Stainless Steel

Publication P412

Stainless steel tanks for

biogas production
This publication is written for designers and owners of biogas plants and
gives information on the design, fabrication and installation of stainless
steel biodigester tanks. Much of the information in the brochure was
developed during the EU’s Research Fund for Coal and Steel project:
Innovative and competitive solutions using stainless steel and adhesive
bonding in biogas production (BIOGASS). This was a three year research
project which was completed in 2016. The project partners included
stainless steel producers, research institutes, universities and a tank
manufacturer. Through experimental tests, field trials and numerical
analysis, the project generated design guidance for a range of grades of
stainless steels which are suitable for application in biodigesters.

Key advantages of stainless steel tanks for biogas production

y Excellent corrosion resistance
y No need for protective coatings or a corrosion allowance
y Low maintenance which minimises lost revenue due to process downtime
y Long service
y Quick installation
y Residual value at end of life

Summary
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a well-established process for renewable energy
production in which biomass is broken down and converted to biogas (a
mixture of methane, carbon dioxide and traces of other gases) by micro-
organisms. The environment inside a biodigester is complex, depending on
the composition of the feedstock and operating conditions, and some of the
by-products are corrosive to certain structural materials. It is essential to
minimise maintenance because each time the AD process is interrupted, it
takes 3-4 weeks for production to start up again. Stainless steel is an ideal
material for biogas tanks because it is inherently corrosion resistant, as well
as being strong and easy to fabricate. The range of stainless steel grades
available enables a cost-effective material choice to be made, leading to
trouble-free performance throughout the life of the biodigester.

METALogic Outokumpu Stainless Oy

www.metalogic.be www.outokumpu.com
Belgium Finland

Acerinox Europa SAU Universitaet Duisburg-Essen

www.acerinox.com www.uni-due.de/iml
Spain www.uni-due.de/abfall/essen THE VOICE OF THE MOLYBDENUM INDUSTRY

Germany The BIOGASS project was carried out with financial support
WELTEC BIOPOWER GmbH from the Research Fund for Coal and Steel of the
www.weltec-biopower.com The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) European Community (Contract: RFSR-CT-20012-00035),
Germany www.steel-sci.com the International Molybdenum Association and
the Nickel Institute.
United Kingdom

1
Stainless Steel

Introduction to biogas production

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is the breakdown of organic produce both heat and electricity. The biogas can also be
material (also known as biomass) by naturally occurring cleaned up to use as a fuel for converted road vehicles.
micro-organisms in the absence of oxygen. The process
produces biogas which can subsequently be burned to Reduces fertiliser bills
produce heat. Alternatively it can be fed into a combined The residue organic material can be used in both solid
heat and power (CHP) generator to produce both heat and liquid form as a highly nutritious organic fertiliser,
and electricity or it can be cleaned and used in the same thereby reducing the need for expensive and potentially
way as natural gas or as a vehicle fuel. The material left harmful non-organic chemical fertilisers. It is nutrient-
over after digestion, called digestate, can be used as a rich with less odour than slurry. Biogas manure also
fertiliser and soil improver. The air-tight tank in which has a lower viscosity than animal manure and therefore
this process takes place is called a biodigester (also penetrates into the ground more quickly.
known as an anaerobic digester or fermenter).
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Biogas can be produced from a variety of feedstocks, Biogas comprises about 60% methane and 35% carbon
commonly manure or slurry from livestock. The advantage dioxide, as well as some other gases including the
of using manure as a feedstock is that it reduces the noxious hydrogen sulfide. Methane and carbon dioxide
gaseous releases compared to conventional storage are both greenhouse gases that are damaging to the
and field application of manure. However, as it has environment. The AD process captures these gases,
already been digested by the livestock, gas output is which under normal circumstances would be released
relatively low. To boost gas production it is usually directly to the atmosphere from the decomposition
necessary to add energy crops such as maize or silage. of animal waste, vegetable waste etc. Since the
This is worthwhile if the cost of production is sufficiently greenhouse gas potential of methane is higher than
low. Food processing or catering waste can also be that of carbon dioxide, capturing methane and burning
added, which not only boosts the gas output but may it to produce carbon dioxide is beneficial.
generate a gate fee which contributes to the profit.
Installing an AD plant enables farmers to diversify and
Adding food wastes will increase the administrative
bring in a predictable income stream and energy source,
complexity of the plant as well as adding to the capital
reducing their use of fossil fuel and mineral fertilisers.
cost. Around 57% of biogas in Europe is produced from
agricultural waste, 31% from landfill and 12% from For the food and drink sector, AD provides a means of
wastewater treatment plants. Elsewhere in the world, processing its by-products in an environmentally
biogas is produced primarily by landfill-based plants or acceptable way avoiding landfill fees.
small-scale family digesters. Biogas facilities, unlike wind power, can be ramped
Advantages of AD are as follows: up and down at the touch of the button. As renewable
energy sources make up a greater share in energy
Generates electricity and heat supply, the ability of biogas to cover peak demands
The captured biogas can be burned to produce heat, and balance down periods of other renewables
or used in a combined heat and power generator to becomes more important.

Figure 1 Stainless steel biogas plant in Coleraine, Northern Ireland

2
Introduction to biogas production

Liquid or solid
biowaste / by-products
Pre-treatment

Heat

Anaerobic Biogas CHP

digestion

Electricity

Bio-fertiliser
Post treatment

Figure 2 Typical AD plant process

The AD sector is a niche but thriving industry, with plants design options covering different temperature levels,
producing biogas for many years around the world. More moisture contents and tank layouts with either continuous
than 14,560 biogas power plants operate in Europe, with or batch systems and single, double or multiple digesters.
total capacity approaching 7.9 GW [1]. Germany accounts These all have different cost implications, design
for half of this capacity (almost 3.9 GW) and for annual requirements, and returns on investment.
electricity generation from biogas of around 29 TWh,
followed by Italy (1,391 plants), Switzerland (620), and While there are thousands of functioning biogas plants
France (610). The popularity of biogas in Germany was around the world, in the vast majority of cases operation
due to the high feed-in tariffs which were in force for can only be sustained with the help of subsidies to be
12 years; the tariffs were reduced in 2012. able to compete with the fossil energy industrial sector.
There are clear opportunities to improve many of the
Biogas plants are also widespread in the Americas and process steps in the biogas production chain in order to
Asia, for example in China there are 100,000 large- reduce both investment and operating costs.
scale modern biogas plants.
Low prices for oil and natural gas and high production
The economic viability of an AD plant is very dependent costs for renewables have led to a stagnation of growth
on the type and quantity of feedstock and the utilisation of biogas production in Europe, but in the long term,
of the by-products; biogas, bio-fertiliser and, to a it is expected that the role of biogas in the European
lesser extent, heat. The process of AD requires careful energy mix will grow, especially as it is easier to store
management to exploit its potential and there are several and transport than electricity.

