The System Unit, Processing, and Memory

Data and Program Representation

> Digital data representation is the process of representing data in digital form so it can be
understood by a computer
- Coding systems are used to represent data and programs in a manner understood by
the computer
- Digital computers can only understand two states, off and on (0 and 1)
- Computers recognize only two states—off and on—usually represented by 0 and 1.
Digital Data Representation
> A bit is the smallest unit of data that a binary computer can recognize (a single 1 or 0)
> A byte is equivalent to 8 bits
- Byte terminology used to express the size of documents and other files, programs,
etc.
> Prefixes are often used to express larger quantities of bytes: kilobyte (KB), megabyte
(MB), gigabyte (GB), terabyte (TB), petabyte (PB), exabyte (EB), zettabyte (ZB),
yottabyte (YB)
> Bits and bytes. Document size, storage capacity, and memory capacity are all measured
in bytes.
Representing Numerical Data: The Binary Numbering System
> The binary numbering system uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all possible
numbers
- The numbering system computers use
> The decimal numbering system uses 10 symbols (0-9)
- The numbering system people use
> In both systems, the position of the digits determines the power to which the base
number (such as 10 or 2) is raised
Coding Systems for Text-Based Data: ASCII and EBCDIC
> ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the coding system
traditionally used with personal computers
- Most commonly uses 8 bits
> EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
- Developed by I B M, primarily for mainframes
Coding Systems for Text-Based Data: Unicode
UNICODE
> Newer code consisting of 8 to 32 bits per character
> Universal coding standard designed to represent text-based data written in any ancient
or modern language, as well as thousands of other symbols and signs
> Replacing A S C I I as the primary text-coding system
Coding Systems for Other Types of Data: Graphics Data
> Graphics data (still images such as photos or drawings) consist of bitmapped images
made up of a grid of small dots called pixels
 - Monochrome graphic can only be one of two colors
> Requires just one bit for color storage
- Images with more than two colors
> Can use 4, 8, or 24 bits to store the color data for each pixel
- The number of bits per pixel depends on the type of image
> JPEG images taken by most digital cameras today use 24-bit true color images;
large images can typically be compressed
> Common image formats include TIF, BMP, GIF, and PNG
Representing Graphics Data
> With bitmapped images, the color of each pixel is represented by bits; the more bits
used, the better the image quality.
Coding Systems for Other Types of Data: Audio and Video Data
> Audio data must be in digital form in order to be stored on or processed by a computer
- Often compressed when sent over the Internet
> MP3 files are 10 times smaller than their uncompressed digital versions
> Compressed files download more quickly and take up less storage space
> Video data is displayed using a collection of frames, each frame contains a still image
- Amount of data can be substantial, but can be compressed
Representing Software Programs: Machine Language
> Machine language is a binary-based language for representing computer programs the
computer can execute directly
- Early programs were written in machine language
- Today’s computers allow programs to be written in a programming language, which is
then translated by the computer into machine language in order to be understood by
the computer
Inside the System Unit
> The system unit is the main case of a computer or mobile device
- Houses the processing hardware for a computer
- Also contains other components, such as storage devices, the power supply, cooling
hardware, one or more processors, several types of memory, and interfaces to
peripheral devices
- Interconnected through sets of wires called buses on the motherboard
Inside a Desktop System Unit
The Motherboard
> The motherboard is a circuit board consisting of computer chips, also called integrated
circuits (ICs)
- ICs contain interconnected components (such as transistors) to perform particular
functions
- All devices connect via a wired or wireless connection to the motherboard
- External devices connect by plugging into a port
> The port is either built directly into the motherboard or created via an expansion
card
 - Wireless external devices use either a transceiver or wireless networking technology
The Power Supply and Drive Bays
> The power supply connects to the motherboard to deliver electricity
> Portable computers use a rechargeable battery pack
- Built-in batteries more difficult and expensive to replace, resulting in electronic waste
(e-waste)
> Drive bays are rectangular metal racks inside the system unit that house storage devices
- Hard drive, CD/DVD drive, flash memory card reader
- Storage devices also connect to the motherboard
Processors and the CPU
> A processor consists of circuitry and components packaged together and connected
directly to the motherboard
> The CPU (central processing unit) does the vast majority of processing for a computer
- Called a microprocessor when talking about personal computers
- Typically designed for a specific type of computer
> Desktops, servers, and some notebook P Cs use Intel or Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD) processors
> Portable computers and mobile devices often use Intel oRAM D mobile processors
or an A R M processor instead
CPU Cores
> Multi-core CPUs contain the processing components (cores) of multiple independent
processors in a single CPU
> Dual-core CPUs contain two cores
> Quad-core CPUs contains four cores
> Multi-core processors allow computers to work on more than one task at a time
