Mathematics Teaching-Research Journal Online Vol 7, N 4 Summer 2015

MATHEMATICS TEACHING-RESEARCH JOURNAL ONLINE
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
List of Content
Constructing Own-Featured Mathematics

Instruction Theories…………………………………………….Ringbao Tu
Case Study on Statistics Lessons by

High School Mathematics Teachers…………………………Xie Yang Chun
Mathematical Education in Terms

of Innovative Development……..A. Pardala, R.A. Uteeva, N. K. Ashirbayev
Population and Exponential Growth Investigations…………….Brian Evans

Using Calculators in Teaching Calculus……………………..Pavel Satyanov
An Observation Protocol Measuring

Secondary Teachers’ Implementation of
Dynamic Geometry Approach………M. Alejandra Sorto, Zhonghong Jiang
Alexander White, Sharon Strickland
Editorial: Concerns from Around the World

We start this late summer issue with the two PPP from China by Professor Tu from
Nanjing Normal University, till recently, the head of the National Chinese Mathematics.
Association and by the teacher of mathematics Xie Yang Chun from… The presentations
are to a certain degree complementary; While Tu introduces us to the basis of Chinese
didactic thinking through the theoretical diagram: classroom observationcase
studyanalytical frameworkinstruction design theories, Chun presents a concrete case
study along that theoretical approach. It is the study of the teacher of statistics in Gansu
(?) who finds that the high school curriculum published by the Ministry of Education
doesn’t formulate core concepts of statistics and therefore decides to find it by herself
through the study of research literature and classroom observations of two teachers. Chun
formulates her own theory on the “data analysis” as the core concept of high school
statistics. At the same time Tu proceeds to state the core concept of the scientific
development view on education to be the essential question: What kind of people we are
going to educate? Tu’s presentation is the fascinating answer to that question.
As if the continuation of the theme Pardala, Uteeva and Ashirbayev representing the
didactic thought of Poland, Russia and Kazachstan presents a concerned view upon the
innovative development of teaching and quality of high school student preparation,
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motivation to study mathematics and mathematics oriented disciplines. Their suggestions

for improvement of the situation are interesting. In particular, in Poland they suggest the
need for collaboration between teachers and academicians as well as strong supports for
in-service teachers in terms of increasing the quality of their work. In other words they
see the need for “substantive” teaching-research. “Substantive” is the term formulated by
Stenhouse in the seventies as the research whose main objective is to benefit others rather
than a research community itself. Here the substantive task of teaching-research is to
improve student learning in the classroom. Their discussion of mathematics education in
Russia and Kazachstan is equally interesting. What is however surprising is that, in
general comparisons are still made with respect to the West European math ed, whereas
the best PISA, for example, results are obtained by Asiatic countries rather than West
European.
Evans contribution introduces us to the issue of exponential growth of population both

from real world point of view as well through the Bacteria thought experiment of Bartlet.
Satyanov paper makes the pitch for the important role of calculators in the mathematics
classrooms – a familiar issue. Whereas one can wonder whether indeed “it is impossible
to stop technological progress”, the examples of the power of calculators are very
impressive.
The contribution of Sorto et al continues the concern for the proper use of technology in
the classroom this time from the point of the implementation fidelity of Dynamic
Geometry (DG) technology. It is a very precise, one could say, an elegant work with the
NSF-supported assessment instrument. To continue being contrary in this issue, or
playing “the devils advocate” role one could say it’s important that just as the precise
instrument measuring fidelity of the teaching approach has been needed so that one
doesn’t have to be “relying solely on teachers’ self-report when capturing implementation
fidelity” one probably should not also rely solely on the instrument itself. What is
important in this work for teaching-research is that the instrument ultimately measures
teacher interest, capability and possibility within the curriculum to work with Discovery
(or inquiry) method of teaching. The Discovery method plays a very important role for
TR/NYCity Model which was developed in the community colleges of the Bronx in that
it allows to interact and to investigate authentic student mathematical thinking. Maybe
the interest of teachers in the implementation fidelity would increase if together with the
didactic use of DG, they would be exposed to the investigations of student geometrical
thinking with its help.
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Mathematical Education in Terms of Innovative Development

A. Pardała, Rzeszów University of Technology, Poland
R. A. Uteeva, Togliatti State University, Russia
N. K. Ashirbayev, Shymkent University, Kazakhstan
E-mail: [email protected] ; [email protected] ; [email protected]
Abstract: The subject and issues mentioned in this paper relate to modern trends in
researchers about teaching mathematics: problems of mathematical education of
students in terms of innovative development in different countries and cultural
traditions. It is the reason why a lot of international scientific conferences are being
organized in Poland and in other countries as well. They discuss issues related to
teaching mathematics and quality of mathematical education. During these meetings,
benefits, effects and lacks of: a) changes in system of education that have been already
introduced as a result of Bolognese Process in many countries; b) introduced reforms
and demands of Bolognese Process; are analyzed in detail. Authors of the paper
refers to some researches’ results, examples of practices in mathematical education
observed in Kazakhstan, Poland and Russia. Methodology of the issues mentioned in
this paper is based on: a) well-thought-over choice of publications in didactics of
mathematics; b) papers and reports from researches about reforms in system of
education and about quality of recent mathematical education. This kind of attitude
made it possible to: 1) undertake trial of describing theoretical rudiments of testing
quality of mathematical education; 2) formulate diagnosis about condition of
mathematical education; 3) show symptoms of the crisis in contemporary
mathematical education of students from schools and universities; 4) state conclusions
for improving the way that system of education functions, for higher rate of students
who pass exams in mathematics and for hot issues for prospective researches.
This paper is a case study of its authors experience, experience of their colleagues
in practice of mathematical education of students from the university and finally
experience shared with mathematics teachers. The research aim of this paper is to
point down and describe factors that influence the quality of mathematical education.
The authors trie to find out the answer for research question: what are the points of
people’s view and what do they know about effects of already introduced reforms,
using computer technologies in teaching and present and future quality of students
and pupils mathematical education? In final conclusion of the research authors
indicate two sides of the same coin, namely mathematics and mathematical
education for the need of the future. On one hand, it is important to minimize and
restrict symptoms of the crisis and of lacks in mathematical education among
contemporary generation of students. On the other hand, the question what the
mathematics should look like when new generation of students is being brought-up is
crucial. There is need of: a) improving methodology of problems in teaching
mathematics monitoring and diagnosing quality of students mathematical education;
b) monitoring and exchanging world-wide experience in reforms of mathematical
education for the well-being of future society; c) analyzing in detail benefits, effects
and gaps in used tools and methods in teaching mathematics, in particular within
designing and implementing on line courses to mathematical education.
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Key words and phrases: mathematical education, innovative development in different

countries.
2000 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 97- 02, 97D10
1. Introduction
The article extends and expands its earlier version, see A. Pardała, N.K. Ashirbayev, D.
Rakhymbek(2015). The problem of education quality of students and preparing them for
entering universities was a hot issue among the society of math teachers, math scientists
and math didacticians before introducing compulsory matura exams in mathematics.
During Brenna conference in 2004 A. Dąbrowicz, from Gdansk University, said: for
some years we have been watching decrease in level of knowledge that students who start
the university posses. The range of curriculum to be taught before matura exam is being
narrowed. Part of pupils are not prepared to undertake systematic work which is what
the studying at the university is all about. Recent level of matura exam does not
guarantee that a prospective student has acquired all the needed knowledge in
mathematics and physics to study successfully at the university. J. Rachoń also expressed
his worries about the level of the mathematics education among pupils and teenagers as
well as students at university. He presented his preoccupations at the opening of the
seminar called: You will not have a good career without mathematics, claiming that
method of learning mathematics by heart; the method that is supported by the majority of
teachers; is one of the reason of the situation mentioned above. He said that this
phenomena is a social issue as more and more pupils are not able to comprehend school
mathematics. That leads to the tendency that shows that less and less people choose
faculties which curriculum includes mathematics. This trend is at the odds with the recent
need of increasing the number of students at for example technical universities.
Diagnosis that can be found in report called Tackling the Mathematics Problem
prepared by the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications, the London Mathematical
Society and the Royal Statistical Society shows the importance, accuracy and actuality of
testing the quality of mathematical education especially among university students.
Authors of the research claim that in is not a mere coincidence that a lot of students are
worse prepared and their "high achievements" are about the lack of knowledge in basic
math concepts. The researchers also express their and the society of mathematics' anxiety
about mathematical readiness among the students of the first year, see:
www.1ms.ac.uk/policy/tackling/report.html. The results of this research correspond with
some findings of N. Woolock (2008) that can be found in the article: “Lack of
mathematical knowledge is taking revenge”, in which some conclusions about the GCSE
exams in mathematics that is a British national examination for pupils in age of 14 to 16
appear. Authors of this research say that decrease in standards of education threatens
national economy. Furthermore, people should be ashamed of their lack of mathematical
numeracy and not be proud of it as it is very often observed.
Even if we do not take into account previously mentioned reasons of the worries about
students’ preparation, we still should be aware that their mathematics negligence and
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difficulties are common in terms of mathematics that they get familiar with and their
mathematical reasoning. Worldwide, the usefulness of mathematics as well as computer
science has been underlined. Mathematics applications and mathematical modelling have
growing impact on solving problems of the contemporary world in such disciplines as
nanotechnology, public media and communication, insurances and banking. In fact, it is
not difficult not to notice the importance of mathematics and its applications,
mathematical education, mathematical culture for the prospective economical
development of nations and intellectual development of societies in the recent world.
Mathematics is without any doubts wonder of international culture in which history of
human thought development and great human achievements are reflected. Some of them
have been implemented into process of students mathematical education. The Internet,
computers and computer technologies support traditional methods of recognizing the new
educational content that is being introduced for students. They also facilitate methods of
mathematical modelling of problems and phenomena. The results of researches confirm
that rational usage of modern visualization technologies, educational platforms and e-
learning has a positive impact on efficacy of educational process and should not threaten
traditional methods of mathematical education. Then, according to the discovery of brain
activeness’ asymmetry by R. Sperry, the practice of mathematical students’ education
should simultaneously involve the activity of both hemispheres of brain. Otherwise some
blockages in training students' memory and motivation may appear together with
weakening the need for logical thinking and mathematical justification. This is caused by
taking the Internet and computers as the only authority. Growing interests in the Internet
and computer technology among teenagers is a fact, nevertheless it not always has
reflection in their being into mathematics and their internal motivation to learn
mathematics. On the other side, low level of mathematical competences and minimalistic
teenagers' attitude towards acquirement of mathematical knowledge may cause lower
interests in taking studies in mathematics or in technical disciplines. This phenomena can
be observed in Poland as well as in other countries all over the world. There are also
common dilemmas and tendencies that upset not only academic societies. Students learn
mathematics fewer and fewer and with poorer effects.
Actual tendencies and problems in education development, introducing
nanotechnologies, using innovative technologies in key branches of industry, growing
dynamics of solving social and economic problems of countries and societies imply the
urgent need of educating and training staff with higher education such as engineers,
computer programmers, mathematicians, economist or managers. The process of
preparing students of these faculties should focus on mastering competences and methods
within applied mathematics, mathematical modelling, computer science and innovative
technologies as well as on acquiring hard and soft competences, practical experience that
will be useful in their future work. These challenges are also connected with problem of
quality of educating teenagers in secondary and high schools. Among secondary schools
graduates with passed matura exams we can observe prominent shortages and gaps in
mathematical education. This phenomena has been known in many countries. In Poland it
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has been revealed not only during education process in 1st year of mathematics studies,
see A. Pardała (2011, 2012), but also in former stages of education. Unfortunately,
introduction of compulsory matura exam in mathematics in 2010 together with
introduction of extra tutoring for slow-learners and absentees in 1st year of mathematics
studies and so called ordered specialities in computer science did not improve quality of
mathematical education among students. It also did not have impact on higher percentage
of students who gained credits. In next parts of this paper our attention will be focused on
conditions and effects of introducing reforms in mathematical education of pupils and
students in Poland, Kazakhstan and Russia.
2. Mathematics education in Poland after reform in education

