Sensors and Actuators A: Physical: Haoyan Zang, Xianmin Zhang, Benliang Zhu, Sergej Fatikow

Sensors and Actuators A 296 (2019) 155–177
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Sensors and Actuators A: Physical

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sna
Review
Recent advances in non-contact force sensors used for micro/nano

manipulation
Haoyan Zang a , Xianmin Zhang a,∗ , Benliang Zhu a , Sergej Fatikow a,b
a
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Precision Equipment and Manufacturing Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
b
Division Microrobotics and Control Engineering, University of Oldenburg, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Micro/nano manipulation for both mechanical and biological structures is currently a popular research
Received 27 April 2019 field. To protect small-scale structures and acquire their mechanical properties, a micro-scale force sensor
Received in revised form 10 June 2019 is needed. This paper focuses on reviewing the research on non-contact micro-force sensor parts that
Accepted 3 July 2019
can be integrated in this manipulation system. The content involves the structure, working principle,
Available online 8 July 2019
resolution and sensitivity of different force sensor parts, including electrical and optical force sensors. The
electrical force sensors include piezoresistive, piezoelectric, capacitive, electrothermal and strain gauge-
Keywords:
based types; while the optical force sensors focus on but are not restricted to the optical fiber-based force
Micro/nano manipulation systems
Micro-force sensors
sensors and the vision-based sensing systems. All of these sensors are analysed and compared. Electrical
Optical fiber sensors force sensors are currently widely used but are restricted by the sensing properties and size; optical force
sensors have high sensitivity, small structure and anti-electromagnetic-interference properties, but they
are hardly applied in micro/nano manipulation systems for force measurement. As a result, optical force
sensors may become the new generation of sensors that can be integrated with micro/nano manipulation
systems.
© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2. Electrical micro-force sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.1. Piezoresistive sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.2. Piezoelectric sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.3. Capacitive sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.4. Electrothermal sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.5. Strain gauge sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3. Optical micro-force sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.1. Micro-force sensors based on optical fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.1.1. Fibre Bragg grating sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.1.2. Sensors based on interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.1.3. Sensors based on light energy change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.1.4. Sensors based on micro-nano fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.1.5. Sensors based on micro-structured optical fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.2. Other optical micro-force sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.3. Vision-based micro-force sensing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.1. Results of parameter comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.2. Summary of fabrication methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Zhang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2019.07.007
0924-4247/© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
156 H. Zang et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 296 (2019) 155–177
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
1. Introduction The sensing methods have developed with advances in physical

science. The commonly used sensors currently are those utilizing
Micro/nano manipulation is a popular interdisciplinary research electrical theory, comprising piezoresistive, piezoelectric, elec-
field of this century. This approach is common for the fabrica- trothermal and capacitive sensors [16]. They convert mechanical
tion of three-dimensional (3D) microstructures, the movement signals into electrical signals involving voltage, electric current,
of nanostructures, the transportation and motion control of par- resistance and capacitance. Moreover, force sensors based on optics
ticles and, especially applications in biology [1,2]. Based on this are newly used approaches but are hardly developed. Most micro-
technology, manipulation and characterization of biological cells, force sensors based on optical theory utilize the vision metrology
such as cell transfer, isolation, immobilization and injection have by detecting the deformation of related elements. Other sensors
been widely used in many biological applications over the past measure the force on the basis of optical theory such as optical
decade [3]. beam deflection, yet they are barely applied to micro/nanoscale
As the handled biological cells can be easily damaged, the capa- force measurement.
bility of precisely measuring small forces at the micro/nanoscale is These referenced sensing theories can be integrated with differ-
necessary for providing force feedback during manipulation [4]. The ent manipulators of micro/nano manipulation systems involving
measurement of force can also be used for the mechanical charac- grippers and tweezers. Chen et al. designed a microgripper using
terization of cells since genetic mutations and pathogens can result a triangulation amplification-based mechanism as a compliant
in changes to cell mechanical properties such as elasticity and vis- orthogonal displacement amplification mechanism [17,18] and
cosity [5]. In [6], changes in the mechanical properties of mouse then optimized the framework of the microgripper to maximize the
zona pellucida post fertilization were tested for investigating the grasping movements [19]. Sun et al presented a two-grade ampli-
hardening process. Other than biological cells, force measurement fication mechanism adopting the integration of flexure hinge and
is essential for sample protection and mechanical properties detec- flexure beam [20]. Andersen et al. [21] and Chen et al. [22] put for-
tion of micro/nano samples. Additionally, the force sensing system ward a kind of monolithic microgripper for small object gripping. In
is vital for the experimental verification of the micro-force theoret- addition, instruments such as optical tweezers, magnetic tweezers
ical model. and cantilevers of an atomic force microscope (AFM) are also avail-
Different kinds of micro-force sensors were designed during able for mechanical characterization of micro/nanoscale samples,
the past decades, including piezoresistive, piezoelectric, capacitive, while they are not particularly suitable compared to MEMS-based
and electrothermal sensors and those based on visual detection. devices [23]. The ends of cantilevers can even bond with carbon
Reference [7,8] demonstrated two kinds of triaxial piezoresistive nanotubes or other nanowires as force sensors [24,25]. Among all
micro-force sensors with millinewton resolution, while reference these instruments, AFM cantilevers achieve the most usage next to
[9,10] presented two piezoresistive force sensors with the piezore- grippers and tweezers. In addition, the traditional sensing method
sistance attached to the membranes. In [11,12], force sensors were for the AFM is to detect the static deformation of the cantilever as
constructed using the polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF) sensing mate- it approaches the sample surface, while the deformation is sensed
rial by measuring the electric charge of the PVDF membrane. with a position-sensitive detector by detecting the deflection of a
Beyeler et al. [13] devised a six-axial force sensor using seven weak laser beam that is reflected off its backside [26]. As the AFM
capacitors with a micronewton resolution. Bulut Coskun et al. [14] cantilevers have been applied on more occasions, different sensing
designed a micro-electrothermal force that used feedback control methods have also been put forward.
to nullify displacements within the device with a high resolution The following content is a detailed introduction to different
of 7.8 nN. Rajagopalan et al. [15] put forward a displacement-based kinds of non-contact force sensors that can be integrated with
force sensor with the resolution of 50 pN. The force was obtained micro/nano manipulation systems. The organization is as fol-
by optically measuring the displacement of the probe with respect lows. Section 2 presents the theories and applications of electrical
to a fixed reference beam. micro-force sensors, involving piezoresistive, piezoelectric, elec-
All of these abovementioned sensors are considered as con- trothermal and capacitive sensors. Many manipulators that are
tact force sensors because one part of the sensors is in direct integrated with these mechanical micro-force sensors are outlined
contact with the surface of samples. There is no specific defini- in this section. Section 3 is an introduction to micro-force sens-
tion about the “contact sensors” and “non-contact sensors”, as the ing methods based on optical theory involving optical waveguide
definition method is so straightforward. But they do differ from theory, visual measuring techniques and other relevant methods.
each other, as those contact force sensors cannot realize simulta- Section 4 discusses the summary of these micro-force sensors and
neous manipulation and measurement process. Moreover, there comparisons of the parameters such as sensitivity and resolution,
is insufficient space to place an extra force sensor besides the and then talk about the common fabrication methods as well.
end-effectors into the manipulation system because micro/nano Finally, Section 5 presents the conclusion of non-contact force sen-
manipulation systems are always under an optical microscope or sors for micro/nano manipulation systems.
inside an electron microscope cavity. Therefore, it is better to inte-
grate the force sensors with micro-manipulators as a part to realize 2. Electrical micro-force sensors
the synchronization of manipulating and measuring and save space
for the system. Under this condition, the sensors do not contact the Mechanical micro-force sensors are the most popular non-
samples but as a part of the manipulating system with only the contact force sensors integrated with microgrippers, micro-
end-effectors touching the samples. Thus, they can be considered tweezers and even AFM cantilevers, showing the importance of
as non-contact types. micro/nano manipulation systems. This section introduces these
H. Zang et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 296 (2019) 155–177 157
different kinds of sensors, including piezoresistive, piezoelectric, applied [37]. The basic relationship between the output voltage V(t)
electrothermal and capacitive sensors. Additionally, strain gauges and the micro contact force rate Ḟ(t) for the sensor is given as:
are discussed as a kind of widely used sensing element.
V (t) + V̇ (t) = BḞ(t). (3)
2.1. Piezoresistive sensors where and B are constants that depend on the electrical param-
eters and mechanical dimensions of the piezoelectric sensor. The
Piezoresistive sensors are based on the bulk resistivity varying electrical related constant is connected to the piezoelectric coef-
with applied stress. The resistance of a resistor built into the beam ficient, which is the amount of charge caused by the applied force
will change when the cantilever is stressed with deflection [27]. and is dependent only on the material used [38].
This property is expressed by the following formula: The piezoelectric materials that are primarily used include
piezoelectric ceramic(PZT), polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF), ZnO
R/R and macro fibre composite(MFC). Some materials are used as actu-
K= . (1) ators based on the reversed piezoelectric effect, such as PZT, while