- They also typically use slower cores than single-core CPUS so have fewer heat
problems
The GPU
> The GPU (graphics processing unit) takes care of the processing needed to display
images (including still images, animations) on the screen
- Can be located on the motherboard, on a video graphics board, or in the CPU
package
- Mobile processors often integrate other capabilities into the processor package
(system-on-a-chip (S o C))
Technology and You
Modular Phones
> Currently in development
> Individuals create custom phones
> Start with basic modules
> Give the user flexibility to add, upgrade, or replace modules whenever
> Google’s Project Ara
Processing Speed
> Measured by the CPU’s clock speed
- Rated in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
- Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per second
- Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of instructions a CPU can
process per second
> Megaflops (millions), gigaflops (billions), teraflops (trillions)
- Benchmark tests can be used to evaluate overall processing speed
Word Size and Cache Memory
> A computer word is the amount of data that a CPU can manipulate at one time
- In the past, CPUs used 32-bit words (referred to as 32-bit processors); today, most
CPUs are 64-bit processors
> Cache memory is a special group of very fast circuitry usually built into the CPU (internal
cache memory)
- More cache memory typically means faster processing
- Cache memory level numbers indicate the order in which the various levels of cache
are accessed by the CPU
> Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth
> A bus is an electronic path over which data can travel
- Found inside the CPU and on the motherboard
- Bus width is the number of wires in the bus over which data can travel
> A wider bus allows more data to be transferred at one time
> Bus width and bus speed together determine the bus’s bandwidth (the amount of data
that can be transferred via the bus in a given time period)
> The amount of data actual transferred under real-life conditions is called throughput
> A wider bus can transfer more data at one time than a narrower bus.
Memory
> Memory refers to chip-based storage, or locations that a computer uses to store data on
a temporary basis
- Volatile memory (content is erased when the device is shut off)
- Non-volatile memory (content is retained when the device is shut off)
> Random access memory (RAM) is the computer’s main memory or system memory
- Stores essential parts of operating system, programs, and data the computer is
currently using
- Consists of electronic circuits etched onto chips
> Mobile devices typically use embedded memory chips
> Servers and personal computers use circuit boards called memory modules
plugged into the motherboard
Characteristics of RAM
> Volatile
> Measured in bytes (amount dependent on CPU and operating system)
> Most personal computers use S D RAM
 > Double-Data Rate (DDR) RAM sends data twice as often as ordinary S D RAM or prior
versions of RAM
- DDR 2, DDR 3, DDR 4
> Dual-channel memory architecture has two paths that go to and from memory; tri-
channel (three paths) and quad-channel (four paths) memory architecture used for
higher performance
Memory Addressing
> Each location in memory has an address
- Usually stored in one or more consecutive addresses, depending on its size
> Computer system sets up and maintains directory tables to facilitate retrieval of the data
Registers and ROM
> Registers are high-speed memory locations built into the CPU
- Used to store data and intermediary results during processing
- Fastest type of memory
> ROM (read-only memory) consists of non-volatile chips located on the motherboard into
which data or programs have been permanently stored
- Retrieved by the computer when needed
- Being replaced with flash memory
Flash Memory
> Flash memory consists of nonvolatile memory chips that can be used for storage
- Have begun to replace ROM for storing system information (BIOS)
- Stores firmware for personal computers and other devices
- Built into many types of devices (tablets, smartphones, and digital cameras) for user
storage
- Built into some storage devices (solid-state hard drives, USB flash drives, etc.)
Fans, Heat Sinks, and Other Cooling Components
> Fans are used on most personal computers to help cool the CPU and system unit
- Heat is an ongoing problem for CPU and computer manufacturers
> Can damage components
> Cooler chips run faster
> Heat sinks are small components typically made out of aluminum with fins that help to
dissipate heat
> Some portable computers and virtually all mobile devices don’t include a fan; instead
thermal transfer materials are used to spread out the heat generated
> Liquid cooling systems
- Cool the computer with liquid-filled tubes
> Immersion cooling
- Hardware is actually submerged into units filled with a liquid cooling solution
> Notebook cooling stand
- Cools the underside of a notebook computer
> Other cooling methods, such as ion pump cooling systems, are under development
Expansion Slots and Expansion Cards
 > An expansion slot is a location on the motherboard into which expansion cards are
inserted
> An expansion card is a circuit board inserted into an expansion slot
- Used to add additional functionality or to attach a peripheral device
> Smaller devices may integrate capabilities directly into the device
> USB adapters can be used with portable computers and some mobile devices
Buses
> A bus is an electronic path within a computer over which data travels
- Located within the CPU and etched onto the motherboard
> An expansion bus connects the CPU to peripheral (typically input and output) devices
> The memory bus connects the CPU directly to RAM
> The frontside bus (FSB) connects the CPU to the chipset that connects the CPU to the
rest of the bus architecture
> Buses transport data from one component to another.