In many countries all over the world, the idea of changing system of education, especially
in terms of mathematics, has different descriptions of its standards and stated concepts in
students mathematical education as well as teachers in-service training and education.
This differentiation has impact on the practice of teaching mathematics and its effects
during consecutive stages of mathematics education. It is worth to mention words spoken
by outstanding Russian Mathematician V.I. Arnold during his paper titled “Antiscientific
Revolution and Mathematics” prepared for The International Congress of Papal at
Academy of Sciences in Vatican in October 1998. He said: that those who did not
acquired numeracy in mathematics and in giving explanations, would not be able to
differentiate between real and false justification. Those people - according to V.I. Arnold
- are easy aims for politics to be manipulated by them. Similar phenomena, this time in
American schools, was underlined by Bill Gates during the meeting of Congress of the
USA. He appealed for the change in curriculum of mathematics, physics and other
subjects as the sciences are becoming less and less competitive in the whole world. In
that time also Polish system of education called for changes. The reform introduced in
1999, in particular change in mathematical education, was not generating satisfactory
improvement in quality of education. Also in 1999, the Bolognese Declaration was
introduced in Poland and its assumptions came into life that were supposed to correspond
with the growth of teenagers and society's ambitions as well as with the need of
intensification of national economy and creating the society based on knowledge, see Z.
Marciniak (2008, 2009). Deteriorating quality of mathematical education in Polish
secondary schools caused the agreement between The Minister of National Sport and
Education with vice chancellors of Polish High Schools that is now being called “new
revolution in matura exams”. As a result schools restored the compulsory matura exam
in mathematics in 2010 which became a revolutionary change for the future of
mathematical education at each stage of school as well as at the academic level. It was
supposed that the introduction of the reform and changes in system of education should
be the reason of improved education quality, in particular in terms of mathematics. What
is now being said about the Polish school and about the efficacy of mathematical
education at all stages?
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Some graduates of secondary schools from 2010 as students of 1st year at the
university showed major ignorance of school mathematics. Among them there were some
students who cannot tell the difference between product and quotient. They were not
familiar with terminology and system of mathematical symbols, they had problems in
solving elementary linear or square equations that were connected with the lack of
knowledge. They preferred innovative technologies and the Internet and they completely
depended on their infinite possibilities. Furthermore they criticized traditional methods of
teaching and learning mathematics and the need of strict and exact explaining
mathematical thesis. The quality of mathematical education of students is being assessed
taking into consideration effectiveness of teachers’ work as well as effects of teachers’
training and education, see Z. Leszczyńska (2011). To improve situation described
before and to cease some ineffective practices as well as to achieve higher exams results
in mathematics is essential to:
1) Animate cooperation between mathematics teachers with their schools and the
teachers from the universities in terms of solving actual problems in mathematics
education of students;
2) Change and modernize the system of education for prospective teachers and
introduce trainings and practices for in-service teachers as well as testing teachers
knowledge and competences so as to enable them to gain some certificates;
3) Create a system of centres to assist the work of in-service teachers that would be
aimed on improvement of their quality of mathematical education.
Statement saying that theories comes and goes away and there are examples that stay
which is being ascribed to I. M. Gelfand refers also to didactics. Without doubts,
examples of mathematical situations about realization of mathematics curriculum are of
some gravity. It is about some effective situations that have already appeared and that are
to be used again in students or teachers education. Hence, we are going to direct our
focus on the examples that shows level of students’ knowledge within school or academic
mathematics.
1st Example
Equation sinx + siny = sin(xy), where x, y (0, ) turned out to be untypical and even
difficult for students of 5th year of their mathematics studies, the ones that are to become
mathematics teachers. When students were looking for a method to solve the task, I was
surprised with their difficulties, blockages and mistakes in mathematical reasoning.
Some of the students while trying out methods such as case study, trial and error or other
untypical ways to solve the task, came to conclusion that given equation has no solution
in stated subset, see A. Pardała (2011).
2nd Example
Since 1995 I have had lectures and seminars with students of 1st year of their computer
science studies. According to my experience, their effective education and quality of that
education has fallen when computer science became a so called ordered faculty. For
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instance in academic year 2011/2012 there were 12 exercises groups in Mathematical

Analysis and Linear Algebra. Lectures and Exercises in this subject were conducted
accurately in open and friendly atmosphere. There were large number of students during
each lecture and exercises with less than 30 participants. Materials were accessible for
each student as well as some examples of exam papers from former years. Some sets of
tasks given to students during resit of the exam or test were the same as in the last few
years. To pass the exam it was enough to gain 40% of all possible to achieve points. On
the base of positive grade from exercises’ classes student could get a positive result from
the exam. Nevertheless, an average result was not higher than 50% of possible points.
Lecturers and leaders of classes were all surprised with so low efficacy of students’
education. It was the worst result at this faculty of studies since 1995. Detailed analysis
of the results showed that only 70% of those students wanted to complete this subject.
According to their teachers poor results were caused by:
1) Lack of internal motivation and their indifference and by low attendance rate;
2) Some lacks of knowledge in school mathematics (despite of passed matura exams
by 70 % of all students);
3) Wide range of knowledge to acquire in terms of given subject and not sufficient
number of lectures and exercises’ classes that caused quick pace of progressing
with new material;
4) No relation between the discipline and achieved results with the scholarship that
students received on the base of choice the ordered speciality.
The situation described above caused introducing by the Dean some procedures that are
not true to regulations such as: second resit for credit before external board, second resit
of exams before external board, annulment of re-sit exam before external board. These
procedures were introduced for students that failed to gain a credit or to take the exam.
Thanks to that another 15% of students passed the exam. It also meant that difficulties in
mathematical education of computer science students and quality of mathematical
education were swept under the carpet. After protests against this situation, Department
of Supervision of High School Organization said that using this kind of procedures is not
legal and has no justification in Studies Regulations, nevertheless in his next letter he
added that all issues concerning organization of the studies and principles in carrying out
exams are to be decided within ruling authorities at given University.
To make conclusion, giving too much power to University authorities leads to
extorting poor quality of teaching university students. Given example illustrates extorting
development of mathematical competences at the cost of simultaneous reduction of
quality of mathematical education in particular within so called ordered specialities.
3rd Example
M. Ciosek, A. K. Żeromska (2013, pp. 50-54) describe research on real lesson during
which the task as follows was given to students: In a wholesaler you can get a 20%
discount on condition that you pay 15 % consumer tax. What do you prefer to have firstly
counted discount and only after the tax or vice versa? It is a task with percentage
calculations that turned out to be difficult for some secondary school graduates who took
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their matura exams in 2013 and who were admitted to mathematical studies. During an
extra tuition for slow-learners and absentees from 1st year of mathematics studies I asked
pupils to do this task in a written form. The results surprised me. Only 18% of the
students solve the task correctly. The rest of the students did not achieve right result as
they have mistaken concepts of discount and tax or did not recognize the mathematic
model for this realistic situation. As a opinion poll I asked 2nd year students to solve the
same task and only 37% of them came to the correct solution. This example shows lack
of competences in mathematical modelling of simple situations and applying
mathematics by both secondary and university students.
4th Example
Curriculum, mathematical school education, its results, quality and efficacy of teachers’
work in a given area or country should be also analysed from the point of view of the
most important research project PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment)
that is organised every 3 years by OECD ( Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development). The results of PISA 2012 research carried out among 15 year old students
from Poland are published in report: see www.ifispan.waw.pl . It is worth adding that
OECD modified theoretical assumptions of PISA in 2010. Basic mathematical
competences that are being analysed and tested are: mathematizing, strategic reasoning,
reasoning and justification. In 2008 these competences were mentioned in Polish core
curriculum as the most important in mathematical education. Full description of task
situation and three assignments that were used in PISA 2012 research can be found on
web page: see www.ifispan.waw.pl . Each of those tasks was to test and check different
competences and each has different level of difficulty and could be ascribed to different
general requirement stated in core curriculum. In Polish report from PISA 2012 research
we can read: 1st task checks ability to use mathematical knowledge in simple geometric
situation. It can be classified as II general requirement of core curriculum : using and
interpreting representations. 2nd task calls for not easy reasoning hence it may represent
V general requirement: reasoning and justification. 3rd task checks ability to plan and
perform few consequent actions. These competences meet IV core requirement: creating
and using strategies. Authors of this report also claim: Polish students who took place in
PISA 2012 research gained 518 points for their mathematical competences. An average
result has improved over 23 points ( in comparison with the result from 2009) and
reached level above the average of OECD. Poland is the only country that achieved so
high improvement, see www.ifispan.waw.pl, pp.14-15.
During PISA 2000 research, among pupils form the UE, Polish ones were in tail of
Europe but in 2009 they improved their results so as they were at 5th place in reading, and
at 7th place in the sciences. In mathematics they were at poor 11th place. This not good
result in mathematics was influenced by 20,5 % of Polish pupils who achieved result
below minimum. In PISA 2000 Polish pupils were in 3rd ten in terms of mathematics and
they were above the results of their peers from the USA. Three years later Polish students
overtook American ones and in the last PISA research in 2012 Poland and Polish students
took place in the forefront, still overtaking students from the USA, what is a reason for
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pride and what surprised the world. Amanda Ripley (2013) writes in her book: The
smartest kids in the world. And how they got that way?. She describes in her book in
detail systems of educations, how schools function, status and prestige of teachers’ work,
problem of keeping education at an adequate level in four countries: the USA, Poland,
South Korea and Finland. The reasons why she got so interested in successes of 15 year
old students from Poland during PISA tests may be found while getting familiar with an
interesting interview with her titled “Polish school is better”, see E. Sarnacka-Mahoney
(2014). Problem of keeping this trend true or further improvement of the results from
PISA 2012 requires constant hard work of students and teachers as well. Used standards
and way of PISA organizers’ thinking should be taken into account. Strategic actions
taken by the whole pedagogical staff and schools’ authorities should:
1) Support changing the way in which schools work, support students and support
system of trainings for in-service teachers;
2) Promote organization of cooperation and exchanging experience between
outstanding in-service teachers and academic teachers;
3) Introduce using innovative technologies and e-learning in educating students in
each stage of education; support individual attitude toward each student adjusted
to intellectual development of given student, especially when it is a gifted or
outstanding pupil.
It is worth adding that results of the research testing mathematic education in junior high
schools conducted by Work Group of Institute of Mathematics of Educational
Researches confirm good preparation on basis of content of mathematics teachers
together with good realization of core curriculum in terms of implementing and using
mathematics tools. Results of the same research illustrate also problems and poor
condition of mathematical education in junior high schools. Among these problems are:
1) Unsatisfactory realization of core curriculum and its aims which are connected
with competences in reasoning, justification and choosing own strategy of
learning;
2) Inadequate interaction and communication between mathematics teacher and
student.
M. Karpiński, who is a leader of already mentioned Work Group, claims that junior high
schools are dominated by lectures and the way that lesson is organized leaves no place
for creative attendance, rare reactions to student’s need, doubts and questions. These are
the elements that have deep roots and to change them it is not enough to introduce some
trainings for teachers. Well-thought-over programme is needed, the one that would
involve students as well as teachers. The system of testing students and teachers
competences and supporting good methodical solutions are indispensable as well, see
www.ibe.edu.pl .
5th Example
M. Makiewicz (2013, pp. 28-30) in her monograph examines in detail the various ways,
values and comments on problem solving of D. Hilbert: On the left is glass A with a juice
and on the right the glass B with the same amount of water. One teaspoon of juice was
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poured from glass A to the glass B. Then one teaspoon of the mixture from the glass B
was poured into the glass A. Is the ratio of juice to water in the glass A is now larger,
smaller or equal to the ratio of juice to water in the glass right B? This job comes from
his famous lecture of 8 August 1900 delivered at the International Congress of
Mathematicians in Paris together with the collection of 23 issues that if solved, would
pave the directions of mathematical creativity in the twentieth century. However, in the
social perception task indeed has been perceived as very difficult to solve, or as insoluble,
see: M. Kordos (2009). The result of analysis by M. Makiewicz are as follows: 1) the
appropriate instantiation of this task can lead to a successful solution, while reviewing at
the same time knowledge about fractions, 2) the final solution of this task and its
credibility may be preceded by performing the experiment and record the results of these
fluids pouring and making final calculations, 3) after obtaining a solution is possible to
extend the process of solving this task as a result of the modification of its terms.
M. Makiewicz (2013, pp.173-175) describes in her work on the diagnosis results of
spatial imagination and imagination in the construction of eight treatment groups: three
groups of teachers of mathematics, three groups of students in mathematics and two
groups of graduate students in mathematics. To this end, the study used the task: Imagine
and give a figure, which at the same time (for three mutually perpendicular walls of the
room) will throw a shadow in the shape of a square, circle and triangle. This task is also
characterized by the relationship of mathematics with some phenomenon reality. Correct
solution required the respondents to have developed imagination, creativity, skill
"relationship" and the use of certain geometrical messages. The results of the eight tests
confirmed that this task proved to be very unusual for the test and difficult. A correct and
complete his solution was rare among those tested (only 1 - 2 person in the group
correctly solve them).
3. Actual condition and problems in mathematical education in Kazakhstan
A prominent philosopher and thinker I. Kant in the 18th century wisely said: "In every
science as much truth as it mathematics". Indeed, mathematics is the highest title of
"queen of the sciences". She is the main language of any science, a basic tool of
knowledge and transformation of Nature. So the level of development come into a
person's life is largely dependent on mathematics all his subsequent actions, the success
of problem solving, contribution to the development of the country. Therefore, the quality
of teaching mathematics will start the process of improving the quality of all education.
Raise mathematics education - will be tightened, and other items, both natural and
humanitarian cycle. This applies not only to the school level, but also further stages of
education: technical, professional and higher.
Kazakhstan became the first Central Asian state as a full member of the European
educational space, because has implemented the Bologna Process. We can definitely say
that Kazakhstan has great scientific potential in the field of mathematics, there are good
scientific schools. But along with the achievements, there are questions that need to be
addressed. These include, in particular, the problem of staffing mathematics young
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researchers. And, of course, the quality of mathematical training at all levels. Therefore,
the improvement of school mathematics education is for this country very important.
In world practice, attempts to change the school curriculum in mathematics are from
the beginning of the twentieth century, and the controversy has not stopped to this day.
Here are facing two trends: purely scientific and pragmatic approach. In particular, since
the late 50s we have experienced an era of "new math", which lasted 10-12 years. One of
its main ideas was to combine mathematical program based on abstract concepts and
structures. Then began the change in the content of mathematics based on set theory and
geometric transformations, but also has not met expectations. And in the struggle began
to take the upper hand pragmatic paradigm. As a result, public school refused to attempt
to keep up with the mathematical sciences, and the gap between them has become
increasingly grow.
Similar processes, although with some delay occurred in the Soviet Union. The
beginning of failure of Soviet mathematics to train mathematics graduates. It is a mistake
to think that this process is associated only with the country's post-Soviet period. In the
mid-80s another math program was adopted, which implemented the compulsory set-
theoretic approach to the curriculum of the course. Most of the concepts were formed on
the basis of content, and increased practical significance of the mathematics. Thus
constructed school mathematics has continued to exist in the post-Soviet period. As
pointed out by many international experts observed worldwide lowering of the level of
teaching mathematics is due to the fact that teaching methods can’t keep up with the
rapid development of mathematics as a scientific discipline. And Kazakhstan in this issue
is no exception. Consequently, at this stage we should not go, probably into the teaching
of modern mathematics. This is especially true in light of the implementation of the new
state program of development of education in our country. Here, of course, a lot is of
questions.
At present moment, Kazakhstan has a good reputation in education all over the world.
Throughout years of independence, system of education based on the best world practices
together with own experience was created. Kazakhstan is in 35th placed out of 188
countries according to rates of level of education created by United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP). In world league tables describing competitiveness of citizens’ with
secondary education achievements Kazakhstan is 50th out of 148 countries. What is more
in recent years some actions to elaborate and implement national education standards of
new generation have been taken. There have been some changes in system of education
and work at creating criteria for assessment quality of education has been done.
Nevertheless, actions taken to modernize system of education turned out not to be
satisfactory for development of school education. Recently, the aim of education in
Kazakhstan is set to educate and develop creative, competent and competitive human
being, the one that would be able to train themselves on their own for their own and
society's well-being. These aims may be achieved through competent attitude to
education. It means that students should obtain together with deep knowledge also
routines and competences so as to be able to use their knowledge in real-life situations.
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Being able to apply acquired knowledge in practise, according to PISA research, is at

