Recent Research Progress in Solid State Friction-Stir Welding of Aluminium-Magnesium Alloys: A Critical Review

j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .
2 0 2 0;9(3):6217–6256
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
www.jmrt.com.br
Review Article
Recent research progress in solid state friction-stir

welding of aluminium–magnesium alloys:
a critical review
Virendra Pratap Singh a , Surendra Kumar Patel a , Alok Ranjan b , Basil Kuriachen a,∗
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Mizoram, Aizawl 796012, India
b National Institute of Technology Delhi, India
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: At present aluminium-magnesium alloys are widely used in various engineering applica-
Received 30 May 2019 tions due to its light weight and superior properties. Joining is considered as one of the most
Accepted 3 January 2020 complex phenomenon in various precision industries like aerospace, railway, automotive
Available online 5 February 2020 and marine structures because inflexible tolerances are required during different product
assembly. The friction stir welding (FSW) of aluminium-magnesium of various grade has
Keywords: incited substantial scientific and industrial importance since it has a potency to transform
Friction-stir welding the product with a good quality joint. The fabrication of such alloys is a challenging task
Al-Mg alloys through conventional fusion welding due to its various metallurgical concerns. Therefore,
Microstructural evolution the present work is intended to summarize the recent progress in FSW of aluminium-
Mechanical property magnesium alloys. Particular attention has been paid to microstructural evolution, phase
Defects transformation, recrystallization mechanism, material flow behaviour and how the pro-
cess parameters influence the various mechanical properties and associated defects during
FSW. Various experimental and numerical simulation results have been mentioned for weld
property comparison. Finally, this work not only points out the prominent conclusions of the
preceding research but also recommends the upcoming guidance concerning to fabrication
of aluminium-magnesium alloys through FSW.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail: [email protected] (B. Kuriachen).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2020.01.008
2238-7854/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
6218 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6217–6256
Mr. Virendra Pratap Singh is a research 1. Introduction

scholar in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, National Institute of Tech-
Nowadays a large demand for lightweight, fuel-efficient and
nology Mizoram. He has completed B.
Tech and M. Tech degree from IFTM Uni- low emissive structures has been fulfilled by the exten-
versity, Moradabad (2011) and MANIT, sive application of aluminium and magnesium alloys (Al-Mg
Bhopal (2014). In present he is pursu- alloys) [1]. The application of both Al and Mg alloys provides
ing PhD from NIT Mizoram. His resolute a better design adaptability as well as improved strength to
research niches are in the field of Metal weight ratio [2]. The fabrication of dissimilar metals and non-
matrix composite, metal foam, materi-
metals has been described as a great importance in materials
als processing, friction stir processing,
fabrication techniques, for example, Steel-Mg, Steel-Al and Al-
friction stir welding etc. He has to his credit, 9 research publi-
cations in international referred journals and conferences. Mg for weight saving and Al-Cu for electrical and electronics
circuit connections [3]. Permanent welding and joining has
Mr. Surendra Kumar Patel is a research always been an outstanding technique as compare to other
scholar in the Department of Mechanical fastening methods such as mechanical fasteners and other
Engineering, National Institute of Tech- semi-joining process. Aluminium has some unique properties,
nology Mizoram. He has completed B. such as low molten viscosity, high reflectivity and inherent
Tech and M. Tech degree from BBSCET oxide layer formation which lead to hot cracking and poor
Allahabad (2012) and MANIT, Bhopal
joining with conventional laser and other fusion welding [4].
(2014). In present, he is pursuing PhD from
NIT Mizoram. His resolute research niches Therefore, friction stir welding (FSW) has been chosen to
are in the field of Metal matrix composite, improve weld quality with its unique processing methods. Var-
metal foam, materials processing, friction ious laser welding and other hybrid joining techniques have
stir processing, friction stir welding etc. been tried for dissimilar welding but the FSW has shown best
He has to his credit, 11 research publications in interna- result with respect to joint strength [5–12]. The FSW process
tional referred journals and conferences. In addition, he is an
has a potential to weld dissimilar materials efficiently due
esteemed reviewer of few international journals (SCI).
to low temperature generation. Moreover, it is a continuous,
hot shear, autogenously process containing non-consumable
Mr. Alok Ranjan is a research scholar
in the Department of Mechanical Engi- rotating tool with high hardness property comparing to the
neering, National Institute of Technology base material [13].
Delhi. He has completed B. Tech and The fabrication of several materials through FSW include:
M. Tech degree from BBSCET Allahabad, (i) Al alloys [14–18], (ii) Cu alloys [19–21], (iii) Mg alloys [22–24],
(2012) and IIT Dhanbad (ISM) (2017). His (iv) Ti alloys [25–27], (v) Steels [28–30], (vi) Ni alloys [31,32], (vii)
resolute research niches are in the field Polymer and metal matrix composites [33,34], (viii) dissimilar
of Metal Matrix Composite, Mechanical
metals and non-metal alloys [35,36] and, (ix) dissimilar bulk
Vibration, Stir Casting, Welding etc.
metallic glasses and metals [37,38].
Most of the metals and alloys are weldable by several
Dr. Basil Kuriachen is an Assistant pro-
fessor in the Department of Mechanical methods [14]; however, challenging situations appear when
Engineering, National Institute of Tech- it comes to dissimilar welding especially Al-Mg alloys due
nology Mizoram. His vivacity and dex- to various metallurgical issues. Aluminium and magnesium
terity towards abiding commitment to alloys are much interesting and frequently demanded in var-
sublime work ethic conferred him with ious industries, such as automotive, aerospace and marine
the Ph. D and M. Tech degree from NIT
sectors due to their higher specific strength and lower density
Calicut (2015) and M G University, Kot-
tayam (2011) respectively. Prior to his to weight ratio value [15,39].
joining at NIT Mizoram, he served as This has triggered out a substantial research progress
an Associate Professor in the School of towards dissimilar metal joining. The sense of dissimilar join-
Mechanical Science at VIT University, Vellore. His resolute ing in FSW can be defined in many ways such as; (i) same
research niches are in the field of micro and nano-machining workpiece material but varying its thicknesses (ii) the same
processes, precision and ultra-precision machining, modeling material alloys family with different grade and composition
and analysis in machining of ‘difficult to machine’ materials,
(e.g. Al-6061, Al-7075 and AZ31, AZ91 etc.) (iii) dissimilar
etc. He has to his credit, 60 research publications in interna-
tional referred journals and conferences alongside with two metals joining having materials compatibility or solid phase
filed patents. Several M. Tech thesis has been efficaciously miscibility such as Al-Cu alloys (iv) joining of incompatible
completed through his versatile contribution and profes- metals or immiscible in solid phase such as steel-Mg and;
sionalism. In addition, he is an esteemed reviewer of many (v) joining of materials having no solubility but potential
international journals (SCI) and many reputed conference to form metallic bonds in solid-phase such as ceramic and
such as AIMTDR (India), COPEN (India), INCASE (Singapore) of
metal [6,39,40]. In modern automobile body structures a high
phenomenal repute.