others are used as sensors based on the direct piezoelectric effect.
where R is the variation of the piezoresistor while R is the ini- Shen et al. designed a 1D PVDF micro-force sensor integrated with a
tial value of the piezoresistor, is the strain and K is gauge factor micro-gripper with sub-micronewton resolution [39]. Kim et al. put
defined by the equation. The change in resistance is due to both the forward a PVDF-based pipette for modification characterization of
geometric effects (1 + 2) and the fractional change in resistivity the zebrafish embryo chorion with a 14.5 ␮N resolution [40]. Chen
(/) of the material with strain as follows: et al. devised a needle with PVDF films measuring the force [41];
while Huang et al. demonstrated a PVDF-based pipette used for
R
= (1 + 2) + . (2) cell injection, with a sub-micronewton resolution and sensitivity of
R
0.1901 mV/␮N [42]. Wang and Wei et al. [43,44] devised a microin-
where is the Poisson ratio and is the resistivity of the piezore- jection system with piezoelectric force sensing. The material of the
sistor [28]. sensors is composed of PVDF films as well as a hybrid of PVDF and
Recent research about piezoresistive non-contact micro-force MCF films, with the sensor resolution and sensitivity at 0.8 mN and
sensors is as follows. Chen et al. designed a MEMS-based side 1.23 mV/mN, respectively. Korayem et al. [45–47] utilized a piezo-
direction force sensor integrated on a four-arm structure MEMS electric layer as a sensor for the AFM cantilever to reduce the size
gripper, with a resolution better than 3 ␮N and a sensitivity better of the microscope and enhance the quality of surface topography
than 72 V/N experimentally [29,30]. Duc et al. designed a force- in micro- and nanometre scales as well (Figs. 2).
sensing cantilever beam consisting of a silicon cantilever with The piezoelectric micro-force sensing method has a variety of
sensing piezoresistors on top. The change of resistance comes from advantages such as high accuracy, resolution and sensitivity as well
the difference in the longitudinal stress on the opposite sides of as high dynamic range, stiffness and frequency response. The struc-
the cantilever when the sensing cantilever bends. The minimum ture is small so that it can be integrated with a micro/nano system
detectable force is 770 nN and the sensitivity is up to 1.7 V/N [31]. easily. However, the spatial resolution is poor because drift occurs
Duc et al. put forward a two-dimensional force sensing cantilever with the presence of static forces due to the working principle of
with the resolution estimated at 21 nN and 4 nN for lateral and piezoelectric sensors. This kind of sensor is often applied in dynamic
vertical configurations as well as a sensitivity up to 100 V/N and force sensing rather than static force sensing [48].
540 V/N, respectively [32,33]. Reference [34] presented two inte-
grated sensors capable of detecting the contact force for global and 2.3. Capacitive sensors
local sensing. The resolution, sensitivity, and range of the global
sensors are 1 ␮N, 2.8 V/N and 3 mN, while the resolution and mea- Capacitive force sensors measure the force by changing the dis-
suring range of the local sensor are 20 ␮N and 3 mN, respectively. tance between the plates of comb in the capacitor. The distance
The piezoresistive sensors are also appropriate for AFM can- change comes from the deformation of related micro handling tools
tilevers as another sensing method that does not utilize the caused by the force to be detected. The basic relationship between
deflection of the laser beam. Early in 1993, the piezoresistive detec- capacity and distance is expressed as
tion method was devised by embedding a piezoresistive strain 0 r S
sensor in the AFM cantilever. The result of cantilever deformation C= . (4)
4kd
came from the resistance change [27]. In recent years, Sierakowski
where S is the interaction area; 0 , r and k are the vacuum permit-
et al. [35] and Majstrzyk et al. [36] demonstrated the force sensing
tivity, relative dielectric constant and Cullen constant, respectively.
method using piezoresistors as well as the technology of fabrication
The distance change can be calculated by the initial and varying
(Figs. 1).
values of the capacity.
The piezoresistive sensing theory for micro-force detection is
Beyeler et al. designed a gripper integrated with a 1-dimensional
a mature technology with a wide measuring range, high resolu-
micro-force sensor for manipulating micro-objects [49]. Kim et al.
tion, and high reliability. The sensor is maintenance-free and simple
devised a micromanipulation system with a 2-axial force sensor
to be constructed, but there are many disadvantages as well. The
on the micro-gripper. The 2-axial force sensing is performed by
structure is rigid and fragile with a high power consumption. The
two sensors, where one is for contact detection with a 38.5 nN res-
testing results cannot be detected easily, and because the testing
olution, while the other is for gripping force measurement with a
is sensitive to the variation in temperature, the reproducibility is
19.9 nN resolution. This is the first demonstration of biological cells
poor.
at the nanonewton force level and was applied in the microscale
testing of swollen hydrogel microcapsules in the wet state dur-
2.2. Piezoelectric sensors ing manipulation [50–54]. Muntwyler et al. then put forward a
micro-gripper used for mechanical characterization of microscope
Piezoelectric force sensors utilize the direct piezoelectric effect samples with 2-dimensional force feedback. The measurement
to measure strain. The direct piezoelectric effect refers to the elec- range is ±60 ␮N, and the resolution is 60 nN [55]. Jia et al. presented
tric charge generation of a piezoelectric material when stress is a dual sensing mode micro-gripper with a symmetrical structure
Fig. 1. (a) SEM images of the griper and the piezoresistive sensor part [29], (b) SEM pictures of 2-dimensional piezoresistive force sensor cantilever [32], (c) image of a
piezoresistive active cantilever used [35].
Fig. 2. Schematic of AFM cantilever with non-uniform piezoelectric layer severed as the sensor [45].
Fig. 3. Picture and solid model of the microgripper with integrated force sensor [49].
[56,57]. Juntian Qu et al. devised a micro-gripper integrated with The capacitive sensors have higher sensitivity, higher spatial
two force sensors for microscale compression and shear testing of resolution and lower energy consumption than other mechanical
soft materials [58,59]. Sijie Yang et al. proposed a microgripper with sensors. They are not sensitive to the change of the environment
two capacitive force sensors to detect a 2D micro-force [60–62] and have drift-free measurement capability as well. Meanwhile,
(Figs. 3 and 4). the drawbacks of these sensors are sensitivity to noise and limited
Fig. 4. (a) MEMS-based microgripper with integrated 2-axis force sensor [50], (b) Microtensile tester integrated with 2-axis capacitive micro-force sensor monolithically
[55], (c) SEM photograph of a MEMS micro-gripper with 2-axis force sensor [58], (d) Schematic sketch of the micro-gripper [60].
frequency response. The sensing element structures may exhibit In addition, the low response speed and large consumption also
fatigue failure, which would cause sensitivity drifts with time [63]. restrict the utilization of this kind of force sensor.
2.5. Strain gauge sensors

