Unit 2 – Ecosystems

•Definition and concept of Ecosystem

•Structure of ecosystem (biotic and abiotic components); Functions of
Ecosystem: Physical (energy flow), Biological (food chains, food web,
ecological succession), and Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling)
processes. Concepts of productivity, ecological pyramids and
homeostasis
•Types of Ecosystems: Tundra, Forest, Grassland, Desert, Aquatic
(ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries); importance and
threats with relevant examples from India
•Ecosystem services (Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, and
Supporting); Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies;
Basics of Ecosystem restoration

Dr. Nawin Kumar Tiwary

Assistant Professor
Department of Environmental Studies
Indraprastha College for Women
University of Delhi
 CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM

The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the
Greek words Oikos- home + logos- study. So ecology deals with the study of
organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings. The
surroundings or environment consists of other living organisms (biotic) and
physical (abiotic) components.

Modern ecologists believe that an adequate definition of ecology must specify

some unit of study and one such basic unit described by Tansley (1935) was
ecosystem. An ecosystem is a self-regulating group of biotic communities of
species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment
exchanging energy and matter. Now ecology is often defined as ‘‘the study of
ecosystems’’.

The ecosystem is a unit or a system which is composed of a number of sub-units,

that are all directly or indirectly linked with each other. They may be freely
exchanging energy and matter from outside—an open ecosystem or may be
isolated from outside in term of exchange of matter—a closed ecosystem.
BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
 BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

(a) BIOTIC COMPONENTS: Different living organisms constitute the biotic

component of an ecosystem and belong to the following categories:

(i) Producers: These are mainly producing food themselves e.g., Green plants
produce food by photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight from raw materials
like water and carbon dioxide.
They are known as photo-autotrophs (auto = self, photo = light, troph = food).
There are some chemo-autotrophs, which are a group of bacteria, producing
their food from oxidation of certain chemicals. e.g. sulphur bacteria.
(ii) Consumers: These organisms get their food by feeding on other organisms.
They are of the following types:
• Herbivores—which feed on plants e.g. rabbit, insect.
• Carnivores—which feed on herbivores as secondary carnivores (e.g., frog,
small fish) or tertiary carnivores (e.g., snake, big fish), which feed on other
consumers.
• Omnivores—which feed on both plants and animals e.g., humans, rats, many
birds.
• Detritivores—which feed on dead organisms e.g., earth worm, crab, ants.
 BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
(iii) Decomposers: These are micro-organisms which break down organic matter into
inorganic compounds and in this process they derive their nutrition. They play a very
important role in converting the essential nutrients from unavailable organic form to free
inorganic form that is available for use by plants e.g., bacteria, fungi.
 BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
(b) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS: Various physico-chemical components of the ecosystem
constitute the abiotic structure:

(i) Physical components include sunlight, solar intensity, rainfall, temperature, wind
speed and direction, water availability, soil texture etc.
(ii) Chemical components include major essential nutrients like C, N, P, K, H2, O2, S etc.
and micronutrients like Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu etc., salts and toxic substances like pesticides.
 LEVELS OF
ECOLOGICAL
ORGANISATIONS
LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANISATIONS
 Nutrient Flow in an Ecosystem
Nutrients (Materials) in an ecosystem move in a cyclic manner. The cycling of nutrients
takes place between the biotic and abiotic components, hence known as biogeochemical
cycles (bio = living, geo = earth, chemical = nutrients).
 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
There is uni-directional flow of energy in an ecosystem. It flows from sun and then after
being captured by primary producers (green plants), flows through the food chain or food
web, following the laws of thermodynamics. At every successive step in the food-chain, there
is huge loss of about 90% of the energy in different processes (respiration, excretion,
locomotion etc.) and only 10% moves to next level (Lindemann’s Ten per cent law of energy
flow).
 Food Chain
FOOD CHAIN: A food chain is a sequence of populations or organisms of an ecosystem
through which food and its contained energy passes.
Most food chains have no more than four or five links. There cannot be too many links in a
single food chain because the animals at the end of the chain would not get enough food
(and hence energy) to stay alive.
 Lindemann’s 10% Energy Law
Energy transfer from one trophic level to the next on average is about 10%. That means that
only 10% of the available energy is passed to the next higher trophic level.
 Food Web
FOOD WEB: It is a network of food chain which becomes interconnected at various trophic
levels.
 Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids were first devised by British ecologist Charles Elton(1927).
Ecological pyramids is graphical representation of trophic structure and function of an
ecosystem, starting with producers at the base and successive trophic level forming
the apex is known as an ecological pyramid. It is of three types:

1) Pyramid of numbers: It represent the number of individual organisms at each

trophic level. It may be upright or inverted pyramid of number depending upon the
type of ecosystem and food chain. Example:

Top carnivores Top carnivores

Lion, Tigers
Hawks, other
birds Carnivores Snakes, Foxes
Frogs, birds
Carnivores
Herbivores Insects, birds
Herbivores Insects
Producers Tree
Producers Grasses
Forest ecosystem ( narrow on both
Grassland ecosystem ( upright) end and broader in the middle
 Ecological Pyramids

Hyper parasite Fleas, microbes

Parasite Lice, bugs
Herbivores Birds
Producer Trees
Parasitic food chain( Inverted)
2) Pyramid of Biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry weight) at each trophic
level in a food chain. It can be upright or inverted. Example:

Tertiary Carnivores Big fish

Carnivores
Carnivores Small fish
Snake, frog, birds
Herbivores insect

Herbivores Squirrel, rabbit, insect producer phytoplankton

Producer Tree, herbs, grasses
Pond ecosystem
Forest ecosystem
 Ecological Pyramids
3) Pyramid of energy: The amount of energy present at each trophic level is
considered for this type of pyramid. It is always upright, because there is huge loss of
energy (about 90%) in the form of heat and respiration at each successive trophic
level. Thus at each energy level only 10% of the energy passes on.

0.1 Top carnivores

Carnivores(1)

Herbivores(10)

Producer(100)

Pyramid of energy
 PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. It is usually expressed
in units of mass per unit surface (or volume) per unit time, for instance grams per square meter
per day. The mass unit may relate to dry matter or to the mass of carbon generated.

Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that of

heterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity.
 PRODUCTIVITY
1. Primary production - Primary production is the synthesis of new organic material from
inorganic molecules such as H2O and CO2. It is dominated by the process of
photosynthesis which uses sunlight to synthesise organic molecules such as sugars,
although chemosynthesis represents a small fraction of primary production. Organisms
responsible for primary production include land plants, marine algae and some bacteria
(including cyanobacteria). It is of two types:

Gross primary productivity – The total organic matter synthesized by the producers in the
process of photosynthesis per unit time and area.

Net primary productivity – It is equal to the rate of organic matter created by photosynthesis
(GPP) minus the rate of respiration and other losses.
 PRODUCTIVITY
2. Secondary production - Secondary production is the generation of biomass of
heterotrophic (consumer) organisms in a system. This is driven by the transfer of organic
material between trophic levels, and represents the quantity of new tissue created
through the use of assimilated food.

On the land maximum productivity rate is found in Tropical rain forests followed by tropical
deciduous forest, temperate forests, savannah, temperate grasslands and desert scrubs.
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is a series of changes in a community in which new populations of
organisms gradually replace existing ones.
1. Primary succession: Primary ecological succession is the changing sequence of
communities from the first biological occupation of a place where previously there were
no living beings. For example, the colonization and the following succession of
communities on a bare rock.
• Change in community composition on a site which previously had no living
organisms
• Lichens are the pioneer community
• No soil present in the early stages of the succession
• May take 100’s or 1000’s of years to complete
 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
2. Secondary Succession: A sequence of community changes that takes place when a
community is disrupted by natural disaster or human actions. This takes place on existing
soil.
Example of Secondary Succession: - A fire levels portions of a forest and plants regrow after
the fire, A farmer plows his field and crops grow.

• Grasses are the pioneer community

• Soil is present in the early stages of the succession
• Completes in a short span of time (10 – 100 yrs)
 Biogeochemical Cycling or Nutrient Cycling
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus
as elements and compounds makeup 97% of the
mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the
mass of all living organisms. In addition to these,
about 15 to 25 other elements are needed in some
form for the survival and good health of plants and
animals. These elements or mineral nutrients are
always in circulation moving from non-living to living
and then back to the non-living components of
the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. This
circular fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling
(bio for living; geo for atmosphere). Among the most
important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient
cycle and the nitrogen nutrient cycle.

