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Qi
In traditional Chinese culture, qi or ch'i or ki (/ˈtʃiː/ CHEE
simplified Chinese: 气; traditional Chinese: 氣; pinyin: qì qì) is Qi (Ch'i)
believed to be a vital force forming part of any living entity.[1] Qi
translates literally as "air" and figuratively as "material energy",
"life force", or "energy flow".[2] Qi is the central underlying
principle in Chinese traditional medicine and in Chinese martial
arts. The practice of cultivating and balancing qi is called qigong. Chinese name

Believers in qi describe it as a vital force, the flow of which must

Traditional Chinese 氣
be unimpeded for health. Qi is a pseudoscientific, unverified Simplified Chinese 气
concept,[2][3] which has never been directly observed, and is Transcriptions
unrelated to the concept of energy used in science[4][5][6] (vital
energy itself being an abandoned scientific notion).[7] Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin qì
Gwoyeu Romatzyh chih
Contents Wade–Giles ch'i4
IPA [tɕʰî]
Linguistic aspects
Pronunciation and etymology Wu
Characters Romanization qi
Meanings Hakka
English borrowing Romanization hi
Concept Yue: Cantonese
Philosophical roots Jyutping hei3
Role in traditional Chinese medicine IPA [hēi]
Scientific view Southern Min
Practices involving qi Hokkien POJ khì
Feng shui Eastern Min
Qigong Fuzhou BUC ké
Martial arts
Middle Chinese
Acupuncture and moxibustion
Middle Chinese khjì
Taoist sexual practices
Old Chinese
See also
Baxter–Sagart (2014) *C.qʰəp-s
Notes
Burmese name
References
Burmese အသက်
Further reading
IPA aasaat
External links
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet khí
Linguistic aspects Hán-Nôm 氣
Thai name
Thai ลมปราณ
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The cultural keyword qì is analyzable in terms of Chinese and RTGS lmprāṇ

Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Possible etymologies include the Korean name
logographs 氣 , 气 , and 気 with various meanings ranging from
"vapor" to "anger", and the English loanword qi or ch'i. Hangul 기
Hanja 氣
Pronunciation and etymology Transcriptions
Revised Romanization gi
The logograph 氣 is read with two Chinese pronunciations, the
McCune–Reischauer ki
usual qì 氣 "air; vital energy" and the rare archaic xì 氣 "to
present food" (later disambiguated with 餼). Mongolian name
Mongolian Cyrillic хийг
Pronunciations of 氣 in modern varieties of Chinese with

ᠬᠡᠢ
ᠶᠢ
standardized IPA equivalents include: Standard Chinese qì Mongolian script
/t͡ ɕʰi˥˩/, Wu Chinese qi /t͡ ɕʰi˧˦/, Southern Min khì /kʰi˨˩/, Eastern Transcriptions
Min ké /kʰɛi˨˩˧/, Standard Cantonese hei3 /hei̯ ˧/, and Hakka
SASM/GNC khiig
Chinese hi /hi˥/.
Japanese name
Pronunciations of 氣 in Sino-Xenic borrowings include: Japanese Kyūjitai 氣
ki, Korean gi, and Vietnamese khi.
Shinjitai 気
Reconstructions of the Middle Chinese pronunciation of 氣 Transcriptions
standardized to IPA transcription include: /kʰe̯ iH/ (Bernard
Romanization ki
Karlgren), /kʰĭəiH/ (Wang Li), /kʰiəiH/ (Li Rong), /kʰɨjH/ (Edwin
Pulleyblank), and /kʰɨiH/ (Zhengzhang Shangfang). Malay name
Malay chi
Reconstructions of the Old Chinese pronunciation of 氣
standardized to IPA transcription include: /*kʰɯds/ (Zhengzhang Indonesian name
Shangfang) and /*C.qʰəp-s/ (William H. Baxter and Laurent Indonesian chi
Sagart). Filipino name
The etymology of qì interconnects with Kharia kʰis "anger", Sora Tagalog gi
kissa "move with great effort", Khmer kʰɛs "strive after; Lao name
endeavor", and Gyalrongic kʰɐs "anger".[8]
Lao ຊີ ວິ ດ
Khmer name
Characters
Khmer ឈី
In the East Asian languages, qì has three logographs: Tetum name
Tetum qi
氣 is the traditional Chinese character, Korean hanja, and
Japanese kyūjitai ("old character form") kanji
気 is the Japanese shinjitai ("new character form") kanji
气 is the simplified Chinese character.