2.4. Electrothermal sensors
Strain gauge-based force sensing is one of the most common
The electrothermal sensors utilize the change of resistance methods to measure a micro-force and has been commercialized.
caused by the temperature variation, which comes from the struc- Strain gauge employ various working principles, but the most used
ture deformation. The resistance change is often detected by a method is on the basis that the external force changes the geomet-
Wheatstone bridge, which is popular for resistance change mea- rical dimension of the sensing conductor, resulting in the resistance
surement. The relationship between the temperature variation of value variation. This kind of strain gauge contains an insulated
the resistors and force to be detected depends on the sensing struc- flexible backing that supports a metallic foil pattern. The working
ture. With different structures, the sensitivity tends to be different. performance is evaluated by the gauge factor, which is also named
The electrothermal micro-force sensors are used less than those the strain coefficient of resistance:
mentioned above. Busara Piriyanont et al. proposed a MEMS micro-
R/R
gripper with an integrated electrothermal force sensor with a GF = . (5)
sensitivity of 1.25 ␮N/␮m. With the force attached to the tip
of micro-gripper, the sensing arm displacement induced a tem- The optical fibre-based strain gauge is another kind of strain gauge
perature difference between two identical resistive sensors. The based on the principle that measures the phase shift between two
temperature difference resulted in a current variation in the two sinusoidal modulated light signals that propagate through two
resistive elements. By using a half Wheatstone bridge and an optical fibres or the fibre Bragg gratings. In particular, the related
instrumentation amplifier, the current variations resulting from content will be referred to in the next section about optical sens-
resistance changes are then converted to an output voltage [64]. ing methods. In this section, the introduction of sensing methods
One year later, they put forward another kind of rotary micro- focuses on the mechanical sensing method. The following discus-
gripper with an integrated electrothermal force sensor with a sion will describe the application of these two kinds of methods in
sensitivity of 0.558 V/␮N [65]. As the structure changed to a cer- stain gauges.
tain extent, the displacement came from the deviation of the heat Weihai Chen et al. put forward a micro-gripper with strain a
sink position that was pushed by the sensing arm. This deviation gauge on it to measure the force of grasping [68]. Wang et al.
induced a difference in the heat fluxes from the two beams, cre- designed a gripper using two strain gauges fixed on the two sides
ating differential changes in their temperature. The temperature of the gripper as the force sensor to detect a micro-force. The
changes resulted in differential resistance variations, which were accuracy of the force sensor system is 91 mN, and the resolu-
converted into output voltages [66]. Sijie Yang et al. also devised an tion is 143 mN [69]. Qingsong Xu et al. presented a micro-gripper
electrothermal force sensor integrated micro-gripper with a similar with strain gauges on the side of the tip, and the sensitivity was
principle, exhibiting a compact structure [67] (Fig. 5). 658.345 mN/mV [70]. Yi-ling Yang et al. used a pair of strain gauges
The electrothermal sensing method has a high resolution, a sim- fixed on the two sides of the gripper for grasp force detection with
ple structure and a small dimension, while these are the advantages a resolution of 0.035 mN [71]. Qingsong Xu put forward a kind
of all mechanical sensing methods mentioned above. However, the of dual-sensitivity and dual-range micro-gripper using a semicon-
working temperature is relatively high compared with the others. ductor strain gauge for force measurement. The resolution of the
Fig. 5. (a) Model of the MEMS micro-gripper with electrothermal force sensor [64], (b) The schematic of MEMS rotary micro-gripper with (c) integrated electrothermal
sensor [66].
Fig. 6. Model of strain gauge based force sensor integrated on (a–d) micro-grippers [68,70–72].
two force sensors is 0.31 mN and 20.51 mN, and their sensitivity is preferred methods considering space constraints in micromanip-
3.34 × 10−5 V/mN and 1.65 × 10−7 V/mN, respectively [72]. Guang- ulation systems with high precision [77]. In this section, optical
wei Wang et al. presented a micropipette used for a microinjection micro-force sensing methods are discussed, including optical fibre
system with strain gauges for force detection, of which the sen- sensing methods, visual sensing technology as well as other related
sitivity reached 14.204 mN/mV, the resolution was 50 ␮N and the methods.
range was 98.1 mN [73] (Fig. 6).
This kind of micro-force sensing method appears to have a high
signal-to-noise ratio and wide measuring range. Furthermore, the 3.1. Micro-force sensors based on optical fibres
structure is compact and low cost. However, it is susceptible to
humidity and ambient temperature. The nonlinearity of the result Optical fibres are the most common three-dimensional optical
has also restricted the application of strain gauges in force sensing. waveguides, which are defined as a dielectric structure that trans-
ports energy at wavelengths in the infrared or visible portions of
3. Optical micro-force sensors the electromagnetic spectrum [78]. While being transported in the
optical waveguides, the ray is easily affected by surrounding envi-
Optical sensors based on MEMS technology have received ronments. Changes in the surrounding environment finally result
increased attention as they present an alternative to conventional in the variation of light intensity, phase, wavelength or polarization
electrical sensing. The main advantages of optical sensors are state. To detect the micro-force of the micromanipulation system
typically high sensitivity, immunity to electromagnetic interfer- without contact, the fibre sensing system can be attached to the
ence, inherent electrical safety, low hysteresis, small size and low deformed region of the manipulator by transforming the defor-
consumption combined with good signal transmission [74–76]. mation to an applied force. This deformation is transferred by the
Moreover, the optical sensing methods seem to be the most sensing system into its variation of light intensity, wavelength or
phase, utilizing the theory of the bending loss, the photo-elastic