poor level in Kazakhstan. In terms of comprehension of mathematical competences
students of Kazakhstan take 49th place in PISA 2012 research. There are some factors
that have negative impact on the result. These are:
1) Paying not enough attention in core curriculum to development of private, civil
moral features of character as well as to creating essential motives for choosing
profession and building life perspectives;
2) Overloading students with too much material what leads to decreased motivation
to learn and to poorer health;
3) Lack of diagnosis of aims that are being achieved by students;
4) Old system of assessment which is orientated only on testing competences.
Contemporary geographic, economic and social location of Kazakhstan and status of
Kazakhstan society in particular its integration with educational area requires
modernization, especially in terms of secondary schools. International standard for
secondary schools that states 12-year-long school has been melded. Planning and
implementing new 12-year-long school model would provide creating social and
pedagogical staff to develop standards of living in Kazakhstan. Education as a system
provides children with basic values in terms of upbringing process within school and
family as well, which should correspond to the stage of education. In addition education
should reflect knowledge, competences and routines of given graduate and core
curriculum in area of mathematics and computer science is defined by given modules of
education: geometry, algebra, mathematics and computer science. While organizing core
curriculum in Kazakhstan the major attention was paid to:
1) Increasing potential of courses and classes focused on application of the material,
and balanced realization of their two main functions: pure mathematical education
and educating thorough (using) mathematics;
2) Getting familiar with mathematics language that extends communicative
possibilities of a given graduate.
Wide and multifunctional methodical-informative environment for teaching mathematics
is created with use of different course books and didactic materials for teachers and
students in paper or in electronic version. This environment is changing according to
education paradigms which are being modernized. Nowadays, personality of a student
and their future is in the centre of education process.
An equivalent of matura exam in Kazakhstan is unified national test (EHT) which is a
system of students’ work assessment in secondary schools. The result of this test has
impact on:
1) Final grades at matura certificate;
2) Possibility to enter university in Kazakhstan;
3) Possibility of obtaining President Scholarship.
Test is being conducted in 10 tours in 10 first days of June (one tour = one day) and is
being assessed according to 125 points scale. Students have to take 5 subjects in this test.
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These are: mathematics, Kazak history, Kazak language, Russian language, and
additional subject that may be chosen from world history, foreign language, biology,
geography, chemistry, physics and literature. During the test students are to solve 25
tasks from each subject and they can get maximum of 25 point for solving all of the tasks
correctly. The EHT lasts 210 minutes what is 3,5 hour. For example, in 2013 students
had to gain 60 points to be accepted for the university. For graduates this test is also
important psychological experience. Furthermore, the possibility of introducing EHT that
would consist of 2 stages is being discussed in Kazakhstan. According to this project first
part of the test would be taken by students who want to study at private universities. In
contrast, people interested in obtaining grants and graduates from previous years and
foreign school graduates would be obliged to take KTA complex test for graduates.
Unfortunately, this project has not been implemented in Kazakhstan yet.
4. Modern problems mathematics education after reform in Russian Federation
Actual problems and condition of education in Russia, problems in implementing
effective, innovative and informative technologies in teaching and learning mathematics
were analyzed by participants of XXI international scientific conference “Mathematics.
Education” in Chuvash in 2013 and XXI international scientific conference
“Mathematics, Computer, Education” in Dubna in 2014. The most outstanding
representatives of scientific society such as Zh.I. Alferov (Ж. И. Алфёров)(2012); G.G.
Malinetskii (Г.Г. Малинецкий)(2013); N.H. Rozov (Н.Х Розов)(2013) are interested in
these problems. In fact, mathematical education in 21st century may be characterized as
the one that provides students with quick and easy access to all information through the
use of the Internet or specialist programmes that enable students to solve difficult tasks
and problems. On the other side, results of education of “mass student” are far away from
expectations in many countries. How contemporary problems in mathematical education
of students and education of prospective specialists for the development of Russian
Federation are perceived by laureate of Nobel Prize in physics Zh. I. Alferov? He says:
1) In this situation analysis of Russian and world economy is essential. When
education and learning are so strongly connected with each other, when we say
about Bolognese Process, then it is essential to understand that two-level system
of education (bachelor- master) may be useful for preparing scientific workers of
some specialities. It is even good when young person can change faculty of their
studies and prospective work and continue their master degree in different
speciality or at other university. In this situation a person becomes a specialist
only after achieving master degree. By necessity, system of educating specialists
should be preserved as it takes place in different countries for example in
Germany. Transformation to two-level system of education should be a result of
real need and real possibilities.
2) We have to refer to the system of new matura exam (ЕГЭ). The system that is
based on tests,in particular new matura exam, was implemented to make it
possible for officials to work in education despite professional pedagogues.
System of exams in form of tests is a departure from real upbringing of a
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specialist that may appear only through interpersonal and mutual influence. With
no doubts, it is important to use computer and on-line technologies but still it
should not be forgotten that the essence is in mutual work and the influence
between teacher and student. And it is essential for real economics and actual
development, see Ж. И. Алфёров (2012, p. 19).
Reflections of N. H. Rozov touching implementation and functioning of new matura
exam in Russia are interesting and critical. New matura concept’s implementation
among all graduates in only one version created a need for private tutors who even
managed to invent system of “teaching about matriculations”. Nowadays it has turned out
that in order to pass matura exam in mathematics it is enough to learn by heart (even
without understanding) some solutions of sample tasks. It caused not only overloading
bookshops’ shelves with published in mass printing of tutorials in how to pass matura
exam in mathematics but also heyday for private tutors who guarantee gaining the most
point in matura exam in mathematics, see Н.Х. Розов (2013).
G.G. Malinetskii (2013) in his paper Russian education. Triumph. Tragedy. Hope
analyses diagnosis of Russian education condition and crisis, its actual problem and
directions to be taken in future. He writes, that the aim of his careful study is to assess
ways of softening or eliminating effects of bad luck that is taking place and to define road
to the future so as not to damage school mathematics as was said by S. N. Nikolsky. The
author appeals to statistics of browsing in the USA phrase “interesting mathematics” in
Google system in 2011. It has turned out that within few years interest in this entry
increased by 2800%. Inquires about “mathematics” in the USA, Europe and Asia are also
at the fore. By contrast, in Russia Federation the situation looks differently. The most
popular entry in Russia is connected with matura exam in mathematics and number of
inquires for “already done homework” increased by 5000%. Hence in contrast to other
counties, conclusion comes that in Russia the generation of students who want copy
despite of solve, see answer in spite of think was brought up.
6th Example
G. G. Malinetskii writes in his article that in 2013 he had a lecture titled "risk
management of national management" in which 150 students took part. They were really
interested in solving realistic, practical tasks and problems that appear in human staff's
management at different levels. Students as well as graduates were eager to take part in
such an international team work organization. However, some gaps in their education
appeared, especially in justification of their work or in taking some logical consecutive
steps to solve given problem. They also lack knowledge of basic mathematical models.
While solving tasks, it turned out that solid lectures and gained credits in mathematical
subjects have no impact on their life. It shows that system of education in Russia does not
work as students do not know what they actually know. It means that they do not know
how to use competences and knowledge which they already acquired. G. G. Malinetskii
continues his conclusions saying that at schools as well as at universities educational
classes are changing too fast to be followed. There is no need of showing mutual
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relations, only pragmatic needs are stated. What and how it should be learnt so as to pass
an exam? examination period is over. Forget about it; they were joking when I was a
student, but in that time it was only a joke.
Furthermore, G. G. Malinetskii underlines the need of focusing the process of
education at schools and at universities on integration between different subjects, on their
mutual relations. Otherwise, contemporary generation of pupils and students would not
remember anything except for their educational documents. He also reminds, that in 21st
century interest in mathematics has risen. Mathematics has been an important part of
human culture and it constitutes a base for other disciplines such as: computer
engineering, computer science and other specialities connected with computers.
Mathematics is also a foundation for mathematical modelling development and increase
in interdisciplinary attitudes. G. G. Malinetskii grieves a slump in Russian system of
education which have been taking place since 1991. The bill "About education" accepted
only in 2012 predicts ceasing tendency of worsening the condition of Russia education
together with intensifying teachers' work and bringing them back to giving private
lessons which would increase their salary. What to do in this difficult for the system of
education situation? What are experts' in risk management suggestions? G. G. Malinetskii
in response to these questions indicates key steps and ideas:
1) change in strategy of education and in aims of education that should correspond
with the ones on which the process of education is focused;
2) giving up matura exam which is only a technology that supports corruption, so as
to make schools responsible for the process of education and its aims and
universities responsible for testing knowledge of candidates for high school;
3) giving up trials to adjust high schools to Bolognese Model, that does not work at
conditions of Russian job market and replacing it with education of specialists of
high-quality;
4) supporting education of specialists in natural science, computer and technical
disciplines;
5) making school free from parasitic subjects and from minor material and early
specialization so as to turn focus on main aims of education.
G. G. Malinetskii analyses in detail relation between educating and education. He realizes

