IMOmath - Applications of Calculus
IMOmath - Applications of Calculus
Applications of Calculus
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Polynomials (Table of contents)
Applications of Calculus
The derivative of a polynomial P (x) = an x
n
+ an−1 x
n−1
+ ⋯ + a1 x + a0 is given by
′ n−1 n−2
P (x) = nan x + (n − 1)an−1 x + ⋯ + a1 .
The inverse operation, the indefinite integral, is given by
an n+1
an−1 n
∫ P (x)dx = x + x + ⋯ + a0 x + C .
n + 1 n
If the polynomial P is not given by its coefficients but rather by its canonical factorization, as
P (x) = (x − x 1 )
k 1
⋯ (x − x n )
k
, a more suitable expression for the derivative is obtained
n
by using the logarithmic derivative rule or product rule:
′
k1 kn
P (x) = P (x) ( + ⋯ + ).
x − x1 x − xn
A similar formula can be obtained for the second derivative.
Problem 17
n+1
1
∑ = 0 for i = 1, 2, … , n. (1)
xi − xj
j=0, j≠i
Prove that xn+1−i = 1 − xi for i = 1, 2, … , n .
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+1 +1
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n+1 n+1
P (x) P (x)
′ ′′
P (x) = ∑ i P (x) = ∑ ∑ .
x − xj (x − x j )(x − x k )
j=0 j=0 k≠j
Therefore
′′ ′
1
P (x i ) = 2P (x i ) ∑
(x i − x j )
j≠i
for i = 1, 2, … , n . Therefore
′′
x(x − 1)P (x) = (n + 2)(n + 1)P (x).
It is easy to see that there is a unique monic polynomial of degree n + 2 satisfying the
above differential equation. On the other hand, the monic polynomial
Q(x) = (−1) P (1 − x) satisfies the same equation and has degree n + 2 , so we
n
What makes derivatives of polynomials especially suitable is their property of preserving
multiple zeros.
Theorem 6.1
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Problem 18
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1 5 2 3
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3 5
5 3
15
P (x) = − x + x − x.
8 4 8
Problem 19
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We have
α1 αk α k+1 α k+m
P (x) = (x − z1 ) ⋯ (x − zk ) = (x − zk+1 ) ⋯ (x − zk+m ) + 1
k+m
α i−1 ′
∏ (x − zi ) ∣ P (x).
i=1
k+m
Therefore, 2n − k − m = deg ∏i=1 (x − zi )
α i−1
≤ degP
′
= n − 1 , i.e.
k + m ≥ n + 1 , as desired.
Theorem 6.2 (Rolle’s Theorem)
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Corollary
Polynomials (Table of contents)
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