Based on the nature of the reservoir, a nutrient cycle is referred to as Gaseous or

Sedimentary cycle.
• Gaseous Cycle: the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere — water cycle, carbon
cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc.
• Sedimentary Cycle: the reservoir is the earth's crust (soluble elements mostly found in
earth’s crust) — phosphorous cycle, sulphur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle etc.
 abiotic reservoir:
Carbon cycle  CO2 in atmosphere
enter food chain:
CO2 in Combustion of fuels =
 photosynthesis
atmosphere carbon fixation in
Industry and home
Calvin cycle
Photosynthesis recycle:
Diffusion Respiration

return to abiotic:
Plants respiration
Animals combustion

Dissolved CO2

Bicarbonates
Photosynthesis Deposition
Animals of dead
material
Plants and algae

Fossil fuels
Deposition of
Carbonates in sediment (oil, gas, coal)
dead material
 Nitrogen cycle abiotic reservoir:
 N in atmosphere
enter food chain:
 nitrogen fixation by soil & Atmospheric
Carnivores aquatic bacteria nitrogen
recycle:
Herbivores
 decomposing & nitrifying
bacteria
return to abiotic:
 denitrifying bacteria

Birds
Plankton with Plants
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria Death, excretion, feces
Fish Nitrogen-fixing
Decomposing bacteria bacteria
(plant roots)
amino acids
excretion
Ammonifying bacteria Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
loss to deep sediments (soil)
Nitrifying bacteria
Denitrifying
soil nitrates bacteria
 abiotic reservoir:
Phosphorus cycle  rocks, minerals, soil
enter food chain:
 erosion releases soluble
phosphate
 uptake by plants
recycle:
Land  decomposing bacteria &
Plants Animal tissue
animals fungi
Urine and feces
Soluble soil return to abiotic:
phosphate  loss to ocean
Decomposers
sediment
Loss in (bacteria and
drainage fungi)
Rocks and
minerals
Decomposers Phosphates
(bacteria & fungi) in solution

Animal tissue
and feces Aquatic Plants and
animals algae
Precipitates

Loss to deep sediment

Types of Ecosystems
 Forest ecosystem
•A forest is a complex ecosystem which is predominantly composed
of trees, shrubs and is usually a closed canopy.
•It is a community of living trees or plants and associated organisms
covering a considerable area, utilizing sun-shine, air, water and
material from the soil to sustain and reproduce itself.

According to the 2019 India State of

Forest Report, the total forest cover of
the country is 712,249 square
kilometres (21.67 percent
of India's total geographical area)
slightly up from 708,273 sq. km (21.54
percent) in 2017. The most ‘natural’
undisturbed forests are located mainly
in our National Parks and Wildlife
Sanctuaries.
 Importance of Forest Ecosystem

1. Ecological Balance: Forests and wildlife are essential to maintain ecological balance
through food chain, food web, nutrient cycling etc.
2. Renewable Natural Resources: Forests are important renewable natural resources.
3. Economic Development: Forest contributes to the economic development of the
country because they provide goods and services to the people and industry.
4. Environment Quality: The forest enhances the quality of environment by influencing
the life supporting system.
5. Safeguard against Pollution: Forest check air pollution and soil erosion. Thus, they
exercise safety and against pollution.
6. Soil Conservation: Forest save the hill-slopes from landslides.
7. Wind Erosion: In deserts, trees reduce wind erosion by checking wind velocity.
8. Check the Extension Balance: The forest checks strong gales and keeps the soil intact
beneath the roots of trees and thus checks extension of desert.
9. Attract Rainfall: By causing condensation of water vapour in clouds, forests attract
rains.
10. Control Floods: The floods are controlled because forests dry up rainwater like sponge.
 Importance of Forest Ecosystem
11. Linked with Cultural and Civilization: Forests are linked with our cultural and
civilization.
12. Supply of Raw Material: Forest supply wood, which is used as under:
(i) Fuel,
(ii) Raw material for various industries as pulp, paper, newsprint, board;
(iii) Timber for furniture items;
(iv) To be used in packing articles like fruits, tea etc.
(v) For preparing matches, sport goods etc.
12. Minor forest products: Some examples of minor forest products, are canes, gums,
resins, dyes, flocks, medicines, tannins, lac, fibres, katha etc. Tribal people are provided
with food like tuber, roots, leaves, fruits, meat from birds and other animals etc.
13. Employment opportunities: About eight crore people are employed in wood based
industries like paper and match and small and cottage industries. Besides, those who
are employed in the forest department in various states.
14. Revenue Receipts: The forest provide Rs. 400 crores per year as revenue to the
government.
15. Fodder for Cattle: Forest provide fodder to cattle.
16. Foreign Exchange Earners: Forest produce a great number of articles like essential oils,
resins and dyes. Which find market in foreign countries. Nearly Rs. 50 crores are earned
in foreign exchange through selling lac, terpentine oil and sandal wood oil to abroad.
Thus, forests are nation’s wealth. They are useful to us directly and indirectly.
 Types of Forest Ecosystem