that educating when it is seriously treated is not an easy job but the honourable and
responsible one. Education is needed so as to enrich and serve for standards of educating.
Scientific researches and processes of education development should take place at the
university how it is organised for example in the USA or in West Europe. Fundamental
education, researches and creativity of outstanding students are a huge treasure and
acceleration for system of education. Hence professors, lecturers and not deans, vice
chancellors and well-paid administration should be main figures at the university. If
those people perform their job well, it is a satisfactory reason to respect them, to support
and pay well for their job. Unfortunately, in contemporary Russia, culture of lectures is
not appreciated and value and importance of teacher's work are not understood. G. G.
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Malinetskii (2013, p.155) in conclusion of his paper claims: education crisis in Russia
and in other countries as well is a very good but cruel teacher. It may become a reason
for Russian society to cease system of education degradation and can put it back on its
feet, push it forward despite of backwards.
7th Example
Current problems of mathematics education in Russia also take other authors research.
Multi-level system of higher education (bachelor, specialist, MA) in Russia officially
exists since 1992. This system is currently undergoing significant changes related to its
accession in 2003 year, the Bologna Process. However, the quality of higher education in
Russia has deteriorated, as noted by most researchers. We can also agree with the
statement L. I. Lurie (Л. И. Лурье) (2013, p.28) that: Our time is distinguished by the
fact that, by actively participating in the Bologna Process, Russia is not yet a member of
the international educational community. Mutually agreed not turned into a purposeful
activity: pre-university education does not have a continuity with it like in the West and
elsewhere in the world, post-graduate education in the two-tier system of certification of
scientific personnel is also not consistent with what is in the other countries. The higher
education system in our country acquires features Western, but requires a global scale,
and subsequent reforms. He offers a number of measures for the development of modern
pedagogical education, among which are the following: 1) an in-depth analysis of the
achievements of the Russian system of education in the different years of the XX century.
and in comparison with the best international practices; 2) train teachers for bilingual
teaching of subjects on models, close to the EU to ensure the openness of the Russian
education, enrich it with international experience; 3) to ensure entry into the international
system of teacher education with all its institutional members, which means not only the
election of forms of training undertaken abroad, but also the promotion of a positive
proven experience in teaching activities in Russia.
M. A. Choshanov (М. А. Чошанов) (2013) analyzing the state of school mathematics
education in the United States, focuses on system errors that need to be taken into
account in the development of the Russian concept of mathematical education. As he
calls the negative factors: 1) a residual investment in human capital; 2) the gap between
school mathematics and mathematical science; 3) reduction of the fundamental
mathematical education, it is important to lay the foundations of which are already in
elementary school; 4) coaching for tests instead of the full process of teaching
mathematics; 5) inconsistent and unsystematic in the conduct of school reform; 6)
reduction of the teaching load of mathematics and its translation into the category of
elective courses.
The main conclusion set out in article V. V. Zuckerman (В. В. Цукерман) (2014) is
as follows: for the success of any reform of mathematics education, significant changes
are needed in the training of mathematics teachers. This is especially true teaching and
mathematics education. Also for example, V. A. Dalinger (В. А. Далингер) (2015)
points out the main reasons: 1) a sharp decrease in the number of hours in the study of
mathematical disciplines in the new curriculum Bachelor - future teachers of
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mathematics; 2) a weak financial base of pedagogical institutes. The author of that article
provides for further improvement of mathematics education to give up undergraduate and
graduate and go back to training specialties.
Based on the experience of 20 years of training of mathematics teachers in Togliatti
and six years of experience in the preparation of bachelors and masters of mathematics
education on the basis of Togliatti State University, we can state the following: 1) the
transition to a four-year undergraduate in the preparation of future teachers of
mathematics in Russia currently is not justified; 2) the best results in the mathematical
and pedagogical training of future teachers of mathematics provides a model: specialist (5
years) + Master (2 years), see: R. A. Uteeva (Р. А. Утеева) (2015). The Ministry of
Education and Science of the Russian Federation has high expectations in terms of
modernization of mathematical and pedagogical education based on the adopted in 2013
year a professional standard and the conception of mathematical education. However, the
authors of these documents are not taken into account the many comments that have been
expressed by math teachers in schools and universities.
5. Summary and conclusions
Aims of education, in particular mathematical one, should be, at each stage, realized form
the point of view of individual, society, country and civilization's expectation. What is
more, education cannot be treated as one of economy or industry's branch. It should be a
future of any student. During Congress of Academic Culture in Krakow 2014, Lena
Kolarska-Bobińska who is minister of Education and High Schools in Poland underlined
that contemporary universities and high schools should be open for: 1) social needs; 2)
cooperation with business, schools and teachers; 3) different kinds of students and
different ways of educating.
Both sides of the coin are essential: mathematics and mathematical education for
needs of the future. Hence, following conclusions for ceasing mathematics degradation
and system and practices of students education and for the use of prospective researches
are stated:
1) To update concept of education at schools and at universities in particular core
curriculum, programmes of education and methodology of core curriculum
realization. To monitor and to improve descriptions of quality of education. To
make students aware of mathematics and mathematical education's value. In fact,
usefulness of mathematics, its applications and mathematical modelling can be
noticed in solving problems in different disciplines not only in natural science,
technology and the arts. In process of learning mathematics and getting familiar
with its methods students find out existence of mutual relations.
2) To cease degradation of system of mathematical education. To put it back on its
feet, as suggests G. G. Malinetskii (2013). Furthermore, to define and rebuild lost
system of education as students do not know what they actually know. Researches
about system of education admit that right now the aim of education is to know
how and what should be learnt to pass an exam, gain credit and forget about
mathematics. Hence students have no clue how they can use competences and the
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knowledge that they have already acquired. If this situation lasts, students will not
remember anything except for education documents.
3) To constrain school, university and their authorities' autonomy so as not to
support forcing poor quality of mathematical education. There are some well-
known examples of universities at which improving mathematical education
efficiency is forced at the cost of simultaneous worsening its quality in particular
at so called ordered specialties of studies.
4) To prepare and train teacher staff to carry out classes with the use of informative
an innovative technologies. To design, implement and monitor efficacy of on-line
courses in mathematical education. G. Siemens (2010), world-wide known
authority in using these technologies in teaching and learning process during the
interview titled "challenges for modern education" in his short-cut statement says
that the Internet has not caused the phenomena of slump in system of education.
In fact it is the other way round, these are contemporary systems of education that
have not yet adjusted to the need of education, students' expectations and to the
contemporary world. He also adds that e-learning courses are the best when they
serve the purpose of deepening the basic knowledge and qualifications.
5) To work out, improve and monitor efficacy of e-learning courses in mathematics
for students. While working at it, access to this courses and students' needs should
be taken into consideration. Possibility of choosing topics of material, speed of
learning, methods of education (mobile or on-line) and ways of stimulation
(mentoring or self-education) should be created for students.
6) Contemporary ways of students' stimulation and methods of their education are
moving more and more far away from classic concepts and methods, from
solutions proposed by the country. These trends are changing concepts of
education and the way a school and a teacher function. Computer companies with
their products put pressure on the need of future education modernization and on
professionalism of teacher work. In particular, job of teacher or lecturer is
undertaking a lot of changes. Its classic prototypes, methods of work and the way
classes are carried out, ways of stimulating students' work and of communication
between contemporary student and a teacher that had been used so far loses in
actuality and does not correspond with students' expectations. This generation
anticipates increased efficiency of teacher work and wider help in solving their
difficulties in learning mathematics. They even requires that teacher takes care of
finding and stating their possibilities and gifts, of their professional orientation
and of educative, practical and social routines.
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информатики и образования. Сборник материалов Международной научной

конференции. С(А)ФУ им. М. В. Ломоносова, Архангельск 2014, 64-79.
31. Пардала, А.: 2015, Проблема повышения качества математического
образования в условиях инновационного развития. Математика и
Математическое Образование. Сборник трудов VII Международной научной
конференции: Математика. Образование. Культура. Министерство Образования и
Науки Российской Федерации, Тольяттинский государственный университет, Изд.
ТГУ Тольятти 2015, 36 – 46.
32. Pardała, A., Ashirbayev, N. K., Rakhymbek, D.: 2015, Modern mathematical
education - crisis and the future. Work accepted for publication in a monograph:
Mathematical Transgressions and Education. Pedagogical University of Cracow.
33. Утеева, Р. А.: 2015, Содержательно-методические особенности подготовки
магистров математического образования в России. Science and Education a New
Dimension. Pedagogy and Psychology, III (22). Issue: Budapest, 45, 2015. 14-17, see
www.seanewdim.com .
34. Рейтинг стран мира по уровню образования — информация об исследовании.
Электронный ресурс, see http://gtmarket.ru/ratings/education-index/education-index-
info .
35. Розов, Н. Х.: 2013, Математика для обывателя. Первое сентября. Математика
2.
36. Rachoń, J.: 2009; Przemówienie na otwarcie II seminarium Bez matematyki kariery
nie zrobisz zorganizowane 17 III 2009 roku w Politechnice Gdańskiej, see
www.rachon.senat.pl .
37. Ripley, A.: 2013, The Smartest Kids in the World: And How They Got That Way,
see www.amandaripley.com/books .
38. Sarnacka- Mahoney, E.: 2014, Polska szkoła jest lepsza,
see www.forsal.pl/autor/12040, z-amanda-ripley-rozmawia .
39. Siemens, G.: 2010, Wyzwania nowoczesnego nauczania, wywiad przeprowadzony
przez L.N. Gualtieri, see 23 VI 2010 edudom.pl .
40. The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999, Joint declaration of the European
Ministers of Education, The European Higher Education Area, see www.bologna-
bergen2005.no (Main Documents).
VOL 7, N 4
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POPULATION and EXPONENTIAL GROWTH INVESTIGATIONS:

A MATHEMATICAL LENS
Brian R. Evans
Pace University, New York, United States
Abstract
Overpopulation has potential to reduce the quality of our lives through finite
resource depletion and environmental degradation. While population growth has
potential to increase the standard of living through more robust economic growth within
a strong and young labor market, the consequences for the incredible growth
experienced during the 20th century has led to profound consequences for the planet. The
purpose of this article is to present a problem used with teachers in an alternative
certification teacher preparation program in a mathematics methods class in order to
increase quantitative literacy about the consequences of runaway population growth. The
teachers viewed exponential growth through the use of Albert Bartlett’s Bacteria
Problem.
VOL 7, N 4
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Introduction
Overpopulation is a problem that reduces quality of life locally, as well as
globally, as more resources are needed to support growing populations. With predictions
of fresh water shortages, possible fossil fuel shortages, and agricultural shortfalls, it
seems reasonable to invest in efforts to curtail the population growth through efforts such
as family planning and contraception education. The greater the global population
consuming limited resources, the fewer resources there are available for individuals. This
is particularly true in the consumer driven markets in Western developed nations
compared with the less resource intensive lifestyles in the developing world.
Additionally, increased human birth rates exacerbate the greenhouse emissions of climate
change, which may lead to severe consequences over the next several decades and later in
the century. It is arguable that the planet is beyond its carrying capacity, which is the
maximum population that can be sustained given current resources and circumstances.
In 1798 Thomas Malthus published An Essay on the Principle of Population, a
book that addressed the consequences of increased population such as disease and
starvation but incorrectly predicted such events in the 19th Century. In 1968 Paul
Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb reexamined the Malthusian argument and further
incorrectly predicted impending mass starvation. While Malthus and Ehrlich were wrong
in their predictions for near future consequences, their basic premise of the potential
consequences of overpopulation are worthy of continued consideration. At the time of
writing, the world population is 7.2 billion people (United States Census Bureau, 2015),
and the United Nations predicts the world population could reach 9.6 billion by 2050
(United Nations, 2015). While the growth rate of world population growth is slowing
compared to the high growth rates in the 20th century, and will continue to do so (United
Nations Population Division, 2015), it is expected that there will be nearly about 2.4
billion more people in 2050 than in 2015. This represents a one-third increase in
population between 2015 and 2050. Past wrong predictions do not preclude possible
catastrophic consequences in the next several decades given finite non-renewable
resources necessary for the lifestyles of billions of people and environmental toll this
consumption places on the planet. It is quite possible that in the not too distance future
technological innovations could reduce our dependencies on limited resources and help
us find innovate ways to fuel our lives and the economy just as the Green Revolution
affected the agricultural production to meet the demands of an exponentially growing
world in the mid-20th century. The Green Revolution represents the use of technology to
vastly increase productively in food production, and we may experience something
similar with the use of genetically modified foods in the near future, despite some of
possible safely risks such foods may pose to human health.
Education and Population Growth

