–302 events 381
vertical translation 287–8 exercises 392–6, 400–3, 410–12, 415–17,
parabolas, sketching 664 419–20, 425–7
exercises 291–2, 296–8, 302–6 experimental probability 381–2
form y = ax2 + bx + c 298–306, 319 frequency 381
in turning point form 292–8, 306 independent and dependent events 413–17, 423
using basic graph of y = x2 287–92, 319 Multiplication Law of 413, 418
parallel lines 74–5 mutually exclusive events 397–8, 400–3, 423
exercises 79–82 odds 390–2
and simultaneous linear equations 93–4 outcome 381
parallelograms relative frequency 382–3
area formula 185 review 381–92, 423
definition 340 sample space S 381
properties 340 subjective probability 420–2, 423
test 344 theoretical probability 383–4
percentage discounts 538 tree diagrams 405–12, 423
percentages trial 381
converting to a decimal 538 two-way tables 403–5, 423
decreasing a quantity by 538 Venn diagrams 384–90
of a quantity of money 528 problem solving exercises 355–78, 565–88
periodic functions 755 proof
perpendicular lines 75–6, 79–82 of congruence 336–9, 347
p (pi) 593 quadrilaterals 344–6, 347
points, distance between two 68–71 proportions, finding 498
points of intersection 664, 668–9 purchasing goods 539–42, 560
polynomial equations, solving 655–8, exercises 540–2
659 payment options 540
polynomial values 647–9, 659 pyramids, volume 205–6
polynominals 637–9, 659 Pythagoras’ theorem 68, 134, 177
adding 639–41, 659 exercises 137–40, 143–5
degree of 637 finding the hypotenuse 134
eBookplus activities 662 finding a shorter side 135–7
exercises 661 similar right-angled triangles 133–4
factor theorem 649–51, 659 in three dimensions 140–5, 177
factorising 651–5, 659 using 56
factorising using long division 651–3
factorising using short division 653–4 quadrants 57
leading coefficient 637 quadratic equations
leading term 637 eBook activities 278
long division of 641–6, 659 exercises 276–7
multiplying 639–41, 659 solving 636
polynomial values 647–9, 659 substitution into 248, 280, 636
remainder theorem 649, 650–1, 659 quadratic equations, solving 249–55, 274
subtracting 639–41, 659 by completing the square 250–2
populations 499 by inspecting graphs 258–63, 274
exercises 502–3 by interpolation 263, 274
and samples 499–503, 527 by using the discriminant 264–8
positive correlations 770 confirming solutions 260–1
predictions exercises 253–5, 261–3, 267–8, 272–3
from scatterplots 485–8 and linear equations simultaneously 269–73, 274–5
reliability of 781 Null Factor Law 249
primary data 503–7, 527 type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 1 280
exercises 508–10 type ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ò 1 281
experiments 504 using quadratic formula 255–8, 274, 280
measurement 504 quadratic expressions
observation 504 eBookplus activities 246
simulations 504 exercises 244–5
Index 905
quadratic expressions (continued) relative frequency 382–3
expanding algebraic expressions 221–7 remainder theorem 649, 650–1, 659
factorising by completing the square 236–40 rhombus
factorising expressions with three terms 227–31 area formula 185
factorising expressions with two or four terms 231–6 definition 340
mixed factorisation 240–1 properties 340
quadratic formula 255–8, 274, 280 test 344
quadratic functions right-angled triangles
dilation 687 finding angle in 732
horizontal translation 687 finding side lengths 732
reflection 687 labelling the sides 132, 732
transformation 686 rise, measuring 56, 90, 768
vertical translation 686 rounding
quadratic trinomials 227, 636 size of angle to nearest minute and second 132
quadrilaterals to a given number of decimal places 132
in circles 715–18, 725 run, measuring 56, 90, 768
definitions 340, 347
exercises 341–3, 345–6 samples 499–500
identifying 326 exercises 502–3
and proof 344–6, 347–8 and populations 499–503, 527
properties 340, 347 scales, reading 472
tests 344, 347–8 scatterplots 478, 483–90, 491, 769
qualitative data 472 line of best fit 485
quantitative data 472 making predictions 485–8
quartic functions 683–6, 694 using column graphs to create 478–80
basic shapes of quartic graphs 683–5 secants
exercises 685–6 intersecting 709–10, 724
reflection 690 as parts of circles 702
transformation 690 and tangents 719–20, 725
quartic graphs, basic shapes 683–5 secondary data 507–8, 527
exercises 508–10
radii in statistical investigations 522–3
and chords 711–13 sectors
as parts of a circle 701 area formula 185
random samples 499 as parts of circles 702
range 440 segments
rational numbers 591 alternate segment theorem 718–19
rationalising denominators as parts of circles 702
surds 603–5 set notation 380
using conjugate surds 605–7 sets, Venn diagrams 384
real numbers similar triangles, tests to prove 333, 700
eBookplus activities 634 similarity
exercises 632–3 exercises 335–6
fractional indices 609–14, 630 review 332–6, 347
logarithm laws 619–24, 630 testing triangles for 333
logarithms 617–19, 631 similarity statements, writing 326
negative indices 614–17, 632 simple interest, finding 538
number classification review 591–5, 630 simulations, primary data 504
operations with surds 599–600, 630 simultaneous linear equations 91
solving equations 624–9, 631 eBookplus activities 130
surds 595–9, 630 elimination method of solving 99–101, 123
rectangles exercises 94–6, 98–9, 101–3, 105–6, 125–9
area formula 185 graphical solution 91–3, 94–6, 123
definition 340 parallel lines 93–4
