POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Code: (13A03804) – R13 Syllabus

UNIT IV
HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT
CONTENTS:
Water Power – Hydrological Cycle / Flow Measurement – Drainage Area Characteristics –
Hydrographs – Storage and Pondage – Classification of Dams and Spill Ways. Hydro Projects and
Plant: Classification – Typical Layouts – Plant Auxiliaries – Plant Operation Pumped Storage Plants.
INTRODUCTION
In hydroelectric power plants the energy of water is utilized to drive the turbine which, in turn, runs the generator to
produce electricity. Rain falling upon the earth's surface has potential energy relative to the oceans towards which it flows. This
energy is converted to shaft work where the water falls through an appreciable vertical distance. The hydraulic power is thus a
naturally available renewable energy source given below Eq.
P = gpQH
Here P is the hydraulic power in Watts,
g is 9.81 trits2 (the acceleration due to gravity),
 is the water density, 1000 kg/m3,
Q is the flow or discharge, m3is
and H is the height of fall of water or head, m.
The electrical energy produced in kWh can then be written in the form of Eq.
W =9.81x 1000xQxHxxt kWh
where t is the operating time in hours (8760 hiyear) and  is the efficiency of the turbine-generator assembly, which
varies between 0.5 and 0.9. The power developed thus depends on quantity (Q) and head (H) of water.

Advantages of Water Power:

I. Water source is perennially available. No fuel is required to he burnt to generate electricity, It is aptly termed as 'the white coal'.
Water passes through turbines to produce work and downstream its utility remains
undiminished for irrigation of farms and quenching the thirst of people in the vicinity.
2. The running costs of hydropower installations are very low as compared to thermal or nuclear power stations. In thermal
stations, besides the cost of fuel, one has to take into account the transportation cost of the fuel also.
3. There is no problem with regards to the disposal of ash as in a thermal station. The problem of emission of polluting gases and
particulates to the atmosphere also does not exist. Hydropower does not produce any
greenhouse effect, cause the pernicious acid rain and emit obnoxious NO.
4. The hydraulic turbine can be switched on and off in a very short time. In a thermal or nuclear power plant the steam turbine is
put on turning gear for about two days during start-up and shut-down.
5. The hydraulic power plant is relatively simple in concept and self- contained in operation. Its system reliability is much greater
than that of other power plants,
6. Modern hydropower equipment has a greater life expectancy and can easily last 50 years or more. This can be compared with
the effective life of about 30 years of a thermal or nuclear station.
7. Due to its great ease of taking up and throwing off the load, the hydro- power can be used as the ideal spinning reserve in a
system mix of thermal, hydro and nuclear power stations.
8. Modern hydro-generators give high efficiency over a considerable range of load. This helps in improving the system efficiency.
9. Hydro-plants provide ancillary benefits like irrigation, flood control, afforestation, navigation and aqua-culture.
l0. Being simple in design and operation, the hydro-plants do not require highly skilled workers. Manpower requirement is also
low.
Major disadvantages of water power are the following:
I . Hydro-power projects are capital-intensive with a low rate of return. The annual interest of this capital cost is a large part of the
annual cost of hydro-power installations.
2. The gestation period of hydro projects is quite large. The gap between the foundation and completion of a project may extend
from ten to fifteen years.
3. Power generation is dependent on the quantity of water available, which may vary from season to season and year to year. If the
rainfall is in time and adequate, then only the satisfactory operation of the plant can be expected.
4. Such plants are often far away from the load centre and require long transmission lines to deliver power. Thus the cost of
transmission lines and losses in them are more.
5. Large hydro-plants disturb the ecology of the area, by way of deforestation. Destroying vegetation and uprooting people. Strong
public opinion against erection of such plants is a deterrent factor.