strength steels can be used in the longitudinal beams for
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 2 0;9(3):6217–6256 6219
Fig. 1 – Percentage use of various materials in car manufacturing and cost comparison of Al-Mg, (a) Material distribution in
a superlight car body (b) Average U.S.A. market spot price for primary Mg and Al [41,42].
strength, aluminium alloys in bumper beams for lightweight ferent types of sheet metal body frames, generally known as
and to withstand a crash while composite sheets are used tailor-welded blanks [16–18,44]. Moreover, various advance-
in panels for lightweight and high stiffness. In Fig. 1 (a), it is ments in dissimilar FSW techniques have explored the new
clearly shown that how mass can be reduced by using multi- scope for many industries, such as aircraft engine, turbines
material such as; aluminium, steel, and magnesium as well as automotive, X-ray equipment components and nuclear reac-
glass fibre reinforced thermoplastics. Fig. 1 (b), it is shown the tor materials [15,40].
fluctuations in price of magnesium and aluminium since in In the same context, multi-material products demand for
decade of 2000 to 2014. It is clear that variation in magnesium aluminium and magnesium has been increasing continuously.
price was more as compare to aluminium price [41,42]. These Independently, both metals are used widely in aerospace and
reasonable prices for magnesium has been spur the massive automotive engineering due to its numerous advantages, con-
use of magnesium and aluminium together in automotive taining high specific strength, light weight and recyclability.
industries. The use of magnesium alloys in high volume vehi- However, few specific advantages may consider Al (for higher
cles is a major difficulty due to its high cost. In the USA, prime tensile strength and creep resistance), and Mg (for higher
Mg wholesales at a spot price of around $2.15/pound which is damping capacity) and hence, these properties are utilized
approximately double the of prime Al spot price and consid- at one place to get the benefit of both. Dissimilar material
erably more expensive as various other steel sources [42]. welding through FSW provides a new horizon to utilize the
There are several advantages and applications proposed by advantages of both materials at a place [45,46].
dissimilar material joining through FSW technique like; higher Dissimilar material joining by FSW characteristics are
energy saving, cost reduction and competence to ‘tailor’ the affected by various set of working parameters namely; welding
materials design in the specific field [43]. Such specialities speed, tool eccentricity, tool rotational speed, and work-
have been used in the automobile sector by stamping the dif- piece positions (advancing or retreating side) [47,48]. However,
Table 1 – Major FSW constraints [54–56].

Parameters Significant contribution & effects
Rotational speed “Stirring action”, frictional heat, plastic

deformation and soft material
intermixing
Traverse speed Material and heat flow behaviour, weld
appearance
Tilt angle Bond formation, forging or stirring action
Tool offset Optimally distribution of heat and
stresses during dissimilar FSW
Downward force Maintaining the contact between tool and
workpiece, fraction of frictional heat
sharing
materials are extensively used in aerospace and automobile

industries, because of its excellent properties [53]. The various
parameters and its consequences on joints are summarized in
Table 1.
Fig. 2 – Schematic diagram of FSW tool [50]. Table 2 highlights the current trends and research sum-
mary of Al–Mg alloys joining through FSW presented in a
chronological order, since 2002. The above conclusions are
major difficulties for Al–Mg joining are the development carefully revealed the influence of FSW working parameters
of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) and liquation formation namely; traverse speed, rotating speed, tool configuration, tool
which shows a detrimental effect on weld mechanical prop- tilt angle, tool offset and workpiece position. Therefore, in
erties [49]. As of now, three foremost methods have been order to achieve the best result in terms of joint strength in
addressed in the literatures to overcome these issues, namely; FSW of Al–Mg dissimilar welding, a set of appropriate process
using solid state welding to avoid higher temperatures, control parameters are required [40,91]. However, to understand the
of heat input, and variation in chemical reaction mechanism parametric effect on weld quality, it is important to identify
at joint interface [40,45,49]. Therefore, FSW has been a better the fundamental characteristics of heat input and bond for-
option in welding to overcome the formation of IMCs due to mation mechanisms involved in FSW of Al–Mg alloys. These
its inherent solid-state joining property by maintaining the issues have been addressed in the following subsections in
higher heat input. In FSW technique, non-consumable tool detail.
typically comprises of two major parts; shoulder and pin,
which can be seen in Fig. 2 [50].
3. Joining mechanism of dissimilar Al–Mg
Owing to its increasing adoptability in various industries,
during FSW
this research work highlights the current trends and issues
associated with FSW of Al-Mg dissimilar joining. The basic
The FSW weld strength is mainly laid on two phenomenon,
dissimilar FSW tool-sample arrangement is shown in Fig. 3
that is; the weld bond formation due to the existence of IMCs
[51].
(e.g. Mg17 Al12 and Mg2 Al3) , and; the mechanical interlocking
The scope of this paper is not only limited to butt
by continuous material deformation. The IMCs formation and
joint configuration but also includes various other config-
its growth are controlled by the local diffusion, rather than the
uration reported in the literatures. This review paper is
eutectic reaction of Al and Mg atoms. The tensile strength of
carried out by examining the sufficient number of reputed
weld decreases notably with the increase in IMC layer thick-
research articles in various aspects especially for Al-Mg dis-
ness [22,67,92,93]. Table 3 contains the comparison of various
similar FSW joining. The broad area which has been covered
physical properties of pure Mg, Al and iron (Fe) [7,45]. It can be
namely: the heat generation and basic joining mechanism,
seen from Table 3 that by using aluminium and magnesium
followed by the mechanical and microstructural proper-
alloys it can offer potential weight reduction as compare to
ties. Also, the paper has critically assessed the influence of
cast iron and steel. The mechanical and metallurgical proper-
FSW process parameters, associated defects, various applica-
ties are addressed below.
tions and suggesting significant considerations for upcoming
research.
3.1. Incompatibility issues during FSW of dissimilar
Al–Mg
2. Research progress in dissimilar FSW of
Al–Mg It is necessary to understand the proper welding phenom-
ena i.e. metallurgical and incompatibility issues during joining
Application of various Al and Mg grade are need to be high- of Al-Mg through FSW. The main issue is solubility limita-
lighted such as ; Al grade of 2×××, 5××× and 6××× series tion between aluminium and magnesium in solid-solid phase
is popular for commercial use, while, in Mg series, AZ31 is therefore, it forms the IMCs. The binary equilibrium phase dia-
the most commonly used alloy [39,43,45,52]. These lightweight gram of Al-Mg system is shown in the Fig. 4 [94]. In general, the
Table 2 – Remarks and findings in a chronological order of dissimilar FSW of Al–Mg alloys.
Sr. No. Authors (Year) Material used (Mg-Al alloys) Remarks/findings Ref.
1 Park et al. (2002) AZ31 & A1050 Preliminary study and defect-free joining by FSW of [23]
Al–Mg alloy.
2 Hirano et al. (2003) AZ31 & A1050 Intermixing two phases at the intermediate layer. The [24]
formation of IMCs in SZ is restricted.