Moist tropical Montane sub tropical

Wet evergreen Broad leaved
Semi-evergreen Pine
Moist deciduous Dry evergreen
Littoral and swamp
Dry tropical Montane temperate forests
Dry deciduous Wet
Thorn Moist
Dry evergreen Dry
Sub Alpine Alpine
Moist
Dry
 Types of Forest Ecosystem
1. Moist tropical: Where the amount of annual rainfall
ranges between 200 and 250 cm, the mean annual
temperature lies between 24 and 27 and humidity
percentage is 80, the evergreen forests degenerate into
semi evergreen forests; such forests are found along the
Western Coast, in Upper Assam, lower slopes of the
eastern Himalaya, Orissa coast and neighbouring hills.
Important plant varieties include bamboos, epiphytes,
aini, semul, gutel, mundane, hopea, benteak, kadam irul,
rosewood, haldu, kanju, bijasal, kusum, bomsum, Indian
chestnut, litsea, holloch, champa and mesua, etc.

2. Dry tropical: This types of forests mainly found in

Indian Northern Hilly regions and some states of
Southern India. Basically, these forests are generated
where average annual rainfall ranges varies from 51 cm
to 151. Trees of these forests drop its leaves in winter
(when the weather remains driest) and new leaves are
generated after winter. During rainy season these types
of forest completely decorate lush green leaves. Some
significant trees of dry tropical forest are sal, acacia,
mangoes and bamboo.
 Types of Forest Ecosystem
3. Montane temperate forests: These types of
forests are mainly generated in Northern middle
Himalayas ranges (1801 to 3001 m) and Southern
Niligiri higher Mountain ranges. It takes about
201 cm average annual rainfalls to produce these
types of forests. Some significant trees of
montane temperate forest are rhododendrons,
ferns, oak, maple, juniper, deodar, chilgoza, etc.

4. Montane sub tropical: These types of forests

mainly generated in the state of Assam,
Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur,
Arunachal Pradesh, etc. mountain ranges of
Western Ghats are also the abode of these
types' forests. Some significant trees of montane
sub tropical forest are poonspar, cinnamon,
rhododendron, sal, sandan, laburnum,
pomegranate, olive, oleander, etc.
 Types of Forest Ecosystem
5. Sub Alpine: Found at an altitude of 2900-3500 m.
They are located near the snowline all over the
Himalaya and the dry cold desert. Average annual
temperature is 20-22 `C. Commonly found trees are
Juniper, Rhodedendron, Willow, Black-currant, Red
fir, Birch and Larch.

6. Alpine: These grasslands start at an elevation of

above 3000 m grow up to the region just below the
snowline. They are common in both the main
Himalayan regions as well as the barren cold deserts
of the Tran Himalaya. Low alpine grasslands are
common with the vegetation not growing higher
than 1.5m.
Climatic conditions vary from the sub-arctic to arctic,
with snow covering the ground for over 5 months a
year. The growing season for the plants is thus
stunted. Pastures are grazed by migratory cattle in
summer. The vegetation consists mainly of the black
juniper, the drooping juniper; honeysuckle and
willow are the common trees.
 2. Grassland Ecosystem

•Grasslands evolved under a system of grazing, drought and periodic fire and almost all the
existing grasslands are maintained by either of these or a combination of all these factors.