Factors for Selection of Site of Hydro Electric Power Plant:

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The following factors should be considered while selecting the site for hydroelectric power plant.
1. Availability of water 2. Water storage capacity 3. Available water head
4. Accessibility of the site 5. Distance from the load centre 6.Type of land of site
1. Availability of water: The design and capacity of the hydro-plant greatly depends on the amount of water available at the site.
The run-off data along with precipitation at the proposed site with maximum and minimum quantity of water available in a year
should be available to
a. decide the capacity of the plant,
b. set up the peak load plant such as steam, diesel or gas turbine plant,
c. provide adequate spillways or gate relief during flood period.
2. Water storage capacity: Since there is a wide variation in rainfall all round the year, it is always necessary to store the water for
continuous generation of power. The storage capacity can be estimated with the help of mass curve.
3. Available water head: In order to generate the desired quantity of power it is necessary that a large quantity of water at a
sufficient head should be available. An increase in effective head, for a given output, reduces the quantity of water required to be
supplied to the turbines.
4. Accessibility of the site: The site should he easily accessible by rail and road. An inaccessible terrain will jeopardize the
movement of men and material.
5. Distance from the load centre: If the site is close to the load centre, the cost of transmission lines and the transmission losses
will be reduced.
6. Type of the land of the site: The land of the site should be cheap and rocky. The dam constructed at the site should have large
catchment area to store water at high head. The foundation rocks of the masonry dam should be strong enough to withstand the
stresses in the structure and the thrust of water when the reservoir is full.

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:
Hydrology is the science that deals with the processes governing depletion and replenishment of water resources over and
within the earth's surface. With the knowledge of hydrology at a certain site it is possible to design the irrigation and flood control
works, power projects, water supply schemes, navigation works, etc. As water vapour in atmospheric air goes up it cools,
condenses and falls as rain, hail, snow or sleet. When this precipitation falls on hills and mountains and converges to form streams
and rivers, it can be used for power generation.
Intensity of rainfall, season and topography largely determine the usefulness of rainfall for power purposes. Light falls
aid the growth of vegetation but do not contribute to stream flow, When total monthly precipitation concentrates in one or more
storms, the runoff will increase greatly though vegetation may suffer.
Distribution of precipitation may be classified as (i) direct evaporation (ii) absorption and transpiration by vegetation. (iii) Seepage
and storage; and (iv) direct surface runoff, eventually forming rivers

i) A major part of precipitation on land areas that reaches the soil re- evaporates to the atmosphere, the rate being large from
surfaces of lakes, ponds and swamps. A rise in temperature and drop in humidity increase the evaporation rate with the
wind aiding it.
ii) Plants absorb water through their roots and transpire it as vapour through their leaves to the atmosphere.
iii) Precipitation absorbed by the soil seeps or percolates into the ground, funning bodies of water called the water table or
ground stop-age, it is also called "infiltration" which is a process by which water enters the surface strata of the soil and
makes its way downwards to the water table. The amount of seepage or infiltration depends on the geological character of
the surface and subsoil.
iv) The remaining water flows over the ground surface as direct runoff to form brooks and rivers. The amount of runoff from
a given rainfall depends on the nature of precipitation. Short, hard showers may produce relatively little runoff, whereas
long rainfall saturates the soil lowering seepage rate and slows down evaporation by increased humidity and thus
produces more runoff
P=R+E
where, P = Precipitation,
R = Run-off, and
E = Evaporation.

Precipitation: It includes all the water that falls from atmosphere to earth surface. Precipitation is of two types : (i) Liquid
precipitation (rain fall). (ii) Solid precipitation (snow, hail).
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Run-off and surface run-off: Run-off and surface run-off are two different terms and should not be confused. Run-off includes
all the water flowing in the stream channel at any given section. While the surface run-off includes only the water that reaches the
stream channel without firs percolating down to the water table.
Run-off can, therefore, also be named as Discharge or Stream flow. Rainfall duration, intensity and a real distribution
influence the rate and volume of run-off.
Evaporation: Transfer of water from liquid to vapour state is called evaporation.
Transpiration: The process by which water is released to the atmosphere by the plants is called transpiration.