PCI, PCIe, and USB
> The PCI bus used to be the most common type of expansion bus
> Today, PCI Express (PCIe) buses are more common
- PCIe ×16 is a 16-bit bus and is used to connect monitors to a computer
- PCIe ×1 is a 1-bit bus and is used to connect other peripherals
- PCIe buses are extremely fast
> A universal serial bus (USB) connects USB devices to a computer
- 127 different devices can connect via a single USB port
- Extremely versatile
Ports and Connectors
> A port is a connector on the exterior of a computer’s system unit to which a device may
be attached
- Typical desktop computer ports HDMI to connect a monitor (VGA and Digital Video
Interface (DVI) are older standards)
- Network ports connect a device to a wired network
- USB ports connect USB devices; can be USB-C
- Others include I rDA and Bluetooth ports, flash memory card slots, audio ports, e S A
T A ports, and Thunderbolt ports (Apple)
- Most computers support the Plug and Play standard
- USB and Thunderbolt devices are hot-swappable
> USB hubs connect multiple devices to a single USB port
USB-C
> Both ends of a USB-C cable are the same
- Traditional USB cables have two different connectors:
> USB-A and USB-B
> Very fast
> Can charge and power portable computers
> Many types of adapters and multiport adapter cables available
> USB-C ports are oval shaped; cables are reversible and interchangeable.
Ports and Connectors: Tablets and Smartphones
> Tablets have ports similar to desktop computers, but often not as many
- Connecting a tablet to a tablet dock can provide additional connectivity options
> Smartphones have more limited expansion capabilities
- Usually have a USB port
- Some have a flash memory card slot
- Some have a Subscriber Identify Module (S I M) slot to hold a S I M card
How the CPU Works
> The CPU (central processing unit) consists of a variety of circuitry and components
packaged together
- The transistor is the key element of the microprocessor
> Made of semi-conductor material that controls the flow of electrons inside a chip
> Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors; the number doubles
about every 18 months (Moore’s Law)
> Electronic impulses move from one part of the CPU to another to process data
> The architecture and components included in a CPU (referred to as microarchitecture)
vary from processor to processor
Inside the Industry
Moore’s Law
> In 1965, Gordon Moore predicted that the number of transistors per square inch on chips
had doubled every two years and that trend would continue
> Moore’s Law is still relevant today for processors as well as other computer components
CPU Core Components
> The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic involving integers and logical
operations
> The floating point unit (F P U) performs decimal arithmetic
> The control unit coordinates and controls activities within a CPU core
> The prefetch unit attempts to retrieve data and instructions before they are needed for
processing in order to avoid delays
> The decode unit translates instructions from the prefetch unit so that they are
understood by the control unit, A L U, and F P U
> The registers and internal cache memory store data and instructions needed by the CPU
> The bus interface unit allows the core to communicate with other CPU components
Inside a CPU Core
> FIGURE 2-21: Inside a CPU core.
> The System Clock
> The system clock is a timing mechanism within the computer system that synchronizes
the computer’s operations
> Located on the motherboard
> Sends out a signal on a regular basis to all computer components
> Each signal is a cycle
> Number of cycles per second is measured in hertz (H z)
> One megahertz = one million ticks of the system clock
> Clock Speed
> Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the system clock speed
> Many P C system clocks run at 200 M H z; all devices run at a fraction or multiplier of the
clock speed
> A CPU clock speed of 2 G H z means the CPU clock “ticks” 10 times during each system
clock tick
> During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of microcode are processed
> A CPU with a higher clock speed processes more instructions per second than the same
CPU with a lower CPU clock speed
> The Machine Cycle
> A machine cycle occurs whenever the CPU processes a single piece of microcode
> It consists of four operations:
> Fetch
> Decode
> Execute
> Store
> FIGURE 2-22: A machine cycle. A machine cycle is typically accomplished in four steps.
> Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the Future (1 of 2)
> Improving the Performance of Your System Today
> Add more memory
> Perform system maintenance
> Uninstall programs properly
> Remove unnecessary programs from the Startup list
> Place unneeded large files on external storage
> Delete temporary files
> Error-check your hard drive
> Scan for viruses and spyware
> Clean out the dust
> FIGURE 2-24: Windows Disk Cleanup. Can help free up room on your hard drive.
> Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the Future (2 of 2)
> Buy a larger or second hard drive
> Can be internal or external
> Move files from your primary drive to make it faster
> Upgrade your Internet connection
> Various types of connections and speeds are available
> Upgrade your video graphics card
> P Cs with integrated graphics can typically have a graphics card added
> Graphics cards can be upgraded if needed
> Some notebooks switch to integrated graphics when using battery power to extend
battery life
> Strategies for Making Faster and Better Computers: Pipelining
> Pipelining allows multiple instructions to be processed at one time
> A new instruction begins as soon as the previous instruction completes a stage of the
machine cycle
> FIGURE 2-25: Pipelining. Pipelining streamlines the machine cycle by executing
different stages of multiple instructions at the same time so that the different parts of the
CPU are idle less often.