3
Stainless Steel

The anaerobic digestion process

AD is a very flexible process that can be configured (H2S) and halides. The concentration of these trace
in multiple ways, according to the inputs, outputs, site gases depends on the concentration of nitrogen
access, space and layout. The process is affected by and sulfur in the feedstock and the conditions in the
many factors including: biodigester. The level of H2S must be substantially
reduced prior to feeding into a combined heat and
Temperature power (CHP) generator in order to avoid excessive
corrosion and rapid and expensive deterioration of
The operation temperature depends on what material is lubrication oil.
being digested and what type of system is used. Mesophilic
systems operate at 25-45°C and thermophilic systems Removal of H2S from biogas (desulfurization) can
operate at 50-60°C or above. Thermophilic systems be done by various methods, either biological or
have a faster throughput with faster biogas production chemical, taking place inside or outside the biodigester.
per unit of feedstock and m3 digester and there is greater The method depends on the content of H2S and the
pathogen kill. However, the capital costs of thermophilic throughput rate in the desulfurization equipment.
systems are higher, more energy is needed to heat
them and they generally require more management. Biological desulfurization involves the addition of oxygen
For this reason, mesophilic systems are more common. in small volume (a maximum 1 % volume concentration).
This reaction produces sulfur, a yellow substance which
Dilution deposits on the upper part of the biodigester (Figure 3).
Sulfurous acid (H2SO3) may also be formed, depending
Water is usually added to the raw material to generate on the concentration of oxygen in the biodigester.
a slurry, which is generally 10-25% solids.

pH
Optimum biogas production is achieved when the pH of
the input mixture is between 6.5 and 8.

Retention time
The length of time which the feedstock remains in
the biodigester affects the extent of degradation and
quantity of gas produced.

Toxicity
Mineral ions and detergents present in the feedstock
can inhibit normal growth of bacteria in a biodigester.
Figure 3 Build-up of sulfur inside a biodigester, as a result
of desulfurization
Mixing/agitation
Mixing is required to combine the incoming material with Chemical desulfurization involves the addition of
the bacteria, to stop the formation of scum and avoid chemicals like iron hydroxide Fe(OH)2 which leads to
pronounced temperature gradients within the biodigester. the precipitation of iron sulfide (FeS). Iron chlorides
(FeCl2 and FeCl3 ) are not recommended because
The environment inside a biodigester is very complex to chloride ions can cause corrosion of some grades of
characterize, depending on the composition of the stainless steel.
feedstock and operating conditions. It cannot be finely
controlled and maintenance cannot be carried out regularly The most benign feedstock is herbal waste, or products
because each time the anaerobic process is interrupted, like energy crops, harvesting residues, or fruits or
it takes about 4 weeks to start producing biogas again. vegetables which have not undergone any additional
processing. High values of sulfur will be produced if the
During the AD process, organic acids such as acetic feedstock contains residues of meat or fish processing.
acid (CH3COOH) will be formed and trace gases may If the feedstock contains convenience products or
build up in the biodigester such as hydrogen sulfide leftover food, sodium chlorides (NaCl) will be present.

4
Introduction to stainless steel

Stainless steel is a family of corrosion and heat resistant The three families of stainless steel suitable for use in
steel alloys containing a minimum of 10.5% chromium. biodigesters are:
There is a range of stainless steels meeting different
corrosion resistance, strength, weldability and toughness a. Ferritic stainless steels
requirements. With a chromium content above 10.5%, The chromium content of the most popular ferritic
a clean surface and exposure to air or any other stainless steels is between 10.5% and 18%. They
oxidizing environment, a transparent and tightly contain little, or no nickel, which makes them
adherent layer of chromium-rich oxide (passive layer) relatively cost-effective and price-stable compared
forms spontaneously on the surface of the stainless with austenitic stainless steels, the family of
steel. If scratching or cutting damages the film, it will stainless steels more commonly used in structural
reform immediately in the presence of oxygen. applications. Apart from enhanced durability,
ferritics have similar properties to structural carbon
steels, although the toughness is somewhat limited
Chromium
oxide layer at low temperatures and in heavy sections, except
Stainless for grade 1.4003. However, ferritics are suitable for
steel a wide range of applications. High chromium ferritic
steels with more than 18% Cr and/or additions
of molybdenum can be used in quite aggressive
conditions. Ferritics are not as formable as
a. Chromium oxide layer
protecting stainless steel austenitic stainless steels.
b. Austenitic stainless steels
The common types of austenitic stainless steel
are based on 17 to 18% chromium and 8 to 11%
nickel additions. They have excellent weldability and
formability. Corrosion resistance can be enhanced by
adding chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. They
b. Chromium oxide layer
damaged (e.g. by machining)
work harden during cold forming to high strength
levels whilst retaining a useful level of ductility and
toughness. Relative to structural carbon steels, they
also have significantly better toughness over a wide
range of temperatures.
c. Duplex stainless steels
Standard duplex stainless steels have excellent
c. Chromium oxide layer corrosion resistance, typically containing 20
re-formed automatically to 26% chromium, 1 to 8% nickel, 0.05 to 5%
molybdenum, and 0.05 to 0.3% nitrogen. They
Figure 4 Stainless steel has a protective chromium oxide have a microstructure which is approximately
surface film 50% ferritic and 50% austenitic. This gives them
a higher strength than either ferritic or austenitic
The stability of the film depends on the composition steels. There is also a range of “lean duplex”
of the stainless steel and the corrosiveness of its steels which contain less nickel and molybdenum
environment, as well as other factors. Its stability and more manganese than standard duplexes.
increases as the chromium content increases and is They have corrosion resistance which is similar to
further enhanced by alloying additions of molybdenum. the austenitic stainless steels but with enhanced
Unlike galvanized or painted steel, there are no applied strength. Duplex stainless steels are weldable but
protective surface layers. need care in selection of welding consumables and
heat input. They have moderate formability.

5
Stainless Steel

Grades of stainless steel

Material grades
There are a range of stainless steels meeting different information for long products, like bar and rod. These
requirements for corrosion resistance, strength, standards also define the type of process route and
weldability and toughness. They are specified in surface finish.
accordance with European Standard EN 10088 [2].
The relevant parts for use in construction applications This publication covers the grades of stainless steels
are Part 4 and Part 5, which are harmonised standards. shown in Table 1. Table 1 gives the grade designations
in accordance with EN 10088, the US system specified
Part 1 of EN 10088 gives chemical compositions and by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and
reference data on some physical properties relevant for
the Unified Numbering System (UNS). Hereafter, this
structural applications such as the elastic modulus, E.
publication will refer to the grades by their European
Part 4 of EN 10088 gives the properties and compositions number. The durability and cost of the grades increases
for sheet, strip and plate and Part 5 gives the equivalent as the content of additional alloying elements increases.

Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Other key alloying

EN AISI UNS content content content elements
(%) (%) (%) (%)
S41003 /
Ferritic 1.4003 - 10.5-12.5 0.3 – 1.0 - -
S40977
Ferritic 1.4509 441 S43932 17.5-18.5 - - Titanium, Niobium

Ferritic 1.4521 444 17.0 – 20.0 - 1.8 – 2.5 Titanium, Niobium

Austenitic 1.4318 301L S30153 16.5 – 18.5 6.0 – 8.0 - Nitrogen

Austenitic 1.4301 304 S30400 17.5 – 19.5 8.0 – 10.5 -

Austenitic 1.4404 316L S31603 16.5 – 18.5 10.0 – 13.0 2.0 – 2.5

Austenitic 1.4571 316Ti S31635 16.5 – 18.5 10.0 – 13.5 2.0 – 2.5 Titanium

Duplex 1.4482 2001 S32001 19.5 – 21.5 1.5 – 3.5 0.1 – 0.6 Manganese, Nitrogen

Duplex 1.4162 2101 S32101 21.0 – 22.0 1.35 – 1.7 0.1 – 0.8 Manganese, Nitrogen

Duplex 1.4462 2205 S32205 21.0 – 23.0 4.5 – 6.5 2.5– 3.5 Nitrogen

Duplex 1.4662 2404 S82441 23.0 – 25.0 3.4 – 4.0 1.5 – 4.0 Manganese, Nitrogen

Table 1 Grades of stainless steels covered in this publication

Surface finish
Stainless steels offer a significant advantage over 2E: Cold rolled, heat treated, mechanically descaled
carbon steels because they can be used unprotected A cold rolled finish, rougher than 2B (the material
in a range of surface finishes, from mill finish through has been mechanically descaled (e.g. by shot
dull finishes to bright polish. The various finishes are blasting) before final pickling to facilitate the
standardised in EN 10088. Biodigesters are usually removal of annealing oxide).
made from cold rolled strip material, which is available 2H: Work hardened
in thicknesses from 0.4 to 6.0 mm. The typical range of A work hardened, cold rolled finish, in which the
thicknesses for hot rolled coil is 2.0 to 8.0 mm. material has been work hardened (also known as
Suitable finishes for tanks are: temper rolled) to strengthen it.

2B: Cold rolled, heat treated, pickled, skin passed

A standard cold rolled mill finish.

6
Properties of stainless steel

Physical properties Figure 5 compares the stress-strain curves for ferritic,

duplex, austenitic and S355 carbon steel for the
The physical properties of the stainless steels covered full strain range. Figure 6 shows the stress-strain
in this publication are given in Table 2, typical values for characteristics at low strain. In the absence of a
structural carbon steel are also shown for comparison. clearly defined yield point, the ‘0.2% proof strength’ is
These values are taken from EN 10088-1 for stainless conventionally adopted as the design strength, which is
steel and EN 1993-1-2 [3] for carbon steel. the strength at 0.2% permanent strain.

Stainless steels have a lower value of thermal

conductivity compared to carbon steels. The thermal 800

expansion coefficient for austenitic stainless steels is

higher than carbon steels. Unlike austenitic stainless 700
steels, ferritics are magnetic (duplex stainless steels
are less magnetic than ferritics due to the presence of 600
austenite in the microstructure).
500
Specific Coefficient
Stress (N/mm2)

Thermal
thermal of thermal
Density conductivity
Grade capacity expansion 400
kg/m3 at 20°C
at 20°C 10-6/K
W/mK
J/kgK 0~100°C 300
1.4003 7700 430 25 10.4
1.4509 7700 460 25 10.0 200 Austenitic (1.4301)
1.4521 7700 430 23 10.4 Duplex (1.4462)
100 Ferritic
1.4318 7900 500 15 16
S355 Carbon steel
1.4301 7900 500 15 16 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1.4404 8000 500 15 16 Strain (%)
1.4571 8000 500 15 16.5
1.4482 7800 500 15 13 Figure 5 Full range stress-strain curves for stainless and
carbon steels
1.4162 7700 500 15 13
1.4462 7800 500 15 15 600

1.4662 7700 500 15 13

Carbon
500
steel 7850 440 53 12
S355
Table 2 Physical properties of stainless steels
400
Stress (N/mm2)

Strength and stiffness

300
The stress-strain behaviour of stainless steels differs
from that of carbon steels in a number of respects.
The most important difference is in the shape of the 200
stress-strain curve. Whereas carbon steel typically
exhibits linear elastic behaviour up to the yield stress Austenitic (1.4301)
and a plateau before strain hardening is encountered, 100 Duplex (1.4462)
stainless steel has a more rounded response, with no Ferritic
well-defined yield stress. S355 Carbon steel

The response of ferritic stainless steel lies somewhere 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
Strain (%)
between that of carbon steel and austenitic stainless
steel in that it is not quite as ‘rounded’ or nonlinear as Figure 6 Stress-strain curves for stainless and carbon steels
the austenitic grades. from 0 to 0.75% strain

7
Stainless Steel

Properties of stainless steel

The design values for the 0.2% proof strength (fy), Austenitic stainless steels are not susceptible to brittle
tensile strength (fu) and elongation (A) for each grade fracture, even at low temperatures. Duplex stainless
covered in this publication are presented in Table 3, steels exhibit a ductile to brittle transition at low temp-
taken from EN 10088-4. Note that the measured 0.2% eratures, like carbon steels. Ferritic stainless steels
proof strength and elongation are likely to exceed these demonstrate the lowest toughness of the grades of
minimum specified values by between 25 to 40%. stainless steel considered in this publication. However,
brittle fracture is highly unlikely to occur in the thin
Note that the ratio of fu / fy for duplexes and ferritics is material that is used for the biodigesters since the plane
typically between 1.4 and 1.9, which is a similar value stress condition prevails for thin material loaded in tension,
to carbon steel; the ratio for austenitics is around 2.5 and failure is characteristically in a ductile manner.
which demonstrates the significant work hardening the
material undergoes.

For structural design, it is recommended that a value

of 200×103 N/mm2 is adopted for the elastic modulus
for all grades.

0.2% proof strength Tensile strength Elongation after fracture

Grade fy fu A
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (%)

1.4003 280 450 20

1.4509 230 430 18

1.4521 300 420 20

1.4318 350 650 35

1.4301 230 540 45

1.4404 240 530 40

1.4571 240 540 40

1.4482 500 700 20

1.4162 530 700 20

1.4462 500 700 20

1.4662 550 750 20

Carbon steel S355 to

355 510 14-20
EN 10025-2 [4]
Table 3 Minimum specified mechanical properties for cold rolled strip for stainless steels from EN 10088

8
Stainless steel in biogas production

Why use stainless steels for biodigesters? Quick installation

Small-scale biodigesters, used for domestic and Stainless steel tanks are quick to install and there
farming purposes, are often made from plastic. For is no requirement for expensive, heavy machinery,
larger biodigesters, concrete is the most common scaffolding or craneage.
material choice, though both carbon steel and stainless
steel are also popular. Special protective coatings are Recyclable
necessary to avoid corrosion in concrete or carbon
steel tanks, for example carbon steel tanks are often Stainless steel has a high residual scrap value; typical
coated with a glass fused or epoxy layer. end-of-life recycling rates for stainless steel for building
and infrastructure applications are 92%.
Stainless steel biodigesters are generally circular
tanks, assembled on site by bolting flat sheets together.
Depending on the type of AD process, the tank may
be thermally insulated, for example with a 50-100 mm
layer of rockwool which is clad in carbon steel sheeting.
Reasons why stainless steel is an ideal material for a
biodigester are:

Corrosion resistance
The shell of a biodigester comes into direct contact
with a wide range of potentially aggressive products,
including hydrogen sulphide, chlorides and organic
acids. Providing the correct grade is specified, and
simple design and fabrication rules are followed,
stainless steel will be able to resist the corrosive
elements in a biodigester. No expensive additional
coatings are required, which often degrade in contact
with warm water containing organic compounds over
the years of service.