Measurement of Run-off:
Run-off can be measured daily, monthly, seasonal or yearly. It can be measured by the following methods :
1. From rainfall records.
2. Empirical formulae.
3. Run-off curves and tables.
4. Discharge observation method.
From rainfall records: In this method consistent rainfall record for a sufficiently long period is taken and then average depth of
rainfall over the catchment is determined. Then considering all the factors which affect run-off process, a coefficient is arrived at
for that catchment. Now a simple equation can be used to find out the run-off over the catchment.
Run-off = Rainfall x coefficient ...(6.33)
Empirical formulae: In this method an attempt is made to derive a direct relationship between the rainfall and subsequent run-off.
For this purpose some constants are established which give fairly accurate result for a specified region. Some important formulae
are given below:
(a) Khosla's formula :
R = P — 4.811 T
where, R = Annual run-off in mm, P = Annual rainfall in mm, and T = Mean temperature in °C.
(b)Inglis formulae for hilly and plain areas of Maharashtra :
For Ghat region R = 0.88 P — 304.8
For plain region R= (P — 177.8) x P
2540
(c) Lacey's formula :

where, R = Monsoon run-off in mm,

P = Monsoon rainfall in mm,
S = Catchment area factor, and
F = Monsoon duration factor.
Values of S for various types of catchment are given below:
Type of catchment Value of S
Flat, cultivated and black cotton soils 0.25
Flat, partly cultivated, various soils 0.6
Average catchment 1.00
Hills and places with little cultivation 1.70
Very hilly and steep, with hardly any cultivation 3.45
Values of F for various durations of monsoon are given below :
Class of monsoon Value of F
Very short 0.50
Standard length 1.00
Very long 1.50

3. Run-off curves and tables. Each region has its own catchment area and rainfall characteristics. Thus formulae given above and
coefficients derived there in cannot be applied universally.
However, for the same region the characteristics mostly remain unchanged. Based on this fact the run-off coefficients are derived
once for all. Then a graph is plotted in which one axis represents rainfall and the other run-off. The curves obtained are called run-
off curves. Alternatively a table can be prepared to give the run-off for a certain value of rainfall for a particular region.
4. Discharge observation method. By actual measurement of discharge at an outlet of a drainage basin run-off over a catchment
can be computed. The complication in this method is that the discharge of the stream at the outlet comprises surface run-off as
well as sub-surface flow. To find out the sub-surface run-off it is essential to separate the sub-surface flow from the total flow. The
separation can be done on an approximate basis but with correct analysis.
Factors affecting the run-off:
1. Rainfall pattern
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 2. Character of catchment area
3. Topography
4. Shape and size of the catchment area
5. Vegetation
6. Geology of the area
7. Weather conditions.

Hydrograph: It is defined as a graph showing discharge (run-off) of flowing water with respect to time for a specified
time. Discharge graphs are known as flood or run-off graphs. Each hydrograph has a reference to a particular river site.
The time period for discharge hydrograph may be hour, day, week or month.
Hydrograph of stream of river will depend on the characteristics of the catchment and pre cipitation over the
catchment. Hydrograph will access the flood flow of rivers hence it is essential that anticipated hydrograph could be
drawn for river for a given storm. Hydrograph indicates the power available from the stream at different times of day,
week or year.

