Module 4 - FRAMEWORKS & PRINCIPLES BEHIND MORAL DISPOSITION

Topic # 1: Basic Theories As frameworks in Ethics

A striking part of human behavior is the ability to value others and their actions,
experiences, opinions as well as their ideas. From this may arise his personal, familial,
cultural, social, intellectual, religious, aesthetic values, and so on. Amongst the
important ones is the moral and ethical values. These values lend clear their origins
(where do moral values arise?), their nature (what is a moral value?), their justification
(is it possible to determine that some moral values are better or worse than other moral
values?), and their application (what ought one to do?). All this relatively pertains to
theoretical ethics, in particular to meta and normative ethics, while practical ethics
focuses on their application to specific issues and concerns.

         1. Let us begin with meta-ethics. It attempts to discern: 1) what moral concepts
and phrases mean, and 2) what are its ethical statement-truth conditions, vis-a-vis
whether the statements can be given a non-moral or logical justification. The caveat of
meta-ethics' focus is to analyze moral language. Here are some examples of 'moral
language' in meta-ethical questions:

            What words like good, bad, right, and wrong mean?

            What is 'moral obligation'?

            Is the statement 'never lie' justifiable?

            ‘Are there objective moral truths?

            Are moral judgments a matter of subjective personal feeling?

            How we can know if something is right or wrong?

            How may ethical propositions be supported or defended?’.

            Meanwhile, if you utter and say 'slavery is wrong,' it is either your claim is based
on customs, or you are just making an objective declaration that is true, no matter what
may others think? As can be seen, meta-ethics, neither claim what particular actions are
good, right, or moral, nor does it provide any practical guidance on what constitutes
moral or ethical matters.

       Another way to look at meta-ethics as that branch of ethics which studies the nature
of morality. It talks about the meaning, reference, and the truth values of moral
judgments. Also, it explains what goodness and wickedness mean and how we know
about them.

        Meta-Ethics theories are commonly classified as:

§  Semantically (use of ethical language or when you use them for what they are meant
to be for) as either cognitivist or non-cognitivist;

§  Substantially (something that stands under or ground things) as either universalist or

relativist;

§  Epistemologically (relates to knowledge and reason) as empiricist, rational, or

intuitionist.

COGNITIVISM MORAL REALISM

Ø  Refer to moral judgments or Ø  Believes that the existence of

propositions that are ‘truth bearers,’ or moral facts and the truth (or falsity) of
are either true or false. moral judgments are independent of
people’s thoughts and perceptions.
Ø  Other ethicists would say that Ø  The idea is that there are real
ethical terms and statements used are objective moral facts or truths in the
informative, thus rest upon certain universe.
factual claims about the universe or
human nature.
Ø  Famous forms of cognitive ethics Ø  That moral statements provide
-moral realism and ethical factual information regarding this said
subjectivism. moral facts or truths in the universe.
   Ø  Morality is about objective facts.
   ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM

 
  Ø  Holds that the truth (or falsity) of
moral judgments or ethical
propositions are dependent on the
attitudes or standards of a person or
group of persons.
  Ø  Moral statements, ethical
propositions, and moral judgments
are treated as statements of feelings,
attitudes and emotions of that
particular person or group over a
particular issue.
  Ø  It is contrary to moral realism
  Ø  Most forms of ethical subjectivism
are relativist.
   

NON COGNITIVISM EMOTIVISM

 
Ø  denies that moral judgments are Ø  The most popular form of non-
either true or false. cognitive theory.
Ø  It claims that ethical sentences do Ø  Moral judgments are taken s mere
not convey authentic propositions, expressions of our emotions and
hence are neither true or false. feelings.
  Ø  Like exclamatory sentences,
ethical sentences cannot be said to
be either true or false according to
this theory.
  Ø  A moral statement in emotivism do
not provide information about the
speaker's feelings regarding the
topic but merely expresses those
feelings.
   

MORAL UNIVERSALISM

 
  Ø  Explains that moral facts and
principles apply to everybody in all
places.
  Ø  Also known as, ‘moral objectivism,’
which means that a universal ethic
exists, and that it applies to all
similarly situated persons, regardless
of their nationality, citizenship,
culture, race, gender, sexual
preference, religion, or any other
which differentiates them from others.
  Ø  While it believes that some
behaviors are simply wrong, it also
 contends that if something is right for
one, then it is right for another.
  Ø  Moral universalism is very much
compatible with ‘moral realism’.
   

MORAL RELATIVISM

 
  Ø  different moral facts and principles
apply to different persons or group of
individuals.
  Ø  Believing that various cultures
have distinct standards of right and
wrong, it also maintains that ethical
standards also change over time
even in the same culture.
  Ø  Denying a single, objective
standards for morality, it holds that all
norms are equally true and morals
are mere preferences.
  Ø  Adherents to it believe that moral
relativism respects the diversity of
human societies and responds to the
different circumstances surrounding
human acts.
  Ø  Noticeably, it is very much
compatible with ‘ethical subjectivism’.
   