In addition, qì 炁 is an uncommon character especially used in writing Daoist talismans. Historically,

the word qì was generally written as 气 until the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), when it was
replaced by the 氣 graph clarified with mǐ 米 "rice" indicating "steam (rising from rice as it cooks.)"

This primary logograph 气, the earliest written character for qì, consisted of three wavy horizontal
lines seen in Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) oracle bone script, Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE)
bronzeware script and large seal script, and Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE) small seal script. These
oracle, bronze, and seal scripts logographs 气 were used in ancient times as a phonetic loan character
to write qǐ 乞 "plead for; beg; ask" which did not have an early character.

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The vast majority of Chinese characters are classified as radical-phonetic characters. Such characters
combine a semantically suggestive "radical characters" with a phonetic element approximating
ancient pronunciation. For example, the widely known word dào 道 "the Dao; the way" graphically
combines the "walk" radical 辶 with a shǒu 首 "head" phonetic. Although the modern dào and shǒu
pronunciations are dissimilar, the Old Chinese *lˤuʔ-s 道 and *l̥ uʔ-s 首 were alike. The regular script
character qì 氣 is unusual because qì 气 is both the "air radical" and the phonetic, with mǐ 米 "rice"
semantically indicating "steam; vapor".

This qì 气 "air/gas radical" was only used in a few native Chinese characters like yīnyūn 氤氲 "thick
mist/smoke", but was also used to create new scientific characters for gaseous chemical elements.
Some examples are based on pronunciations in European languages: fú 氟 (with a fú 弗 phonetic)
"fluorine" and nǎi 氖 (with a nǎi 乃 phonetic) "neon". Others are based on semantics: qīng 氫 (with
a jīng 巠 phonetic, abbreviating qīng 輕 "light-weight") "hydrogen (the lightest element)" and lǜ 氯
(with a lù 彔 phonetic, abbreviating lǜ 綠 "green") "(greenish-yellow) chlorine".

Qì 氣 is the phonetic element in a few characters such as kài 愾 "hate" with the "heart-mind radical"
忄or 心, xì 熂 "set fire to weeds" with the "fire radical" 火, and xì 餼 "to present food" with the "food
radical" 食.

The first Chinese dictionary of characters, the Shuowen Jiezi(121 CE) notes that the primary qì 气 is a
pictographic character depicting 雲气 "cloudy vapors", and that the full 氣 combines 米 "rice" with the
phonetic qi 气, meaning 饋客芻米 "present provisions to guests" (later disambiguated as xì 餼).

Oracle bone script Bronzeware script Large seal script for Small seal script for
for qì for qì qì qì, simplified
Chinese character
气 is based on it.

Traditional Chinese
character 氣 qì, also
used in Korean
hanja. In Japanese
kanji, it was used
until 1946 when it
was simplified to 気.

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Meanings

Qi is a polysemous word. The unabridged Chinese-Chinese character dictionary Hanyu Da Cidian

defines it as "present food or provisions" for the xì pronunciation but also lists 23 meanings for the qì
pronunciation.[9] The modern ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary, which enters xì 餼
"grain; animal feed; make a present of food", and a qì 氣 entry with seven translation equivalents for
the noun, two for bound morphemes, and three equivalents for the verb.

n. ① air; gas ② smell ③ spirit; vigor; morale ④ vital/material energy (in Ch[inese]
metaphysics) ⑤ tone; atmosphere; attitude ⑥ anger ⑦ breath; respiration b.f. ①
weather 天氣 tiānqì ② [linguistics] aspiration 送氣 sòngqì v. ① anger ② get angry ③
bully; insult.[10]