3 McLean et al. (2003) AZ31B & AA5083 Formation of a very thin IMC layer, results in virtually [57]
no ductility.
4 Sato et al. (2004) AZ31 & A1050 The IMC Al12 Mg17 was formed by constitutional [35]
liquation FSW.
5 Somasekharan et al. 6061-T6- AZ91D & AZ31B-H24 Lamellar shear bands were seen in either side of Al or [58]
(2004) Mg.
6 Yan et al. (2005) AZ31 & 1060 IMCs like Al12 Mg17 and Al3 Mg2 cause the cracking [59]
during FSW.
7 Zettler et al. (2006) AZ31 & Al6040 Attained 80% weld efficiency of base material (AZ31). [60]
8 Khodir et al. (2007) 2024-T3 & AZ31 Variation in hardness value over SZ due to IMCs [61]
formation.
9 Morishige et al. (2008) AZ31B &A5052-H The SZ hardness was lower than the laser welding [62]
fusion zone.
10 Kwon et al. (2008) AZ31B-O & A5052P-O The tensile strength of 132 MPa was achieved at [63]
1000 rpm.
11 Shigematsu et al. (2009) AZ31B-O & A5052P-O Maximum tensile strength of 143 MPa was achieved at [16]
1400 rpm.
12 Kostka et al. (2009) AZ31 & AA6040 Observed 1m thick IMC of fine-grained Al12 Mg17. [64]
13 Liu et al. (2009) AZ31B-H24 & 2024-T3 Showing galvanic corrosion due to the Al-Mg galvanic [65]
couples growth
14 Firouzdor and Kou AZ31 & AA6061 Material positioning directly affects the heat input [66]
(2009) during FSW.
15 Yamamoto et al. (2009) AZ31B & A5083 Tensile strength of 115 MPa and IMCs Al12 Mg17 & Al3 Mg2 [67]
was achieved.
16 Yan et al. (2010) AZ31 & A5052 Maximum hardness was obtained twice the base [68]
metals.
17 Firouzdor and Kou AZ31B-H24 & 6061-T6 Formation constitutional liquation was perceived. [69]
(2010a)
18 Firouzdor and Kou AZ31B-H24 & 6061-T6 Base metals Positioning affects the IMCs formation. [3]
(2010b)
19 Chang et al. (2011) AZ31 & AA6061-T6 Improved the tensile strength to 66% of base Mg by [70]
Hybrid laser-FSW.
20 Malarvizhi and AZ31B & AA6061 Influence of tool shoulder diameter (heat generation) on [71]
Balasubramaniam Mg–Al weldment quality.
(2012)
21 Simoncini et al. (2012) AZ31 & AA5754 Influence of FSW constraints and tool shape. [72]
22 Mofid et al. (2012) AZ31C-O & 5083 Water cooling effect on maximum temperature and [73]
IMCs formation.
23 Venkateswaran and AZ31B & 6063 Showing relationship between weld interface and [74]
Reynolds (2012) tensile strength.
24 Pourahmad et al. (2013) Pure Mg & AA6063 Material flow analysis and IMCs development by steel [75]
shots.
25 Liang et al. (2013) Mg & AA6061 Influence of tool rotatory speed and tool offset on weld [76]
properties.
26 Lee et al. (2014) AZ31&AA6061-T6 Observation of plane orientation and fine grains in SZ. [77]
27 Sadeesh (2014) AA2024 & AA6061 The tensile strength of 194 Mpa and 209 Mpa were [78]
attained.
28 Masoudian et al. (2014) AZ31-O & AA6061-T6 Maximum tensile strength of 76% and 60% of Mg and Al [79]
respectively was achieved.
29 Regev et al. (2014) AZ31 & AA6061 Consideration of peak temperature plasticity over creep [80]
analysis.
30 Fu et al. (2015) AZ31B-O & 6061-T6 Maximum tensile strength achieved 70% of base metal [81]
(Mg).
31 Zhao et al. (2015) AZ31 & AA6013 Maximum tensile strength obtained 152.3 MPa through [82]
UFSW.
32 Azizieh et al. (2016) AZ31 & AA1100 Maximum tensile strength of 122 MPa was achieved of [83]
base metal.
33 Champagne III et al. ZE41A & AA6061 Hybrid joint obtained using FSW and cold spray. [84]
(2016)
– Table 2 (Continued)
Sr. No. Authors (Year) Material used (Mg-Al alloys) Remarks/findings Ref.
34 Zhao et al. (2016) AZ31 & AA6013 Maximum tensile strength obtained of 152.3 MPa using [85]
UFSW.
35 Jagesvar Verma et al. AZ31B & AA6061 Good corrosion resistance at lower welding speed and [86]
(2017) high rpm.
36 Shi et al. (2017) Lab-prepared Mg & AA6061-T6 Tailoring of banded structure to enhance the weld [87]
strength.
37 Xueqi et al.(2018) AZ31B & AA 6061-T4 Ultrasonic assisted FSW enhanced the Mg to Al alloy. [6]
38 Xiangchen et al.(2018) AZ31B & 6061-T6 Tensile strength of 115 MPa was obtained by FSW. [88]
39 Jedrasiak et al.(2019) Mg alloys & Al Heat generation in enormous strain welding technique [89]
was expected by small-strain “snapshot”.
40 Li et al.(2019) AZ91 & A383 Defect-free FSW weld between the A383 and AZ91 were [90]
achieved at 900 rpm and 40 mm/min.
Table 3 – Comparison of physical properties of iron, pure magnesium and aluminium at respective melting points [7,45].
Physical properties Iron(Fe) Magnesium (Mg) Aluminium (Al)
Crystal structurea BCC HCP FCC

Density (kg m−3 ) 7.015 × 103 1.59 × 103 2.385 × 103
Melting point (◦ C) 1536 650 660
Thermal conductivity (Wm−1 K−1 ) 38 78 94.03
Coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K) 1 × 10−5 2.5 × 10−5 24 × 10−6
Elastic modulus (N/m3 ) 2.1 × 1011 4.47 × 1010 7.06 × 1010
Specific heat (J kg−1 K−1 ) 795 1.36 × 103 1.08 × 103
Electrical resistivity (␮ m) 1.386 0.274 0.2425
Surface tension (N m−1 ) 1.872 0.559 0.914
Vapour pressure (Pa) 2.3 360 1 × 10−6
a
BCC, body centered cubic; HCP, hexagonal close packed; FCC, face centered cubic structure.
welding process is a non-equilibrium process [95]. Although Klag et al. [53] were observed that the magnesium alloys
equilibrium phase diagram is frequently used only for guide- having about 8% aluminium content leads to a high strength
lines to predict the phase stability and probable chemical ␤-phase at the grain boundaries and ductile ␣-phase with only
reactions occurs throughout FSW. The solvus line (not shown) a low content of aluminium. The microstructure of AA5454
conforms that the expected Al-Mg solubility at room tempera- H22 consists of an intermetallic precipitate of type Alx (Si,
ture will be very less. It can be figured out that the binary phase Fe, Mn) embedded in an aluminium solid-solution ␣-phase
diagram comprises two eutectic lines one at 450 ◦ C and other [53,98,99]. In Fig. 5(a–c), ␣ -phase and ␤-phase of AA5454 and
one at 437 ◦ C, which is much lower than the melting point tem- AZ91 is given. On account of the extremely confined solu-
perature of pure aluminium and pure magnesium. The phase bility the blend of primary Al and Mg phase can form these
diagram contains three stable IMC phases, such as cubic ˇ- two intermetallic compounds Al12 Mg17 and Al3 Mg2 in FSW
phase, Al3 Mg2 [96], Al12 Mg17 , cubic -phase and rhombohedral of dissimilar Al–Mg. The IMCs formation mostly depends on
R-phase or ε-phase [97]. the material composition and local temperature during FSW
Fig. 3 – Basic FSW tool-sample arrangement [51].