effect or the principle of interferometry, respectively.
However, the optical fibre micro-force sensing methods were
not well developed for several reasons. First, a relatively short
amount of time has been spent on this research even though
fibre sensing is not a new research field, and most of which focus
has been on the macro applications such as monitoring of under-
ground mines [79,80], experimentally pre-stressed concrete [81],
rock cracking [82], overhead transmission conductors [83] and even
debris flow [84]. Second, the fibre sensors are suitable for multi-
parameters measurement, including refractive index [85], gas [86],
humidity [87], liquid hydrostatic pressure [88], temperature [89],
magnetic field [90]and current [91], some of which are not eas-
ily detected by other kinds of sensors; therefore, many studies are
focused on them rather than on the micro-force. Furthermore, the
optical fibre sensing theory is rather difficult, and most choose Fig. 7. SEM image of micro-fiber Bragg grating fabricated by focused ion beam [98].
other kinds of force sensing methods with relatively easier prin-
ciples, such as the sensors discussed in Section 2. Last but not least, also changes. Both the varied wavelength and bandwidth can be
the readout of the optical setup of fibre sensors is complicated, detected using a spectrometer with picometre resolution, so the
limiting their convenient use in micro/nano manipulation systems. sensitivity is relatively high (Figs. 7 and 8)
To solve the problem of the complicated output setup, simpli- According to Young’s law, there is a linear relationship between
fied small-size optical equipment can be used at the expense of the stress and strain of a spring element. Considering the fibre as
wavelength resolution. On the other hand, the integrated-optical a spring element, FBGs can operate as force sensors [100]. FBGs
device introduces new approaches for the miniaturization of opti- are usually designed to be the strain sensors for force sensing.
cal sensing systems. A sensor is called integrated optical if at least Light propagating in the core of an optical fibre containing a Bragg
the sensing region consists of an integrated optical waveguiding grating will be reflected by the periodic variations of the refrac-
system in which a sensing medium is placed close to the waveguide tive index, which comprise the Bragg grating. The reflected light
core as cladding [92]. Sensors based on integrated-optical structure will generally be out of phase and tend to cancel, except when the
emerged a few decades ago, such as the integrated optical temper- wavelength of the incoming radiation satisfies the Bragg condition.
ature sensor presented in 1982 [93],but have not received much In this case, the light reflected by each perturbation in the grating
attention chiefly because of the lack of applications [94]. Integrated adds constructively, and the grating couples energy from the for-
optics allow for minimum system size as well as cost efficiency, pre- ward propagating wave to a backward propagating reflected wave
cise wafer-level fabrication and integration [95], and the research with a centre wavelength B given by
on integrated optical sensing is still ongoing [96]. This may be a
feasible method to address the problem of the complicated outside B = 2neff . (6)
setup of sensors used for micro/nano manipulation systems. As a When the FBGs are under tension or compression force, the grat-
result, all these optical fibre sensing methods with the potential ing period varies as a result of length variation. In addition, the
ability for micro-force sensing are introduced next. elasto-optical effect of the fibre itself makes the effective refrac-
The following content includes the micro-force sensing theory tion index vary with the external stress state. The effect of external
of gratings, interferometers, the variation of fibre intensity, and stress on FBG wavelength drift can be described by the following
the utilization of special kinds of fibres such as micro-nanometre formula
fibre (MNF) and microstructured optical fibre (MOF) with different
characteristics. The gratings are related to the photo-elastic effect B = 2neff + 2neff . (7)
as well as the principle of interferometry; the interferometers are
where is the elastic deformation of fibre itself under external
on the basis of Mach-Zehnder interferometry and the Fabry-Perot
stress and neff represents the elasto-optical effect. According to
interferometry principle; and the fibre bending loss theory utilizes
the theory of the optical fibre of the light, the relative wavelength
the bending loss principle to detect the deformation. Micro-nano
shift of FBG under uniform axial stress −P is
fibre and microstructured optical fibre are different from regular
fibres in size and structure, and both of them can construct a similar B
= (1 − pe )zz . (8)
sensing system with regular fibres. B
where zz = − P/E is the axial strain, and pe is the effective elasto-
3.1.1. Fibre Bragg grating sensors optical coefficient, which is a constant only related to the material.
Among the optical fibre sensors, fibre Bragg gratings (FBGs) When under uniform transversal stress −P, the relative wavelength
backscattering spectrum shifts are by far the most used for measur- shift is
ing mechanical strain [97]. Gratings are defined as optical elements
B 1 − 3 2
that can divide the wavefront with a uniform width and inter- = [(1 − pe ) + neff (p11 + p12 )]zz . (9)
B 4
val. By writing gratings into the core of fibres to form the spatial
phase gratings, the fibre gratings can be obtained. According to where is Poisson’s ratio, zz = 2P/E is the axial strain, P11 and P12
the wave vector direction, the spatial period distribution and the are elasto-optical coefficients.
period length, fibre gratings are classified into four basic types: fibre Based on the theory above, many FBG-based strain sensors were
Bragg grating, blazed fibre grating, chirped fibre grating and long put forward. Early in 1993, a fibre-optic strain gauge system for
period fibre Bragg grating. Among them, the fibre Bragg grating is use in structural monitoring and smart-structure applications was
the most widely used one for sensors, which can reflect specific described, which permitted the measurement of both static and
wavelength of light. By changing the parameters such as the effec- dynamic strains. The strain gauge used a fibre-optic Bragg grat-
tive refractive index and grating period, the centre wavelength of ing sensor to measure strain with a sensitivity of 0.703 pm/␮ at
reflected light varies. In addition, the bandwidth of reflected light a nominal centre wavelength of 821.5 nm [101]. In 2010, optical
Fig. 8. Illustration of the working principle of FBG sensors [99].
fibre force sensors integrated on micro-forceps were presented D force-sensing microneedle used for robot-assisted treatments for
for otorhinolaryngology microsurgery with the ability to measure retinal vein cannulation. The 3D sensing system was assembled by 4
0.5 ␮ [102]. In 2014, a real-time deformation monitoring sys- FBGs; the axial force resolution is 1.85 mN and the radial force reso-
tem for a particle detector was described, which was made of lution is 0.074 mN [112,113]. In 2018, four FBGs were equipped near
Bragg grating sensors with the resolution of 1 ␮ [103]. In 2015, the tip of a forceps to form a 4-DOF force/torque sensing micro end-
a strain sensor based on a polyimide-coated fibre Bragg grating effector. The sensor works by monitoring the grating pitch changes
along with a rhombus metal structure was presented and experi- according to the strain change, which differs from those mentioned
mentally demonstrated. The sensitivity under the compressed and before [114] (Figs. 9 and 10).
stretched force is 1.821 pm/␮ and 1.814 pm/␮ respectively, and In addition, as the effective refractive index is also sensitive to
the resolution is 10 ␮. As the FBG was fabricated using ultravio- the temperature, many FBG-based force sensors with the ability to
let (UV) light, the sensors can work under temperatures as high as detect both strain and temperature were designed. In 2010, a poly-
300 ◦ C [104]. In 2018, micro-structured PMMA POF chirped Bragg mer FBG-based force sensor was fabricated using UV light with the
gratings for strain sensing were described with a sensitivity of core diameter at 8.1 ␮m. The strain sensitivity is 1.13 pm/␮, the
0.90 pm/␮. The effective bandwidth of the grating is dependent on temperature sensitivity is up to −50.1 pm/◦ C, and the resolution
strain and remains practically constant with respect to temperature of strain and temperature is 30 ␮ and 0.7 ◦ C [115], respectively.
and humidity changes [105]. In the same year, an FBG-based strain In 2013, an MR-compatible biopsy needle with an enhanced tip
sensor with enhanced sensitivity was also presented by pasting the force sense appeared. The strain resolution is 8 mN along the axial
FBG on a substrate with a lever structure. The strain sensitivity is direction and 4 mN along the radial direction, while the tempera-
6.2 pm/␮, which is relatively high compared with the other FBG ture sensitivity is 23 pm/◦ C [116,117]. In 2017, a force sensor using
strain sensors above [106]. a waveguide Bragg grating was developed to offset the lack of
Except for these, many force sensors assembled by several FBGs tools capable of efficiently monitoring local and dynamic contact
were presented. In 2010, several researchers from Stanford Univer- conditions. The sensitivity of strain under 1550 nm wavelength is
sity put forward a 3-dimensional MRI-compatible biopsy needle 8.30 pm/MPa in the radial direction and 4.16 pm/MPa in the axial
assembled with 3 fibre Bragg gratings [107]. In 2016, a small- direction; while the temperature sensitivity is 11.6 pm/◦ C [118].
diameter FBG was used as a strain sensor for real-time health In the meantime, an optical fibre Bragg grating sensor equipped
monitoring with a sensitivity of 1.173 pm/␮. Two FBSs with the on a mechanical transducer was put forward. The stain sensitivity
core diameter as small as 7 ␮m and the cladding diameter of 80 ␮m at the wavelength of 1550 nm is 1.2 pm/␮, and the temperature
were attached to a cantilever structure to construct the sensing sys- sensitivity is 10 pm/◦ C [119] (Fig. 11).
tem because small-diameter FBGs can decrease the mismatch in According to these examples, the FBG sensors are more sen-
size between the embedded optical fibre and the composite [108]. sitive to temperature than force. Therefore, methods for solving
In 2018, a 2-dimensional FBG-based micro-force sensing design this problem are necessary. Other than some applications under
for the detection of catheter tip-tissue interaction forces was put uniform temperature, some studies were also focused on tem-
forward by mounting four optical fibres inscribed with one FBG perature compensation and the decoupling of temperature and
element each on the sensor. The embedded FBG element within force. In 2018, based on the theory of elastic mechanics and the
the suspension part was directly stretched or compressed to sense methodology of matrices, a fibre Bragg grating-based strain sensor
the force. The sensitivities of these two directions are 217.3 pm/N was designed with two fibres to realize temperature compensa-
and 192.4 pm/N, respectively, and the resolution is 4.6 mN [109]. tion. The strain sensitivity was 7.72 pm/␮ and −2.94 pm/␮ in
A three-dimensional force sensor based on FBG for measuring the two directions. As a result, this sensor can be used for long-term
robot plantar force was also presented for robot control. The sen- small-amplitude micro-strain monitoring in varying temperature
sitivities of three directions are 20.745 pm/N, 23.366 pm/N and environments for vital mechanical equipment [120]. The reference
11.259 pm/N, and these sensitivities are rather lower than that of [105] is also related to temperature decoupling by detecting the
reference [110]. A fibre Bragg grating-based tri-axial force sensor effective bandwidth change that is only related to strain.
with parallel flexure hinges was designed to sense the contact force In conclusion, FBG-based micro-force sensors are common for
and achieved the tri-axial force prediction with less than 1 g reso- two application fields, robots and minimally invasive surgery to
lution. In this system, four FBGs were used with one in the centre of date. The sensitivity of sensors used for medical treatment is higher
the parallel flexure hinges and three lateral FBGs uniformly located than that for robots, as the medical objects are smaller than robotic
around the tube edge [111]. A research team from Johns Hopkins samples. Some articles used commercial FBG strain sensors for force
University published a series of articles describing a motorized 3- sensing, but more researchers designed and fabricated the FBG sen-
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram and principle diagram of the strain sensor [104].
Fig. 10. (a) Top view of the sensor model [106] (b) designed structure of the proposed catheter distal force sensor and the fiber arrangement configuration [109].
Fig. 11. Image of (a) a photo-induced index modulation of the core of POF taken by an Axioskop microscope [115], (b) a Bragg grating taken by phase contrast microscope
[118].
sors for micro-force sensing. As mentioned before, some FBGs were for FBGs, these fabrication methods can also be used for different