Economic design Figure 7 Inside view of a stainless steel biodigester, showing

the agitator mechanism on the left hand side
Stainless steels have excellent mechanical properties
(strength, stiffness, ductility, toughness). There is no
need to include a corrosion allowance when designing In addition to being used for biodigesters, stainless
the tank wall thickness. In some cases, the high steel is an ideal material for a range of other
strength of duplex stainless steels will enable the wall components in a biogas plant, including storage tanks,
of the tank to be reduced. pumps and valves, agitators, pipes and fittings and
purification applications.
Low maintenance and repair requirements The most corrosive zone inside a biodigester is the
It is very important to keep maintenance inside a splash or tidal zone, where corrosive substances may
biodigester to a minimum due to the delay in biogas concentrate on the tank walls during wetting and drying
production which follows an interruption in the AD cycles. Dirt on the walls may also lead to the formation
process. The use of stainless steel will lead to significantly of crevices, which can be initiation points for crevice
lower maintenance costs than other coated materials. corrosion. For this reason, the upper part of a stainless
steel biodigester, which is partly in the splash zone and
Hygienic surface partly in the gas phase, is often made from a more highly
alloyed grade of stainless steel. The lower part of the
Stainless steel has a smooth surface which is easy biodigester is permanently submerged in the digestate,
to clean with minimal risk of leaching of any elements a less highly corrosive environment, and hence can be
from the stainless steel to the digestate. made of a less durable grade of stainless steel.

9
Stainless Steel

Material selection and durability

Corrosion resistance What is the environment inside a biodigester?

The selection of stainless steels for a particular In order to select an appropriate grade of stainless
application is dependent on the service environment. steel, it is necessary to characterize the corrosivity of
The more severe the environment, the more highly the environment within a biodigester. The corrosivity
alloyed stainless steel is required to provide corrosion- depends on the operating conditions (internally and
free performance. Generally, the higher the content of externally, pressure, electrolyte, etc.), the design and
chromium, molybdenum and in some cases also nickel, detailing (crevices, bimetallic contact, inaccessibility,
the better the corrosion resistance. The corrosion welds) and location within the biodigester.
performance is also affected by the quality of the surface
finish: generally the smoother the finish, the less risk of Laboratory tests
corrosion, especially where splashing can occur.
In the BIOGASS project, different feedstocks,
Pitting resistance equivalents (PRE) are a theoretical intermediate species and digested residues were
way of comparing the pitting corrosion resistance characterised by chemical analysis in order to develop
of various types of stainless steels, based on their artificial test solutions simulating the real conditions
chemical compositions. The PRE numbers are useful in biodigesters. Artificial solutions and real feedstock
for ranking and comparing the different grades, but were used for a range of laboratory tests to study the
cannot be used to predict whether a particular grade corrosion resistance of the different stainless steel
will be suitable for a given application, where pitting grades in these environments.
corrosion may be a hazard. The PRE number chosen
for use in BIOGASS was the PRE(Mn) which takes into The following laboratory tests were carried out:
account the negative effect of manganese on pitting yy Immersion testing in FeCl3 and artificial test solution
resistance. PRE(Mn) values for the grades of stainless (to demonstrate the detrimental effect of iron
steel studied in BIOGASS are given in Table 4. chloride solutions on stainless steels);
PRE(Mn) yy Potentiodynamic polarization tests in artificial test
Family of solutions (to compare the resistance of stainless
Grade Based on upper &
Measured stainless steels to localised corrosion (pitting and crevice));
lower limits of alloying steel
values
elements in EN 10088 yy Critical pitting temperature measurements (to
1.4003 9.0 – 13.4 11.3 Ferritic
demonstrate the importance of the redox potential of
the environment on the performance of stainless steels);
1.4509 16.5 – 18.5 18.9 Ferritic yy Pitting susceptibility by electrochemical noise
(to evaluate the suitability of electrochemical noise
1.4482 15.3 – 25.5 20.7 Duplex technique for localized corrosion monitoring purposes);
yy Pitting susceptibility with simulated microbiologically
1.4318 17.5 – 24.5 21.1 Austenitic
induced corrosion (MIC) (to examine the influence
of chemical and physical conditions which can
1.4404 21.1 – 29.8 23.2 Austenitic
be expected underneath biofilms on the localized
corrosion of stainless steels);
1.4162 21.3 – 28.1 23.9 Duplex
yy Performance evaluation in laboratory scale
1.4521 21.9 – 29.2 25.4 Ferritic biodigesters (to study the risk of MIC under different
operational conditions).
1.4662 28.3 – 38.1 34.0 Duplex
The experiments allowed the different stainless steels
to be ranked according to their corrosion resistance
1.4462 30.3 – 41.2 37.2 Duplex
under the different test conditions.
PRE(Mn) = %Cr + 3.3%Mo + 30%N - %Mn

Table 4 Range of PRE(Mn) values for candidate grades of

stainless steel

10
Material selection and durability

Field trials The conditions inside the German biodigester were

shown to be more corrosive than those inside the
Samples of different grades of stainless steels were Finnish biodigester as grades which corroded in the
placed inside two mesophilic biodigesters operating at German tank did not corrode in the Finnish tank.
around 39°C, one in Finland and one in Germany. As expected, in the German biodigester, corrosion
Some of the samples were continuously immersed, attack was most severe in or near the creviced areas
others were in the tidal zone and others in the gas of the samples in the tidal zone. The fully immersed
phase. After 5 and 6 months respectively, the samples areas and the areas continuously exposed to the gas
were removed from the Finnish and German biodigesters phase suffered less from corrosion.
and the extent of corrosion experienced by each sample
was analysed in the laboratory.

Three sets of 10 creviced stainless steel samples were

installed in the Finnish biodigester. This biodigester used
cow manure as feedstock and removed H2S contamination
by oxidation with air in a second stage tank. Only the
least alloyed grade of stainless steel tested (1.4003)
showed signs of any corrosion after 6 months.

The German biodigester used corn and manure as

feedstock. The biogas was desulfurized by regular
Figure 9 Sample 1.4509/2B after exposure for 6 months
Fe(OH)2 additions and by feeding air into the gas space in a biodigester
over the digestate, maintaining the oxygen content in Left: In the sample holder, showing black
the biogas at 0.5% volume concentration. Crevices corrosion deposits
were also present in these samples. Upon removal Centre: Before cleaning in the lab, showing black,
white/yellow and rust-coloured deposits/
after 5/6 months, the samples were cleaned, inspected corrosion products
visually and re-weighed. The depth of corrosion attack Right: After cleaning, showing corrosion damage
at locations where black deposits/corrosion
and the affected area were determined. The corrosion products were present
damage and remaining residue were studied using a
scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy It is clear that the type of feedstock and the method
dispersive spectrometry (EDS) microprobe for localized of desulfurization have a significant effect on the
elemental analysis. corrosivity of the environment.