is also related with several other dissimilar welding pro-

cess, namely; diffusion bonding [87,100,101], laser welding
[45,102,103], friction stir spot welding (FSSW) [104,105], resis-
tance spot welding (RSW) [106,107], tungsten inert gas welding
(TIG) [108–110], metal inert gas welding (MIG) [111], ultrasonic
spot welding [112,113], explosive welding [114] and cold metal
transfer welding (CMT) [115,116]. Incomplete intermixing of
weld nugget zone material is one of the most difficulties per-
ceived in microstructure, which is occurred due to the lower
peak temperature during Al-Mg FSW. It has seen that con-
tinuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) during FSW is the
key phenomenon for Al-Mg grain refinement [117,118]. The
white bands having thickness of about 3 ␮m appeared at the
Al-Mg weld interface, shown in Fig. 6(a,b), which confirms
the presence of IMC layers [88]. Moreover, the XRD pattern
displays in the Fig. 6(c), the Al12 Mg17 phase formed at the
joint due to the formation of Al-Mg solid solutions. The hard
and brittle IMCs at joint interface of Al-Mg promotes micro
crack and stress concentration by applying the higher load,
Fig. 4 – Al–Mg equilibrium phase diagram system [94]. consequently the joint fracture appears, shown in Fig. 7(a,b)
[87,88]. While, in other fabrication process like transient liq-
uid phase (TLP) bonding, the IMCs formation took place in a
short time to complete the process [87,119,88]. Kreimeyer and
regardless to the chemical composition of sample. Hence, the
Sepold have recommended that less than 10 ␮m of IMC thick-
phase stability and weld morphology are much challenging to
ness can be considered as better joint [120], while Qiu et al.
anticipate accurately as the peak temperature during FSW is
[121] reported that IMCs thickness of 1.5 ␮m showed maxi-
rarely identified.
mum joint efficiency during FSW of Al-steel. The thickness of
the intermetallic layers are not constant and ranges between
3.2. IMCs formation and its effect
0.5 and 1 ␮m, shown in Fig. 6(a,b) [64,88]. The characteristic of
IMCs in Al–Mg weld comprises constant overlapping of brittle
The most challenging task is to limit the hard and brit-
Al12 Mg17 and Al3 Mg2 layers [59,61,62,67,75,82,87,88,122]. Even
tle IMCs layer formations at joint interface which degrade
though, it was observed that Al12 Mg17 phase reveals better
the ductility and strength of Al-Mg joints. This phenomenon
Fig. 5 – Micrographs of the different IMCs phases: (a, b) AZ91 ␤-phase (c) AA5454 ␣ -phase [53].
Fig. 6 – Microstructures of Al-Mg joint: (a, b) partial enlarged picture of uneven IMCs thickness at interfaces, (c) IMCs
formation perceived through XRD analysis at joint [88].
Fig. 7 – Weld fracture locations obtained through (a) conventional FSW and (b) ultrasonic assisted FSW [88].
ductility at higher temperatures [123]. It was also observed temperatures and hence the development of these IMCs takes
during post welding that these IMCs phase shown insignifi- place by diffusion mechanism among aluminium-magnesium
cant plastic strains at ambient temperature. atoms. Therefore, the IMC thickness is dependent of time and
During FSW of Al–Mg, the key factors provided in the avail- can be expressed as in equation (1) and (2) [125,126]:
able research literatures to describe the IMCs developments
are based on either eutectic reaction or diffusion mechanisms. t2 = ˛ · (1)
Lv et al. [124] described the formation of Al12 Mg17 and Al3 Mg2
Q
in aluminium-magnesium binary phase system is due to the
˛ = ˛0 · exp − (2)
eutectics, Mg + Al12 Mg17 (57% Mg) and Al + Al3 Mg2 (37% Mg) at RT
437 ◦ C and 450 ◦ C respectively. Yamamoto et al. [67] reported Where “t” is IMC layer thickness (m), “␶” is time (s), “␣” is coef-
that the FSW technique commonly works below the eutectic ficient of diffusion (m2 s−1 ), “␣0 ” is proportionality constant
Fig. 8 – Types of the IMCs along Al-Mg joint interface (a, b) type 1: coherent IMC layers, type 2: IMC fragments accumulated
into Mg side and type 3: IMC fragments accumulated into Al side, (c, d) IMCs bi-layer: layer 1 (Al3 Mg2 ) + layer 2 (Al12 Mg17 ) of
thickness˜ 3.5 ␮m [6,124].
(m2 s−1 ), “Q” is stimulation energy (J mol−1 ), “T” is tempera- local chemical composition upon cooling, IMCs Al12 Mg17 and
ture (kelvin, K) and “R” is real gas constant (8.314 J mol−1 K−1 ). Al3 Mg2 are formed during Al-Mg welding through FSW process
Yamamoto et al. [67] have reported that the IMC Al3 Mg2 phase [66,69].
growth rate is slightly quicker as compared to IMC phase
Al12 Mg17 . 3.3. Phenomenon of material interlocking
Conversely, the majority of researchers have reported that
the key factor in IMC formation between Al-Mg is eutectic Material interlocking phenomenon in dissimilar FSW mate-
reaction [3,35,57,61,63,66,69,83]. In another research, Lv et al. rial joining is a bond formation mechanism that depends on
[124] observed that the some parts of Al-Mg joint line are complex material flow behaviour around the joint interface.
complex and circuitous IMCs distribution. Based on various This phenomenon has been described to be one of the best
IMCs location around the joint line can be differentiated gen- methodology in improving the weld strength especially in
erally into three types; type 1: coherent IMCs layer along the dissimilar material joining through FSW, such as Al-Mg [74],
joint interface line, type 2: IMC fragments accumulated into Al-steel [127,128], Al–Cu [129] and Mg-steel [128]. It can be
magnesium matrix and type 3: IMC fragments accumulated seen from Fig. 9(a–c) that both aluminium and magnesium are
into aluminium matrix and IMCs bi-layer (layer 1 and layer intermixed in solid form in stir zone and mechanical inter-
2), which are shown in Fig. 8 [6,124]. The available literature locking take place [6]. Firouzdor and Kou [3] also revealed
suggests that constitutional melting or liquation promote the that such mechanical interlocking phenomenon during FSW
growth of IMCs. Since the eutectic lines lies below 200 ◦ C of the enhances the weld strength. Since low peak temperature is
pure aluminium and magnesium melting point even though preferred in order to retard the IMCs growth rate. Nevertheless,
adequate heat is generated to form local melting, i.e. eutec- it is also mentioned that IMCs formation at joint interfaces
tic reaction, which forms a thin liquid films and propagates can also improve the bonding strength through proper stress
along the grain boundaries same as occurs in case of transient distribution and material intermixing into nugget zone (NZ).
liquid phase (TLP) bonding [119,126]. It is confirmed from the Tool designs and positioning of workpiece are key aspects to
Fig. 9 – Microstructure of Al-Mg FSW joint performed at 50 mm/min and 700 rpm (a–c) mechanical interlocking of Al-Mg [6].
enhance the appropriate mechanical interlocking [3,40,67,76].