fabricated by UV laser. In reference [121], as the FBG sensors writ- kinds of Fabry-Perot interferometer strain sensors and long fibre
ten by UV laser exposures are not stable, FBGs fabricated by two Bragg gratings.
methods were mentioned, including the femtosecond-laser and
157 nm excimer laser. These two types of lasers are powerful tools
to fabricate novel in-line all-fibre fibre-optic sensors with many 3.1.2. Sensors based on interferometry
advantages such as direct formation, easy mass production with Interferometry sensing methods are another commonly used
low cost, good reproducibility, excellent optical performance and approach for strain or force sensing, including Mach-Zehnder
high-temperature stability. Therefore, these systems replaced the interferometry and Fabry-Perot interferometry. The Mach-Zehnder
UV light in FBG fabrication. In 2016, a small circumferential ditch interferometer is a typical double beam interference system, while
of 86 ␮m length and 27 ␮m depth in the middle of a 3 mm long the Fabry-Perot interferometer employs a typical multiple beam
FBG was ablated by the femtosecond laser [122]. In 2019, a point- interference that always forms a resonant cavity. The basic theory
by-point inscription method was proposed for fibre Bragg grating is shown as follows:
fabrication using a femtosecond pulsed laser focused through a
2Ln
fibre polyimide coating, which achieved a high wavelength sensi-
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos . (10)
tivity, linearity and greater tensile strength of the FBG [123]. Except
2Ln end faces serving as mirrors. The bending sensitivity is 3.544 nm/m,
= (2m + 1). (11)
p and the low temperature sensitivity is 1.21 pm/◦ C [132]. In 2018,
a temperature-independent FPI and an FBG sensor were discrimi-
where I is the intensity of the beam, is the wavelength, Ln is the nated by inserting a segment of a tapered fibre tip in the capillary
change of the light path, p is the peak or trough of the wave and m and subsequently splicing the other end of the capillary to a sin-
is an integer that represents the order of the interference fringes. gle mode fibre to form the FP cavity with the strain sensitivity of
As the light path of this interferometry is all made of opti- 2.1 pm/␮. The sensor detects strain by changing the cavity length
cal fibres, there are two ways for the optical fibre utilization to [133] (Fig. 13).
construct the interferometer. One is fabricating the interference
structure inside single fibre using structures such as air bubbles or 3.1.3. Sensors based on light energy change
air cavities; another is to set up the interferometers by several fibres The method comparing the optical energy between incident and
to transmit light separately in each fibre. Some approaches even transmission light is an easy way to perform sensing. The optical
combine the interferometers with gratings together for sensing. energy variation comes from the change of the light path caused
The reference [124] presented an optical fibre in-line Mach- by fibre bending or displacement of elements in the light path. The
Zehnder interferometer-based strain sensor by creating an inner air fibre bending loss theory is complicated, and the loss amount varies
cavity inside a section of microfibre. The structure inside the fibre with the structure and material; in addition to the displacement of
split the light propagating in the fibre into two beams, one through the element in the light path, the mechanical structure is deter-
the inner air cavity and another along the silica wall. The two beams mined so that the performance analysis is always accomplished
recombined at the cavity end, resulting in an interference fringe according to the experimental data.
pattern. When the phase term satisfies a certain condition, the In 2016, a stretchable optical waveguide made of transparent
intensity dip appeared. By detecting the wavelength shift of the polyurethane rubber for strain sensing in a prosthetic hand was
intensity dip, the strain information can be obtained. The strain reported, which was inserted inside each finger of the hand with
sensitivity at 860 ␮m wavelength is 6.8 pm/␮. In 2018, another a sensitivity of 0.02 dBm/cm. By detecting the loss of light inten-
reference set up an MZI-based strain sensor using two surface-relief sity caused by the fibre bending, the bending amount was obtained
fibre Bragg gratings [125]. The two fibres experienced different [134]. In 2018, a bend and compression loss-based force sensor
strain, which resulted in the wavelength and phase shift of two was demonstrated with enhanced sensitivity of 0.126 dB/N and
single fibres. The differential pressure was obtained by comparing 0.015 dB/N, respectively, for bend and compression. Pure skew rays
two wave peaks in the spectra, and the sensitivity is 0.2 pm/MPa were propagated through the fibre for sensitivity enhancement
with temperature compensation. [135] (Fig. 14).
The fibre Mach-Zender interferometers and fibre Bragg grat- The sensor system comprising two sets of optical fibre pairs was
ings are frequently used as optical fibre strain sensors, but they are put forward with the resolution to be 0.02 N. The two fibre pairs
also sensitive to temperature during strain measurements, which including a reference pair and a sensing pair composed the sym-
introduces a series of problems; however the Fabry-Perot interfer- metrically identical bent-tip transmitting and receiving fibres that
ometer formed by fabricating an air-cavity inside a fibre can solve guide light from a light source to an optical detector via a reflec-
the problem [126]. In this reference, a fibre FPI based on a bubble- tor for each. The reflectors were affixed to a stationary support,
expanded micro-cavity was investigated and exhibited a high strain whereas the reflector of the sensing fibre pair was attached to a
sensitivity of 30.66 pm/␮ as well as low-temperature sensitivity of flexible structure [136]. In 2017, a compliant 3-axis fibre-optic force
1.2 pm/◦ C. In reference [127], an all-optical-fibre FPI-based sensor sensor for biomechanical measurement with a similar principle
with the strain sensitivity of 10.3 pm/␮ was demonstrated, while was presented. However, the force measuring range was relatively
the temperature sensitivity is 0.95 pm/◦ C. According to the theo- large [137]. In addition, a highly sensitive FLRD strain sensor that
retical analysis, the relationship between the cavity length change is less sensitive to temperature by integrating an air-gap into the
and the strain was established. Thus, the wavelength drift of the sensor head was demonstrated by measuring the change of ring-
interference fringe, which is related to the cavity length, can be down time. The static strain sensitivity was 0.26 ␮s/␮, and the low
obtained. temperature sensitivity was 0.01 ␮s/◦ C [138] (Fig. 15).
In 2014, an air cavity-based FPI sensor integrated on FBG was
overlapped to form the sensor for simultaneous measurement of 3.1.4. Sensors based on micro-nano fibres
strain and temperature. The strain sensitivity is 1.2 pm/␮, and Micro-Nano fibres (MNFs) are optical fibers with diameters close
the temperature sensitivity is 11.7 pm/◦ C [128]. In the same year, to or below the vacuum wavelength of visible or near-infrared light.
a strain sensor based on an in-fibre FPI with an air cavity was The reducing of the sensing structure size yields higher sensitivity,
introduced with enhanced strain sensitivity of 6.0 pm/␮ and low- faster response, lower power consumption and better spatial res-
temperature sensitivity of 1.1 pm/◦ C [129] (Fig. 12). olution, and the MNFs become one of the best candidates for this
In 2015, the authors improved the property of the FPI sensors purpose. With its diameter down to the sub-wavelength scale, the
in which an air bubble was inserted by improving the air bubble surrounding air is regarded as the cladding such that the index con-
creation technique. By fixing one end of the air bubble sample and trast between the core and cladding is relatively large. As a result,
attaching another end to a translation stage, the tensile strain was the evanescent field is very strong compared to conventional opti-
detected. This sensor is just one of a few that detect tensile forces. cal fibre [139].
The strain sensitivity is 43.0 pm/␮ and the temperature sensitivity The concept of MNF was first devised in 2003 by drawing wires
is 2.0 pm/◦ C [130]. from a flame-heated melt at high temperature and achieved wires
In addition, there are some FPI fibre sensors without air bub- with diameters down to 50 nm [140]. To date, multiple fabrication
bles. In 2013, the integration of an FBG and a micro external FP methods have been developed, including taper drawing of flame
cavity constructed with a thin film coated on a fibre end was pre- heated, laser heated or electrically heated glass fibres, drawing
sented for simultaneous measurement of stress and temperature. of flame heated bulk glass, drawing from polymer solutions and
The stress sensitivity is 8.11 pm/N and the temperature sensitivity electro-spinning [141] (Fig. 16).
is 200 pm/◦ C [131]. In 2017, a bidirectional bend sensor based on Because of their small size and high sensitivity, MNFs are suit-
U-shaped FPI was experimentally demonstrated by splicing a sec- able for microscale sensing. Some of MNFs are fabricated with
tion of microfibre between two cleaved standard single-mode fibre gratings inside; others are made to be microcavities for sens-
Fig. 12. (a) Hollow sphere formed after fusion splicing used for force sensing [124], (b) fabricating process and miicroscope image of the fiber FPI sensor based on the bubble-
expanded air-cavity [126], (c) diagram of a Fabry-Perot interferometer force sensor with spheroidal air cavities [127] (d) structure of the MFP/SFBG [128], (e) schematic
diagram of the in-fiber FPI based on an air bubble [129].
Fig. 13. (a) Schematic diagram of the differential pressure sensor [125], (b) schematic diagram of the bending sensing system [132], (c) fiber-optic strain sensor based on a
hybrid structured FP interferometer and FBG [133].
Fig. 14. (a) Stretchable waveguide fabrication and structure of the optoelectronically innervated soft finger [134], (b) schematic of the sensing fiber of bend-loss-based and
compression-loss-based force sensor [135].
Fig. 15. (a) Schematic diagram of an optical diber force sensor system utilizing reference and sensing bent-tip fiber pair [136], (b) the FLRD ringdown strain sensor system
[138].
ing. As FBGs are fabricated by forming a periodic refractive-index was described. The force sensitivity of the microfibre Bragg grat-
modulation along the fibres, a variety of microfibre Bragg grating ing reached 3754 nm/N with the fibre diameter down to 2.5 ␮m
(m-FBG) fabrication methods have been put forward. By peri- [144]. At the same time, a miniature contact force sensor based
odic variation of the refractive index of fibre geometries, methods on a 30 ␮m diameter microfibre Bragg grating was presented. The
include chemical etching, femtosecond laser irradiation or micro- sensitivity was 0.73 nm/N, while the excellent linearity reached a
machining, UV laser irradiation, focused ion beam (FIB) milling contact force of 0.65 N [146]. In 2015, a microfibre Bragg grating
and lithography [142]. In 2011, a micro-force sensor was made by was fabricated under a 193 nm excimer laser with good survival
inscribing FBG in the waist of a uniformly tapered photosensitive ability against high temperature up to 800 ◦ C. The diameter of the
fibre with a sensitivity of 1900 nm/N, the diameter of which was microfibre was as small as 8.5 ␮m and the strain sensitivity was
3.5 ␮m. By changing the longitudinal mechanical forces applied 6.38 pm/␮, while the temperature sensitivity was 14 pm/◦ C [147]
on the fibre, the Bragg wavelength of the m-FBG changes [143]. (Fig. 17).
In 2012, a microfibre tapered from standard non-photosensitive Due to the high evanescent field, MNFs are highly sensitive to
single-mode fibre inscribed with FBG by the FIB machining method the change of parameters of the external medium. As a result, MNF
Fig. 16. (a) SEM image of a coiled 260-nm-diameter fiber, (b) TEM image of a 240-nm-diameter fiber, (c) SEM image of a 15-␮m-diameter micro-ring made with a 520-nm-
diameter fiber [140].
Fig. 17. (a) SEM image of micro-fiber tip grating [145], (b) schematic diagram of the force sensor based on a microfiber Bragg [146].
Fig. 18. (a) Schematic of MNF homogeneous MLR, MKR and MCR [148], (b) schematic diagram of the ring resonator system [152].
resonators and interferometers are particularly useful for sensing MCR is the basic functional element of microfibre photonics and
applications [148]. MNF resonators are divided into three types: is fabricated by winding a long microfibre on a cylinder with a low
microfibre loop resonator (MLR), microfibre knot resonator (MKR) refractive index polymer coating [149]. The structure of MKR has
and microfibre coil resonator (MCR). All those connection points a stronger coupling region and higher losses compared with the
couple via the strong evanescent field. MLR is formed by coiling MLR, while the MCR is hardly used as a force sensor for its compli-
the microfibre region to make a ring with two attached surfaces; cated structure. In 2005, MLR-based force sensor was presented
MKR is formed by bending the microfibre to make a knot, and with a sensitivity of 0.32 pm/␮ at the wavelength of 1310 nm.
−0.457 pm/N [158]. In the same year, a highly birefringent pho-