•Tropical grasslands, which are in the mid-successional stage, are largely maintained by annual
or biannual burning in most of the protected areas (sanctuaries and national parks). Whereas
in unprotected areas they are maintained by livestock grazing and other biotic factors.

•The grasslands are the ‘common’ lands of the community and are the responsibility of none.
They are the most productive ecosystems in the subcontinent, but they belong to all, are
controlled by none. All types of grassland ecosystems are under tremendous grazing pressures.
 a) Shola Grasslands
The Western Ghats, a chain of ancient mountains parallel to the west coast of the Indian
Peninsula occupies only 5% of India’s land area (about 1,32,606 sq. km), yet it harbours
nearly 27% of its total flora. Wet Evergreen Forests are mostly confined to the windward
side of the Western Ghats where the rainfall exceeds 2,000 mm. Areas 1,800 m asl in the
Western Ghats are dominated by natural grasslands and adjacent pockets of Montane
Evergreen Forests frequently termed as Shola Grassland Complex. Shola grasslands are
maintained by fire and frost and appear to be climax vegetation as an ancient and
geographic relict species of ungulate (Niligir Tahr) is found in the shoal grasslands and no
where else in the world.
 b) Terai Grasslands
About 3,54,800 sq. km in area, the Gangetic Plains are one of the most fertile areas of the world, with a
nearly 3,000 year history of human occupation. There is practically no natural vegetation left in the Gangetic
Plains, except in the region known as terai, which is sandwiched between the bhabhar tract of the Sub
Himalayas and the main Gangetic Plain. The tall, moist grasslands of the terai, interspersed with the Sal
Shorea robusta forest contain some of the most endangered bird species of India such as the Swamp
Francolin, Bengal Florican, and Finn’s Weaver. Report of the Task Force on Grasslands and Deserts have
recorded 330 species from the Dudwa National Park which is perhaps the best terai forest left in north India.
b) Terai Grasslands
 c) Semi-arid Grasslands
The Semi arid grasslands occurring in eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat, western Madhya Pradesh, and parts of
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and southern parts of Jammu & Kashmir, constitutes about 5,48,850 sq km
or 16.60% of India’s geographical area.
Some of the rarest species of wildlife are found in the grasslands, many of them totally dependent on them.
The Bengal Florican, One horned Rhinoceros, Pygmy Hog, Hispid Hare, Wild Buffalo, Hog Deer, Swamp Deer
in terai grassland, the Great Indian Bustard in dry, short grasslands.
 3. Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are areas of land that are arid, or dry, and get less than 10 inches of rain per year. These
areas can be covered by sand, rock, snow, and even ice. Additionally, they do not have a lot of
plant life covering the land. Desert ecosystems cover approximately 25% - 30% of the land on
Earth.
 a) Thar Desert
Thar Desert in Rajasthan:
 It is world's 7th largest desert and also Asia's 3rd
largest desert.
 The Thar Desert is bounded on the northwest by the
Sutlej River, on the east by the Aravalli Range, on the
south by the salt marsh known as the Rann of Kutch
(parts of which are sometimes included in the Thar),
and on the west by the Indus River.
 There are three principal landforms in the desert
region — the predominantly sand covered Thar, the
plains with hills including the central dune free country
and the semi-arid area surrounding the Aravalli range.
Protected areas and Wildlife from Thar:
 The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer, spread over an area of 3162 km², is an excellent
example of the ecosystem of the Thar Desert. Great Indian Bustard, Blackbuck, chinkara,
desert fox, Bengal fox, wolf, desert cat etc. can be easily seen here.
 Tal Chhapar Sanctuary is a very small sanctuary in Churu District, 210 km from Jaipur, in
the Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of graceful Blackbuck.
 The Jalore Wildlife Sanctuary in Jalore district (130 km from Jodhpur) is another small
sanctuary that is privately owned where a sizeable population of rare and endangered
wildlife is present including the Wildcat.
a) Thar Desert
 b) Rann of Kutchh
 The Rann of Kutch is a seasonally marshy saline clay
desert located in the Thar Desert biogeographic
province in the state of Gujarat. Kutch is the name of
the district wherein it is situated.
 The Rann of Kutch comprises some 30,000 square
kilometres (10,000 sq mi) between the Gulf of Kutch
and the mouth of the Indus River in southern
Pakistan.
 The Luni River, which originates in Rajasthan,
empties into the northeast corner of the Rann.