properties 340 problem solving using 103–6
test 344 solving 116–22, 124
rectangular prisms substitution method of solving 96–9, 123
total surface area 184, 193 sine, calculating 732
volume 184, 203 sine graphs 755–9
relations 665–6 sine ratio (SOH) 147–9, 177
many-to-many relations 665 calculating the angle from 732
many-to-one relations 665 sine rule 769
one-to-many relations 665 ambiguous case 735–9
one-to-one relations 665 exact values 733–5
906 Index
skewness 459–63, 465 successive discounts 546–8, 560
exercises 461–3 surds 595–8, 630
negatively skewed data 460 adding 590, 600
positively skewed data 460 dividing 590, 602–3
small data sets exercises 597–9, 607–9
finding the mean 430 identifying 590
finding the median 430 multiplying 590, 601–2
finding the mode 430 operations with 599–609, 630
spheres proof by contradiction 596
total surface area 194 proof a number is irrational 596–7
volume 205 rationalising denominators 603–5
spread, measures of 439–44, 464 rationalising denominators using conjugate
exercises 442–4 surds 605–7
interquartile range 440–2 simplifying 220, 248, 590, 599–600
range 440 subtracting 590, 600
square roots surface area see total surface area
calculating 2 survey questions, determining suitability 498
estimating 2 surveys 501, 504
linking with squares 2 symmetrical graphs 459
using a calculator to evaluate 2
squares tangent, calculating 732
completing 280, 664 tangent ratio (TOA) 147–9, 177
linking with square roots 2 calculating the angle from 732
squares (quadrilateral shape) tangents
area formula 185 intersecting 711, 724
definition 340 as parts of circles 702
properties 340 and secants 719–20, 725
standard deviation 449–53, 464 theoretical probability 383–4
statistical data, graphing 512–15 time series 786–93, 794
exercises 790–3
statistical graphs, drawing 430
trend lines 788–90
statistical investigations
total surface area 213
data analysis 522
of composite solids 196–9
data collection 521
cones 195
exercises 525–6
of cubes 184, 193
investigating media reports 523–5
cylinders 194
organising the data 522
exercises 199–202, 214–15, 216
performing calculations 522 other solids 195–6
reporting results 522 rectangular prisms 184, 193
steps in 528 spheres 194
using primary data 521 transformation 686–93, 695
using secondary data 522–3 circles 686
statistical reports, evaluating 515–21, 527 cubic functions 689–90
statistics in the media exercises 692–3
eBook plus ICT activity 534–5 exponential functions 688–9
eBookplus activities 533 in general polynominals 690–2
evaluating inquiry methods and statistical reports 511–20 hyperbolas 688
exercises 529–32 parabolas 281
populations and samples 499–503 quadratic functions 686
primary and secondary data 503–10 quartic functions 690
statistical investigations 521–6 trapezium
stem-and-leaf plots area formula 185
back-to-back 454 definition 340
mean, median and mode 430 properties 340
straight lines see lines tree diagrams 403–5, 423
subjective probability 420–2, 424 trend lines 788–90
subsets 386 triangles
substitution 29–31, 50 angle relations 700
exercises 31–3 angles in 700
into index expressions 664 area formula 185, 186
into a linear rule 90, 768 area of 745–9, 762–3
into quadratic equations 248, 280, 636 Heron’s formula 746–7
number laws 29–30 testing for similarity 333, 700
to check if given point makes inequation a true statement 90 see also congruent triangles; Pythagoras’ theorem;
to solve simultaneous linear equations 96–9 right-angled triangles
Index 907
triangular prisms, volume 203 univariate data 474
trigonometric equations box-and-whisper plots 444–9
exercises 761 comparing data sets 454–9
solving 759–61, 763 eBookplus activities 470
solving algebraically 760 exercises 466–9
solving graphically 759 measures of central tendency 431–9
trigonometric functions 763 measures of spread 439–44
amplitude of graphs 755 skewness 459–63
exercises 757–9 standard deviation 449–53
periodic functions 755 universal set, Venn diagrams 384
sine and cosine graphs 755–6
trigonometric ratios 177 variables 474
angles and the calculator 145–6 dependent and independent 474–5
cosine ratio 147–9, 177 identifying related pairs 474–7, 491
exercises 149–51 Venn diagrams 384–90
sine ratio 147–9, 177 complement of a set 385
tangent ratio 147–9, 177 disjoint sets 386
trigonometry intersection of sets 384
angles of elevation and depression 161–4, 178
sets 384
applications 172–6, 178
subsets 386
area of triangles 745–9, 762–3
union of the sets 385
calculating angle size 156–60, 177
universal set 384
calculating side lengths 151–5, 177
vertical line test 666
compass directions and bearings 165–72, 178
cosine rule 741–4, 762 vertical lines 77–9
eBookplus activities 182, 764 equation of 248, 280
exercises 154–5, 158–60, 173–6, 179–81, volume 203, 204–5, 213
739–40, 764–5 capacity 207–8
sine rule 733–40, 762 composite figures 206–7
unit circles 749–54 cubes 184, 203
see also Pythagoras’ theorem; trigonometric functions; cylinders 203
trigonometric ratios exercises 208–12
trinomials 227 pyramids 205–6
TSA see total surface area rectangular prisms 184, 203
two squares expressions, factorising review exercises 216, 217
difference of 636 spheres 205
two-way tables 403–5, 423 triangular prisms 203
volume units, conversion of 184
unit circles 749–54, 763
constructing 750–2 y-intercept
exercises 752–4 finding 664
four quadrants of 750–2 stating from graph 56
908 Index