Hydrograph of stream of river will depend on the characteristics of the catchment and pre cipitation over the
catchment. Hydrograph will access the flood flow of rivers hence it is essential that anticipated hydrograph could be
drawn for river for a given storm. Hydrograph indicates the power available from the stream at different times of day,
week or year.
The Unit Hydrograph
The peak flow represents a momentary value. Therefdre the peak flow alone does give sufficient information about the run-off. It
is necessary to understand the full hydrograph of flow. Introduction of unit hydrograph theory in 1932 made it possible to predict a
run-off hydrograph corresponding to an observed or hypothetical storm. The basic concept of unit hydrograph is that the
hydrographs of run-off from two identical storms would be the same. In practice identical storms occur very rarely. The rainfall
generally varies in duration, amount and areal distribution. This makes it necessary to construct a typical hydrograph for a basin
which could be used as a unit of measurement of run-off.
A unit hydrograph may be defined as a hydrograph which represents unit run-off resulted from an intense rainfall of unit
duration and specific areal distribution.
The following steps are used for the construction of unit hydrograph :
1. Choose an isolated intense rainfall of unit duration from past records.
2. Plot the discharge hydrograph for outlet from the rainfall records.
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 3. Deduct the base flow from stream discharge hydrograph to get hydrograph of surface run off.
4. Find out the volume of surface run-off and convert this volume into cm of run-off over the catchment area.
5. Measure the ordinates of surface run-off hydrograph.
6. Divide these ordinates by obtained run-off in cm to get ordinates of unit hydrograph.
Thus for any catchment unit hydrograph can be prepared once. Then whenever peak flow is to be found out, multiply the
maximum ordinate of unit hydrograph by the run-off value expressed in cm. Similarly to obtain run-off hydrograph of the storm of
same unit duration multiply the ordinates of the unit hydrograph by the run-off value expressed in cm. If the storm is of longer
duration calculate the run-off in each unit duration of the storm. Then super-impose the run-off hydrographs in the same order
giving a lag of unit period between each of them. Finally draw a summation hydrograph by adding all the overlapping ordinates.
Generally the computations are done in a tabular form before the hydrograph is plotted.
Fig. 6.48 is self explanatory and shows how a run-off hydrograph is constructed from a unit hydrograph.

Limitations to the use of unit hydrographs :

1. Its use is limited to areas about 5000 sq. kilometres since similar rainfall distribution over a large area from
storm to storm is rarely possible.
2. The odd-shaped basins (particularly long and narrow) have very uneven rainfall distribution, therefore, unit
hydrograph method is not adopted to such basins.
3. In mountain areas, the areal distribution is very uneven, even then unit hydrograph method is used because the
distribution pattern remains same from storm to storm.
Flow Duration Curve:
Refer Fig. 6.49. Flow duration curve is another useful form to represent the run-off data for the given time. This curve is plotted
between flow available during a period versus the fraction of time. If the magnitude on the ordinate is the potential power
contained in the stream flow, then the curve is known as "power duration curve". This curve is a very useful tool in the analysis
for the development of water power.
The flow duration curve is drawn with the help of a hydrograph from the available run-off data and, here it is necessary to find out
the length of time duration which certain flows are available. This information either from run-off data or from hydrograph is
tabulated. Now the flow duration curve taking 100 percent time on X-axis and run-off on Y-axis can be drawn.
The area under the flow duration curve gives the total quantity of run-off during that period as the flow duration curve is
representation of graph with its flows arranged in order of descending magnitude.

If the head of discharge is known, the possible power developed from water in kW can be determined from the following equation:

Thus the flow duration curve can be converted to power duration with some other scale on the same graph.
Flow duration curves are most useful in the following cases:
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 (i) For preliminary studies (ii) For comparison between streams.
Uses of flow duration curve:
1. A flow duration curve allows the evaluation of low level flows.
2. It is highly useful in the planning and design of water resources projects. In particular, for hydropower studies,
the flow duration curve serves to determine the potential for firm power generation. In the case of a run-of-the-river plant,
with no storage facilities, the firm power is usually computed on the basis of flow available 90 to 97 percent of the time.
The firm power is also known as the primary power. Secondary power is the power generated at the plant utilising water
other than that used for the generation of firm power.
3. If a sediment rating curve is available for the given stream, the flow duration curve can be converted into
cumulative sediment transport curve by multiplying each flow rate by its rate of sediment transport. The area under this
curve represents the total amount of sediment transported.
4. The flow duration curve also finds use in the design of drainage systems and in flood control studies.
5. A flow duration curve plotted on a log-log paper provides a qualitative description of the run-off variability in
the stream. If the curve is having steep slope throughout, it indicates a stream with highly variable discharge. This is
typical of the conditions where the flow is mainly from surface
run-off. A flat slope indicates small variability which is a characteristic of the streams receiving both surface run-off and
ground water run-off. A flat portion at the lower end of the curve indicates substantial contribution from ground water
run-off, while the flat portion at the upper end of the curve is characteristic of streams with large flood plain storage, such
as lakes and swaps, or where the high flows are mainly derived from snowmelt.
6. The shape of the flow duration curve may change with the length of record. This aspect of the flow duration curve can
be utilised for extrapolation of short records.
Shortcomings/Defects of Flow Duration Curve
1. It does not present the flows in natural source of occurence.
2. It is also not possible to tell from flow duration curve whether the lowest flows occured in consecutive periods
or were scattered throughout the considered period.