Wildlife of Rann of Kutchh

 In India's summer monsoon, the flat desert of salty clay and mudflats, averaging 15
meters above sea level, fill with standing waters, interspersed with sandy islets of
thorny scrub forms the breeding grounds for some of the largest flocks of Greater
and Lesser flamingoes.
 The Rann is also famous for the Indian Wild Ass sanctuary, the Little Rann of Kutch,
where the last of three species of Asiatic Wild Ass (Equus hemionus, khur or khar),
the only ones in Asia, still exists along with wolves, foxes, jackals, chinkara gazelles,
nilgai antelope and blackbucks.
b) Rann of Kutchh
 c) Cold Desert
 The Cold Mountain Desert of the Trans-
Himalayas is located high in the great
Himalaya mountains in the Indian state of
Himachal Pradesh.
 Desert Mountain Valley of Lahaul and Spiti is
surrounded by high mountain ranges and
receives heavy snowfalls during the winter and
cut from rest of India by eight months of the
year.
Wildlife of cold desert:
 Several species of birds such as robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven, and
hoopoe are common. Some of these are migratory birds. The animals include
Pashmina goat, Ibex, yak and Snow leopards.
 Pashmina refers to a fine variant of spun wool made from the animal-hair fibre
forming the downy undercoat of the Pashmina goat
c) Cold Desert
 Aquatic Ecosystems

• Freshwater • Marine
–Ponds & Lakes –Oceans
–Streams & –Coral Reefs
Rivers –Estuaries
–Wetlands
 Ecological and
economic
services provided
by Freshwater
ecosystems
Ecological and economic services provided by Marine
Ecosystems
 Ponds and Lakes
Ponds and Lakes

Divided into three different “zones” determined by depth and

distance from the shoreline

Littoral zone: Shallow water zone

Limnetic zone: An open water zone where effective
penetration of solar light takes place
Profundal zone: Deep zone with no penetration of light.
 Ponds and Lakes

 Most ponds become dry after the rains are over and
are covered by terrestrial plants for the rest of the
year.

 When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its life forms
such as the algae and microscopic animals, aquatic
insects, snails, and worms come out of the floor of the
pond where they have remained dormant in the dry phase.

 The vegetation in the water consists of floating

weeds and rooted vegetation on the periphery which
grow on the muddy floor under water and emerge out of
the surface of the water.
Ponds and
Lakes
 Streams & Rivers
• It’s a lotic ecosystem, where water flow downward from
mountain highland and flowing through the plain fall in the
sea.
• Bodies of flowing water moving in one direction
• Found everywhere—they get their start at headwaters,
which may be springs, snowmelt or even lakes
• Travel all the way to their mouths, usually another water
channel or the ocean
Streams &
Rivers
 Wetlands
• Wetlands are areas of standing
water that support aquatic
plants
• 1. Presence of Hydric Soil
• 2. Presence of Aquatic
vegetation
– Marshes, swamps, and
bogs are all considered
wetlands
 Wetlands
Plants
• adapted to the very moist and humid conditions are called
hydrophytes
Pond lilies Cattails Sedges

Tamarack Black Spruce

Gum Cypress
 River Otter Wetlands
Damselfly Dragonfly Mayfly

Crayfish Snails Leech Bluegill Bass

Catfish Sculpin Minnow Snakes

Frog Turtle
Great Blue Heron Canadian Goose
 Aquatic Ecosystems

•Marine
–Oceans
–Coral Reefs
–Estuaries
 Marine ecosystem
• Cover about three-fourths of the earth’s surface and
include oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries
• Algae supply much of the world’s oxygen supply and
take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide
• Evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
 Marine ecosystem
Ocean have two major life zone:

1) Costal zone: relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to ample
sunlight it is zone of high productivity.

2) Open sea: It is deeper part of ocean away from the continental shelf. It is
vertically divided into three parts:

 Euphotic zone: receive abundant sunlight and shows high

photosynthetic activity.