English borrowing

Qi was an early Chinese loanword in English. It was romanized as k'i in Church Romanization in the
early-19th century, as ch'i in Wade–Giles in the mid-19th century (sometimes misspelled chi omitting
the apostrophe), and as qi in Pinyin in the mid-20th century. The Oxford English Dictionary entry
for qi gives the pronunciation as /tʃi/, the etymology from Chinese qì "air; breath", and a definition of
"The physical life-force postulated by certain Chinese philosophers; the material principle." It also
gives eight usage examples, with the first recorded example of k'í in 1850 (The Chinese
Repository),[note 1] of ch'i in 1917 (The Encyclopaedia Sinica),[note 2] and qi in 1971 (Felix Mann's
Acupuncture)[note 3]

Concept
References to concepts analogous to qi are found in many Asian belief systems. Philosophical
conceptions of qi from the earliest records of Chinese philosophy (5th century BCE) correspond to
Western notions of humours and to the ancient Hindu yogic concept of prana. An early form of qi
comes from the writings of the Chinese philosopher Mencius (4th century BCE).

Within the framework of Chinese thought, no notion may attain such a degree of
abstraction from empirical data as to correspond perfectly to one of our modern universal
concepts. Nevertheless, the term qi comes as close as possible to constituting a generic
designation equivalent to our word "energy". When Chinese thinkers are unwilling or
unable to fix the quality of an energetic phenomenon, the character qi (氣) inevitably flows
from their brushes.

— Manfred Porkert[11]

The ancient Chinese described qi as "life force". They believed it permeated everything and linked
their surroundings together. Qi was also linked to the flow of energy around and through the body,
forming a cohesive functioning unit. By understanding the rhythm and flow of qi, they believed they
could guide exercises and treatments to provide stability and longevity.

Although the concept has been important within many Chinese philosophies, over the centuries the
descriptions of qi have varied and have sometimes been in conflict. Until China came into contact
with Western scientific and philosophical ideas, the Chinese had not categorized all things in terms of
matter and energy. Qi and li ( 理 : "pattern") were 'fundamental' categories similar to matter and
energy.

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Fairly early on, some Chinese thinkers began to believe that there were different fractions of qi—the
coarsest and heaviest fractions formed solids, lighter fractions formed liquids, and the most ethereal
fractions were the "lifebreath" that animated living beings.[12] Yuanqi is a notion of innate or prenatal
qi which is distinguished from acquired qi that a person may develop over their lifetime.

Philosophical roots
The earliest texts that speak of qi give some indications of how the concept developed. In the Analects
of Confucius qi could mean "breath".[13] Combining it with the Chinese word for blood (making 血氣,
xue–qi, blood and breath), the concept could be used to account for motivational characteristics:

The [morally] noble man guards himself against three things. When he is young, his xue–
qi has not yet stabilized, so he guards himself against sexual passion. When he reaches his
prime, his xue–qi is not easily subdued, so he guards himself against combativeness.
When he reaches old age, his xue–qi is already depleted, so he guards himself against
acquisitiveness.

— Confucius, Analects, 16:7

The philosopher Mozi used the word qi to refer to noxious vapors that would eventually arise from a
corpse were it not buried at a sufficient depth.[14] He reported that early civilized humans learned
how to live in houses to protect their qi from the moisture that troubled them when they lived in
caves.[14] He also associated maintaining one's qi with providing oneself with adequate nutrition.[14]
In regard to another kind of qi, he recorded how some people performed a kind of prognostication by
observing qi (clouds) in the sky.[14]

Mencius described a kind of qi that might be characterized as an individual's vital energies. This qi
was necessary to activity and it could be controlled by a well-integrated willpower.[15] When properly
nurtured, this qi was said to be capable of extending beyond the human body to reach throughout the
universe.[15] It could also be augmented by means of careful exercise of one's moral capacities.[15] On
the other hand, the qi of an individual could be degraded by adverse external forces that succeed in
operating on that individual.[15]

Living things were not the only things believed to have qi. Zhuangzi indicated that wind is the qi of
the Earth.[16] Moreover, cosmic yin and yang "are the greatest of qi ".[16] He described qi as "issuing
forth" and creating profound effects.[16] He also said "Human beings are born [because of] the
accumulation of qi. When it accumulates there is life. When it dissipates there is death... There is one
qi that connects and pervades everything in the world."[16]