tonic crystal fibre was used as the sensing element inserted in a
fibre loop mirror (FLM) to form a temperature-insensitive strain
sensor. The output power of the strain sensor was only affected
by the transmission spectral change of the FLM caused by the
strain applied to the fibre with the sensitivity of 1.1 pm/N [159]. In
2012, an all-fibre optical Fabry-Perot interferometer strain sensor
whose cavity was a microscopic air bubble was demonstrated with
a strain sensitivity of 4 pm/N and a low-temperature sensitivity
less than 0.9 pm/◦ C [160]. The strain sensor has the same work-
ing principle as those FPI strain sensors with an air bubble inside as
mentioned before, and only differs in the fibre structure. A modified
photonic crystal fibre-based Mach-Zehnder interferometer (PCF-
MZI) strain sensor was also proposed by introducing a collapsed
region to the middle of a normal PCF-MZI. The photonic crystal
fibre-based sensors have extremely low thermal dependence, with
a strain sensitivity of 11.22 dB/m [161]. Additionally, a sensor
based on a liquid-infiltrated micro-structured optical fibre was con-
structed by selective liquid infiltration of one particular cladding
air hole in the MOF. Both theoretical analysis and experimental
results indicated that the multiple-resonance peaks presented in
Fig. 19. Optical microscopy images of HC fiber cross-section before and after Elec- the transmission spectrum possess different temperature and force
tode Arc Discharge procedure [155].
sensitivities. The highest force sensitivity was 4.121 ± 0.197 nm/N,
which could be roughly converted into the strain sensitivity of
The strain applied deforms the loop structure and finally results 3.769 ± 0.180 pm/␮ [162] (Fig. 21).
in the wavelength drift [150]. In 2014, a compact highly sensi-
tive microfibre coupler-based reflective micro-force sensor was 3.2. Other optical micro-force sensors
presented by forming a Sagnac loop. The force sensitivity was as
high as 3754 nm/N, and the low detection limit was 1.6 ␮N [151]. In addition to the frequently used optical fibre-based sensing
In 2018, an optical double-ring resonator sensing system was pre- methods above, some unique methods were used. In 1998, a force
sented to detect micronewton measurement-sensing devices based sensor using optical beam deflection (ODB) techniques for charac-
on optical sensors [152] (Fig. 18). terizing object interactions at the microscale was developed, which
In addition, an axial force sensor was presented based on force- is used for AFM now. The cantilever deflection was detected by
induced spectral shift as a result of diameter variation under measuring the amount of a laser spot deflected via a quadrature
axial force. The microfibre used in the sensor was tapered from photodiode. When a force is applied to the cantilever, the deforma-
a standard optical fibre showing an obvious sinusoidal oscillatory tion of the cantilever leads to the deviation of the reflected spot,
transmission spectrum due to the multimode interference. The causing a deflected laser amount of variation [163] (Fig. 22).
strain sensitivity was 4.84 pm/␮ and the force detection limit was In 2004, a micro-grating based force sensor integrated with a
down to 50 ␮N with the microfibre diameter of 2.5 ␮m [153]. surface micromachined silicon-nitride probe was proposed. The
optical-encoder force sensor can measure micronewton-scale force
3.1.5. Sensors based on micro-structured optical fibres in the axial direction of the probe by sensing the axial deflections. It
Micro-structured optical fibres (MOFs) are a new kind of optical consists of two identical constant-period transmission phase grat-
fibre that appeared in the last decade. The main difference between ings that are vertically aligned when no force is applied; when a
MOFs and regular optical fibres is that MOFs are made of a homo- force is applied to the axial direction of the probe, the upper index
geneous medium, and the cladding is the fabricated air holes at the grating is displaced with respect to the bottom grating. This effect
wavelength scale that are periodically distributed in the surrond- changed the diffraction efficiency of the phase grating; thus, the
ings. The core of MOF is a defect that destroys the periodicity of relative position of the two gratings can be determined by the
the refractive index modulation by lacking one or more air holes in intensities in the diffraction orders [164,165].
the centre. According to its transmission mechanism, MOFs can be In 2018, a multiaxial tactile sensor was presented in order to
divided into two categories, including the photonic bandgap MOF realize the control of the gripping force by attaching the sensor
and the total internal reflective MOF, of which the former is more on the manipulator. As the sensor approached the target object,
suitable for force sensing. a portion of the light was shielded, causing the light intensity to
Similar to MNFs, MOFs are also integrated with FBG or micro- change. The proximity can be detected as the impedance change
cavities for sensing. In 2013, a long-period grating fabricated in of the monocrystalline Si substrate by the reflected light from the
polymer micro-structured fibre for sensing was presented with the object due to the photoconductive effect that formed photo-carriers
strain sensitivity of −1.39 pm/␮, showing a linear response for the [166] (Figs. 23 and 24 ).
strain range up to 16.8 m [154]. In 2014, long-period gratings were In addition, as the micro-scale 3D printing technique named
fabricated in hollow-core air-silica photonic bandgap fibres, and two-photon polymerization developed and commercialized over
the axial strain sensitivity related to the resonant wavelength shift the past decade, micro-scale 3-dimensional structures can be eas-
was calculated to be −139.16 pm/N [155,156]. In 2017, grapefruit- ily fabricated. Researchers from the Imperial College of London
shaped micro-structured optical fibre Bragg gratings were made to presented a 3D compliant grasper with an integrated force sen-
be an optical fibre shear sensor. The sensitivity was defined as the sor, the entirety of which was fabricated on the tip of an optical
ratio of notch visibility changes and shear force, which in turn was fibre in a single-step process using this fabrication method. The
calculated to be 0.78 dB/N [157] (Figs. 19 and 20). force estimation principle was optical interferometry, and achieved
In 2010, the strain sensor realized by a photonic-crystal- a force resolution of 0.05 ␮N [167]. The authors also designed
fibre-based Sagnac loop was presented, whose sensitivity was a micro-scale fibre-optic force sensor made of a series of thin
Fig. 20. Schematic representation of the operation principle of the shear sensor [157].
Fig. 21. (a) Experimental setup of the stain sensor based on PCF FLM [159], (b) experimental setup of the strain snesor using PCF-based Sagnac loop [158], (c) image of the
modified PCF-MZI [161].
Fig. 22. The OBD force sensing system [163].
Fig. 23. (a) Solid model for optical-encoder force sensor [164],(b) the photograph and schematic illustration of the MEMSS sensor [166].
Fig. 24. (a) SEM image of gripper fabricated on the tip of an optical fiber by 2-photon polymerization [167], (b) SEM image of an optical FP force sensor fabricated by 2-photon
polymerization [168].
plates, which were supported by springs that compress under an 4.1. Results of parameter comparison
applied force. The interferometric changes at the proximal end of
the fibre were read out using reflectance spectroscopy as the sen- At first, several typical works on the micro-force sensors
sor was compressed. As a result, the resulting spectral changes arranged by chronological order is presented in fig. 26.
were calibrated with respect to the applied force. The proof-of- The resolution and sensitivity are compared among five types of
concept force sensing was demonstrated to be over the range electrical micro-force sensors in Table 1. The parameters of optical
of 0-50 ␮N, with a measurement error of approximately 1.5 ␮N force sensors are discussed mainly regarding their resolution, force
[168]. sensitivity and temperature sensitivity in Tables 2 and 3.
It can be known from Table 1 that the resolution of the capacitive
type force sensor is the highest but that of the strain gauge-based
3.3. Vision-based micro-force sensing method sensors is relatively low. The piezoresistive type of sensor is slightly
better than the piezoelectric type of sensor. Although the piezore-
All the fibre sensing methods referred to above are rarely used in sistive principle is the main principle of the strain gauge, they are
micromanipulation system currently because the technology is not mostly used for rough measurement. The capacitive type of force
mature enough and the measuring equipment is complex. Instead, sensor is the most used one for integrating with the micromanip-
the vision-based micro-force sensing method that is carried out by ulation system end-effector, followed by the piezoresistive type.
measuring the deformation or displacement of a structure by vision However, the limitations of processing technology restrain the per-
is more widely used. formance of capacitive force sensors. The combs defect easily, and
Li et al. devised a method for micro-motion detection of a the size is limited.
3-DOF precision positioning stage [169] and then established a Table 2 demonstrates the resolution of some optical force fibre
micro-vision imaging system to track in-plane displacements with sensors. The optical force sensors have not been widely used in
nanometric accuracy [170]. Wu [171] and Zhang et al. [172,173] micro-scale force measurement. Most are for conventional macro-
developed a robust rotation-invariant displacement measurement scale applications, such as underground mines and rock cracking;
method for the micro/nano-positioning system with a theoreti- some recent research is aimed at smaller scales but not the micro-
cal accuracy of 0.01 pixel. This technique allows the measurement scale, such as the robot and minimally invasive surgery operating
of static forces with a very high resolution and does not require equipment. As a result, the resolution is not higher than that of the
an external field, such as thermal and electrical fields. Vision- electrical micro-force sensors. The optical fibre sensors are always
based sensing technology even has the ability to work in aqueous used as strain sensors, and the resolution is also expressed as strain
medium, which makes it more suitable for force sensing in the cell value because the parameters of optical fibre change along with the
manipulation process. deformation of the fibre itself.
Early in 2006, Giouroudi et al. used two CCD cameras for actual Table 3 shows the parameter comparison of different kinds of
axis positions measurement of the end-effector to realize force optical fibre sensors. As optical fibres are sensitive to the envi-
feedback [174]. In 2010, miniature grippers with vision-based ronmental variation, the environment temperature variation also
force sensing were designed for manipulation of zebrafish egg shows the output signal change. In this section, temperature-
cells less than 1 mm in diameter. The manipulation forces were induced force measurement error was put forward to evaluate the
obtained from known information in other areas and estimated to relative temperature sensitivity of force sensors. The larger the
be approximately 10 mN [175]. In 2012, an automated nanoma- temperature-induced force measurement error is, the more sus-
nipulation with a parallel imaging/manipulation force microscope ceptible to the temperature the force sensor is. According to the
was presented with one cantilever acting as an imaging sensor parameter comparison, the FPI type of sensor is more sensitive to
and the other as a manipulating tool [176]. In 2017, a vision- force and less susceptible to temperature than the FBG type. The
based sensing method was used to characterize the force at a less used MZI type and optical energy change type of force sensor
CNT/Au side-contact interface inside a scanning electron micro- have regular force sensitivity, but the latter is hardly susceptible to
scope (SEM). The AFM cantilever was used in the SEM measuring temperature. In addition, the MNF type of sensor has rather high
system as the sensing element. By monitoring the deformation force sensitivity but is barely resistant to temperature. The MOF
of the cantilever, a contact force as small as several hundreds type of sensor performs moderately, but the refractive index distri-
of nanonewtons can be obtained [177]. In 2018, a microgripper bution of the fibre can be freely designed. In conclusion, the FBG and
with two degrees of freedom for the manipulation of micro- FPI types of sensors are the most commonly used to date, among
objects was designed, integrated with image process technology which the FPI type performs better.
using LabVIEW tools for gripping force measurement [77]. All Compared with electrical micro-force sensors, most of the opti-
these systems discussed above obtained force information by cal fibre sensors measure force by the variation in light wavelength,
monitoring the deformation of end-effectors. However, monitor- which is realized by adopting a spectrograph with a few tenths of a
ing that of the operated objects such as the cells can also be nanometre or even several picometre resolutions. Furthermore, the
used for force analysis. Fatemeh Karimirad et al. put forward size of optical sensing elements is small. Optical fibres are the basic
a vision-based measurement method using an artificial neural sensing elements of optical fibre sensors. The diameter of single-
network model to measure the applied load to a spherical biolog- mode fibre is one hundred microns, while that of micro-nano fibre
ical cell during the micromanipulation process. The measurement is down to several microns or a few hundred nanometres. The two-
was achieved by obtaining the cell contour image first and then photon polymerization can even fabricate micro-grippers on the
determining the deformation region angle of the cells [178,179] cross section of single-mode fibres. The vision-based micro-force
(Fig. 25). sensing method measures without parts placed inside the micro-
operating system. All these examples illustrate the small size of
optical force sensing methods.
4. Discussion
4.2. Summary of fabrication methods
This section compares the parameters of different kinds of sen-
sors and then summarizes the frequently used fabrication methods Microfabrication techniques, the primary means of manu-
briefly. facturing microelectro-mechanical systems, developed from the
Fig. 25. (a) Vander Waals force measurement at the CNT/Au interface [177], (b) force measurement utilizing the defromation of cell [178].
Fig. 26. Typical works about the micro-force sensors.
manufacturing technology of the integrated circuit (IC). These ricated by the above methods. Surface and bulk micromachining
approaches mainly include surface micromachining technology, fabrication technologies are used to fabricate microgrippers from
such as photoetching and chemical vapour deposition (CVD); bulk silicon wafers in reference [29]; the piezoresistors in [32] are
micromachining technology, such as focus ion-beam-etching (FIB), defined using reactive ion etching (RIE); and the microgrippers in
isotropy and anisotropic etching; super-precision machine pro- [50] are fabricated with a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafer related
cessing technology, such as stereo lithography appearance (SLA) to chemical vapour deposition, reactive ion etching and wet etch
and micro electrical discharge machining (micro EDM); and the methods.
LIGA technique is realized by the photolithography, galvanofor- Those optical sensors, including FBGs, air cavities inside fibres,
mung and deforming of X-rays. micro-nano fibres and micro-structured optical fibre, are not typi-
In Section 5, most sensors are integrated with micro-grippers cal MEMS elements. All of them have specific fabrication methods,
forming the microelectro-mechanical system, and they are fab- and the following content provides an introduction.
Table 1
Parameter comparison of electrical micro-force sensors.
Type Resolution Sensitivity Supplementary Examples Year
Piezoresistive type 3 ␮N 72 V/N [29,30] 2009