Figure 8 Stainless steel specimens inside the German biodigester

11
Stainless Steel

Material selection and durability

As a result of the laboratory investigations and field high PRE(Mn). Because grade 1.4462 did not corrode
trials, the following material selection recommendations under any of the relevant electrochemical, laboratory
can be made for bolted stainless steel tanks. The or field tests, it appears to be a suitable material for
recommendations apply to stainless steels in the the most aggressive feedstocks, such as food waste
investigated feedstocks. The suitability of a stainless containing relatively high amounts of NaCl.
steel grade for use in significantly different feedstocks
should be evaluated separately. Increasing H2S It should be noted that these guidelines may not apply
concentrations and increased dosing of oxygen for to welded stainless steel tanks (no welded samples
desulfurisation will require steel grades with a relatively were studied in this project).

Mesophilic or
Method of Recommended grades*
Feedstock thermophilic Position
desulfurization based on performed tests in biogas digesters
conditions

Liquid phase** 1.4509, 1.4521, 1.4318, 1.4404, 1.4482,

Cow manure Mesophilic None
Tidal zone & gas phase 1.4162, 1.4662, 1.4462

1.4521, 1.4318, 1.4404, 1.4482, 1.4162, 1.4662,

Maize silage Liquid phase**
1.4462
and liquid Thermophilic Air
manure Tidal zone & gas phase 1.4521, 1.4404, 1.4482, 1.4162, 1.4662, 1.4462

1.4521, 1.4318, 1.4404, 1.4482, 1.4162, 1.4662,

Liquid phase**
Corn and 1.4462
Mesophilic Air & Fe(OH)2
manure
Tidal zone & gas phase 1.4521, 1.4404, 1.4482***, 1.4662, 1.4462

Maize silage Liquid phase Iron chloride desulfurization is

and liquid Thermophilic FeCl3 generally not recommended in
manure Tidal zone & gas phase stainless steel biodigesters.

* Skin-passed surface finish 2B is commonly preferred over surface finishes 2E and 1D.
** Although not tested in this project, grade 1.4301 has a track record of satisfactory performance in the liquid phase and grade 1.4571 has a
track record of satisfactory performance in the tidal zone/gas phases of biodigesters.
*** Only in surface finish 2B.
The suitability of stainless steels for use with significantly different feedstocks should be evaluated separately. The greater the level of chlorides in the
feedstock, the more highly alloyed the grade of stainless steel required.
Table 5 Grade selection recommendations for different biodigester conditions

12
Design of stainless steel tanks

General design issues stress-strain curve; stainless steel will perform like
carbon steel. Buckling failures generally occur at these
A biodigester is designed to resist axial and low strains.
circumferential loading. Axial loads are due to self-
weight (the tank shell, ring stiffeners and roof) and In Zone III, the benefits of work hardening become
snow. Circumferential loading is due to the internal evident and stainless steel shells will perform at least
pressure exerted on the tank by the digestate, and as well as carbon steel. In Zone II, where stresses lie
wind on the outside of the tank. Extreme events such between the limit of proportionality and the 0.2% proof
as earthquake or impact loading may also need to stress, a stainless steel shell will become less stiff
be taken into consideration. Biodigesters are thin- than a carbon steel shell and will have lower buckling
walled shells where buckling is the predominant resistance compared to an equivalent carbon steel shell.
design constraint. Axial forces are relatively low and a
biodigester is likely to be at its most vulnerable when
exposed to wind loading during installation. Once in
service and filled, the contents actually contribute to its
stability. In order to prevent overall failure of the empty
tank under wind loading, a ring stiffener is required at
the top of the tank.

Whereas carbon steel tanks are often designed with

a constant wall thickness, the greater cost of stainless
steel necessitates optimisation of design to save
material. As a result, stainless steel biodigesters have
variable wall thickness, with the thickness increasing Figure 10 Comparison of stainless and carbon steel
structural response
down the tank as the internal pressure due to the
digestate increases. The outer surface of the tank is For steels with nonlinear stress-strain curves, EN 1993‑1‑6
smooth and inner surface stepped. Ring stiffeners are conservatively requires that a reduced value of the
positioned at regular intervals to enhance buckling elastic modulus should be used in buckling calculations.
resistance. Note that unprotected carbon steel tanks It even suggests the use of the secant modulus at the
are often supplied with a corrosion allowance, i.e. the 0.2% proof strength which leads to very low buckling
thickness of the shell wall is increased to allow for the strength evaluations. The ECCS Recommendations on
metal which is expected to corrode over the life of the Shell Buckling [8] act as a commentary on EN 1993-1-6
tank. This is not necessary for stainless steel tanks. and give a less conservative approach for determining
Stainless steel biodigesters generally vary from 6 m the buckling strength of austenitic stainless steel cylinders
to 35 m diameter. Heights vary from 5 m to 20 m, with under axial compression, based on work by Hautala [9].
a preference for shorter tanks. Radius to height ratios This approach uses the initial elastic modulus and only
vary from 1:2 to 2:1. reduces the buckling strength selectively, applying
reductions to medium slender shells which buckle under
Design standards for tanks stresses in the stress-strain Zone II. (A bilinear stress-
strain curve using the elastic modulus and fy = 0.2% proof
Eurocode 3: Part 1-4 (EN 1993-1-4) gives rules for the strength give appropriate buckling strength values in
structural design of stainless steels [5] . EN 1993-4-2 is Zones I and III.)
the part of Eurocode 3 which covers the design of steel
tanks [6]; it refers extensively to EN 1993-1-6, which The reduced axial (also called meridional) buckling
gives rules for determining the strength and stability strength σx,Rd,red is given by:
of shell structures [7]. Along with all modern structural
design standards, Eurocodes adopt a Limit State σx,Rd,red = ψx σx,Rd
design philosophy.
where
The nonlinear stress-strain characteristics of stainless σx,Rd is the axial design buckling stress according to
steels lead to differences in structural performance EN 1993-1-6 cl. 8.5
compared to carbon steel (Figure 10). In Zone I, strains ψx is the correction factor in Table 6, expressed as
are low and response is in the linear portion of the a function of relative slenderness ͞λx

13
Stainless Steel

Design of stainless steel tanks

͞λ Buckling correction factor ψx

x

≤ 0.40 1.0
0.40 - 0.65 1.0 - 0.8 ( ͞λx - 0.4 )
0.65 - 0.80 0.8
0.80 - 1.0 0.8 + 1.0 ( ͞λx - 0.8 )
≥ 1.0 1.0
Table 6 Buckling correction factor ψx for austenitic stainless Figure 11 Buckling patterns in duplex shells subject to axial loading
steels (for temperatures up to 100°C) [8]
Left: r/t = 50 Middle: r/t = 150 Right: r/t = 333