Mass Curve:
A 'mass curve' is the graph of the cumulative values of water quantity (run-off) against time. A mass curve is an integral curve of
the hydrograph which expresses the area under the hydrograph from one time to another.

It is a convenient device to determine storage requirement that is needed to produce a certain dependable flow from fluctuating
discharge of a river by a reservoir.
Mass curve can also be used to solve the reserve problem of determining the maximum demand rate that can be maintained by a
given storage volume. However, it is a trial and error procedure.
The mass curve will always have a positive shape but of a greater or less degree depending upon the variations in the quantity of
inflow water available.. The negative inclination of ma s curve would show that the amount of water flowing in the reservoir was
less than the loss due to evaporation and seepage.

Storage and Pondage:

As stated earlier the flow rate of a stream varies considerably with time. For example, during rainy season when the
stream is in floods it carries a huge quantity of water as compared to other times of the year when the quantity of water carried
by it is considerably less. However, the demands for power ordinarily do not correspond to such variations of the
natural flow of the stream. As such some arrangement in the form of storage and pondage of water is required for the
regulation of the flow of water so as it make it available in requisite quantity to meet the power demand at a given time.
Storage may be defined as impounding of a considerable amount of excess run off during seasons of surplus flow for use
in dry seasons. This is accomplished by constructing a darn across the stream at a suitable site and building a storage
reservoir on the upstream side of the dam.

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 Pondage may be defined as a regulating body of water in the form of a relatively small pond or reservoir provided at the
plant. The pondage is used to regulate the variable water flow to meet power demand. It caters for short-term fluctuations which
may occur due to (a) sudden increase or decrease of load on the turbine (b) sudden changes in the inflow of water, say by breaches
in the conveyance channel (c) change of water demand by turbines and the natural flow (supply) of water from time to time. The
turbines are often required to meet the power demand higher than the average load when the pondage supplies the excess quantity
of water required during that period. Figure shows the locations of power houses with storage and pondage. Pondage increases the
capacity of a river over a short-time, such as a week. Storage, however, increases the capacity of a river over an extended period of
6 months to as much as 2 years.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES/ELEMENTS OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

The following are the essential elements of hydro-electric power plant:
1. Catchment area 2. Reservoir 3. Dam 4. Spillways 5. Conduits 6. Surge tanks
7. Primemovers 8. Draft tubes 9. Powerhouse and equipment.
The description of various elements of hydro-electric plants is as follows :
6.5.1. Catchment Area
The whole area behind the dam draining into a stream or river across which the dam has been built at a suitable place, is called
catchment area.
6.5.2. Reservoir
The water reservoir is the primary requirement of hydro-electric plant. A reservoir is employed to store water which is further
utilised to generate power by running the hydraulic turbines.
A reservoir may be of the following two types :
1. Natural 2. Artificial
A natural reservoir is a lake in high mountains.
An artificial reservoir is built by erecting a dam across the river.
Water held in upstream reservoir is called storage whereas water behind the dam at the plant is called pondage.
6.5.3. Dam

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A dam is a barrier to confine or raise water for storage or diversion to create a hydraulic head. An hydro-electric dam diverts the
flow from the river to the turbines and usually increases the head. A reservoir dam stores water by raising its level. Dams are built
of concrete or stone masonry, earth or rock fill, or timber. Masonry dams may be the solid-gravity, buttress or arch type. A
barrage is a diversion dam, especially at a tidal power project. A weir is a low overflow dam across a stream for measuring flow
or maintain water level, as at a lake outlet. A dike is an embankment to confine water ; a levee is a dike near the bank of a river to
keep low land from being overflowed.