Education has the potential to reduce a person’s fertility and consequently lead to
a higher standard of living in a post-industrial economy. Throughout most of history
having children was an economic benefit through having children labor on the family
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
farm and the later appalling practice of the harsh conditions of child labor in the factories
after the industrial revolution. However, today children are mostly economic liabilities in
the modern Western economy and reduce the economic lifestyle of parents even if they
enrich parents’ lives in non-monetary ways.
Studies have shown a strong negative correlation between the level of female
education and the fertility rate, particularly in the developing world (Osili & Long, 2008;
Population Reference Bureu, 2007; Singer, 2009). In other words, the more educated a
woman is, the fewer children she tends to have. Education in general, in addition to
family planning and conception education, has the potential to reduce a society’s fertility
rate, which creates a better economic life for the potential parents while also putting
much less strain on resources and the environment. However, just because something is
good for the individual, and in this case good for natural resource
availability/consumption and environmental preservation, it may have a negative effect
on the future health of the nation’s economy.
As a general rule we can assume that as the birthrate falls below replacement
level, which is about 2.1 children per woman in much of the developed world and as high
as 3.5 children per woman in the developing world (Espenshade, T. J., Guzman, J. C., &
Westoff, C. F., 2003), the economy suffers through reduced labor availability. While an
LA Times editorial emphasized, “Nations cannot indefinitely produce a larger and larger
generations to support older ones” (“Defusing the Population Bomb,” 2011, para 13), a
lower population growth rate means fewer young workers are available to support more
retired people through pension and social security programs. Predictions for the
economies of Japan, China, Germany, Spain, Italy, Greece, Russia, among other
countries, including many in Eastern Europe, range considerably based upon declining
fertility in those countries and regions. However, the highest growth rates tend to cluster
in Sub-Sahara Africa. It can be assumed that countries experiencing demographic decline
will generally, with some exception perhaps, see their national economies move in the
same direction. As a general rule the wealthier nations have been experiencing a lower
birthrate while developing nations experience stronger demographic growth. In some
cases, immigration has boosted a population while local birthrates continued to fall. The
United States is somewhat unique in its robust growth rate compared to many other
wealthy Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries.
The United States current fertility rate per woman is approximately 1.9, compared to
Canada’s 1.6, Germany’s 1.4, Japan’s 1.4, Spain’s 1.3, Japan’s 1.4, and South Korea’s
1.2 (World Bank, 2015).
Here lies the paradox. Having fewer children, or none at all, positively affects the
economic state of an individual, mostly. However, reduced national fertility rate
negatively impacts the macro-economy. The paradox is similar to examples such as an
individual not selling shares in a collapsing stock market for the good of the national
economy, even if it is not good for the individual, or not removing money from the bank
if there is a suspected bank run looming. Drivers are informed not to fill their gas tanks
fully during times of gas shortages, a problem that would exacerbate the shortage. It
VOL 7, N 4
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would benefit the individual to keep a full gas tank, but it would not benefit, but rather
harm, the greater society. Having more children is similar to these ideas if we are willing
to hold the resources depletions and environmental consequences of having more
children in place, aspects that clearly demonstrate advantages of lower birthrates. This
makes population growth a complicated case because more growth can be bad for the
resource availability and environmental health, but more growth could be good for a
country’s economic growth.
As developing countries continue to develop and approach levels of Western
consumption, we see a shift from a less resource-intensive way of life to a more intensive
consumption level as is notable in wealthier OECD countries such as found in Northern
America, Western Europe, and the wealthy Australasia nations (Japan, South Korea,
Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, etc.). As developing nations advance, citizens have
ambitions to live more like citizens living in OECD countries. Given the variables of
individual lifestyle benefits, resource consumption, and environmental degradation, it
would behoove us to encourage people to have fewer children through family planning
and contraception education.
Population and Exponential Growth in the Mathematics Classroom
As a mathematics educator, I am interested in developing engaging ways to
analyze real-world mathematical problems. I discovered Albert Bartlett’s Bacteria
Problem to help students understand how exponential growth worked, particularly in
comparison to population growth. Albert Bartlett was a professor of physics who spent
most of his career at the University of Colorado at Boulder and was concerned about the
negative effects of robust population growth. Bartlett argued that given the nature of
exponential growth, “sustainable growth” was a contradiction (Bartlett, 1994). He
developed the Bacteria Problem to help people understand the power of exponential
growth in a population growth context.
Over the course of several semesters in a mathematics methods course for high
school teachers I presented Bartlett’s problem for the teachers to solve. The teachers
came from a cohort of mathematics high school teachers currently enrolled in the New
York City Teaching Fellows (NYCTF) alternative certification program. The NYCTF
program is a program developed in 2000 in conjunction with The New Teacher Project
and the New York City Department of Education to address the teacher shortages in New
York City schools, particularly high-need schools (Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, Rockoff, &
Wyckoff, 2007; NYCTF, 2015).
Bartlett outlined his Bacteria Problem in an article called “Forgotten
Fundamentals of the Energy Crisis” (n.d.). The first part of Bartlett’s (n.d.) problem
follows.
Bacteria grow by division so that 1 bacterium becomes 2, the 2 divide to give 4,
the 4 divide to give 8, etc. Consider a hypothetical strain of bacteria for which
this division time is 1 minute. The number of bacteria thus grows exponentially
with a doubling time of 1 minute. One bacterium is put in a bottle at 11:00 a.m.
and it is observed that the bottle is full of bacteria at 12:00 noon. Here is a simple
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
example of exponential growth in a finite environment. This is mathematically

identical to the case of the exponentially growing consumption of our finite
resources of fossil fuels. Keep this in mind as you ponder three questions about
the bacteria: (1) When was the bottle half-full?
Let’s stop there and examine Bartlett’s first question. Many students and teachers
presented with the problem suggest that at 11:30 the bottle would be half full. However,
this represents a misunderstanding of how exponential growth works, particularly
doubling time in this case. The correct answer, often to the surprise of students and
teachers, is 11:59. Consider that the population doubles every minute to help understand
how this happens. Working backwards allows us to see that one minute prior to noon the
bottle was half full and subsequently double at noon to fill the entire bottle.
Bartlett (n.d.) continued with question two: “(2) If you were an average bacterium
in the bottle, at what time would you first realize that you were running out of space?”
Bartlett claimed there was no correct answer to this question. He did indicate that at
11:55 only 3% of the bottle is full, which leaves 97% of the bottle free for bacteria to
continue growing. The problem with thinking there is no problem at 11:55 is that by
11:57 the bottle is 12.5% full, by 11:58 the bottle is 25% full, and as we now know by
11:59 the bottle is half full.
Bartlett’s (n.d.) final question is as follows.
Suppose that at 11:58 a.m. some farsighted bacteria realize that they are running
out of space and consequently, with a great expenditure of effort and funds, they
launch a search for new bottles. They look offshore on the outer continental shelf
and in the Arctic, and at 11:59 a.m. they discover three new empty bottles. Great
sighs of relief come from all the worried bacteria, because this magnificent
discovery is three times the number of bottles that had hitherto been known. The
discovery quadruples the total space resource known to the bacteria. Surely this
will solve the problem so that the bacteria can be self-sufficient in space. The
bacterial "Project Independence" must now have achieved its goal. (3) How long
can the bacterial growth continue if the total space resources are quadrupled?
Unfortunately this does not give the bacteria considerably more time as might
have been expected. The answer is it only gives the bacteria two additional minutes. At
noon we know the bottle is full, by 12:01 the bacteria fill the second bottle, and by 12:02
they double again and fill all four bottles.
While well under half of the NYCTF teachers were able to answer the three
questions correctly all of them indicated that before they thought about the questions they
had not anticipated how quickly a population grows in the context of exponential growth.
All NYCTF teachers indicated surprise by the results.
Conclusion
While it is possible to argue in favor of robust population growth in order to
improve economic productively, robust pension and social security systems, and national
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), it can also be argued that finite resource consumption,
environmental degradation and climate change, and individual economic benefits should
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
be seriously considered in educating young people in the benefits and consequences of

curtailing population growth. Teachers given the Bacterial Problem were able to adapt
their expectations about exponential growth and connect this process to a real-world
problem such as population growth against finite natural resources, a lesson they could
bring to the classroom. Better mathematical literacy focused on a basic concept such as
exponential growth has potential to give young people the tools they need to make
informed decisions for their own life choices. Frankly, it is their future and they will need
to decide what that future should be for themselves and their world.
References
Bartlett, A. A. (1994). Population growth and the environment. Population & Education,
16(1), 5-35.
Bartlett, A. A. (n.d.). Forgotten fundamentals of the energy crisis. Retrieved from
http://www.npg.org/specialreports/bartlett_section2.htm
Defusing the population bomb (2011, May 15). LA Times. Retrieved from
latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-ed-population-20110515,0,4170294.story
Ehrlich, P. (1968). The population bomb. New York, NY: Rivercity Press.
Espenshade, T. J., Guzman, J. C., Westoff, C. F. (2003). The surprising global variation
in replacement fertility. Population and Policy Review, 22(5-6), 575-583.
Malthus, T. (1798). An essay on the principle of population. London, UK: J. Johnson.
New York City Teaching Fellows. (2015). About us. Retrieved from
https://www.nycteachingfellows.org/about/overview.asp
Osili, U. O., & Long, B. T. (2008). Does female schooling reduce fertility? Evidence
from Nigeria. Journal of Developmental Economics, 87, 57-75.
Population Reference Bureau. (2007). 2007 world population data sheet. Washington,
DC: Author.
Singer, P. (2009). The life you can save: Acting now to end world poverty. New York,
NY: Random House.
United Nations. (2015). World population projected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050.
Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/un-report-
world-population-projected-to-reach-9-6-billion-by-2050.html
United Nations Population Division. (2015). Total fertility. Retrieved from
http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Maps/
United States Census Bureau. (2015). U.S. and world population clock. Retrieved from
http://www.census.gov/popclock/
World Bank. (2015). Fertility rate. Retrieved from
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
Using Calculators in Teaching Calculus
Pavel Satianov
Sami Shamoon College of Engineering, Beer-Sheva, Israel
Abstract
This paper presents some ideas of using an advanced scientific calculator in teaching of
Calculus. We will illustrate our approaches on example of CASIO fx-991 ES PLUS
calculator, widely used by the students of our college. The advanced features of this
calculator make it possible an effective use not only as a tool for quick computations but
as a helpful instrument for enhancing understanding of main concepts and algorithms of
calculus, for development of explorative, critical and creative thinking of the students.
We discuss also how symbolic calculus ideas may be motivated and evaluated by means
of calculator. What’s more we describe how the calculator itself may be investigated and
what are calculator’s restrictions and mistakes. We indicate how people’s thought may
be better than calculator in some computation problems. As it is mentioned in [1]
“surprisingly, there does not seem to be an extensive research literature on the use of
scientific calculators for learning mathematical concepts” and we hope that our
experience will be helpful for teachers of higher school and lecturers of colleges and
universities.
1. Introduction
The permanent discussion about using Calculators for teaching and learning Mathematics
commented on in Kissane and Kemp, (2013), must be now reversed from “whether the
use of calculators is a positive addition to the mathematics classroom” to “what
effective practices do calculators entail” and “new lines of research should begin to
explore the conditions, resources, and contexts needed to maximize the degree to which
calculator can enhance the teaching and learning of mathematics". The work of authors
Kissane and Kemp, (2013a;2013b) give a wide systematic set of exercises for calculators
users. Our aim is to present some non-standard problems and other, interesting from
educational point of view, aspects connected to the use calculator in teaching Calculus.
At a present time, apart from many kinds of existing calculators (graphical,
programmable, symbolical) their functions may be fulfilled also by various applications
for Note-books, Tablets or Smartphone widely used by students in the mathematics
classes and homework. That results in decreasing use of more developed and
considerable more expensive calculators such as symbolical or graphical ones. The main
reason for use of “simple” scientific Calculators are restrictions imposed for kinds of
Calculators allowed on exams. Despite it, all students of our engineering College use
only fx-991ES PLUS CASIO Scientific Calculator, that is a none-expensive and very
VOL 7, N 4
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comfortable computation device. For this reason we will illustrate our principles and
ideas of using Calculators in teaching Calculus on fx-991ES PLUS CASIO machine.
2. Lecturer and student’s acquaintance with calculator.

