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IMOmath - Applications of Calculus

This document discusses applications of calculus to polynomials. It provides formulas for taking the derivative and integral of polynomials expressed in terms of their coefficients or canonical factorizations. It also discusses properties of derivatives and integrals that are useful for polynomials, such as derivatives preserving multiple zeros. Several problems are presented as examples and solved to further illustrate these concepts.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
73 views4 pages

IMOmath - Applications of Calculus

This document discusses applications of calculus to polynomials. It provides formulas for taking the derivative and integral of polynomials expressed in terms of their coefficients or canonical factorizations. It also discusses properties of derivatives and integrals that are useful for polynomials, such as derivatives preserving multiple zeros. Several problems are presented as examples and solved to further illustrate these concepts.

Uploaded by

Thang Thang
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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7/16/2016 IMOmath: 

Applications of Calculus

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Polynomials (Table of contents)

Applications of Calculus
The derivative of a polynomial P (x) = an x
n
+ an−1 x
n−1
+ ⋯ + a1 x + a0  is given by

′ n−1 n−2
P (x) = nan x + (n − 1)an−1 x + ⋯ + a1 .

The inverse operation, the indefinite integral, is given by

an n+1
an−1 n
∫ P (x)dx = x + x + ⋯ + a0 x + C .
n + 1 n

If the polynomial P  is not given by its coefficients but rather by its canonical factorization, as 
P (x) = (x − x 1 )
k 1
⋯ (x − x n )
k
, a more suitable expression for the derivative is obtained
n

by using the logarithmic derivative rule or product rule:


k1 kn
P (x) = P (x) ( + ⋯ + ).
x − x1 x − xn

A similar formula can be obtained for the second derivative.

Problem 17
 

Suppose that real numbers 0 = x 0 < x 1 < ⋯ < x n < x n+1 = 1  satisfy

n+1
1
∑ = 0 for i = 1, 2, … , n. (1)
xi − xj
j=0, j≠i

Prove that xn+1−i = 1 − xi  for i = 1, 2, … , n .

Hide solution

Let P (x) = (x − x 0 )(x − x 1 ) ⋯ (x − x n )(x − x n+1 ) . We have

+1 +1
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7/16/2016 IMOmath: Applications of Calculus
n+1 n+1
P (x) P (x)
′ ′′
P (x) = ∑ i P (x) = ∑ ∑ .
x − xj (x − x j )(x − x k )
j=0 j=0 k≠j

Therefore

′′ ′
1
P (x i ) = 2P (x i ) ∑
(x i − x j )
j≠i

for i = 0, 1, … , n + 1 . Thus the condition of the problem is equivalent to P ′′ (xi ) = 0

for i = 1, 2, … , n . Therefore

′′
x(x − 1)P (x) = (n + 2)(n + 1)P (x).

It is easy to see that there is a unique monic polynomial of degree n + 2  satisfying the
above differential equation. On the other hand, the monic polynomial 
Q(x) = (−1) P (1 − x)  satisfies the same equation and has degree n + 2 , so we
n

must have (−1) n P (1 − x) = P (x) , which implies the statement.

What makes derivatives of polynomials especially suitable is their property of preserving
multiple zeros.

Theorem 6.1
 

If (x − α) k ∣ P (x) , then (x − α) k−1 ′


∣ P (x) .

Hide proof

If P (x) = (x − α) Q(x)


k
, then P ′ (x) k
= (x − α) Q (x) + k(x − α)
′ k−1
Q(x)

Problem 18
 

Determine a real polynomial P (x)  of degree at most 5 which leaves remainders −1  and


1 upon division by (x − 1) 3  and (x + 1) 3 , respectively.

Hide solution

If P (x) + 1 has a triple zero at point 1, then its derivative P ′ (x)  has a double zero at


that point. Similarly, P ′ (x)  has a double zero at point −1  too. It follows that P ′ (x)  is
divisible by the polynomial (x − 1) 2 (x + 1) 2 . Since P ′ (x)  is of degree at most 4, it
follows that
′ 2 2 4 2
P (x) = c(x − 1) (x + 1) = c(x − 2x + 1)

1 5 2 3
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7/16/2016 IMOmath: Applications of Calculus

for some constant c . Now P (x) = c(


1
x
5

2
x
3
+ x) + d  for some real numbers c
5 3

and d . The conditions P (−1) = 1  and P (1) = −1  now give us c = −15/8 d = 0 , 


and

3 5
5 3
15
P (x) = − x + x − x.
8 4 8

Problem 19
 

For polynomials P (x)  and Q(x)  and an arbitrary k ∈ C , denote

Pk = {z ∈ C ∣ P (z) = k} and Qk = {z ∈ C ∣ Q(z) = k}.

Prove that P0 = Q0  and P1 = Q1  imply that P (x) = Q(x) .

Hide solution

Let us assume w.l.o.g. that n = degP ≥ degQ . Let P0 = {z1 , z2 , … , zk }  and P1  


= {zk+1 , zk+2 , … , zk+m } . Polynomials P  and Q  coincide at k + m  points 

z1 , z2 , … , zk+m . The result will follow if we show that k + m > n .

We have
α1 αk α k+1 α k+m
P (x) = (x − z1 ) ⋯ (x − zk ) = (x − zk+1 ) ⋯ (x − zk+m ) + 1

for some natural numbers α1 , … , αk+m . Let us consider P ′ (x) . We know that it is


divisible by (x − zi ) α −1  for i = 1, 2, … , k + m ; hence,
i

k+m

α i−1 ′
∏ (x − zi ) ∣ P (x).

i=1

k+m
Therefore, 2n − k − m = deg ∏i=1 (x − zi )
α i−1
≤ degP

= n − 1 , i.e. 
k + m ≥ n + 1 , as desired.

Even if P  has no multiple zeros, certain relations between zeros of P  and P ′  still hold. For


example, the following statement holds for all differentiable functions.

Theorem 6.2 (Rolle’s Theorem)
 

Between every two zeros of a polynomial P (x)  there is a zero of P ′ (x) .

Hide proof

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7/16/2016 IMOmath: Applications of Calculus

Let a < b  be two zeros of polynomial P . Assume w.l.o.g. that P ′ (a) > 0  and consider


the point c  in the interval [a, b]  in which P  attains a local maximum (such a point exists
since the interval [a, b]  is compact). We know that 
P (x) = P (c) + (x − c)[P (c) + o(1)] . If for example P (c) > 0  (the case 
′ ′

P (c) < 0  leads to a similar contradiction), then P (x) > P (c)  would hold in a small


neighborhood of c , a contradiction. It is only possible that P ′ (c) = 0 , so c  is a root of 


P (x)  between a  and b .

Corollary
 

If all zeros of P (x)  are real, then so are all zeros of P ′ (x) .

Polynomials (Table of contents)

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