Lecture Chapter 15 - Special Sense Assignment (10 bonus points):

Posted on: Friday, June 25, 2021 11:59:00 PM CDT

● Briefly discuss the five special senses in humans (2 points).

● Describe human vision and auditory senses with the
structural and functional attributes of human eye and ear (8
points).

Assignment should be: (1) typed in single space, (2) description sh

ould be limited to 500 words for vision and 500 words for auditory
senses, and (3) must contain appropriate illustrations. Please do not
email this assignment. It must be submitted via Bb assignment
portal. The attached file should be in Word or PDF format.

Suggested format:
Special senses:
Structure and Function of the Human Eye:
Structure and Function of Human Ear:
Assignment Due Date: 7/3/2021, 11:59 pm.

o Olfactory sensation is the sense of smell of the individual consisting of millions of receptor
cells that are responsible for detecting odor molecules
o Gustatory sensations are the sense of taste in which the tongue has taste buds which allows
for us to detect flavors.
o Visual sensations is the sense of vision in which the eye is able to detect light present on
photoreceptors in the retina
o Auditory is the ability hear in which the ear has receptors which allows us to hear sounds and
maintain equilibrium
o Equilibrium is the sense of body position relative to gravity and relative to body movement

THE SPECIAL SENSES

Receptors and Sensations
· Receptors are proteins either inside the target cell or on a surface that bind to a
specific substance so they can detect changes in the external or internal environments
· Impulses are transmitted to the CNS for interpretation
· Five groups of receptors:
o Chemoreceptors
§ A sensory receptors that are sensitive to changes in chemical
concentrations.
o Nociceptors
§ Sensitive to tissue damage or potentially damaging stimuli.
o Mechanoreceptors
§ Sensitive to mechanical forces.
§ 2 Different types:
· Baroreceptors – These are pressure receptors, detect changes
in blood pressure.
· Proprioceptors – These are stretch receptors, detect changes in
muscle and tendon tension.
o Thermoreceptors
§ Sensitive to temperature changes.
o Photoreceptors
§ Sensitive to changes in light.

Sensory Impulses
Stimulation of receptors Generation of Membrane/Axon Potential Impulses to the
Sensory Cortex Interpretation of Impulses

Sensations
· A sensation is a perception that occurs when the brain interprets sensory impulses.
· Brain cortex projects a sensation back to the region of stimulation – this process is
called projection.
· Projection allows to pinpoint the region of stimulation.

Sensory Adaptation
· As receptors are continuously stimulated the intensity of the stimulation fades away
due to an adaptation of the receptors – this process is called sensory adaptation.

Somatic senses
· They receive information from receptors in skin, muscles, joints, etc and vice versa.
· These are divided into three groups:
o Exteroceptive Senses – Senses of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature
 o Proprioceptive Senses – Senses of body position and changes in muscle and
tendon
o Visceroceptive Senses – Senses related to the soft internal organs of the
body(IE. Lungs, Intestines, Kidneys) , and their vessels.

THE SPECIAL SENSES

· These senses perceive stimulus either from the internal or the external environment
to detect changes
· Have sensory receptors which are structurally and functionally complex
· These senses are:
o Olfactory sensation is the sense of smell of the individual consisting of
millions of receptor cells that are responsible for detecting odor molecules
o Gustatory sensations are the sense of taste in which the tongue has taste buds
which allows for us to detect flavors.
o Visual sensations is the sense of vision in which the eye is able to detect light
present on photoreceptors in the retina
o Auditory is the ability hear in which the ear has receptors which allows us to
hear sounds and maintain equilibrium
o Equilibrium is the sense of body position relative to gravity and relative to
body movement.