For global numerical analysis, EN 1993-1-6 refers to

the use of the analytical stainless steel material model, Circumferentially compressed shells
which is given in EN 1993-1-4. The behaviour of austenitic, duplex and ferritic stainless
steel shells was investigated numerically, studying r/t
Investigations under the BIOGASS project ratios varying from 9 to 1000, and relative slenderness
Under the BIOGASS project, a series of laboratory values λ͞ θ from 0.2 to 4.3. A linear elastic bifurcation analysis
tests and numerical analyses was carried out to extend /materially nonlinear analysis (LBA/MNA) was adopted.
the design rules for stainless steel shells under various The reduced circumferential buckling strength σθ,Rd,red is
types of loading. given by:
Axially compressed cylindrical shells
12 tests were carried out on ferritic (1.4521) and duplex σθ,Rd,red = ψθ σθ,Rd
(1.4462) stainless steel shells of height 370 mm, with
radius to thickness (r/t) ratios varying from 50 to 400.
The shells were formed by tungsten inert gas (TIG) where
welding and re-rolled after welding to eliminate weld σθ,Rd is the circumferential design buckling stress
distortion. Material properties and initial geometric according to EN 1993-1-6 cl. 8.5
imperfections were measured. Fabrication tolerance ψθ is the correction factor in Table 8, expressed as
quality classes were determined. Figure 11 shows the a function of relative slenderness λ͞ θ

buckling patterns observed in three duplex shells of

Circumferential buckling
increasing slenderness.
Stainless correction factor ψθ
FTQC
The tests were modelled numerically and then a steel
λ͞ θ ≤ ͞ λθ,0 λ͞ θ,0 < ͞ λθ
parametric study was undertaken to study the impact
of varying key parameters, such as the size and shape A 0.82
of imperfection. The tests and numerical analysis Austenitic B 1.0 0.81
confirmed that less punitive correction factors are C 0.79
needed for ferritic and duplex shells than for austenitic
shells because their stress-strain behaviour is less A
nonlinear (Figure 6). The recommended factors are Duplex B 1.0 0.92
given in Table 7. C
A 0.85
͞λ Buckling correction factor ψx Ferritic B 1.0 0.84
x
C 0.84
≤ 0.40 1.0
FTQC = Fabrication Tolerance Quality Class.
0.40 - 1.1 0.95 Class A: λ͞ p = 1.37, Class B: λ͞ p = 1.27, Class C: λ͞ p = 1.12, where λ͞ p is the
plastic limit relative slenderness.
≥ 1.1 1.0 λ͞ θ,0 is the squash limit slenderness, which EN 1993-1-6 takes as 0.4 for
circumferential loading.
Table 7 Buckling correction factor ψx for ferritic and duplex Table 8 Buckling correction factor ψθ for stainless steel
stainless steel shells subject to axial loading shells subject to circumferential loading

14
Design of stainless steel tanks

Post critical strength

of circumferentially
loaded shells
EN 1993-1-6 does not take
into account any benefit
from the post-buckling
strength of open thin-walled
cylindrical tanks under
external pressure, which is
a potentially critical design
scenario for biogas tanks
subject to wind loading prior
to being filled. Under the Figure 12 Austenitic stainless steel shell under reducing internal pressure
BIOGASS project, a Left: Showing the unloaded shell
programme of experimental Middle: Development of elastic buckling
investigations was Right: Collapse
undertaken to derive design
expressions for stainless steel which enables this 0.6 and 1.0 by taking advantage of the post critical
additional strength to be exploited. strength for austenitic stainless steels, depending
on the tank geometry. For the geometries of duplex
Nine tests were carried out on specimens with r/t from tanks investigated, values for αθ could be increased
2500 to 5000 and length from 430 mm to 960 mm, to around 1.2. In terms of strength, this means an
with varying designs of ring stiffener. The stainless increase in strength of 20 – 100% for austenitic shells,
steels tested were austenitic grade 1.4301 and duplex and around 140% duplex shells. Numerical parameter
grade 1.4462. The shells were formed into cylinders studies will be carried out based on these promising
from flat sheets by gluing and a base plate was results in order to formulate design recommendations
securely attached to one end of the shell. Material in EN 1993-1-6.
properties were measured. Photogrammetry was used
to measure the dimensions and shape of the shells
to a very high degree of accuracy both at the start Alternative design standards for steel tanks which
and during the tests. The fabrication tolerance quality adopt the Allowable Stress design philosophy are:
classes for the shell models were determined.
API 650 Welded tanks for oil storage [10]
The open face was inserted into a water basin to seal This standard is used worldwide. It covers design,
the cylinder. Internal pressure was then reduced using fabrication, erection, and testing. It gives simple empirical
a vacuum pump, which simulated wind loading on the design methods for stiffening a tank shell based on its
outside of the tank. The specimen was initially subject thickness, height and design wind velocity, also taking
to reduced internal pressure until the first buckle was advantage of the post-critical buckling strength. Appendix
observed. The shape of the shell was photographed S gives guidance for austenitic stainless steel storage
for photogrammetry evaluation. Then the shell was tanks and Appendix X for duplex tanks.
unloaded to verify that it was an elastic buckle and the
shape was documented again. The procedure was EN 14015 Specification for the design and manufacture
repeated with reducing internal pressure until the first of site built, vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottomed,
plastic buckle was visible upon unloading. At this point above ground, welded, steel tanks for the storage
the internal pressure was reduced in larger steps until of liquids at ambient temperature and above [11]
the shell collapsed (Figure 12). This standard provides detailed guidance on almost
every aspect of tank design, from joint specifications
The investigations concluded that significant strength to venting requirements and the effects of different
enhancements are possible by taking advantage of roof configurations. It gives brief guidance on the use
the post critical strength. EN 1993-1-6 recommends of austenitic and duplex stainless steels, including a
a value for αθ = 0.5 for the circumferential elastic table of permissible grades. Minimum wall thicknesses
imperfection reduction factor for fabrication tolerance for carbon or stainless steel tanks are given but the
quality class C. This value can be increased to between scientific basis for these values is unknown.