4 ␮N, 21 ␮N 540 V/N, 100 V/N 2-dimensional [32,33] 2012
1 ␮N, 20 ␮N 2.8 V/N Local and global [34] 2013
Piezoelectric type 14.5 ␮N [40] 2006
Sub-micronewton (␮N) 190.1 V/N [42] 2009
800 ␮N 1.23 V/N [46,47] 2017
Capacitive type 19.9 nN, 38.5 nN Contact and gripping force [50–54] 2009
60 nN [55] 2010
Electrothermal type 1.25 N/m [64] 2013
5.58 ×104 V/N [65] 2014
Strain gauge 143 mN [69] 2013
658.345 V/N [70] 2014
0.035 mN [71] 2016
0.31 mN, 20.51 mN 3.34 ×10−2 V/N, 1.6 ×10−4 V/N double precision [72] 2017
0.05 mN 14.204 V/N [73] 2017
Table 2
Resolution of some optical force sensors.
Type Resolution Supplementary Examples Year
FBG 0.5 ␮ [102] 2010

1 ␮ [103] 2016
10 ␮ [104] 2015
4.6 mN [109] 2018
1.85 mN, 0.074 mN Axial and radial [112,113] 2018
30 ␮ [115] 2010
8 mN, 4 mN Axial and radial [116,117] 2013
MNF 1.6 ␮ [151] 2014
Table 3
Parameter comparison of electrical micro-force sensors.
Type Force sensitivity Temperature sensitivity Temperatured-induced Examples Year