Types of dams
The different types of dams are as follows :
A. Fill dams
1. Earth dams
2. Rock-fill dams.
B. Masonry dams
1. Solid gravity dams
2. Buttress dams
3. Arch dams.
C. Timber dams
Description of dams
A. Fill dams :
1. Earth dams. For small projects, in particular, dam constructed of earth fill or embankment are commonly used. Because of the
great volume of material required, it is imperative that the fill be obtainable in the vicinity of dam site.

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The earth dams have the following advantages :
(i) It is usually cheaper than a masonry dam.
(ii) It is suitable for relatively previous foundation.
(iii) It blends best with the natural surroundings.
(iv) It is the most permanent type of construction if protected from corrosion.
Disadvantages of the earth dam are:
(i) It has greater seepage losses than most other types of dams.
(ii) Since this type of dam is not suitable for a spillway structure, therefore it requires a supplementary spillway.
(iii) It is subject to possible destruction or serious damage from erosion by water either over topping the dam or
seeping through it.
Following are the causes of failure of earth dams :
1. Overtopping caused by insufficient spillway capacity.
2. Seepage along conduits through the dam.
3. Piping through the dam or its foundation.
2. Rock-fill dams. A rock-fill dam consists of loose rock of all sizes and has a trapezoidal shape with a wide base, with a
watertight section to reduce seepage. It is used in mountainous locations where rock rather than earth is available. A rock-fill dam
may be destroyed if overtopped to any great extent, and so it needs a supplementary spillway of adequate capacity.
B. Masonry dams :
1. Solid gravity dams. This type of dam is more massive and bulky than the other types since it depends on its
weight for stability. Because of its weight it requires a sound rock foundation. It may be used as a spillway section for a
dam of another type on sand or gravel foundations if the stresses are limited and a suitable cut-off is provided. On a rock
foundation the base of a solid gravity dam which is 0.7 of the head usually results in a satisfactory and economical
section for either a bulkhead or spillway section. On an earth foundation the base generally equals the head.
2. Buttress dam. A buttress dam has an inclined upstream face, so that water pressure creates a large downward
force which provides stability against overturning or sliding. The forces on the upstream face are transmitted to a row of
buttresses or piers. This type of dam requires only about one-third the concrete needed for a solid gravity dam, but extra
cost of reinforcing steel and framework and the skilled labour needed for the thinner sections may largely offset the
saving in concrete. The relatively thin sections of concrete in a buttress dam are susceptible to damage from frost and
temperature and may require protection or precautionary measures.

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 Multiple Arch type Dam
3. Arch dam. Refer Fig. 6.5. This type of dam resists the water force by being braced against the canyon sides- because of its
curved shape. Few sites are suitable for the this type of dam, which requires a fairly narrow valley with steep slopes of solid rock
to support the outward thrust of the structure. An arch dam is not ordinarily used for a spillway as the downstream face is too steep
for the over- flowing water except for low discharges. It is generally necessary to provide a separate spillway for an arch dam,
either a tunnel or conduit type, a side-channel wasteway at the end of the dam, or a spillway in another location.

C. Timber dams :
When wood is plentiful and more durable materials are not accessible timber is sometimes used for low dams upto 12 m. In the
early days, timber could be had for the cutting, but most of the original timber dams have been superseded by masonry or fill
dams. Now-a-days wooden dams are uncommon.
6.5.4. Spillways
When the water enters the reservoir basin, the level of water in basin rises. This rise is arranged to be of temporary nature because
excess accumulation of water endangers the stability of dam structure. To relieve reservoir of this excess water contribution, a
structure is provided in the body of a dam or near the dam or on the periphery of a basin. This safeguarding structure is called a
spillway.
A spillway should fulfill the following requirements :
1. It should provide structural stability to the dam under all conditions of floods.
2. It should be able to pass the designed flood without raising reservoir level above H.F.L. (high flood level).
3. It should have an efficient operation.
4. It should have an economical section.