15
Stainless Steel

Connections

Bolted connections When choosing a stainless steel fastener, consideration

should be given to matching the strength and corrosion
The composition and mechanical properties of resistance of the bolts and parent material. To avoid
stainless steel bolts and nuts are covered by the risk of bimetallic corrosion, stainless steel bolts
EN ISO 3506‑1 and -2 [12]. In this standard, bolts and should always be used when connecting stainless steel
nuts are designated by a letter followed by three members. (Stainless steel bolts are also suitable for
numbers, e.g. A2-70 or A4-80. The letter refers to the connecting galvanized steel and aluminium members.)
group of stainless steel (e.g. A for austenitic). The
letter is followed by a number (1, 2, 3, 4 or 5) which Adhesive bonding
reflects the corrosion resistance; 1 representing the
least durable and 5 the most durable. The final two The potential of using adhesives to construct a stainless
numbers denote the property class, which describes steel biodigester was explored in the BIOGASS project
the mechanical properties (see Table 9). as a way of reducing the cost of fabrication. To replace
(part of the) bolted connections, the adhesive would have
Ultimate tensile Stress at 0.2% to be applied in a continuous film to provide structural
Property
Grade (b) strength permanent strain
class strength and to replace the seal that is currently used
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
to prevent leakage of liquid and gas. Degradation of
50 500 210 the adhesive bond due to exposure to the feedstock
A1, A2, and by-products of anaerobic digestion were investigated
A3, A4 70 700 450
in the laboratory and in field trials. The effect of temperature
and A5
on the adhesive performance was also examined
80 800 600
(25°C - 55°C range). The bond strength was also
Notes: studied numerically.
a. The properties apply to fasteners with nominal thread diameters
d ≤ 39 mm. Three different adhesive types were investigated,
b. In addition to the various steel types covered in EN ISO 3506
namely an epoxy, a polyurethane and an acrylate.
under property class 50, 70 and 80, other steel types to
EN 10088-3 may also be used. Laboratory trials showed that the acrylate was not
suitable for this type of application, particularly for
Table 9 Minimum specified mechanical properties of
austenitic grade bolts to EN ISO 3506 (a) temperatures higher than 35°C. The epoxy adhesive
was the most stable in all conditions (mesophilic and
For most structural applications, it is generally thermophilic). The polyurethane-based adhesive was
recommended that austenitic bolts grade A2 or A4 and also stable but exhibited signs of instability with
property class 70 or 80 are used. Steels of grade A2 increasing temperature. However, if excessive adhesive
have equivalent corrosion resistance to grade 1.4301. is not removed, the epoxy-based adhesive was found
Steels of grade A4 contain molybdenum and have
to increase the likelihood of localised corrosion
equivalent corrosion resistance to grade 1.4401.
occurring in some grades of stainless steel.
Property class 70 fasteners are made from cold
drawn bar. Property class 80 fasteners are made The structural testing on both these adhesives
from severely hard cold drawn bar, with mechanical demonstrated that their strength is satisfactory at 25°C.
properties similar to carbon steel and alloy steel However, poor performance was observed at 35°C
grade 8.8 bolts to ISO 898 [13]. and 55°C. The structural tests also studied the role
A duplex composition (designated FA which stands of surface preparation, which was found to be very
for ferritic-austenitic) is mentioned in Annex B of important. Roughening of the surface by grit-blasting
EN ISO 3506-1 and it is likely that this group of stainless or abrasion with emery paper was shown to enhance
steels will be included in future revisions of the standard. bonding. However, such preparation may have an
Although not included in the standard, property class adverse effect in terms of corrosion. From the work
100 bolts and nuts are available up to size M20 (stress at undertaken, it was concluded that adhesive bonding
0.2% permanent strain = 800 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile does not appear to be a suitable method for fabricating
strength = 1000 N/mm2). Additionally, duplex bolts and stainless steel biodigesters, although expanding the
nuts are available in grade 1.4462 with mechanical study to include more adhesives and more rigorous
properties in accordance with property class 80 and surface preparation should be undertaken before a
superior corrosion resistance to austenitic fasteners. definitive recommendation can be made.

16
Fabrication

Fabrication standard, has also been published [16]. Information on the

fabrication of duplex stainless steels is also available [17].
Stainless steels are relatively easy materials to work
with and many of the fabrication and joining techniques Installation
are similar to those of carbon steel.
Generally no significant ground works are required
Appropriate storage and handling procedures should for the tank foundations; top soil is removed, the site
always be adopted to avoid iron contamination and levelled and the base excavated. The base comprises
surface damage, both of which may subsequently compacted hardcore and a membrane onto which a
initiate corrosion. Iron particles embedded in stainless reinforced concrete slab is cast.
steel surfaces during fabrication are a frequent cause
of ‘surface rusting’ on commissioning. It is important, Stainless steel biodigesters are usually constructed on
where possible, to reserve a fabrication facility site by bolting together individual stainless steel sheets
exclusively for stainless steels. In addition, handling (1.25 – 1.5 m x 2.5 - 3.0 m). The sheets are not curved
equipment and tools which are dedicated to fabricating prior to erection. The segment construction allows the
stainless steels should be used to avoid contamination parts to be easily transported and expensive and labour
with carbon steels. Guidance on the removal of intensive scaffolding is not needed.
contamination is given in ASTM A380 [14]. The bolted connections are sealed to prevent leakage
Stainless steel may be cut by usual methods, e.g. shearing of gas or liquid. Care is needed in choosing the right
and sawing. It is advisable to remove any sharp burrs sealant to ensure satisfactory long-term performance
formed during shearing operations. Stainless steels under the operating conditions in contact with the
work harden more than carbon steels; thus cutting, digestate. Sealants may take the form of semi-rigid
forming etc. require increased machine tool power and gaskets or adhesives:
re-working is more difficult. Stainless steels exhibit greater yy A semi-rigid gasket can be made of neoprene,
springback than carbon steel and this should be nitrile, silicone, or other similar material and has
compensated for by over-bending. Holes may be drilled, firm outer edges around a pliable inner surface.
punched or laser cut.
yy A sealant is typically a single-component material
Stainless steel biodigesters are usually formed by in a tube that is dispensed as a bead using a tool
bolting flat sheets together. However, welding is used similar to a caulking gun; the sealant is then air-
for the connection of pipes and other equipment to the cured so that its outer edges become firm while its
tank. Austenitic stainless steels are readily welded with inner volume remains pliable.
or without filler wire. Duplex and ferritic stainless steels
require more control when being welded and may involve Stainless steel biodigesters are assembled from top
post-weld heat treatment or special welding consumables. to bottom. Ring stiffeners give the tank stability during
Excessive heat input and high weld interpass temperatures installation. The procedure begins with the top ring of
should be avoided. Austenitic grades have a high the tank. Once the top ring is complete, it is lifted and
coefficient of thermal expansion and low conductivity, the next ring constructed beneath it. The tank wall
so high heat input will result in excessive distortion and is secured with an anchoring system onto the base
residual stress. Weld scale and heat tint must be and permanently sealed. It usually takes about two
removed from welds by treating with pickling paste (a weeks to erect the shell of a stainless steel biodigester.
mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acid) especially in Further time is needed after that to install the necessary
applications where micro-organisms are present, to equipment within the tank.
avoid microbially induced corrosion. If in doubt about At the end of the service life of a bolted stainless
welding and fabrication techniques, then consultation of steel biodigester, it can be dismantled, cleaned and
the parent material or welding consumable supplier / re-assembled in another location.
manufacturer is recommended.

EN 1090-2, the European specification for fabrication and

erection of structural carbon and stainless steel, gives
requirements for storage and handling, forming, cutting,
joining methods, tolerances, and inspection and testing [15].
Specific guidance just for stainless steels, based on this

17
Stainless Steel

Whole life cost and carbon assessments

The performance of biodigesters is strongly dependent For a 6 m tall, 32 m diameter biodigester, the costs
on the specific AD process. Additionally, there is sparse of the base and shell of equivalent in-situ concrete,
information on their long-term performance and carbon steel and stainless steel tanks were assessed
maintenance requirements because AD is a relatively new using cost and maintenance data gathered from an
technology. An important factor for clients in AD investment extensive review of the industry. A 3% discount rate
is the expected return on investment (ROI). Predicted ROI was applied to calculate whole life costs. Stainless steel
is often dependent on government subsidies which are was the cheapest option in terms of whole life costs
generally offered for limited or uncertain timescales. over a 25 year lifetime (Figure 13). The cost differential
Typically, a private investor is likely to invest in an AD plant slightly increased over a 40 year lifetime.
with a relatively short design life whereas a public client,
investing for example in water treatment and supply, is Concrete Carbon Steel
more likely to consider investing in more expensive
Relative Whole Life Cost
Stainless Steel
(capital cost) assets with a longer design life. As a rule of
thumb, bolted carbon steel biodigesters would generally
have a 20 to 25 year design life whereas the design life of
concrete tanks would generally be 50 to 60 years.
Maintenance-free stainless steel tanks are likely to have
design lives between these two ranges.