Another passage traces life to intercourse between Heaven and Earth: "The highest Yin is the most
restrained. The highest Yang is the most exuberant. The restrained comes forth from Heaven. The
exuberant issues forth from Earth. The two intertwine and penetrate forming a harmony, and [as a
result] things are born."[16]

The Guanzi essay Neiye (Inward Training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the
cultivation of vapor [qi] and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia
Academy in Qi in the late fourth century B.C.[17]

Xun Zi, another Confucian scholar of the Jixia Academy, followed in later years. At 9:69/127, Xun Zi
says, "Fire and water have qi but do not have life. Grasses and trees have life but do not have
perceptivity. Fowl and beasts have perceptivity but do not have yi (sense of right and wrong, duty,
justice). Men have qi, life, perceptivity, and yi." Chinese people at such an early time had no concept

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of radiant energy, but they were aware that one can be heated by a campfire from a distance away
from the fire. They accounted for this phenomenon by claiming "qi" radiated from fire. At 18:62/122,
he also uses "qi" to refer to the vital forces of the body that decline with advanced age.

Among the animals, the gibbon and the crane were considered experts at inhaling the qi. The
Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu (ca. 150 BC) wrote in Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn
Annals:[18] "The gibbon resembles a macaque, but he is larger, and his color is black. His forearms
being long, he lives eight hundred years, because he is expert in controlling his breathing." ("猿似猴。
大而黑。長前臂。所以壽八百。好引氣也。")

Later, the syncretic text assembled under the direction of Liu An, the Huai Nan Zi, or "Masters of
Huainan", has a passage that presages most of what is given greater detail by the Neo-Confucians:

Heaven (seen here as the ultimate source of all being) falls (duo 墮 , i.e., descends into
proto-immanence) as the formless. Fleeting, fluttering, penetrating, amorphous it is, and
so it is called the Supreme Luminary. The dao begins in the Void Brightening. The Void
Brightening produces the universe (yu–zhou). The universe produces qi. Qi has bounds.
The clear, yang [qi] was ethereal and so formed heaven. The heavy, turbid [qi] was
congealed and impeded and so formed earth. The conjunction of the clear, yang [qi] was
fluid and easy. The conjunction of the heavy, turbid [qi] was strained and difficult. So
heaven was formed first and earth was made fast later. The pervading essence (xi–jing) of
heaven and earth becomes yin and yang. The concentrated (zhuan) essences of yin and
yang become the four seasons. The dispersed (san) essences of the four seasons become
the myriad creatures. The hot qi of yang in accumulating produces fire. The essence (jing)
of the fire-qi becomes the sun. The cold qi of yin in accumulating produces water. The
essence of the water-qi becomes the moon. The essences produced by coitus (yin) of the
sun and moon become the stars and celestial markpoints (chen, planets).

— Huai-nan-zi, 3:1a/19

Role in traditional Chinese medicine

The Huangdi Neijing ("The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine", circa 2nd century BCE) is
historically credited with first establishing the pathways, called meridians, through which qi allegedly
circulates in the human body.[19][20][21]

In traditional Chinese medicine, symptoms of various illnesses are believed to be either the product
of disrupted, blocked, and unbalanced qi movement through meridians or deficiencies and
imbalances of qi in the Zang Fu organs.[21] Traditional Chinese medicine often seeks to relieve these
imbalances by adjusting the circulation of qi using a variety of techniques including herbology, food
therapy, physical training regimens (qigong, t'ai chi ch'uan, and other martial arts training),[22]
moxibustion, tui na, or acupuncture.[21]:78The cultivation of Heavenly and Earthly qi allow for the
maintenance of psychological actions[23]

The nomenclature of Qi in the human body is different depending on its sources, roles, and
locations.[24] For sources there is a difference between so-called "Primordial Qi" (acquired at birth
from one's parents) and Qi acquired throughout one's life.[24] Or again Chinese medicine
differentiates between Qi acquired from the air we breathe (so called "Clean Air") and Qi acquired
from food and drinks (so-called "Grain Qi"). Looking at roles Qi is divided into "Defensive Qi" and
"Nutritive Qi".[24] Defensive Qi's role is to defend the body against invasions while Nutritive Qi's role
is to provide sustenance for the body. To protect against said invasions, medicines have four types of
qi; cold, hot, warm, and cool.[25] Cold qi medicines are used to treat invasions hot in nature, while hot
qi medicines are used to treat invasions cold in nature.[25] looking at locations, Qi is also named after
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the Zang-Fu organ or the Meridian in which it resides:[24] "Liver Qi", "Spleen Qi", etc. Lastly,
prolonged exposure to the three evil qi (wind, cold, and wetness) can result in the penetration of evil
qi through surface body parts, eventually reaching Zang-Fu organs.[26]