As a matter of fact, most lecturers in our college (and as well as in the other higher
educational school in our country) haven’t used such standard modern calculator as fx-
991ES PLUS and instead they use the previous generations of calculators which were in
their possession from the time of their studies. Most of lecturers are from the “pen and
paper” generations and all their calculations were done without powerful devices. They
think that it is the best way for contemporary students as well. But it is impossible to stop
technological progress; we must to take it into account instead of neglecting to use newly
widespread computation devices for the benefit of student’s comprehension of the main
ideas and algorithms of the calculus course.
The student’s attitude to calculators as a convenient device for computations will not
change without lecturers’ impact. The students need proper instructions from the
teachers for effective use of advanced options of the modern scientific calculator.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Calculators

We share the opinion of negative influence of calculators using in primary school
because arithmetic’s operations are vitally important for development of logical thinking,
memory and important learning habits of young pupils (brain formation). On the
contrary, using of calculators in high education makes it possible to concentrate more
interest on thinking about problems which need concept understanding and creative
approaches. But success in this direction firmly depends on the way of using calculator in
classroom and instructions given by the teacher.
We are interpreting calculator as an interactive mathematical dictionary and, in Calculus
Course, as a powerful factory of elementary computation and investigation of functions.
4. Investigation of calculator
We try to attain the student’s attention to some problems connected to calculator’s
features, such as:
What is speed of calculator’s computations?
What algorithms are using in calculator for some computations?
What are the restrictions and possible mistakes of calculator?
How can we check the results of symbolic calculations by calculator use?
Is it possible for the pupil to win some computation competitions with calculator?
5. Investigation of speed of calculators computations.

Most students don’t think about the speed of calculator because they see that calculator
did required computations almost instantly after data input. We ask the question how you
can know, approximately, the speed of its computation? Not many students may answer
these questions – all calculations they do are done by calculator instantly. A following
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
hint is suggested: Think about the operation  and ask Casio to calculate, for example,
 x  .
100
3
the sum
x 1
Here some experimental examples
A
 0 calculate for A=100, 1000, 10000 and check by stopwatch time of computation
x 1
A=100 A=1000 A=10000 A=100000

A “instantly” 7.5 sec 72 sec 12 minutes
 0
x 1
A “instantly” 7.5 sec 72 sec
 1
x 1
A “instantly” 9 sec 85 sec
 X 
x 1
2 sec 22 sec 3 min 45 sec

 X 
A
3
x 1
And as to know how many calculation were done to some fix moment of calculation?
100000
For example try to stop calculation of  1
x 1
after 10 , 20 , 30, 60…. seconds by
pressing the ON key and check the value of X by pressing ALPHA , X, =

The values of X will be about as the next’s: X(20)=2944, X (30) =4353, X(60)=8533
 0;  x ;  x ;  x ;
100000 100000 100000 100000
2 3
Try it for the sums and think about the differences of
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
received results.
At the first Calculus lecture we need the sum 1  2  3  ...  100 (and after that the
sum 13  23  33  ...  1003 ) calculations. We ask the students to do it on their calculators,
but we ask them before the start of computations to estimate the time needed for this
calculations. This is not difficult but non-trivial problem for the students.
We ask “what is probable time to input of the data to calculator?”
As a rule none of the students give the correct answer and we start discussion about this
problem.
The first question is what elementary operation did we do with calculator?
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- key pressing- think that one “press key” operation needs about half of a second (and
we ask to check this suggestion) So for time estimation we need to know the number of
“key press” operations for this sum computation.
At first for input of the numbers from 1 to 100 we will need:
For one-digit numbers (from 1 to 9) 9 “press-key” operations;
For two-digit numbers (from 10 to 99) 90  2  180 “press-key” operations;
For three-digit number (there for number 100 only) 3 “press-key” operations;
For 99 “+” operations we need 99 key pressing
At the end for “=” we need 1 key pressing
So for the straight computation of the given sum we will need 9 1  90  2  99  1  289
(really more because memory restrictions of calculator we need addition “exe” operation
– as wee check only 36 first numbers may be input with “+” before “=” key pressing)
Key pressing operations and if we think that the single key operation needs half of a
second, we will need about 150 seconds or 2.5 minutes for the sum calculation. We ask
the students to check at home our suggestion using this way “straight” computation of the
given sum. We ask who did this straight calculation without mistake and how to know
that the executed calculation was really correct. As a matter of fact not many of students
get the correct result. Note that if pressing of calculators key for total summation were
done without looking at calculators display the answer was always wrong – the cause is
the restriction of memory and after some number of key pressing all next pressing do
nothing- check it for example for the sum 1+1+1+1+1+… - the maximum number of
terms will be 50 and not more (you may press 100 times, or without knowing number of
times (only more than 50)- the result was the same (5). For the sum
100+100+100+100+…+ the maximum number of terms will be 25.
But pressing of calculator’s key with checking the results on the screen takes more than
half of second and so our approximate time needs some correction.
We ask the students give approximate time for direct calculation of the sum
13  23  33  ...  1003
For this sum input an additional operations to needed for the sum 1  2  3  ...  100 are
after all number press Key x   (1) after that press Key 3 (1) and after that press the
central Key for return to addition operation. These operations take about 300 additional
pressing and about 150 seconds or 2.5 additional minutes for input and total about 5
minutes. We ask to check it by direct input of the sum 13  23  33  ...  1003 in calculator
(use stopwatch). In fact it need more than 5 minutes.
We ask the students how this long step summation can be quickly and correctly done by
their fx-991ES PLUS Calculator and discuss about  operator which have this
Calculator. By use of this operations the sum 1  2  3  ...  100 may be calculate
100
instantly:  x  5050
x 1
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The students can see that it is an excellent option but what about the sums of big amount
1000 10000 20000
of terms. For example x
x 1
it takes as 20 seconds, and x
x 1
(85 sec) or  x (about 3
x 1
100000
minutes) and what about the sum  x ? (about 14 minutes) and the result 5000050000.
x 1
It was the first example from which the students have seen that the calculator not always
may did calculations instantly.
Other question is: May we sometimes win with a Calculator in computation process?
We ask the students how this long step summation can be quickly and correctly done by
the use of the suitable precise or approximate formula (if exist) in order to demonstrate
the great power of symbolic calculations.
6. Limit problems.
Proper use of “Casio” options gives to students good possibilities for understanding of
such main calculus notions as limit, derivative, integral. We demonstrate how to check
and to understand limit notion by calculator and what are the restrictions of calculator.
For example:
 1
x
lim1  
x 
 x
For the series of substitutions: x  10, x  100, x  1000, x  1010 , x  1012 , x  1013 by use
of Calc option, we can see the stabilization of outputs:
2.59374246, 2.704813829, 2.716923932, 2.718281828, 2.718281828, 2.718281828
But as a result of substitutions: 1014 the calculators output change suddenly to 1.
What is the reason? The restrictions of calculator which in its calculations of the base
1  1014 saves it as 1 and after that computation each power of 1 is 1. So we recommend
not to exaggerate in our advance in the process x  a , or x  
Other example: limcos x 
1
x2
x 0
For the series of substitutions: x  0.1, x  0.01, x  0.001, x  104 , x  105 , x  107 by
use of Calc option, we can see the stabilization of outputs:
0.6060240772, 0.6065256052, 0.6065306112, 0.606530659, 0.6065306597,
0.6059244322, 1
We can see also in this example that calculator give non-correct answer already for
x  106 and change the result dramatically for x  107
We suggest to students: Be careful in the advance of the variable and not give to its value
to be too close to “the end” of the limitation process.
7. The derivative of a function
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We ask the students to check the way how calculator computes the value of the
derivative.
dy
Leibniz’s notation for derivative and vertical line for substitution of x value
dx
d
  hint at the numerical derivative computation by means of the difference
dx x  a
quotient of (the change in y divided by the change in x )
df ( x) f ( a  h)  f ( a )
In symbolic calculus we obtain  lim and in numerical
dx x  a h 0 h
df ( x)
computation calculator take some value of h, close to 0 and obtain as
dx x  a
f (a  d )  f (d )
d
What value of h can the calculator take (and is it constant for all computation of
derivatives)?
Some experiments for this question need to be done.
For example:
For experimental computation of the derivative of f ( x)  x 3 at the point 2 (precise value
is 3x 2  12 ) we may input the function
2
( 2  D ) 3  23
and than press the CALC key. After that the several values for D may be
D
given:
D  0.1  12.61; D  0.01  12.0601; D  0.001  12.006001; D  106  12.000006;
D  10 6  12.000006; D  10 7  12;
For experimental computation of the derivative of f ( x)  e x at the point 0 (precise value
is e x  1 ) we may input the function (expression)
0
e 1
D
and press CALC key. After that the several values for D may be given:
D
D  1.051709181 12.61; D  0.01  1.005016708; D  0.001  1.000500167;
D  10 5  1.000005; D  10 6  1.0000005; D  10 7  1;
The answers of calculator may be incorrect at singular points where the derivative
doesn’t exist. For example f ( x)  x (Abs key) .The calculator gives  x   0 . But
d
dx x 0
the correct answer – the derivative doesn’t exist at point 0.
Now try the function with graph
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The equation for this function is 1.5 x  0.5 x and calculator gives
d
1.5 x  0.5x   1
dx x 0
The investigate question is how were calculate these incorrect answers by calculator?
But the correct answer – the derivative doesn’t exist at point 0.
From these incorrect answers we may think that calculator’s schema for
computations may be
f (a  D)  f (a  D)
2D
Where D is very small positive number chosen by calculators program. But this option
not gives the results which calculator obtains in mention above examples…
8. Understanding of approximations formulas
x 4  20x 3  50x 2  240
Think about calculation the value of the function for x =1000
x3
Without thinking before calculations, most students takes their calculators and do the
direct formula computation
Some options for this calculation exist for Casio fx 99ES users
Numerical input only
10004  20  10003  50  10002  240
needs about 1 minutes and gives the result 1019.95
10003
Use of symbolic input of expression and CALC Key needs about 1 minutes too but now
x 4  20x 3  50x 2  240
we can instant calculate the values of the function for any x (that
x3
is in calculator’s numbers range).
The question for students is “Is it possible to do such calculations for the big values of x
without calculator use and as a matter of fact more quickly than calculator” Let’s do
some competition with calculator.
The aim of such discussion is an introduction to the asymptotic behavior of functions and
understanding of usefulness of the presentation of given function in equivalent form:
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50 240
x  20   3
x x
From this presentation must be clear for students that for big values of x the value of the
function is close to x + 20 and as more big is x – more precise is this simple calculation
and we ask the students to compare the approximate calculation x+2 with calculators
precise results.
9. Definite Integral computations.