But it was seen that the interlocking obtained in FSW do not
attain periodic structures like those obtained during explosive
welding [14].
3.4. Al-Mg joint interface
The development of chemical reaction based mechanical

bonds in FSW joint interface varies considerably with work-
piece material, tool configuration and offset, and other process
parameters. From the above discussions it is concluded that
a sound weld quality must comprises of thin and inter-
layered IMCs with highly intricate mechanical interlocking
phenomenon. The joints having thin IMCs layer reduces the
defects, whereas a complex mechanical bonding leads to a
superior flow stress circulation [74]. A typical microstructure
of Al-Mg diffusion region is shown in Fig. 10. The result indi-
cates that there are two transitional phases that is ␤ and ␥,
collectively known as terminal solid solution phases (i.e. IMC)
in the diffusion region [125].
The attempt has been made to compare these various types
of weld interface (i.e. type-1, type-2 and type-3 as already
discussed in Section 3.2) to process parameters and weld
quality perceived in the existing literature. With respect to Fig. 10 – Microstructure of Al-Mg diffused region at 410 ◦ for
microstructure of nugget zone (NZ) complexity, it will be 36 h [125].
tough enough to determine the overall strength in presence
of intercalated layers and mechanical interlocking. On the
Fig. 11 – (a) Al–Mg weld interface representation, (a) IPF thickness “h”, workpiece thickness “t” and joint interface length
“l”, (b) tensile strength vs. (l/t) ratio, and (c) tensile strength vs. (h/t) ratio [74,126].
other hand, Venkateswaran and Reynolds [74] have projected side. While, Yang et al. [130] measured the liquation suscep-
few relationships i.e.: the weld strength can be a function of tibility and found that the value is higher for AZ31 alloy as
(h/t) ratio i.e. interpenetrating feature (IPF) thickness (h) and compared to 6061 alloy. The thin liquid films at tool/workpiece
workpiece thickness (t). And also dependent on the (l/t) ratio interface i.e. eutectic reaction (Mg + Al12 Mg17 → L) cause tool
i.e. total weld interface length (l) and workpiece thickness (t), slippage and decreasing the resistance to tool rotation. More-
are shown in Fig. 11(a). The length “l” was calculated as the over, Fu et al. [81] observed that the constitutional liquation
total IPF length (white dashed lines in Fig. 11(a), whereas, “h” effect is predominant in dissimilar Al–Mg joining, causing low
was calculated along the thickness of workpiece. As we can heat generation as compare to Al or Mg similar FSW.
see clearly in Fig. 11(b, c) that any increment in (l/t) and (h/t) The crystal structure explains the deformability of materi-
ratio, the weld tensile strength also increases. The basic reason als. Aluminium has face-centred cubic (FCC) crystal structure
behind this is due to: (a) the mechanical micro-interlocking with twelve slip systems; however magnesium has hexago-
which promotes micro-void coalescence (MVC) on tensile frac- nal close-packed (HCP) crystal structure with having three slip
ture surfaces, and (b) an increase in the brittle fracture zone systems only. Therefore, Al permits better deformability com-
essential to cause separation of the two halves of the tensile pare to Mg which promotes more heat input through Ev and
bar [74]. Ed [66,81]. In concerns of heat input, Zhang et al. [131], and
Song and Kovacevic [132] also calculated the heat input as
mentioned in equation 3:
4. Influence of heat generation during
Al–Mg FSW Qtotal Q 2Fn Ri ω
Heat Input(HI) = = shoulder = (KJ/mm) (3)
v 0.83v 0.83v
In FSW; heat generation mostly occurs with three major
aspects namely due to: (i) plastic deformation (Ed ), (ii) vis- Where “HI” is heat input, “ ” is welding speed (mm/min),
cous dissipation (Ev ), and (iii) friction heat generation (Ef ) at “Qtotal ” represents the overall heat generation, “Qshoulder ” is heat
interface of tool and plate. In dissimilar material FSW like generated by tool shoulder, “” is frictional coefficient (gener-
aluminium-magnesium alloys, these aspects are governed ally taken as 0.3), “ω” is rotating speed (rpm), “Fn ” represents
with another three factors such as; liquation susceptibility, axial downward force (kN), and “Ri ” is the tool shoulder radius
variation in frictional coefficient and material deformability (m) [131,132].
[81]. The heat input is increased by increasing the rotatory speed
Zettler et al. [60] reported that the frictional coefficient of (referred equation 3), and the reaction between Mg and Al
an Mg-tool boundary is lower as compared to Al-tool bound- could occur with temperature. In Fig. 12(a, b), it is mentioned
ary. It was suggested that the contributions of Ev and Ef will be that the reason behind IMCs formation is heat generation
higher if greater surface contact between tool and Al will occur, and maximum temperature distribution followed by time.
such as provision to give tool offset towards the aluminium Mohammadi et al. [2] pointed out the principal reactions based
Fig. 12 – (a) Developed heat calculation during FSW, (b) peak temperature calculation with FSW processing time [1].
on aluminium-magnesium (Al-Mg) and magnesium-silicon

(Mg-Si) phase diagrams are listed as follows:
5. Parametric effect on dissimilar FSW
L → Mg + Al12 Mg 17 (473 ◦ C) There are several FSW process parameters which are known
to be essential in providing quality and defect fee joints, while
few others have revealed the negligible effects on the dis-
L → Mg + Mg 2 Si(595 ◦ C) similar material FSW. As the process parameters will govern
the weld properties (especially material flow and heat input).
L → Al + Al3 Mg 2 (450 ◦ C) Therefore, it would be essential to give attention to those
parameters having the utmost effect on these features [5,75].