OLFACTORY SENSATION

· The Olfactory epithelium is made up of approximately 10 – 100 million receptor

cells.
· The total area of Olfactory Epithelium is about 3 cm2.
· Olfactory Epithelium consists of:

o OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELLS

§ They are chemoreceptors
§ Dendrite is extended like a bulb
§ Bulb contains OLFACTORY HAIRS to detect odour molecules
§ Axons of the olfactory cells form OLFACTORY NERVES
§ Olfactory Nerves terminate into OLFACTORY BULBS
§ Axon from the neurons of the Olfactory Bulbs form OLFACTORY
TRACTs

o SUPPORTING CELLS(SUSTENTACULAR CELLS)

 § These are Columnar Epithelial Cells that support the structural cells of
the Nasal Epithelium.

o BASAL CELLS

§ Located at the bases of the Supporting Cells,basal cells are the STEM
CELLS that can produce new Receptor.

Source: Human Anatomy & Physiology – Marieb

Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology
§ Olfactory Receptor Cells have a life span of 30 days
§ Nasal Epithelium also contains BOWMAN’S GLANDS that produce
mucus that moisturize the cells.

oOLFACTORY PATHWAYS

Olfactory Hairs- Olfactory Receptor Cells- Olfactory Nerves- Olfactory Bulbs-Olfactory

Tracts- Primary Olfactory Area
And
Olfactory Hairs- Olfactory Receptor Cells -Olfactory Nerves- Olfactory Bulbs-Olfactory
Tracts- Limbic System (extended to the Thalamus)- Primary Olfactory Area

GUSTATORY SENSATION

· Tongue contains taste buds to detect flavours·

· Taste buds contain GUSTATORY RECEPTOR CELLS, SUPPORTING CELLS,and
BASAL CELLS
· Supporting Cells form the capsule of a Taste Bud that contains the receptors
· Hairs project out through a pore called GUSTATORY PORE
PAPILLAE
· It contains the buds and makes the tongue rough.
Three types of Papillae:
o Fungiform Papillae
§ Mushroom like papillae
§ Located at the tip and lateral parts of the tongue
o Filiform Papillae
 § Filament (thread) like papillae
§ Contain very few Taste Buds

o Circumvallate Papillae
§ Large, round papillae
§ Located on the posterior part of the tongue

Source: Human Anatomy & Physiology – Marieb

PHYSIOLOGY OF GUSTATION

· Food must be (or go into) partial solution, so that they can enter the taste pore and be
detected by Gustatory Hairs
· This will stimulate the Gustatory Cells and sensory impulses are generated

GUSTATORY PATHWAYS
Taste Buds Cranial Nerves Medulla Oblongata Thalamus Primary Gustatory Area
(Area 43) at the base of the Parietal Lobe of Brain Cortex

The Cranial Nerves involved are

Facial Nerves – that serve anterior 2/3 of the tongue
Glossopharyngeal Nerves – that serve posterior 1/3 of the tongue
Vagus Nerves – that serve the throat and the epiglottis

BASIC TASTES
· There are four basic taste sensations:
o Sweet – mostly detected at the tip of the tongue
o Salt – mostly detected at the tip of the tongue
o Bitter – mostly detected at the posterior part of the tongue and the throat
o Sour – mostly detected on the lateral sides of the tongue

· All other tastes are combination tastes

Types of Smell and Taste Disorders
Smell Taste

Loss of sensation Anosmia Ageusia

Diminished sensation Hyposmia Hypogeusia

 Heightened sensation Hyperosmia Hypergeusia

Distorted sensation Dysosmia Dysgeusis

VISUAL SENSATION

The adult eyeball measures about 2.5 cm in diameter. 1/6th is exposed. The remainder is
enclosed within the orbit. The wall is composed of three tunics. FIBROUS TUNIC The outer
tunic. Composed of anterior CORNEA and posterior SCLERA. Cornea is nonvascular,
transparent, fibrous tissue Light enters the eye through the cornea. Sclera is the “white” of the
eye – composed of dense connective tissue. Sclera covers all of the eyeball except the cornea.
Sclera makes the eyeball rigid and protects its inner parts. VASCULAR TUNIC The middle
layer of the eyeball. This is the CHOROID (mostly) along with the CILIARY BODY and
IRIS.Choroids is the posterior part that covers most of the eyeball. It provides nutrition to the
retina It is brown-black due to melanin. Eye lens hangs from the ciliary body by SUSPENSORY
LIGAMENTS. The iris is the colored portion of the eye. It is circular, pigmented and muscular
It provides eye color. The opening in the middle of the iris is the PUPIL.Iris regulates the amount
of light that enters the eye through pupil