What are methods used by Casio fx for computation?
1000
 x dx instantly
2 2
We can see that for f ( x)  x the calculator give the result
0
1000
For the function f ( x)  sin x the calculator give the result  sin xdx
0
after about 12
1000
minutes and the result is  sin xdx  0.43762092370.
0
Check it by use of symbolic calculus formula
1000
 sin xdx   cos(x)

1000
0  1  cos1000  0.4376209237
0
Here we can see how precise numerical computations were (in spite that the process was
so lengthy)!
Try did integral computation by trapeze formula
10. Conclusions.
Our experience show that mention above approaches are interesting and useful for most
of the students and activate their research abilities. The knowing of calculator’s features
is valuable not for Calculus teaching but to others disciplines too.
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REFERENCES
Burrill, G. et al (2002) Handheld graphing technology in secondary mathematics:
Research findings and implications for classroom practice. Michigan State
University: Texas Instruments.
Drijvers, P. & Weigand, H.-G. (2010) The role of handheld technology in the
mathematics classroom. ZDM Mathematics Education, 42, 665-666.
Idris, N. (2005) Teaching and Learning of Mathematics: Making sense and
developing cognitive abilities. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications.
Ronau, R., Rakes, C., Bush, S., Driskell, S., Niess, M. & Pugalee, D. (2011). NCTM
Research Brief: Using calculators for learning and teaching mathematics. Retrieved
29 July 2012 from http://www.nctm.org/news/content.aspx?id=31192
Kissane and Kemp (2013a). Conceptual development and the modern scientific
calculator: Using a forgotten technology
Kissane and Kemp (2013b) Learning Mathematics with ES PLUS Series Scientific
Calculator. Cassio Worldwide Education Website
Kissane and Kemp (2012). Calculators and the mathematics curriculum. In W.-C. Yang,
The place of calculators in mathematics education in developing countries. Journal of
Science and Mathematics Education in Southeast Asia. 35(2), 102-118.
Kissane, B. & Kemp, M. and Nyaumwe, L. (2006) Investigating Zimbabwean
mathematics teachers’ dispositions on the ‘O’ Level calculator syllabus 4028. South
African Journal of Education, 26(1), 39-47.
M. Majewski, T. de Alwis & K. Khairiree (Eds.) Creative and Critical Thinking in
Mathematics Through Technology: Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference of
the AsianTechnology Conference on Mathematics. (pp 178-187) Bangkok, Thailand:
ATCM Inc.
Odera, F. & Ochanda, O. (2011) Challenges in the use of scientific calculators in the
teaching and learning mathematics in secondary school education. International
Journal of Information and Communication Technology Research, 1(5), 230-238.
Peirce, R., Stacey, K., & Wander, R. (2010) Explaining the didactic contract when
handheld technology is permitted in the mathematics classroom. ZDM Mathematics
Education, 42, 683-695.
Ronau, R., Rakes, C., Bush, S., Driskell, S., Niess, M. & Pugalee, D. (2011). NCTM
Research Brief: Using calculators for learning and teaching mathematics. Retrieved
29 July 2012 from http://www.nctm.org/news/content.aspx?id=31192
Ruthven, K. (1996) Calculators in the mathematics curriculum: The scope of personal
computational technology. In Laborde, C. (ed.) International handbook of
mathematics education. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
An Observation Protocol Measuring Secondary Teachers’

Implementation of Dynamic Geometry Approach*
M. Alejandra Sorto
Zhonghong Jiang
Alexander White
Sharon Strickland
Texas State University

USA
Abstract
Studies that measure the impact of an instructional intervention rely on measures of

fidelity in the classroom, especially when the intervention involves the use of technology.
To examine the extent to which teachers implement a dynamic approach to teaching
geometry in secondary classrooms, we develop a 25-item observation protocol based on
four dimensions which include planned and implemented dynamic geometry approach
elements, quality of instruction, and engagement and discourse. We present evidence of
reliability and validity of the instrument.
Keywords: Secondary; Dynamic geometry; Observation protocol; Teaching practices.
_________________________
* This research was supported by the Dynamic Geometry in Classrooms project funded by the
National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0918744. Any opinions, finding and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the National Science Foundation.
An Observation Protocol Measuring Secondary Teachers’ Implementation of
Dynamic Geometry Approach
VOL 7, N 4
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1. Introduction
Since the publication of the U. S. Common Core State Standard for Mathematics
(CCSSM), the nature of the teaching and learning of geometry in secondary schools
has changed to explicitly include transformational geometry and the use of dynamic
geometry environments to “provide students with experimental and modeling tools
that allow them to investigate geometric phenomena in much the same way as
computer algebra systems allow them to experiment with algebraic phenomena”
(National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State
School Officers, 2010).
Research suggests that alternatives to traditional instructional approaches can be
successful in moving students toward meaningful justification of ideas. “In these
approaches, students worked cooperatively, making conjectures, resolving conflicts by
presenting arguments and evidence, proving nonobvious statements, and formulating
hypotheses to prove. Teachers attempted to involve students in the crucial elements of
mathematical discovery and discourse” (Battista & Clements, 1995, p.50).
Dynamic geometry (DG) is an active, exploratory study of geometry carried out with
the aid of interactive computer software such as the Geometers’ Sketchpad (GSP)
(Jackiw, 2001). The instructional approach for using DG software to facilitate
students’ learning is referred to as the DG approach in this paper. Many researchers
have conducted studies on using the DG approach in geometry learning. In a study
conducted by Hannafin, Burruss, & Little (2001), findings centered around two main
themes: issues of power and learning. While the teacher had difficulty relinquishing
control of the learning environment, students liked their new freedom encouraged by
the DG instruction, worked hard, and expressed greater interest in the subject material.
Vincent (2005) found that the dynamic visualization offered by the DG software
motivated and fostered conjecturing and intense argumentation; and that the teacher’s
intervention–prompting the students to furnish valid justifications for their statements–
was an important feature of the students’ argumentations. Hollebrands (2007)
identified different purposes for which students used dragging and measuring when
exploring in DG environments. These purposes appeared to be influenced by students'
mathematical understandings that were reflected in how they conducted reasoning
about physical representations, the types of abstractions (empirical abstractions,
pseudo-empirical abstractions, or reflective abstractions) they made, and the reactive
or proactive strategies they employed. Baccaglini-Frank and Mariotti (2010) presented
“a model describing some cognitive processes that can occur during the production of
conjectures in dynamic geometry and that seem to be related to the use of specific
dragging modalities” (p. 225) and used it to analyze students’ explorations of open
problems. Thus, when used as a cognitive tool, DG technology can facilitate students’
VOL 7, N 4
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exploration and investigation activities, promote their conjecturing, verifying,

explaining, and logical reasoning abilities, and enhance their conceptual understanding
of important geometric ideas.
A research project funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) conducted
repeated randomized control trials to investigate the efficacy of an approach to high
school geometry that utilizes DG software to engage students in constructing
mathematical ideas through experimentation, observation, data recording, conjecturing,
conjecture testing, and proving. This approach was referred to as the DG approach in the
project, and the DG software used by the project was GSP.
This paper describes an instrument developed by the DG project research team to
measure the fidelity of DG implementation. The paper proceeds as follows. Section 2
presents background studies related to measuring teaching practices using observation
protocols. Section 3 describes the development of the instrument, evidence of
reliability and validity, while Section 4 concludes with a discussion.
2. Background
Many education researchers have observed school classrooms and measured their
characteristics for different purposes (Shavelson, Webb and Burstein, 1986). The number
of classroom observation instruments reviewed by Roshenshine and Furst (1973) and
later Brophy and Good (1986) is almost as large as the number of studies reviewed – over
150. These particular instruments measured only behaviors related to teaching in general,
such as pacing of instruction, classroom management, clarity and questioning the
learners. More recently, observation protocols have been developed in the context of
measuring teacher and teaching quality such as the Framework for Teaching (Danielson
Group, 2011), the Local Systemic Change (LSC) Classroom Observation Protocol
(Horizon Research, 2005) and the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS)
(Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2007). Although these protocols are commonly used, even in
international settings, they are not designed to measure the teaching quality of a specific
content domain. In response to the need to better explain the mathematical aspects as well
as the mathematical pedagogy harnessed during lessons, mathematics educators have
turned their attention to the development of more specific observation protocols and
instruments. Two observation protocols with published validity information aligned with
content specific teaching and practices are 1) the Reform Teaching Observation Protocol
(RTOP) for mathematics and science (Sawada et al., 2002; Piburn et al., 2000) and 2)
Mathematical Quality of Instruction (MQI) for mathematics (Hill, Charalambos, & Kraft,
2012; Hill et al., 2008; Learning Mathematics for Teaching Project, 2011). For the
purpose of measuring a specific area within mathematics, Geometry, and a specific
approach inherent by the content itself, the dynamic approach, we found the above
protocols informative but not adequate. Next, we describe how we adapted the RTOP and
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MQI elements to design a unique observation protocol to measure the extent to which the
dynamic geometry approach is implemented in secondary geometry classrooms.
3. Measuring implementation of Dynamic Geometry approach with an

observation protocol
3.1. Instrument Development
The purpose of the observation protocol in the Dynamic Geometry (DG) Project was
to measure the fidelity of implementation, or the extent to which teachers
implemented the DG approach in their classrooms. We began with the development
of a blueprint for dynamic geometry teaching based on a review of empirical studies
and key documents related to the teaching and learning of geometry with
technological tools (e.g., Hollebrands, 2007; Baccaglini-Frank and Mariotti, 2010;
NCTM, 2000), mathematics quality of instruction (Hill, et al. 2008, Stein, et al.
2000), and reformed teaching (Pibum & Sawada, 2002). Table 1 shows the four
dimensions of the blueprint serving as the basis for the observation protocol. Our
team developed most of the items, but some were adjusted from existing items
developed by previous researchers. Each item used a 4-point Likert response scale
borrowed from the Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) from never
occurred (0) to very descriptive (4). The scale reflects the degree, to which the
aspect was characteristic of the lesson observed, as opposed to the number of times
the aspect occurred.
Using an initial protocol of 34 items, the research team observed and
scored a set of videotaped lessons taught by geometry teachers. In addition, external
experts were consulted for feedback on the items. The purpose of this process was to
improve the description of the items and to write a training manual that could help
raters achieve the desired level of reliability. The training consisted of detailed
explanations of each aspect, use of a video lesson taught by a master teacher (a high
school teacher with rich experience in geometry curriculum and instruction working
for the DG project) to practice coding, discussion of disagreements, and clarification
of terms. For a multi-year project exploring the effect of the DG approach on
students’ geometry learning, an instrument that could describe the fidelity of the DG
implementation was necessary. During the first year of DG implementation, pairs of
trained raters completed observations of the same class and met immediately
afterwards to discuss codes. Both independent codes and reconciled codes were
collected for analysis. In spring 2011 a total of 66 observations were processed (33
geometry lessons). The inter-rater reliability for this initial set of observations was
0.837. The external experts continued to improve the instrument after its first-year
use in the classrooms. For example, the initial instrument had the simple descriptor
“the lesson leads the class to drag”, that was improved to a fuller description: “the
lesson leads the class to drag for the purpose of determining whether observed
quantities and/or relationships remain constant, are changing, or are otherwise
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impacted by the action.” The final version of the DG Observation Protocol (DGOP)
consists of 25 items organized in the same four dimensions described in Table 1(see
entire instrument in Appendix A).
Table 1
Dimensions of Dynamic Geometry Teaching Approach
Dimension 1: Intended Dynamic Geometry Approach
The lesson as planned has key features of the DG approach (e.g. tasks that involve
the use of the dynamic moving and measuring functions of the software to do
observations and explorations; activities move students from initial conjecture, to
investigation, to more thoughtful conjecture and, to verification).
Dimension 2: Implemented Dynamic Geometry Approach

The lesson as implemented has key features of the DG approach. This includes the
use of software functions (drag, transform, animate, measure, and construct) and
actions beyond the use of software (observation, investigation of mathematical
relationships in multiple ways, form and test conjectures, motivated to think
mathematically, and prove their conjectures).
Dimension 3: Quality of Instruction (Teacher’s Role)

Teacher provides opportunities for students to engage in high levels of cognitive
demand mathematical practices, teacher demonstrates knowledge for teaching
geometry in the dynamic technological environment, and teacher guides the student
through the process of conjecturing and proof process.
Dimension 4: Engagement and Discourse

Students share questions, hints, and progress reports with their neighbors. Students
offer and request help from their peers when working on their own computer.
Students engage in whole-class discussion when necessary.
3.2. Evidence of Reliability