> Multiprocessing and Parallel Processing
> Using more than one processor or processor core is common today
> Multiprocessing: Each processor or core typically works on a different job to process
these jobs faster than with a single processor
> Parallel processing: Multiple processors or cores work together to process a single job
as fast as possible
> Multithreading: the ability of a CPU (or software) to execute multiple streams of
instructions (called threads) within a single program at the same time
> Improved Architecture and Materials (1 of 2)
> Improved architecture
> Smaller components, faster memory, faster bus speeds, increasing number of CPU
cores, integrated GPU s, support for virtualization, and increased 3 D graphics
processing
> Improved materials
> Traditionally, CPUs used aluminum circuitry on silicon chips
> Alternate materials include copper chips, and high-k, germanium and other III-V
materials
> Graphene consists of flat sheets are carbon one atom tall
> Lightest and strongest known material
> Graphene chips are faster than silicon chips and require less power
> Improved Architecture and Materials (2 of 2)
> Improved materials (continued)
> Flexible electronic components
> Can be bent without damaging circuitry
> Thinner, lighter, generate less heat, and consume less power than conventional
processors
> Needed for flexible devices, wearable clothing, etc.
> FIGURE 2-26: Flexible smartphone.
> Trend
> Smart Clothing
> Is the next trend in wearable technology
> Contains flexible circuitry and sensors, wireless connectivity, and a battery
> Can monitor your physical activity
> Transmits 3 D information about your activities
> Syncs data to your smartphone
> Smart fabric is under development
> Source: Google A T A P
> Smart fabric.
> 3 D Chips
> 3 D chips pack a number of components layered onto small chips
> Cuts down on the surface area required
> Especially important with notebook computers and mobile devices
> Memory cells are stacked on top of one another in layers
> For CPUs, the transistors are layered
> Source: Intel Corporation
> FIGURE 2-27: Tri-Gate transistor. In this 3 D transistor, the electrical current
(represented by the yellow dots) flows on three sides of a vertical fin.
> Nanotechnology
> Nanotechnology is the science of creating tiny computers and components less than 100
nanometers in size
> Carbon nanotubes (C N T s) are tiny, hollow tubes of graphene
> Great potential for many applications
> Used in T V s, solar cells, light bulbs, consumer products like surfboards, and computing
products like memory
> Carbon nanotube fibers conduct heat and electricity like a metal wire
> Nanofilters that can remove contaminants from water sources
> Nanosensors that can detect cancer-causing toxins or cancer drugs inside single living
cells
> Examples of Nanotechnology
> FIGURE 2-28: Wafer containing C N T transistors.
> Source: Jeff Fitlow/ Rice University
> FIGURE 2-29: Carbon nanotube fibers. This light bulb is powered and held in place by
two carbon nanotube fibers.
> Source: Norbert von der Groeben/Stanford University
> Terascale/Exascale Computing
> High-performance computing (H P C)
> Terascale computing is the ability of a computer to process one trillion floating point
operations per second (teraflops)
> Research is focusing on creating multi-core processors with tens to hundreds of cores
used in conjunction with multithreaded hardware and software to achieve teraflop
performance
> The next development is expected to be exascale computing that can process data at
exaflop (1,000 petaflops) speeds
> Quantum Computing
> Quantum computing applies the principles of quantum physics and quantum mechanics
to computers
> Utilizes atoms or nuclei working together as quantum bits (qubits)
> Qubits function simultaneously as the computer’s processor and memory and can
represent more than two states
> Used for specialized applications, such as encryption and code breaking
> Source: I B M Research, Almaden Research Center.
> FIGURE 2-30: Quantum computers. This vial of liquid contains a 7-qubit computer.
> Optical Computing and Silicon Photonics
> Optical computers use light to perform digital computations
> Can be smaller and faster than electronic computers
> Opto-electronic computers use both optical and electronic components
> Silicon photonics uses light for data transfers within and among silicon chips
> Expected to be used to transfer very large quantities of data at very high speeds
between chips in servers, mainframes, and supercomputers
> Quick Quiz 3
> Optical computers use which of the following to transmit and process data?
> Answers:
> 1) b; 2) True; 3) qubit
> a. liquid
> b. Light
> c. silicon
> True or False: If your computer is running slowly, adding more memory might speed it
up.
> A quantum bit is known as a(n) __________________.
> Summary
> Data and Program Representation
> Inside the System Unit
> How the CPU Works
> Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the Future
>