A qi field (chu-chong) refers to the cultivation of an energy field by a group, typically for healing or
other benevolent purposes. A qi field is believed to be produced by visualization and affirmation.
They are an important component of Wisdom Healing'Qigong (Zhineng Qigong), founded by
Grandmaster Ming Pang.[27][28][29]

Scientific view
The existence of Qi has not been proven scientifically.[2] A 1997 consensus statement on acupuncture
by the United States National Institutes of Health noted that concepts such as qi "are difficult to
reconcile with contemporary biomedical information".[30]

Practices involving qi

Feng shui

The traditional Chinese art of geomancy, the placement and arrangement of space called feng shui, is
based on calculating the balance of qi, interactions between the five elements, yin and yang, and other
factors. The retention or dissipation of qi is believed to affect the health, wealth, energy level, luck,
and many other aspects of the occupants. Attributes of each item in a space affect the flow of qi by
slowing it down, redirecting it or accelerating it. This is said to influence the energy level of the
occupants. Positive qi flows in curved lines, whereas negative qi travels in straight lines.[31] In order
for qi to be nourishing and positive, it must continue to flow not too quickly or too slowly.[31] In
addition, qi should not be blocked abruptly, because it would become stagnant and turn
destructive.[31]

One use for a luopan is to detect the flow of qi.[32] The quality of qi may rise and fall over time. Feng
shui with a compass might be considered a form of divination that assesses the quality of the local
environment.

There are three kinds of qi, known as heaven qi (tian qi 天气), Earth qi (di qi 地气), and human qi
(ren qi 人 气 ).[31] Heaven qi is composed of natural forces including the sun and rain. Earth qi is
affected by heaven qi. For example, too much sun would lead to drought, and a lack of sun would
cause plants to die off. Human qi is affected by earth qi, because the environment has effects on
human beings. Feng shui is the balancing of heaven, Earth, and human qi.

Qigong

Qìgōng (气功 or 氣功) involves coordinated breathing, movement, and awareness. It is traditionally
viewed as a practice to cultivate and balance qi. With roots in traditional Chinese medicine,
philosophy and martial arts, qigong is now practiced worldwide for exercise, healing, meditation, and
training for martial arts. Typically a qigong practice involves rhythmic breathing, slow and stylized
movement, a mindful state, and visualization of guiding qi.[33][34][35]

Martial arts

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Qi is a didactic concept in many Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese martial arts. Martial
qigong is a feature of both internal and external training systems in China[36] and other East Asian
cultures.[37] The most notable of the qi-focused "internal" force (jin) martial arts are Baguazhang,
Xing Yi Quan, T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Southern Praying Mantis, Snake Kung Fu, Southern Dragon Kung Fu,
Aikido, Kendo, Hapkido, Aikijujutsu, Luohan Quan, and Liu He Ba Fa.

Demonstrations of qi or ki are popular in some martial arts and may include the unraisable body, the
unbendable arm, and other feats of power. These feats can be explained using biomechanics and
physics.[38]

Acupuncture and moxibustion

Acupuncture is a part of traditional Chinese medicine that involves insertion of needles into
superficial structures of the body (skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles) at acupuncture points to
balance the flow of qi. This is often accompanied by moxibustion, a treatment that involves burning
mugwort on or near the skin at an acupuncture point.

Taoist sexual practices

See also
Aether (classical element) Mana
Aura (paranormal) Orgone
Chakra Prana
Dantian Reiki
Esoteric healing Pneuma
Geist Scientific skepticism
Livity (spiritual concept) Spirit

Notes
1. Quoting Confucius that the Taiji or "Great Extreme is the primordial substance (k'í) which, moving
along, divided and made two k'í; that which in itself has motion is the Yang, and that which had
rest .‥ is the Yin."
2. The essence of the ethical principle Li "is absolutely pure and good, but seeing that it is
inseparable from the material element Ch'i.‥ it is from Man's birth to a greater or less extent
impeded and tainted."
3. "To the ancients the cornerstone of the theory of acupuncture, the concept whereby they
explained its effects and action, was Qi, the energy of life."