Types of spillways
Following are some types of spillways:
(i) Overfall spillway or solid gravity spillway
(ii) Chute or trough spillway (iii) Side channel spillway (iv) Saddle spillway
(v) Emergency spillway (vi) Shaft or glory hole spillway (vii) Siphon spillway.
In the types from (i) to (v) water spills and flows over the body of the spillway whereas in the types (vi) and (vii) water spills over
the crest and then flows through the body of the spillway.
The selection of type of spillway is generally based on the type of the dam and the quantity of flood water to be discharged
below ; it also depends on the site conditions.

Overfall spillway or solid gravity spillway

Refer Fig. 6.6. This type of spillway is provided in case of concrete and masonry dams. It is situated in the body of the dam,
generally in the centre. As it is provided in the dam itself the length of dam should be sufficient to accommodate the designed
spillway crest.
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This spillway consists of an ogee crest and a bucket. Water spills and flows over the crest in the form of a rolling sheet of
water. The bucket provided at the lower end of the spillway changes the direction of the fast moving water. In this process the
excess energy of fast moving water is destroyed. The portion between the front vertical face and the lower nappe of sheet of water
is filled with concrete to conform the profile of the spillway to the lower nappe. This type of construction practically avoids the
development of negative pressures. The section is always designed for maximum head of water over the crest of spillway.
6.5.4.2. Chute or trough spillway
This type of spillway is most suited under the situation when the valley is too narrow to accommodate the solid gravity spillway in
the body of the dam or when the non-rigid type of dam is adopted. It is called chute spillway because after crossing over the crest
of the spillway the water flow shoots down a channel or a trough to meet the river channel downstream of the dam.
In this type the crest of the spillway is at right angles to the centre line of the trough or the chute. The crest is isolated from the
dam axis. The trough is taken straight from the crest to the river and it is generally lined with concrete.
6.5.4.3. Side channel spillway
A side channel spillway is employed when the valley is too narrow in case of a solid gravity dams and when non-rigid dams are
adopted. In non-rigid dams it is undesirable to pass the flood water over the dam. When there is no room for the provision of chute
spillway this type is adopted as it requires comparatively limited space. Thus the situations where chute and side channel spillways
are required are mostly the same. The side channel spillway differs from the chute spillway in the sense that after crossing over the
spillway crest, water flows parallel to the crest length in former, whereas the flow is normal to the crest in the latter (Fig. 6.7).

To maintain satisfactory flow conditions a sufficient longitudinal slope is given to the side channel.
6.5.4.4. Saddle spillway
A saddle spillway may be constructed when conditions are not favorable for any of the types mentioned above. There may be
some natural depression or saddle on the periphery of the reservoir basin away from the dam as shown in Fig. 6.8. The depression
may be used as a spillway. It is essential that the bottom of the depression should be at full reservoir level. For ideal conditions
there should be good rock formation at the site of a spillway.

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6.5.4.5. Emergency spillway
As the name suggests this type of spillway is very rarely put into action. Naturally it is not necessary to protect the structure, its
foundation or its discharge channel from serious damage.
An emergency spillway comes into action when the occurring flood discharge exceeds the designed flood discharge.
6.5.4.6. Shaft or glory hole spillway
The shape of shaft spillway is just like a funnel. The lower end of the funnel is turned at right angles and then taken out below the
dam horizontally. Water spills over the crest, which is circular, and then enters the vertical shaft and is taken out below the dam
through a horizontal tunnel. Sometimes the flow is guided by means of radial piers on the crest of the spillway. It avoids creation
of spiral flow in the shaft. The piers may be used to support a bridge around the crest. The bridge may be used to connect the
spillway to the dam.
6.5.4.7. Siphon spillway
A siphon spillway, as the name suggests, is designed on the principle of a siphon.
Fig. 6.9 shows a saddle siphon spillway. The crest is fixed at full reservoir level (F.R.L.). When the water level in the reservoir
rises above F.R.L. water starts spilling over the crest. The step or a joggle deflects the sheet of water and consequently the lower
end is sealed. As the lower end is sealed the air gets entrapped in the lower limb. This air is driven out by incoming water
completely. This process of evacuating and filling the lower limb by water is known as priming. Once the siphon is primed water
starts flowing out till the level of the water in the reservoir falls below the level of the upper limb. Usually the lower end of the
upper limb is kept below full reservoir level. It prevents blocking of the entrance due to the floating matter such as ice rAc.
Naturally if the water is emptied till the lower end of the upper limb emerges out the useful live storage is lost. To break the siphon
action at proper time, that is when the water level falls to F.R.L., an air vent is provided on the crown as shown in Fig. 6.9. Thus
when the water level falls to F.R.L. air enters in the lower limb through air vent and siphonic action is broken or stopped.