Grade 10 Book (Maths Quest 10+10A)

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MATHS QUEST

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Title: Maths quest 10+10A for the Australian curriculum/

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CHAPTER 3 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA CHAPTER 5 MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY

Coordinate geometry 55 Trigonometry I 131

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Summary 213 9A Plotting parabolas 281

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Deductive geometry 325 Univariate data 429

PROJECTS PLUS  ICT ACTIVITY

pro-0099 Backyard flood 352 CHAPTER 14 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

CHAPTER 11 PROBLEM SOLVING

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Are you ready? 538 Polynomials 635

Real numbers 589 Functions and relations 663

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Student website — eBookPLUS

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Teacher website — eGuidePLUS

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Next generation teaching and learning

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2 Maths Quest 10 for the Australian Curriculum

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1A Review of index laws

Simplify each of the following.

a 1 Write the expression. a m4n3p ì m2n5p3

2 Multiply the terms with the same base by = m4 + 2 n3 + 5 p1 + 3

2 Simplify by multiplying the coefficients, = 2 ì 3 ì a2 + 1 ì b3 + 4

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Simplify each of the following.

a 1 Write the expression. a (2b3)0

Simplify each of the following. 4

a 1 Write the expression. a (2n4)3

4 Maths Quest 10 for the Australian Curriculum

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3 WE2 Simplify each of the following.

5 MC a 2m10n5 is the simplified form of:

6 Maths Quest 10 for the Australian Curriculum

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Title: Maths quest 10+10A for the Australian curriculum/

CHAPTER 3 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA CHAPTER 5 MEASUREMENT AND GEOMETRY

PROJECTS PLUS ICT ACTIVITY

pro-0099 Backyard flood 352 CHAPTER 14 STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

CHAPTER 11 PROBLEM SOLVING

13 Consider the term a . ( 7 )7 REFLECTION  