The IMCs formation (Al12 Mg17, Al3 Mg2 and Mg2 Si) creates The various FSW process parameters are discussed in subse-
stable phases in stir zone. It is advisable to use optimum set quent section.
of FSW parameters such as rotational and linear speed [1,2]. If
the values of these parameters will be higher then: sufficient 5.1. Rotational and welding speed
intermixing will take place, and lesser values will lead to voids
formation but uniform distribution of IMCs. However, lower The tool linear speed, v (mm/s) and rotating speed, ω (rpm) are
welding speed leads to high heat generation which stimulates possibly the most significant FSW process parameters, since
the excessive IMCs formation of several kinds in the stir zone. both parameters have the substantial influence on the mate-
Micallef et al. [133] reported that the heat input per unit rial flow and heat input. Generally, the heat input is directly
length in correlation of the tool rotating speed (ω), the lin- proportional to the rotational speed and inversely propor-
ear speed (v) and tool shoulder diameter (D). The developed tional to the traverse speed, both factors are interrelated as
dimensionless parameter is referred as the transverse heat (Eq. 5).
input ratio (THIR) designated as
: ω
Heat Input ∝ (5)
v
D·ω
˚= (4) Therefore, both process parameters are imperative to pro-
2v
duce a quality weld and higher ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
The transverse heat input ratio (THIR) is one of the crit-
hence these parameters need to be addressed properly [135].
ical factors for determining the shape and size of stir zone
By increasing rotational speed, the strained area becomes
(SZ). A higher THIR ratio (i.e. lower welding speed as com-
wider, and position of maximum strain region moves towards
pare to the rotating speed) leads to better uniform heating
advancing side (AS) from its initial retreating side (RS) of the
zone along the workpiece thickness (referred equation 4). But
weld. This indicates that the fracture position of the weld is
on the other hand, lower THIR ratio (higher welding speed as
also get affected by tool rotational speed [13,136].
compare to the rotating speed) leads to high temperature gra-
On account of compounding effect of both process parame-
dients throughout the workpiece thickness [133]. In concern of
ters, various researchers have reported the term revolutionary
heat input and heat dissipation, Ahmed et al. [134] proposed to
pitch (v/ω) which affects the weld quality [137–139]. A higher
use the suitable fixtures (backing and cover plate) having heat
revolutionary pitch value manifests a fast welding (i.e. cold
resistant properties to reduce heat loss by conduction mode of
welding), whereas a lower pitch value manifests a slow
heat transfer. Authors advised to use insulated fixtures made
welding (i.e. hot welding) [140]. Higher pitch ratios account
up of asbestos and marble. The key parts of the advanced fix-
inadequate material flow and low peak temperature, whereas
ture are (a) backing plate (b) clamp support (c) top clamp (d)
a too low value will cause adverse material flow and higher
cover plate (e) front clamp and (f) lateral clamps [133,134].
liquation which promotes IMC growth, both conditions detri-
mental to the weld quality [83,130,141]. Lower rotational speed
Fig. 13 – Influence of rotating speed on microstructure of FSW zone at: (a) 800 rpm (b) 1000 rpm (c) 1200 rpm (d) 1400 rpm [13].
leads to low temperature generation in the nugget zone (NZ)

and the volume fraction of coarse second phase (strength-
ening) particles increased, as shown in Fig. 13(a,b). While at
higher rotational speed, second phase particles undergo more
fragmentation shown in Fig. 13(c,d) and leads to particles sep-
aration in other section of the TMAZ [13].
In reference to Al–Mg dissimilar FSW, the research
studies suggested that the revolutionary pitch ranging
from 0.02 to 0.38 mm/rev is favourable (referred Table 2)
[3,6,23,24,35,57–90]. The joint efficiency () is a parameter
which refers the joint quality and defined as the ratio of weld
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) to the base metal UTS having
lowest value in case of dissimilar joining. Fig. 14 represents
the various set of parameters with associated defects [43].
The rotating speed ranging from 600 rpm to 800 rpm and the Fig. 14 – Various defects at different welding and rotational
welding speed ranging from 30 mm/min to 60 mm/min result- speeds keeping Mg-alloy on advancing side [43].
ing into quality and defects free weld. The values outside
of the given frame i.e. beyond 800 rpm and below 600 rpm,
shows the defects formation like cavity having area less than
b) shows that the UTS of the joints rose with increased weld-
0.02 mm2 and tunnel defects having area more than 0.05 mm2 .
ing speed at constant rotational speed. The tensile results can
In exceptional cases, weldments failed through surface crack
be demonstrated with the precipitates evolution in the heat
and fracture along the joint line having the defect area greater
affected zone (HAZ). The increasing density and slight coars-
than 1 mm2 [43].
ening of ␤ led to a relatively higher strength [43,142]. The
The higher weld strength was achieved with proper set
percentage elongation versus welding speed correlation also
of rotational speed between 600–800 rpm and welding speed
mentioned in the Fig. 16(b). Since the traverse speed increases,
between 30 and 60 mm/min. While at higher rotational and
the percentage elongation also increases. The main reason
traverse speed were resulted into the lower weld quality [43].
works behind this is the amount of heat input and IMCs forma-
The relation between UTS vs. welding speed graph in Fig. 16(a,
tion. Higher welding speed results into lower heat input (refer
Fig. 15 – Effect of rotational speed on temperature and strain distribution; (a) temperature circulation in a transverse section
at 500 rpm, 700 rpm and 1000 rpm, (b) strain flow in a transverse section at 500 rpm, 700 rpm and 1000 rpm [143].
Eq. 4) and consequences into lesser IMCs formation which tribution can be observed by increasing the rotatory speed.
makes stir zone (SZ) less brittle [13,135,142]. Any increase in the specific thermal contributions (STC) which
Buffa et al. [143] reported that the effect of tool rotat- is deliberated at the weld joint, resulting in the wider stir
ing speed (at 500, 700 and 1000 rpm) on temperature and zone area obtained (refer Fig. 15b), with potential effects on
strain distribution shown in the Fig. 15(a, b). Firstly, a uniform the material intermixing. This is because of the increase in
temperature distribution along with non-uniform strain dis- tool rotational speed that allows a single material particle to
Fig. 16 – (a) Relationship between welding speed and tensile strength at constant rotational speed, (b) relationship between
welding speed to UTS and percentage elongation [43,142].
Fig. 17 – Three different types of FSW tool design (a) fixed type tool (b) adjustable type tool and (c) self-reacting/bobbin
type-tools [148,149].
intermix with the tool having a wider trajectory and hence achieve a quality and defect-free fabrication. The tool shoulder
accumulating additional strain [142,143]. shares two major effects: (i) vertical compressive force and (ii)
On the other hand, any increment in the expected temper- thermal heat generation due to friction [5,150]. Moreover, vari-
ature by increasing of STC value is such that, around the weld ous researches have chosen shoulder with concave geometry.
nugget (WN), substantial temperature distributions are also Lin et al. have revealed that mechanical and microstructure
found in the weld TMAZ and HAZ area which leads to detri- properties of the joint considerably enhanced by using con-
mental effects for the weld strength due to the grain growth cave tool shoulder instead of flat. Material near the top surface
phenomena [43,143]. is pushed toward the advancing side due to the shoulder
effect [151–153]. Exceptional tool geometry combinations hav-
5.2. Tool design and geometry ing threaded pin with 5-flats and 10◦ taper used by Zettler et al.
[60] may have also proved an impressive joint efficiency up to
Tool design and configuration plays an as equal important 88%. It has been shown that tool shoulder dimension plays
role as other parameters in formation of better joint. The a critical role and contributes nearly 87% of total frictional
most commonly used material for FSW tool for Al-Mg is heat accomplished during stirring process between the sur-
H13 steel, addressed in Table 1, while few other tool mate- face of workpiece and shoulder [1,50,150]. The various FSW
rial reported are AISI tool steel [78], high strength steel tool shoulder and pin surface configurations are shown in
[59], SKD51 steel [70], SKD61 steel [61,62,67] and H13 steel Figs. 18 and 19.