6.5.5. Conduits
A headrace is a channel which leads water to a turbine and a tailrace is a channel which conducts water from the wheels. The
conduit may be open or close.
Open conduits Canals and flumes
Close conduits Tunnels, pipelines and penstocks
Canal. A canal is an open waterway excavated in natural ground. It has to follow the contour of the ground, with perhaps a slight
gradient corresponding to the head loss.
Flume. A flume is an open channel erected on the surface of supported above ground on a trestle. A flume might be used with a
canal to cross a ravine or where the slope of the ground is greater than the hydraulic gradient.
Tunnel. It is a closed channel excavated through a natural obstruction such as a ridge of higher land between the dam and the
powerhouse. A tunnel across a bend in the river might be cheaper than a conduit that goes around. Tunnels are also commonly
used in diverting water from one drainage area to another, where the divide between watersheds is higher than the reservoir.
Pipeline. A pipeline is a closed conduit usually supported on or above the surface of the land. When a pipeline is laid on the
hydraulic gradient, it is called a flow line.

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Penstock. It is a closed conduit for supplying water under pressure to a turbine.
Advantages and limitations of different types of conduits :
Open channels are generally the least expensive, but the cost of a flume increases with the height of the trestle.
Where the land is fairly level at head water elevation between the dam and powerhouse sites, a canal would be feasible, but not
many sites fit this requirement.
Tunnels are generally the most costly type of conduit for a given length but are justified if their use results in considerable saving
in distance. While ordinarily tailraces are open channels, tunnels are used for the discharge from an underground hydro-station.
Penstocks are used where the slope is too great for a canal, especially for the final stretch of the diversion system where the land
pitches steeply to the powerhouse. Surge tanks or other measures are necessary to prevent damage in closed conduits due to
abnormal pressures.
6.5.6. Surge Tanks
A surge tank is a small reservoir. Or tank in which the water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings so that they are not
transmitted in full to a closed circuit. In general a surge tank serves the following purposes :
1. To reduce the distance between the free water surface and turbine thereby reducing the water-hammer effect (the
water hammer is defined as the change in pressure rapidly above or below normal pressure caused by sudden changes in
the rate of water flow through the pipe according to the demand of prime mover) on penstock and also protect upstream
tunnel from high pressure rises.
2. To serve as a supply tank to the turbine when the water in the pipe is accelerating during increased load
conditions and as a storage tank when the water is decelerating during reduced load conditions.
Types of surge tanks
The different types of surge tanks in use are :
1. Simple surge tank
2. Inclined surge tank
3. The expansion chamber and gallery type surge tank
4. Restricted orifice surge tank
5. Differential surge tank.
Simple surge tank. A simple surge tank is a vertical stand pipe connected to the penstock as shown in Fig. 6.10. In the surge tank
if the overflow is allowed, the rise in pressure can be eliminated but overflow surge tank is seldom satisfactory and usually
uneconomical. Surge tanks are built high enough so .that water cannot overflow even with a full load change on the turbine. It is
always desirable to place the surge tank on ground surface, above the penstock line, at the point where the latter drops rapidly to
the power house as shown in Fig. 6.10. Under the circumstances when suitable site for its location is not available the height of the
tank should be increased with the help of a support.

Inclined Surge Tank: When a surge tank is inclined (Fig. 6.11) to the horizontal its effective water surface increases and
therefore, lesser height surge tank is required of the same diameter if it is inclined or lesser diameter tank is required for the same
height. But this type of surge tank is more costlier than ordinary type as construction is difficult and is rarely used

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