References
1. Yu, Deng; Shuanli, Zhu; Peng, Xu; Hai, Deng (1 January 2003). "Ration of Qi with Modern
Essential on Traditional Chinese Medicine Qi: Qi Set, Qi Element" (http://caod.oriprobe.com/articl
es/6099311/Ration_of_Qi_with_Modern_Essential_on_Traditional_Chinese_Medicine_Qi_.htm).
Journal of Mathematical Medicine. 16 (4).
2. Lee, M. S.; Pittler, M. H.; Ernst, E. (1 June 2008). "Effects of reiki in clinical practice: a systematic
review of randomised clinical trials". International Journal of Clinical Practice. 62 (6): 947–54.
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3. Dunning, Brian. "Skeptoid #411: Your Body's Alleged Energy Fields" (https://skeptoid.com/episod
es/4411). Skeptoid. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
4. Shermer, Michael (July 2005). "Full of Holes: the curious case of acupuncture". Scientific
American. 293 (2): 30. Bibcode:2005SciAm.293b..30S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sc
iAm.293b..30S). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0805-30 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificame
rican0805-30). PMID 16053133 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16053133).
5. Stenger, Victor J. (June 1998). "Reality Check: the energy fields of life" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20071211153047/http://www.csicop.org/sb/9806/reality-check.html). Skeptical Briefs.
Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Archived from the original (http://www.csicop.org/sb/9806/reality-
check.html) on 11 December 2007. Retrieved 25 December 2007. "Despite complete scientific
rejection, the concept of a special biological fields within living things remains deeply engraved in
human thinking. It is now working its way into modern health care systems, as non-scientific
alternative therapies become increasingly popular. From acupuncture to homeopathy and
therapeutic touch, the claim is made that healing can be brought about by the proper adjustment
of a person's or animal's 'bioenergetic fields.' "
6. "Traditional Medicine and Pseudoscience in China: A Report of the Second CSICOP Delegation
(Part 2)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091004014428/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/china_conf
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_2/) on 4 October 2009. Retrieved 15 February 2009.
7. Williams, Elizabeth Ann (2003). A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment
Montpellier (https://books.google.com/books?id=AvqYl4sdwaYC&pg=PA4). Ashgate. p. 4.
ISBN 978-0-7546-0881-3.
8. Schuessler, Axel (2006). ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese (https://books.google.com/
books?id=nIvqAC7FNBQC). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 423. ISBN 9780824829759.
Retrieved 5 January 2017.
9. Mair, Victor H. (2003). An Alphabetical Index to the Hanyu Da Cidian. Honolulu, Hawaii:
University of Hawai'i Press. p. 2011. ISBN 978-0824828165.
10. Defrancis, John; Yuqing, Bai (1999). ABC Chinese-English Dictionary. Honolulu: University of
Hawai'i Press. p. 465. ISBN 978-0824821548.
11. Porkert, Manfred (1974). The Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine: Systems of
Correspondence (https://archive.org/details/theoreticalfound00pork) (2nd ed.). Cambridge: M.I.T.
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12. Definitions and brief historical notes on such concepts can be found in Wei Zhengtong's "Zhong
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Further reading
Wright, Thomas; Eisenberg, David (1995). Encounters with Qi: Exploring Chinese medicine (http
s://archive.org/details/encounterswithqi00eise_0). New York: Norton hi. ISBN 978-0-393-31213-3.
OCLC 32998368 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32998368).
Powers, John. (1995). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications.
p. 591. ISBN 978-1-55939-282-2.

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05/07/2021 Qi - Wikipedia

External links
Article by Bing YeYoung "A Philosophical and Cultural Interpretation of Qi" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20070704155659/http://www.literati-tradition.com/qi_breath.html)
The Skeptics Dictionary (http://www.skepdic.com/chi.html)
Qi Encyclopedia (http://qi-encyclopedia.com)

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