The adult eyeball is roughly 2.5 cm in diameter. Of this only 1/6 is exposed to the outside with
the rest being enclosed within the orbit of the eye. The eye is composed of three tunics. The
outermost tunic is the Fibrous Tunic which is composed of the Cornea which is the clear outer
layer of the eye and the Sclera which is a white layer that covers the outside region of the eye
and is composed of dense connective tissue.The vascular tunic is the middle layer of the eye and
is responsible for oxygen supply and nutrition to the eye. This layer is composed of the Choroid
which maintains the volume and temperature of the eye, along with the oxygen and nutrients
needed for the cells, the ciliary body which makes the fluid that fills the eye and helps to change
the size of the pupil and the Iris which controls the amount of light that enters the eye through
the pupil. The retina is composed of the innermost tonic and the nervous tonic with three layers
of neuron which include the photoreceptor, bipolar, and ganglionic. The photoreceptors perform
a specialized function to generate nerve impulses from the light which they receive. They are
composed of two different types which are rods and cones. The rods are the receptor for dim
light, responsible for black and white vision, and can detect shape and movement while the cones
are the receptor for bright light

RETINA
 · The innermost tunic
· The nervous tunic
· Has three layers of neurons – PHOTORECEPTOR, BIPOLAR AND GANGLIONIC
· Photoreceptor neurons are specialized to receive light and generate nerve impulses
· Two types of photoreceptors – RODS and CONES
· RODS
o Receptor for dim light
o For black and white vision
o Can detect shape and movement

· CONES
o Receptors for bright light
o For color vision
o For sharp vision
· Each retina has about 6-million cones and 120-million rods
· Cones are densely concentrated in the CENTRAL FOVEA
· Central fovea is the small depression in the middle of the MACULA LUTEA
· It is the area of best vision
· Rods are absent in the central fovea and the macula lutea
· Macula lutea is the center for visual axis – located on the posterior part of the retina
· OPTIC DISC is the area where OPTIC NERVE originates
· Optic nerves carry impulses from the eyes to the brain

LENS
· The eye LENS is located behind the iris (pupil)
· It consists of crystalline proteins
· It is nonvascular and perfectly transparent
· The lens is enclosed within a nonvascular, transparent, fibrous tissue capsule

ANTERIOR CAVITY
· Divided into ANTERIOR CHAMBER and POSTERIOR CHAMBER
· Anterior chamber is the space between the cornea and the iris
· Posterior chamber is the space between the iris and the lens
· These chambers contain AQUEOUS HUMOR – a fluid

POSTERIOR CAVITY
· Located behind the lens (between the lens and the retina)
· Contains a jelly like substance called the VITREOUS BODY (HUMOR)

PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
· Rods contain photopigment RHODOPSIN
 · Cones contain photopigments IODOPSINS
· A photopigment consists of a protein (OPSIN) and a vitamin-A derivative
(RETINAL)
· PHOTOPIGMENT OPSIN (protein) + RETINAL (vitamin-A)
· In the rods the opsin is the SCOTOPSIN
· In the cones the opsins are the PHOTOPSINS
· We have at least 3 different types of cones with 3 different types of photopsins
· Photo pigments absorb light and undergo structural changes
· They break down into retinal and opsin
· Retinal and opsin combine to give the photo pigment back
· In bright light Rhodopsin breaks down quickly but reforms slowly
· Idopsins break down and reform fast
· Rhodopsin is extremely light sensitive
· Very small quantity of light can break Rhodopsin into Retinal and Scotopsin

PHOTOPIGMENT OPSIN + RETINAL PHOTOPIGMENT

· LIGHT ADAPTATION
Prolong exposure to light Most of the rhodopsin breaks down into Scotopsin and
Retinal The total amount of photopigment in the eye decreases Sensitivity of the
eye to light decreases
· DARK ADAPTATION
Prolong exposure to dark Scotopsin and retinal bind to produce rhodopsin The
total amount of photopigment in the eye increases Sensitivity of the eye to light
increases