force measurement error
FBG 6.2 pm/␮ [106] 2018

1.13 pm/␮ −50.1 pm/◦ C −44.340 ␮/◦ C [115] 2010
8.3 pm/MPa, 4.16 pm/MPa 11.6 pm/◦ C 1.398 MPa/◦ C, 2.788 MPa/◦ C [118] 2017
1.2 pm/␮ 10 pm/◦ C 8.330 ␮/◦ C [119] 2018
MZI 6.8 pm/␮ [124] 2013
0.2 pm/MPa [125] 2018
FPI 30.66 pm/␮ 1.2 pm/◦ C 0.039 ␮/◦ C [126] 2014
10.3 pm/␮ 0.95 pm/◦ C 0.092 ␮/◦ C [127] 2012
1.2 pm/␮ 11.7 pm/◦ C 9.750 ␮/◦ C [128] 2014
6.0 pm/␮ 1.1 pm/◦ C 0.183 ␮/◦ C [129] 2014
43.0 pm/␮ 2.0 pm/◦ C 0.047 ␮/◦ C [130] 2015
8.11 pm/N 200 pm/◦ C 24.660 N/◦ C [131] 2013
Optical energy change 0.126 dB/N, 0.015 dB/N [135] 2018
0.26 ␮s/␮ 0.01 ␮s/◦ C 0.038 ␮/◦ C [138] 2017
MNF 6.38 pm/␮ 14 pm/◦ C 2.194 ␮/◦ C [147] 2015
3.754 ×106 pm/N [151] 2014
4.84 pm/␮ [153] 2014
MOF −139.16 pm/N [155,156] 2014
0.78 dB/N [157] 2017
4 pm/N 0.9 pm/◦ C 0.225 N/◦ C [160] 2012
3.769 pm/␮ [162] 2014
The gratings inside FBGs were induced based on photosensitiv- panying easy pretreatment on the fibre ends, forming in-fibre
ity using the phase mask technique and point-by-point technique Fabry-Perot interferometers [129]. The two-step drawing process
with a CO2 laser, electric arc and ultraviolet laser in early years was presented by researchers for fabricating long uniform micro-
[154,180], but the photosensitivity for a specific wavelength and nano fibres by a flame-heated fibre drawing method [140].The
material limited the utilization. A femtosecond pulsed laser can micro-structured optical fibres have the same pulling process
fabricate gratings inside FBGs without utilizing the photosensi- but with controlled inert gas pressure and speed to form the
tivity, but its high energy density changes the refractive index micro-structure. The structure referred to in [167,168] used the
[121]. Some FBGs based on micro-fibres tapered from standard 2-photon polymerization method, permitting versatile maskless
non-photosensitive single-mode fiber are inscribed by a focused- 3D-printing of microscale structures with features as small as
ion-beam machining method, causing periodic variation of the 100 nm.
diameter [144]. The fabrication methods of small scale sensors are multifari-
The air cavities inside fibres are created by means of splicing ous, and some new technology will be put forward in the near
together two sections of standard single-mode fibres, accom- future.
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[161] L.M. Hu, C.C. Chan, X.Y. Dong, Y.P. Wang, P. Zu, W.C. Wong, W.W. Qian, T. Li, Haoyan Zang was born in 1996. She received a bachelor’s degree from the South
Photonic crystal fiber strain sensor based on modified Mach-Zehnder China University of Technology. She is currently pursuing her Ph.D. degree at the
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Xianmin Zhang was born in 1964. He received the Ph.D. degree from the Beijing
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University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing, China, in 1993. He was the Dean
micromanipulation Microrobotics and Micromanipulation, vol. 3519,
of the College of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China University
International Society for Optics and Photonics, 1998, pp. 169–181.
of Technology, Guangzhou, China, in 2013. He has been a Professor with the South
[164] X.J. Zhang, S. Zappe, R.W. Bernstein, O. Sahin, C.C. Chen, M. Fish, M.P. Scott,
China University of Technology since 2003. His current research interests include
O. Solgaard, Micromachined silicon force sensor based on diffractive optical
mechanism design and dynamics, and inspection technique.
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(2) (2004) 197–203. Benliang Zhu received the Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering from the South
[165] X. Zhang, Silicon microsurgery-force sensor based on diffractive optical China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China, in 2014. He is currently an Asso-
MEMS encoders, Sens. Rev. 24 (1) (2004) 37–41. ciate Professor with the South China University of Technology. His current research
[166] R. Araki, T. Abe, H. Noma, M. Sohgawa, Electromotive manipulator control interests involve MEMS technique, precision positioning, and manipulation in the
by detection of proximity, contact, and slipping using MEMS multiaxial microscale and nanoscale.
tactile sensor, Electr. Eng. Jpn. 204 (2) (2018) 44–49.
[167] M. Power, A.J. Thompson, S. Anastasova, G.Z. Yang, A monolithic Sergej Fatikow studied electrical engineering and computer science at the Ufa Avi-
force-sensitive 3D microgripper fabricated on the tip of an optical fiber ation Technical University in Russia, where he received his doctoral degree in 1988.
using 2-photon polymerization, Small 14 (16) (2018) 1703964. Since 2001 he is a full professor in the Department of Computing Science and Head
[168] A.J. Thompson, M. Power, G.Z. Yang, Micro-scale fiber-optic force sensor of the Division for Microrobotics and Control Engineering (AMiR) at the Univer-
fabricated using direct laser writing and calibrated using machine learning, sity of Oldenburg, Germany. His research interests include micro- and nanorobotics
Optics Express 26 (11) (2018) 14186–14200. automation at nanoscale, nanohandling inside SEM, AFM-based nanohandling, sen-
[169] H. Li, X. Zhang, B. Zhu, Y. Lu, H. Wu, Micro-motion detection of the 3-DOF sor feedback at nanoscale, and neurofuzzy robot control.
precision positioning stage based on iterative optimized template matching,
Appl. Optics 56 (34) (2017) 9435–9443.

Sensors and Actuators A: Physical: Haoyan Zang, Xianmin Zhang, Benliang Zhu, Sergej Fatikow

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Sensors and Actuators A 296 (2019) 155–177

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors and Actuators A: Physical

Recent advances in non-contact force sensors used for micro/nano

1. Introduction The sensing methods have developed with advances in physical

2.5. Strain gauge sensors

phase, utilizing the theory of the bending loss, the photo-elastic

Fig. 8. Illustration of the working principle of FBG sensors [99].

−0.457 pm/N [158]. In the same year, a highly birefringent pho-

Fig. 22. The OBD force sensing system [163].

Fig. 26. Typical works about the micro-force sensors.

Type Resolution Sensitivity Supplementary Examples Year

Piezoresistive type 3 ␮N 72 V/N [29,30] 2009

Type Resolution Supplementary Examples Year

FBG 0.5 ␮ [102] 2010

Type Force sensitivity Temperature sensitivity Temperatured-induced Examples Year

FBG 6.2 pm/␮ [106] 2018

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