MORAL EMPIRICISM

 
  Ø  States that moral facts are known
thru observation and experience.
  Ø  The theory is an extension of
‘empiricism’ in epistemology,  wherein
all knowledge of matters of fact is
derived from experience, and
therefore our mind is not equipped
with pre-experience concepts.
  Ø  Empiricism corresponds to
experiments and observation.
   
 MORAL RATIONALISM

 
  Ø  States that moral facts and
principles are knowable a priori, that
is, by reason alone and without
reference to experience.
  Ø  In general, the theory relies on
reason rather than intuition in
justifying a belief or action.
  Ø  Rationalism corresponds to
mathematical analysis
   

MORAL INTUITIONISM

 
  Ø  Implies that moral truths are
knowable by intuition, that is by
immediate instinctive knowledge
without reference to evidence.
Topic # 2: Normative Ethics

As a branch of ethics, morally speaking, it pertains to the principle of how man (should)
ought to act. It highlights two important facts: 1) it evaluates standards for the rightness
and wrongness of actions, and 2) it determines a moral course of action. It is essentially
therefore, prescriptive in nature. Meaning, it addresses specific moral questions as to
what we should do, or believe in. Normative ethics are applied to justify norms like
‘discrimination is wrong’ or ‘we are to act according to our duties?.’

            By comparison, a typical meta ethics question would be, ‘what is goodness?’,
while a normative ethics question would then be, ‘what are we to do?’.

            Here are other common examples of normative ethical questions to ponder; ‘Is it
ever moral to lie? Are there absolute moral obligations? Are promises moral duties?.

            A normative ethicist tends to formulate legitimate moral principles, and  use
these principles to specific situations so as to know which actions are either moral or
immoral. Their ultimate purpose is to devise an ethical code that will provide a
reasonable and reliable guidelines to evaluate moral situations, and of course determine
what correct moral behavior should be. It is for this reason that most normative ethical
theories appeal to moral principles that are universal and absolute, that is applicable to
human kind in all situations.

       Normative ethics are generally categorized as teleological ethics, deontological

ethics, and virtue ethics.
      Teleological ethics base their moral evaluations and principles upon (the actual or
possible) consequences that actions produce. Deontological ethics, on the other hand
pertains to moral duties and the intentions which motivates an action to be performed.
While virtue ethics looks at the moral character or virtue of a person.

   

   

   

   

THREE KINDS OF NORMATIVE TELEOLOGICAL

ETHICS
  Ø  It determines moral actions by their
outcomes or results. Telos means ‘end’,
which refers to end of the result of the
action.
   

DEONTOLOGICAL

 
  Ø  It bases morality on independent moral
values or duties.
  Ø  Deon means ‘duty’ implying the
foundational nature of man’s duties and
obligations.
   

VIRTUE ETHICS

 
  Ø  Emphasis is on developing good habits
of character like kindness and generosity.
  Ø  It gives importance to moral education
where the purpose is to mold individuals
to habitually act in a virtuous manner.
Topic # 3: Applied Ethics

Deals with ethical questions particular to professional, disciplinary, or practical field.

Questions like, under what conditions is abortion morally permissible?  Do a citizen
have a moral obligation to participate in a democratic process called voting?  What
obligations do a person towards a poor community?  Is it morally permissible to simply
allow rural folks to permanently reside in urbanized cities? Are some of the many
questions applied ethics may find its way in, especially when the time comes for it to
examine specific, controversial moral issues. It therefore, addresses the moral
permissibility of specific actions and practices.

            Below are the subsets of applied ethics include bioethics, environmental,
business, sexual and social.

   

   

 
  
 

BIOETHICS
FIVE KINDS OF APPLIED ETHICS
  Ø  It is concerned with ethical issues
pertaining to life, biomedical researches,
medicines, health care, and medical
profession.
  Ø  It deals with controversies like
surrogacy, stem cell research, genetic
manipulation of fetuses, in-vitro
fertilization, abortion, euthanasia, suicide,
patent rights, confidentiality of patient’s
records, and others.
   

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

 
  Ø  It deals with moral issues concerning
nature, ecosystem, and its nonhuman
contents.
  Ø  It includes issues such as animal rights,
animal experimentation, endangered
species preservation, pollution control,
and sustainable development.
   

BUSINESS ETHICS
  
  Ø  Relates to moral principles concerning
business environment of issues related to
corporate practices, policies, business
behaviors, as well as the conduct and
relationship of individuals in the
organizations.
  Ø  Investigates ethical controversies
regarding social responsibility of
businesses, employee rights, harassment,
labor unions, misleading advertising, job
discrimination, and whistle blowing.
   

SEXUAL ETHICS

 
  Ø  Studies moral issues about sexuality
and human sexual behavior.
  Ø  Analyzes situations of topics like
homosexuality, lesbianism, polygamy,
premarital sex, non-marital procreation,
loveless sexual relations, safe sex, and
contraceptive use.
   

SOCIAL ETHICS

 
  Ø  Deals with what is right for a society to
do,  and how should society  act as a
whole.
  Ø  Focused also on the idea of what may
be deemed as proper behavior for people
as a whole.
  Ø  Involved are issues on racial
discrimination, death penalty, nuclear
production, gun control, drug use for fun,
and welfare rights.