· VISUAL PATHWAYS
Retinal Neurons Optic Nerve Optic Chiasma Optic Tracts Lateral Geniculate
Nuclei of the Thalamus Primary Visual Area Visual Association Area

Primary Visual Area

· Area 17 - For the detection of shape, size, color, movement, etc
Visual Association Area
· Area 18 and 19 – that determines the name of the object

Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology

AUDITORY SENSATION

· Ear contains receptors for sound and equilibrium

 · Ear is divided into
o External ear
o Middle ear, and
o Inner ear

EXTERNAL EAR
· Consists of PINNA, EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS, and the TYMPANIC
MEMBRANE (ear drum)

· Pinna
o Consists of HELIX (upper part) and the LOBULE (the lower part)
o Composed of cartilage, skin, and connective tissues

· External Auditory Meatus

o About 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length
o It is a canal through the Temporal bone
o Extended from the Pinna to the eardrum
o Lined by skin that contains hairs and Ceruminous Glands

· Tympanic membrane
o A fibrous tissue structure
o lined by sensitive skin and mucous membrane

Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology

MIDDLE EAR
· Also called the TYMPANIC CAVITY
· A small air-filled cavity in the Temporal bone
· Separated from the external ear by tympanic membrane, and from the inner ear by
thin bony partition (BONY LABYRINTH)
· Connected to the NASOPHYRYNX by the EUSTACHIAN TUBE (Auditory Tube)
· Eustachian Tube equalizes air pressure on both sides of the ear drum
· Middle ear contains three pieces of bones called AUDITORY OSSICLES
(MALLEUS, INCUS, and STAPES)
· Malleus is connected to the ear drum and the Incus
· Incus is connected to the Stapes
· Stapes is connected to the OVAL WINDOW
· Besides the ligaments, two skeletal muscles are also attached to the Ossicles
 o TENSOR TYMPANI MUSCLE – that limits movements and increases tension
on the tympanic membrane to protect it from prolong loud noise (not a brief one)

o STAPEDIUS MUSCLE – the smallest skeletal muscle that dampens large

vibration from loud noise. Paralysis of this muscle may cause HYPERACUSIA
(abnormally sensitive hearing)

INNER EAR
· Also called the LABYRINTH
· The wall of the inner ear is the BONY LABYRINTH
· Inside the bony labyrinth is the MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH
· Inner ear is divided into VESTIBULE, COCHLEA, and SEMICIRCULAR
CANALS

Vestibule
· The oval, middle part of the inner ear
· Contains the Oval Window (FENESTRA VESTIBULI)
· The Membranous Labyrinth makes 2 sacs inside the Vestibule called SACCULE and
UTRICLE – They house the MACULAE (receptor organ for static equilibrium)
· These sacs are connected to each other by a small duct

Cochlea
· Spiral like a snail
· Attached to the vestibule
· Divided into 3 channels by 2 membranes
· Channels are SCALA VESTIBULI, SCALA MEDIA, and SCALA TYMPANI
· Scala Vestibuli is connected to the Oval Window
· Scala Tympani is connected to the ROUND WINDOW (FENESTRA COCHLEA) -
located under the oval window
· Scala Vestibuli and Scala Media are separated by VESTIBULAR MEMBRANE
· Scala Media and Scala Tympani are separated by BASILAR MEMBRANE
· Scala Vestibuli and Scala Tympani contain PERILYMPH (fluid)
· Scala Media contains ENDOLYMPH
· Resting on the Basilar Membrane, inside the Scala Media is the hearing organ
(ORGAN OF CORTI or the SPIRAL ORGAN)

o Organ of Corti
§ Composed of SUPPORTING CELLS and HAIR CELLS
§ Projecting over the hair cells is a delicate, gelatinous membrane called
TECTORIAL MEMBRANE
 § Hair cells are connected to the COCHLEAR BRANCH of the
VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE

Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology

Semi Circular Canals
· Three Semicircular Canals (Anterior, Posterior, and Lateral)
· Canals are attached to the vestibule
· The Membranous Labyrinth inside the canals make SEMICIRCULAR DUCTS
· These ducts communicate with the Utricle of the Vestibule
· The base of canal is wide – called an AMPULLA
· Ampullae house CRISTAE (Receptor Organs for Dynamic Equilibrium)

Source: Human Anatomy & Physiology – Marieb

Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology

Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology

PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING
· Pinna directs sound waves into the External Auditory Meatus
· Sound strikes the Tympanic Membrane - Tympanic Membrane vibrates
· From the Tympanic Membrane, Malleus picks up the vibration
· From Malleus, vibration moves to the Incus – then to the Stapes
· Vibration moves to the inner ear through oval window
· Vibration moves through the Perilymph of Scala Vestibuli
· Vibration on the Vestibular membrane
· Vibration moves through the Endolymph of Scala Media
· Vibration on the basilar membrane
· This causes the Organ of Corti to vibrate
· The friction between the hairs of the hair cells and the Tectorial Membrane produces
nerve impulses
· Impulses are picked up by the Cochlear Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve
· Impulses to COCHLEAR NUCLEI in the medulla
· Impulses move through the midbrain, then to the thalamus, and then to the Primary
Auditory Area (41 and 42) and then to the Auditory Association Area (Area 22 /
Wernicke’s Area)
 · Area 41 and 42 deal with the basic sound characteristics and Area 22 interprets the
sound
· Vibration moves to the Scala Tympani and leaves the ear through the round window

Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology

EQUILIBRIUM

· Equilibrium is the sense of body position

· Two types – STATIC EQUILIBRIUM and DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
· Static Equilibrium is the maintenance of body position relative to gravity
· Dynamic equilibrium is the maintenance of body position in response to movement

STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
· The receptor organ is the MACULA
· Maculae are located inside the Saccule and Utricle of the Vestibule
· The two maculae are perpendicular to one another
· Maculae contain two types of cells – HAIR CELLS and SUPPORTING CELLS
· Hair cells contain STEREOCILIA
· Over the Stereo Cilia there is a gelatinous mass called OTOLITHIC MEMBRANE
· Otolithic Membrane is covered by a layer of calcium carbonate called OTOLITHS
(ONTOCONIA)
· In response to head movement, the Otolithic Membrane and the Otoliths slide over
the Stereo Cilia
· This stimulates the hair cells and sensory impulses are produced
· Impulses move through the Vestibular Branch of Vestibulocochlear Nerve
· Most of the impulses are transmitted to the VESTIBULAR NUCLEAR COMPLEX
located in the PONS
· Rest of the impulses are transmitted to the CEREBELLUM
· From Vestibular Nucleus Complex, impulses are sent to the nuclei of those cranial
nerves (Oculomotor, Trochlear, and Abducens) that can control head, neck, and eye
movements
· Cerebellum sends impulses to the MOTOR AREAS (Areas 4 and 6) of brain cortex
that control the skeletal muscles and maintain Equilibrium
· Area 4 is the Primary Motor Area for general muscle contraction
· Area 6 is the Pre-motor Area for skilled muscle contraction

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
· The receptor organ is the CRISTA
· Cristae are located inside the Ampullae of the Semicircular Canals
· Crista contains two types of cells – HAIR CELLS and SUPPORTING CELLS
· Hair cells contain STEREOCILIA
· The Stereo Cilia are covered by a gelatinous layer called CUPULA
· Hair cells are connected to the Ampullary Nerve fibers, that are connected to
Vestibular Branch of Vestibulocochlear Nerve
· When the head moves, the Endolymph of the Semicircular Ducts move over the
Cupula
· Friction between the cupula and the Stereo Cilia stimulates the hair cells and sensory
impulses are produced
· Impulses move through the same pathway as in Static Equilibrium
Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology
Source: Holes Anatomy and Physiology