shoulder coupled with MP159 cobalt base super-alloy probe The pin or probe configuration and its dimension also play
[84,74]. Ugender et al. [144] reported that the materials hard- a crucial role on weld quality. Its impact directly affects the
ness used for FSW tools namely; mild steel, stainless steel, stir zone size, material flow and microstructure behaviour
armour steel, high carbon steel and high-speed steel is 30, during FSW. The tool probe performs shearing of the mate-
40, 58, 66 and 73 HRC respectively. As for tool geometry rial in to and fro direction of the tool and plastic deformation
concern, the threaded and cylindrical configurations both takes place [47,154–158]. Various studies illustrated the slight
are equally utilised. Whereas, it is noteworthy that vari- variations regarding the probe length and suggested the differ-
ous researchers were used the probe having threads/flutes ence of workpiece thickness and probe length (t), is usually
[3,60,74,76,81,83,87,145,146]. Threads and flutes not only play small (t ≤ 0.5 mm) so that a suitable fabrication along the
an important role to improve the material flow behaviour dur- plate thickness must be projected. On the other hand, Pourah-
ing FSW but also increases the heat input due to its large mad et al. [75], McLean et al. [57] and Yan et al. [59] have
surface area [147]. The FSW tools are mostly categorized into used a greater difference of t i.e. 4 mm, 1.4 mm and 1 mm
three types: (i) fixed type, (ii) self-reacting or bobbin type and respectively. The large difference t may cause in insufficient
(iii) adjustable type tool. material intermixing at weld root and may encourage to weld
Fixed-type FSW tool is recommended when the workpiece premature failure.
thickness is uniform. Whereas if pin length varies during The effect of pin length and workpiece thickness differ-
welding then adjustable-type tool is suggested because it con- ence has noted by various researchers, McLean et al. [57] have
tains two distinct tool component i.e. pin and shoulder. The described that the AZ31B-AA5083 joint was quite weak so that
self-reacting type tool is assembled with three distinct bodies, even small forces during polishing process were enough to ini-
such as the pin, top shoulder, and the bottom shoulder and it tiate the crack in the weldment. However Pourahmad et al. [75]
is also known as bobbin-type tool. The Fig. 17(a–c) displays the obtained the weld efficiency of 19% only. In contrast, Yan et al.
three distinct types FSW tool [147,148]. It is stated in numer- [23] achieved a better joint efficiency of 67%; this was due to
ous research that the FSW tool design and configuration has the better material flow using threaded pin. Another aspect
its own significant effects on the weld performance such as; in continuation of shoulder and pin dimension is SPR ratio
micro hardness, mechanical strength and associated defects. (shoulder-pin diameter ratio). It is described as the ratio of
shoulder to pin diameter. The SPR value for dissimilar mate-
rial joining is related to thickness of the sample. It is somewhat
5.2.1. Tool shoulder and pin geometry
lower for similar material FSW joining and higher for dissim-
The selection of an optimal tool shoulder geometry and
ilar joining [47,75,154].
dimension is considered as the key factors during FSW to
Fig. 18 – Various FSW tool shoulder geometry [148].
Srinivasa et al. [159] reported that the consequences of most prominent and conventional method in tool offsetting
tool rotating speed, feed rate and pin configurations. Authors is to shift the tool along the abutting edge of the two plates
concluded that the FSW pin configuration, feed rate and rota- [16,57,60–64,79]. Yamamoto et al. [67] claimed that the zero pin
tory speed are having direct impact on weld tensile strength. offset is favourable, as pin offsetting to the Mg side or Al side
The correlation among them has shown in Fig. 20(a–c). The will produce defects like surface flash and internal cavities.
optimum value for percentage elongation, ultimate tensile However, several other researchers’ revealed that giving tool
strength (UTS) and joint efficiency are seen at traverse speed offset is an important aspect during joining of Al–Mg through
of 80 mm/min at constant rotating speed of 1000 rpm. Even FSW [66,76,80,83]. The tool positioning by giving proper off-
though the UTS of weld were lower than that of workpiece, the set will decide the material intermixing in the weld from both
joint efficiency is satisfactory if we compare the joint efficiency sides [40]; but, it is quite challenging to evaluate the SZ and
with any fusion welding process. Lower shoulder diameter overlapped areas by either side of the material since various
shows inadequate heat generation during FSW and exhibits tool design and material properties would also be taken into
tunnelling defects [154,159]. consideration.
Baghdadi et al. [161] explained the tool offset effect on
5.2.2. Tool positioning or offset AZ31B and Al6061-T6 dissimilar FSW weld. Author found that
Tool positioning or offset appears, if the tool shifts intensely for Al-Mg dissimilar joint zero (0) offset i.e. in the middle,
from the workpiece centre line towards the either plate (i.e. the weld appearance was smooth and with less flash forma-
advancing side or retreating side). It may also define as the tion and flush out from the weld area during the fabrication
FSW tool axis line deviates from centre distance of sheet process. Moreover, the amount of the flash formed in −1 mm
adjoining edges. Zero or no tool offset take place when pin is tool position was more than +1 mm tool position [161]. In the
positioned exactly at the weld centre line [160,161]. The basic same context, Watanabe et al. [165] studied the tool offset
schematic tool offset is shown in Fig. 21. Usually, high strength effect on mild steel to aluminium alloy joining. The maximum
alloys needs higher heat input to get plasticised during FSW weld ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was attained at tool pin
and vice versa. Therefore, it is necessary to give proper offset offset of 0.2 mm towards steel side. At a higher offset, steel
during dissimilar material FSW. In case of dissimilar mate- particles were fragmented in aluminium matrix. These frag-
rial fabrication heat distribution is not balanced because of ments were large enough in size to form voids resulting into
different thermal conductivity of materials and thus by giving decrease in weld tensile strength. In Fig. 24(a), it is clearly
offset it would be balanced. If a suitable amount of tool offset is explained that the pin offset effect on tensile strength and
given to softer material (i.e. towards harder material) then the microstructure of the weldments. Keeping pin offset too high
tool would be able to stir the both material effectively [162]. An and too low leads to a detrimental weld quality and degrades
optimum and appropriate tool offset come to be essential dur- the mechanical properties. On the other hand, fragments of
ing dissimilar material joining. Preceding research shown that hard material dispersed into the soft material matrix leads to
if welding is done with zero pin offset resulting into poor weld fracture during tensile test, shown in Fig. 24(b–c) [165]. The
qualities comprising various defects [163]. Most of the stud- aluminium-magnesium binary phase diagram (referred Fig. 4)
ies, showing tunnel defects, and the main cause have been indicates that the eutectic temperatures are slightly lower i.e.
reported due to the less heat input. The microstructure and 437 ◦ C and 450 ◦ C. Therefore, during FSW process for Al-Mg,
associated defects can be seen in Fig. 22(a–d) [162,164]. The
Fig. 19 – Different pin/probe geometry [47,154–158].
this temperature may be reached. The greater the peak tem- pin offset also supports optimum heat distribution in the weld
peratures the most likely the stir zone may stagnant above zone. The optimum pin offset value mainly depends upon the
the eutectic line. Therefore, a substantial variation in the peak sample composition, thickness and tool design [160,169,170].
temperature may affect by varying the travel speed, workpiece Therefore, it is important to choose the optimum tool offset
position and rotational speed which is counted as a notewor- value for Al-Mg dissimilar material FSW.
thy effect on weld strength [3].