During the second year of DG implementation, the final observation protocol was
used in 25 geometry lessons. As before, two members of the research team observed
and independently coded each lesson. The estimates of inter-rater reliability were
calculated by a regression line of the observation of one observer on those of the
other. Figure 1 shows the scatter plot of the data points with a correlation
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coefficient of 0.901 and the proportion of variance explained (R-Squared) by the line
is 0.812. These estimates of reliability are high and comparable with the RTOP
instrument, which has a correlation coefficient of 0.98 and an R-Square of 0.954
(Sawada et al., 2002).
Figure 1. Estimate of inter-rater reliability of the observation protocol from

observations in geometry classes. (R – Square = 0.812)
Further evidence of reliability of the observation protocol is presented in Table 2

where estimates were computed for each dimension or subscale and the instrument
as a whole. Note that all the dimensions, except for the Intended DG Approach,
have high estimates of reliability. Two things can be attributed to these lower
estimates in this particular dimension. One possible explanation is the fact that the
dimension was measured with only five items and the second possible explanation is
that the items heavily depend on lesson plans and instructional materials available to
the observers at the time of the observation. When these materials were not
available, the observers were instructed to infer the intended goals and design of the
lesson from the observed implemented lesson.
Table 2
Reliability Estimates for Dimensions of observation protocol
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Dimensions Correlation R - Squared

Intended DG Approach 0.681 0.464
Implemented DG 0.911 0.830
Approach
Quality of Teaching 0.815 0.664
Engagement 0.825 0.681
Overall observation 0.901 0.812
protocol
3.3. Evidence of Face Validity

The face validity of the observation protocol draws on three major sources: (a)
Common Core State Standard for Mathematics, and Principles and Standards for
School Mathematics (NCTM, 2000); (b) Reform Teaching Observation Protocol
(RTOP) for mathematics and science (Sawada et al., 2002; Piburn et al., 2000), and
Mathematical Quality of Instruction (MQI) for mathematics (Hill, Charalambos, &
Kraft, 2012; Hill et al., 2008; Learning Mathematics for Teaching Project, 2011); and
(c) the operational definition of the dynamic geometry approach (Jiang et al., 2011).
The detailed relationship between these documents and the observation protocol can
be found in the reference manual and technical reports in Appendix B.
3.4. Evidence of Construct Validity
To test the hypothesis that inquiry-oriented conjecturing and proving is a
powerful integrating force in the structure of the observation protocol, a
correlational analysis was performed on the four dimensions or
subscales. Each subscale will be used to predict the total score. High R-
Squared values would support the hypothesis, offering strong support
for the inquiry-base conjecturing and proving construct validity of the
observation protocol (Table 3).
Table 3
Domains as Predictors of the Observation Protocol Total Score
Domains Correlation R – Squared
Intended DG Approach 0.842 0.709
Implemented DG 0.970 0.941
Approach
Quality of Teaching 0.897 0.805
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Engagement 0.611 0.373
Except for the last domain of Engagement, all the domains are high predictors of
the total observation protocol scores, providing strong evidence of the inquiry-oriented
conjecture and proving validity of the observation protocol. The domain of
Engagement relates to student and teachers practices around participation, discourse,
and remediation. These practices, although important elements of the DG approach,
are the most independent of the other domains in the sense that a lesson could score
high on this dimension but low in the others or vice-versa. For example, teachers and
students could be actively engaged in the class by discussing and helping each other
about a topic that did not involve any of the intended or implemented goals of the
lesson. In an inter-domain correlation analysis (not shown here) the only low
correlation was between Engagement and Implemented DG Approach, providing
evidence that these two domains are not highly associated.
To better understand construct validity of observation protocol
we examined a two case studies of teachers, using their observation
protocol scores, notes from observers that accompanied the observation
protocol instrument, as well as the two teachers’ own self-reports
provided approximately monthly during each school year. The self-
reports asked teachers to describe how they used DG to explore,
conjecture, and prove in their classrooms, how/if they felt students were
learning, and a variety of other questions aimed at issues of fidelity.
Maria scored very high on her observation protocol; outscoring all other DG
teachers nearly every time. These scores should indicate that she is faithful to the DG
approach. Her self-reports corroborated this information and added some nuance.
Throughout the first year of the project she reported being very excited about using DG
and thought the approach was helping her students learn. She described many lessons she
had conducted or planned to conduct and these seemed in line with the observed lessons
in terms of DG usage. As the first year drew to a close her self-reports indicated
frustration with her curriculum calendar and how it conflicted with her desired use of DG
for her students. For example, she preferred using two days per DG lesson where the first
day was exploring and conjecturing and the second day wrapped up conjecturing and
proving. She indicated that she felt pressured by the pace of her district’s calendar to use
DG less often and that by the end of the year she had been using DG more as a
demonstration on the overhead projector than as an exploration activity with students at
shared computer stations. The observations during the first year did not capture
demonstration usage, we suspect, because many of her self-reports indicating this change
happened after the conclusion of observations in her class for that year.
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The second year our observations again ranked her highly in terms of observation
protocol scores. Her self-reports again shifted away from beginning-year enthusiasm to
more hesitancy to use the DG approach as often as she had in Year 1 and with a shift,
again, to teacher-led demonstrations. Again, we do not have observer data that matches a
demonstration approach to DG, as she described in her self-reports. We suspect this may
be for two related reasons. Firstly, she never stated that she’d given up student-led DG
lessons, just that she shifted away from using them as frequently. Secondly, it is likely
that she planned her student-led lessons on days we observed. Our observations and her
self-reports indicate that she can and did lead careful DG lessons with her students. The
observation protocol captured these well. But the limited time to observe in her classroom
did not allow for observation protocols to capture her changing approach to her lessons.
The observation protocol seemed to be an indicator of her ability to lead a great lesson
more so than a measure that she sustained this throughout the project. The observation
protocol, then, seemed to measure her propensity and ability to do DG well rather than a
measure that most or all of her lessons were of this high quality. We hypothesize that
many of her later-year lessons, if we were able to observe more frequently, would reveal
that her observation protocol scores would decrease in as much as she began using DG
less often with students’ leading the explorations, conjecturing, and proving. We further
hypothesize that the observation protocol would still capture that distinction.
Carla, by contrast, scored low to medium on her observation protocol in Year 1 of
the project (far below Maria). Her self-reports that year also corroborated those scores.
She frequently mentioned ordering DG lessons differently than the project envisioned,
going so far as to acknowledge fully in her reports that she was using the technology in
“reverse” order. She taught concepts first in the classroom and then had students use GSP
in the lab to verify results already learned rather than to explore as new content with the
technology. Her low observation protocol scores aligned with her self-reported usage;
that her lessons were not explorations of ideas but were verifications of already learned
material. As the first year drew to a close her self-reports indicated that she wanted to try
to do more exploring first with DG, but was not yet ready to fully change her teaching
style.
Her Year 2 self-reports suggested that she underwent the change she had been
considering the previous year. She began to reserve every Monday in the lab for students
to explore and conjecture and then spent the rest of the week unpacking the ideas
encountered in the Monday DG labs. Subsequent observations in her classroom, after her
self-reported change, generated new observation protocol scores that were much higher
than her Year 1 scores. This seemed to suggest that the observation protocol captured her
range of lessons across both years.
In conclusion these two cases suggest the observation protocol can measure the
overall fidelity to DG at least on the days observed. In Carla’s case, she began the project
not using DG as faithfully as the project envisioned and the observation protocol seemed
to accurately measure that usage. The observation protocol was, though, able to measure
her changes after Year 1, as she began to be more faithful to the project’s intentions for
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DG in the classroom. In both years her observation protocol scores matched her reported
usage. Maria presents a more difficult case of fidelity. From the start Maria was quite
skilled at teaching using the DG approach and her ability to do so did not decrease as her
observation protocol scores revealed. What did seem to decrease, evidenced by her self-
reports, was her frequency to use this style of DG lesson.
4. Discussion
In the continually-evolving world of technology, the teaching and learning of

geometry in US secondary classrooms is becoming more dynamic in nature. By using a
dynamic approach to teaching geometry, students are more exposed to more
mathematical practices that facilitate the learning of processes such as exploring,
conjecturing, and proving (Jiang et al, 2011). As this approach to teaching geometry is
more-widely implemented in classrooms, either as part of curricular innovations or as
future research projects, appropriately measuring the fidelity of DG implementation is
necessary. Despite time and labor intensiveness of classroom observations, a measuring
method that relies on observational data is needed to address the drawback of relying
solely on teachers’ self report when capturing implementation fidelity. This was why the
DG Observation Protocol was developed and used in the project.
The DG Observation Protocol (DGOP) was built upon dynamic geometry
research literature, measures of quality and reform teaching, and external experts’ advice.
The operationalization of the DG approach allows observers to measure the extent to
which the DG approach is intended and implemented in the classroom. Our data show
that with training, teams of observers using DGOP can reach high levels of inter-rater
reliability. Further, quantitative and qualitative analyses of our observations provide
evidence that the scores stemming from the observation protocol reflect the degree of
fidelity of the implementation of the DG approach.
Some scholars may argue that certain aspects of teaching geometry in a dynamic
environment are not captured in DGOP. A possible example may be, students’
technological moves and discourses as they explore and conjecture during the lesson
seem necessary to assess the level of engagement with the approach. However, with
established validity and reliability this observation protocol has painted a clear picture of
the DG approach that teachers implemented and provides a mechanism to quantifying
that specification. It has the great potential to serve as a tool to further investigate the
nature of the teaching and learning of geometry in dynamic environments.
References
Baccaglini-Frank, A., & Mariotti, M.A. (2010). Generating conjectures in dynamic

geometry: the Maintaining Dragging Model. International Journal of Computers for
Mathematical Learning, 15(3), 225-53.
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Battista, M. T. & Clements, D. H. (1995). Geometry and proof. Mathematics Teacher,

88(1), 48-54.
Brophy, J., & Good, T. L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. C.
Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook for research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 328-375). New York:
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Appendix A
I. DESCRIPTION OF INTENDED DYNAMIC GEOMETRY LESSON
1. The lesson has appropriate objectives for the concept(s) being explored.
2. The lesson includes tasks that involve the use of the dynamic moving and dynamic measurement
functions of the software to do observations and explorations.
3. The activities develop the notion of “figure” rather than “drawing” – attending to underlying
relationships rather than particular of a specific drawing.
4. The activities in the lesson are designed to move students along the following trajectory (or part of it):
from initial conjecture, to investigation, to more thoughtful conjecture, to verification and proof.
5. The activities are designed to so that students observe interesting mathematical phenomena and are
motivated and challenged to understand why these phenomena occur and to explain them logically.
II. DESCRIPTION OF IMPLEMENTED DYNAMIC GEOMETRY LESSON

The lesson leads the class to
6. construct with limited explicit guidance by the teacher or other materials (i.e. handout w/ specific steps).
7. “drag” for the purpose of determining whether observed quantities and/or relationships remain constant,
are changing, or are otherwise impacted by the action,
VOL 7, N 4
Summer 2015
8. measure for the purpose of further exploring relationships and/or conjecturing, and/or disproving
9. observe the various quantities/qualities of their sketches, particularly relationships that might lead to
conjectures or proofs
10. investigate mathematical relationships in multiple ways including using transformations and/or
animations,
11. form conjectures based on students’ interactions with the software,
12. test conjectures using the software or other means (i.e. deductive reasoning),
13. take advantage of immediate feedback (as offered by the software or teacher)
14. reason inductively and/or deductively throughout
15. prove (or disprove) their conjectures.
III. ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY OF TEACHING

LEVEL OF COGNITIVE DEMAND
16. Students engage in recollection of facts, formulae, or definitions. (Memorization)
17. Students engage in performing algorithmic type of problems and have no connection to the underlying
concept or meaning. (Procedures without connections)
18. Students engage on the use of procedures with the purpose of developing deeper levels of
understanding concepts or ideas. (Procedures with connections)
19. Students engage in complex and nonalgorithmic thinking, students explore and investigate the nature of
the concepts and relationships. (Doing Mathematics)
TEACHERS’ OBSERVED KNOWLEDGE
20. The teacher has a solid grasp of the geometry content at the level he or she is teaching. (Grade level
geometry knowledge)
21. The teacher has knowledge of the use of instructional techniques specific to teaching geometry along
with a deep understanding of the subject to appropriately integrate instruction with the concepts.
(Mathematical Pedagogical knowledge/knowledge for teaching)
22. The teacher leads students to the appropriate geometric dynamic actions (drag, transform, animate,
measure, and construct) according to the goals of the lesson.
(Dynamic Geometrical knowledge for teaching)
IV. ASSESSMENT OF ENGAGEMENT AND DISCOURSE

23. Students are encouraged to share questions, hints, ideas, and/or progress with other students
24. Teacher circulates, observes (to monitor progress), asks questions, and provides necessary help as
students work.
25. Teacher initiates class discussion when necessary.
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Summer 2015

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