Whole life cost assessments Figure 13 Relative whole life costs (25 year lifetime)

The AD tank market is very competitive. Costs reflect

market conditions and this should be borne in mind Whole life embodied carbon assessments
when considering the results of theoretical whole life A simplified whole life carbon assessment was undertaken
cost assessments summarised here. The capital cost using published embodied carbon coefficients. The study
of the suitable grades of stainless steel for biodigesters included the carbon impact of all the materials which were
is currently 3 to 4 times that of uncoated carbon steel. required to construct and maintain the tank base and
However, the relative strength of stainless steel, shell. The shell was assumed to be thermally insulated.
compared to carbon steel, can lead to some weight and Construction and deconstruction impacts were not
hence capital cost savings, depending on the design of included. Generic environmental data on coatings were
the tank. Stainless steel biodigesters are also inherently used in the absence of accurate data. In accordance with
corrosion resistant, therefore maintenance, repair and CEN/TC 350 requirements [18], a modular approach was
downtime costs will be lower compared to carbon steel adopted, i.e. ‘cradle to gate with options’ which included
or concrete tanks. the production stages (Modules A1 to A3) and the
supplementary information beyond the tank life cycle
Bolted carbon steel biodigesters are generally either
(Module D). Module D impacts were included for the shell
coated in vitreous enamel (glass fused) or bonded
materials because of the significant longer term
epoxy powders. Currently there is sparse performance
recyclability benefits of steel products. Over both a 25 and
data on these coatings in AD tank applications, though
40 year lifetime, the embodied carbon impact (Modules
the cost of repairing these coatings is very high.
A1 to A3 and D) of the steel and stainless steel tanks
The capital cost of in-situ concrete biodigesters is were about 15% lower than that of concrete (Figure 14).
generally higher than carbon steel AD tanks because
Relative Embodied Carbon Impact

they take longer to construct and are less straight Concrete

forward to erect requiring fixing rebar and temporary Carbon Steel Stainless Steel
formwork. Maintenance requirements of in-situ concrete
tanks appear to be dependent on the AD process and
the concrete grade specified; coatings are often initially
applied to the internal surface in the gas zone. Longer-
term maintenance requirements of concrete
biodigesters are less certain but it is likely that complete
internal relining will be required after 10 to 15 years for
most AD processes. Figure 14 Relative embodied carbon impacts (25 year lifetime)

18
Case studies

Plant for organic wastes, Darz̀yno, Poland

Project data
Start of construction: September 2012
Commissioning: August 2013
Input materials: Potato waste from a local potato
chips factory, maize silage, slurry

Technical data
Dosing feeder: 4 × 50 m3 made from stainless steel
Pre-storage tank: 2 × 192 m3, 2 × 342 m3
Biodigester: 4 × 4,483 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301 (liquid phase) and
1.4571 (gas phase)
Storage tank: 4 × 5,000 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301
CHP: 2 × 1.2 MWel

Characteristics
This biogas plant is completely self-sufficient because the
required energy to operate the plant is produced by itself.

Plant for renewable products, Harpstedt, Germany

Project data
Start of construction: August 2011
Commissioning: December 2011
Input materials: Maize silage, pig slurry, fowl
manure, grass silage, cereals

Technical data
Dosing feeder: Push floor system (80 m3)
Biodigester: 1 × 3,500 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301 (liquid phase) and
1.4571 (gas phase)
Storage tank: 2 × 4,500 m3 — stainless steel
grade: 1.4301
CHP: 2 × 265 Wel, and one satellite
CHP with 250 kWel

Characteristics
The heat produced is used for drying the digestate.
The heat of the satellite CHP is used to heat the buildings
(house, stables etc.) on the farm.

19
Stainless Steel

References and sources of further information

References 12. EN ISO 3506 Mechanical properties of corrosion-

resistant stainless steel fasteners.
1. Renewables 2015 global status report REN21, EN ISO 3506-1: Bolts, screws and studs, CEN, 2009
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st EN ISO 3506-2: Nuts, CEN, 2009.
Century, www.ren21.net. 13. EN ISO 898-1 Mechanical properties of fasteners
2. EN 10088 Stainless steels made of carbon steel and alloy steel, bolts, screws
Part 1: List of stainless steels, CEN, 2014 and studs with specified property classes. Coarse
Part 4: Technical delivery conditions for sheet/ thread and fine pitch thread, CEN, 2013.
plate and strip of corrosion resisting steels for 14. ASTM A380 / A380M - 13 Standard practice for
construction purposes, CEN, 2009. cleaning, descaling, and passivation of stainless
3. EN 1993-1-2 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures steel parts, equipment, and systems, ASTM, 2013.
— Part 1-2: Structural fire design, CEN, 2005. 15. EN 1090-2 Execution of steel structures
4. EN 10025-2 Hot rolled products of structural steels and aluminium structures, Part 2: Technical
— Part 2: Technical delivery conditions for non- requirements for steel structures, CEN, 2008.
alloy structural steels, CEN, 2004. 16. Baddoo, N R, Execution of stainless steel
5. EN 1993-1-4 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures: structures, ED018, The Steel Construction
Part 1 4: General rules — Supplementary rules for Institute, 2014.
stainless steels, CEN, 2006. 17. Practical guidelines for the fabrication of duplex
6. EN 1993-4-2 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures stainless steels, IMOA, 2009 (available from
— Part 4-2: Tanks, CEN, 2007. www.imoa.info).
7. EN 1993-1-6 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures 18. CEN/TC 350 Sustainability of construction works,
— Part 1-6: Strength and stability of shell structures, www.cen.eu.
CEN, 2005.
8. Buckling of steel shells, European design Sources of Further Information
recommendations, Eurocode 3, Part 1-6. ECCS
Technical Committee 8 Structural Stability, TWG Stainless steel in biogas production, ISSF, 2012
8.4 - Shells, 5th Edition, ECCS, 2008. (available from www.worldstainless.org).
9. Hautala, K T, 1998. Buckling of axially compressed This publication can be downloaded from the Online
cylindrical shells made of austenitic stainless steels Information Centre for Stainless Steels in Construction
at ambient and elevated temperatures. Doktor- www.stainlessconstruction.com which is a website
Ingenieurin Dissertation at University of Essen. giving technical guidance, design data, case studies
10. API Standard 650 Welded tanks for oil storage, and research papers about the design, specification,
12th Edition, API, 2013. fabrication and installation of stainless steel in
construction. It is also available from www.steelbiz.org.
11. EN 14015 Specification for the design and
manufacture of site built, vertical, cylindrical, flat- The photos on pages 1, 2, 9 and 19 are provided by
bottomed, above ground, welded, steel tanks for WELTEC BIOPOWER GmbH.
the storage of liquids at ambient temperature and
above, CEN, 2005.

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