 Bathyal zone: receive dim light and is zone of geological activity.

 Abyssal zone: is the dark zone( 2000 to 5000 meter deep), however it
support world’s largest ecological unit.
Coral Reefs

A structure formed by
coral polyps, tiny animals
that live in colonies.

Coral polyps form a hard,

stony, branching structure
made of limestone.

New polyps attach to old

coral and gradually build
the reef.
 Types of Coral Reefs

• Fringing reefs
– Submerged platforms of living coral extending
from the shore into the sea
• Barrier reefs
– Follow the shore but are separated from it by
water
– Great Barrier Reef is world’s largest
 Types of Coral Reefs

• Atolls
– Ring-shaped islands of coral in open sea
– Form on submerged mud banks or volcano craters
– Surround a seawater lagoon
– Channels connect lagoon to the sea
A World of Coral Reefs

= Coral Reef
 Estuaries
Estuary ecosystem: It is partially enclosed coastal
area at the mouth of river where fresh water and
salty sea water meet. Therefore organism present in
in estuaries shows wide range of tolerance for
temperature and salinity. Such organism are known
as eurythermal and euryhaline.

Estuaries have a rich biodiversity and many of the

species are endemic.
Ecosystem Services
 Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies
The corner-stone of integrated ecosystem management is to ensure that the
“environmental dimension” of collaboration is solid and that ecosystems continue to be
healthy and productive. Without this, other ecosystem management goals are threatened.
The capacity to monitor ecosystems and ensure that this information continuously feeds
into collaborative structures is critical for ecosystem management. Collaborative design and
implementation of biodiversity strategies and action plans, the use of evidence-informed
planning tools to design conservation area networks and ecosystem connectivity, as well as
biodiversity conservation, is fundamental for integrated ecosystem management and in
order to respond to climate change, disasters and unforeseen events.
 Ecosystem restoration
Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been
degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Ecosystems are dynamic communities of plants, animals,
and microorganisms interacting with their physical environment as a functional unit. The
practice of ecological restoration includes wide scope of projects including: erosion control,
reforestation, removal of non-native species and weeds, revegetation of disturbed areas,
daylighting streams, reintroduction of native species, as well as habitat and range
improvement for targeted species.

Case study: Yamuna Biodiversity Park, Delhi

Ecosystem restoration

Case study: Neela Hauz Biodiversity Park, Delhi

 Ecosystem restoration - Approach
By studying how natural ecosystems recover, scientists are learning how to speed up repair
operations using a variety of approaches. They include the following measures:
 Restoration: returning a particular degraded habitat or ecosystem to a condition as
similar as possible to its natural state.
 Rehabilitation: turning a degraded ecosystem into a functional or useful ecosystem
without trying to restore it to its original condition. Examples include removing pollutants
and replanting to reduce soil erosion in abandoned mining sites and landfills and in clear-
cut forests.
 Replacement: replacing a degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem. For
example, a productive pasture or tree plantation may replace a degraded forest.
 Creating artificial ecosystems: for example, creating artificial wetlands to help reduce
flooding or to treat sewage.
 Ecosystem restoration - Steps
Science-based four point strategy for carrying out most forms of ecological restoration and
rehabilitation.
 Identify what caused the degradation (such
as pollution, farming, overgrazing, mining,
or invasive species).
 Stop the abuse by eliminating or sharply
reducing these factors. This would include
removing toxic soil pollutants, adding
nutrients to depleted soil, adding new
topsoil, preventing fires, and controlling or
eliminating disruptive non-native species
 If necessary, reintroduce species—
especially pioneer, keystone, and
foundation species—to help restore natural
ecological processes
 Protect the area from further degradation

Case study (1934): Curtis Prairie, in the University of Wisconsin’s

The second person from the left in the top photo is the
arboretum
pioneering conservation biologist Aldo Leopold.
 Thank you..
Ramganga River Wetland Moist Deciduous Forest and Grasslands
Uttarakhand Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan Jim Corbett National Park, UK

Alpine Meadows
Rohtang, Uttarakhand

Thar desert
Jaisalmer, Rajasthan

Montanne Subtropical Forest Taal Chapar Wildife Sanctuary

Binsar, Uttarakhand Sujangarh, Rajasthan