The tool offset effect on the morphology and structure of 5.3. Effect of tool tilt angle
dissimilar FSW weld was also studied by Sahu et al. [166].
Authors were observed that the huge formation of IMCs rich The FSW tool tilt angle is defined as the relative position of
structures which severely affects the tensile strength and sur- tool to the plate surface. When the tool is vertical or perpen-
face behaviour of the weld. Providing tool pin offset influences dicular to the plate surface then this position is called as zero
the material flow behaviour and volume fraction of IMCs pos- or no tilted [171]. The joint quality depends on tool tilt angle
itively, which results in minimizing the defects and provides also [172–174]. A suitable tool tilt angle comprises three basic
good quality joint during dissimilar FSW [167,168]. Provision of purpose as: (i) confirms the proper holding of forged material
Fig. 20 – Effects of FSW pin configurations and traverse speeds at constant rotating speed of 1000 rpm on: (a) % elongation of
joints (b) ultimate tensile strength (MPa) and (c) joint efficiency [159].
below the tool shoulder [47], (ii) offers an identical material to 3◦ [176]. Moreover, Banik et al. [177] examined the weld
flow behaviour [47,173] and (iii) increases the temperature quality of Al 6061-T6 through FSW. They observed that any
around FSW tool area in the advancing side of the workpiece increment in tool tilt angle increases the torque and forces
[175]. The basic schematic diagram of tool tilt angle is shown at the tool/workpiece interface. Hamid and Roslee [178] also
in Fig. 25 [175]. The front portion is called leading side and investigated the tool tilt angle effect on the microstructural
back portion is called trailing side of the tool tilt. and mechanical behaviour of dissimilar aluminium alloys. The
Meshram and Reddy [176] deliberated that the tool tilt angle weld microstructure varied considerably by changing the tool
effect on material flow with an angle ranging 0◦ to 3◦ . Authors tilt angle, specifically in the weld nugget and heat affected
observed surface defects at 0◦ –0.5◦ and beyond 0.5◦ tilt angle zone. Moreover, Shah et al. [179] analysed the tool tilt angle
surface defect were absent. However, weld made in the range effects on the mode of fracture during tensile test. It was per-
of 2.5◦ and 3◦ shown internal kissing bond defects which prone ceived that the defects free joint having best mechanical and
to large voids at the subsequent increase in tool tilt angle up metallurgical properties obtained with 2◦ tilt angle. Authors
Fig. 21 – Three different tools offset position with respect to AZ31 Mg alloy: (a) tool offset of −1 mm (b) tool offset of 0 mm
and (c) tool offset of +1 mm [161].
Fig. 22 – Microstructure of (a) various FSW region and defects and (b–d) tunnelling and kissing bond defects present [162].
Fig. 23 – Average peak temperature in various weld regions with a given tool offset and welding speed, when: (a) Al on
advancing side and (b) Mg on advancing side [3].
also used SEM for analysis to identify the surface fracture fail- flash effect). Hardness value also increases at weld zone with
ure patterns through tensile specimens test. From Fig. 26(a), any increase in tilt angle due to rise in temperature which
it is shown that the fracture surface with the presence of pits leads to huge IMCs formation [174]. Hence, it is fundamental
defining a ductile fracture mode. But on the other hand, a brit- to choose an appropriate tool tilt angle during FSW of Al − Mg
tle fracture failure was found in all other weldments, shown dissimilar joining.
in Fig. 26(b, c). It is clearly observed that an irregular surface
associated with fibrous and tedious appearances which are 5.4. Base metal positioning
clearly indication of a brittle fracture failure [179].
It was stated that a constricted weld obtained with greater Positioning of workpiece is an important factor during dis-
tilt angle and avoids material scattering over top surface (i.e., similar FSW of Al − Mg [169]. Generally, there are two known
Fig. 24 – Tool pin offset effect on the: (a) weld tensile strength and (b–c) microstructure and fracture route of weld [165].
and marks into irregular material flow. These irregular mate-

rials flows cause voids and tunnels defects and also try to
extrude out the plasticized material from the weld nugget
zone [160,169,182]. Positioning of workpiece during lap joint
arrangement is also an issue of concern. During FSW of Al-
Mg, it is suggested to keep the Mg plate at the top and Al plate
at bottom to attain a proper mixing and better weld quality.
The thermal conductivity of Mg is lower than Al, which cre-
ates better material flow and generates appropriate heat into
nugget zone [3,143,160].
According to the Schneider–Nunes kinematic model [183],
plasticised material (soften material) on the retreating side
Fig. 25 – Schematic diagram of a tool tilt angle and
is just deposited behind the FSW tool from the front, like
workpiece arrangement [175].
‘straight through’ current. However the sample placed at
advancing side experiencing various rotations before being
deposited at a lesser height as compare to base height such
positions in FSW methods i.e. advancing side (AS) and retreat- as ‘maelstrom’ or ‘whirlpool’ current.
ing side (RS), shown in Fig. 3 [141]. If the direction of During similar material joining through FSW, it was
welding feed and the tangential direction of the rotating tool observed that through various thermocouple and simulations
will be similar then this is known as the advancing side. which indicates more heat develops on the advancing side
Whereas, if both direction is in opposite with each other, rather than retreating side [184–187]. Though stirring action
known as the retreating side. It is stated that the material experiences on both side (i.e. AS and RS), but direction of
intermixing behaviour and IMCs formation are considerably tangential velocity makes the heat difference on the AS and
subjected to worpiece positioning during dissimilar alloys RS [66]. Furthermore, in similar material FSW i.e. aluminium
FSW [3,48,160,180,181]. In general, if the harder workpiece and magnesium separately, Zettler et al. [60] and, Firouzdor
(plate) is fixed at the RS, it offers resistance to move in AS
Fig. 26 – SEM micrograph of fracture plane of FS welds at (a) 2◦ tilt angle (b) 4◦ tilt angle and (c) 6◦ tilt angle [179].
and Kou [3] have confirmed that aluminium alloys of 6××× [44,60,64,66,71,76,77,80]. In contrast, the widely available stud-
series reveals higher maximum temperatures as compared to ies have recommended the aluminium on AS and magnesium
magnesium counterparts. On the other hand, similar material on RS which produces better weld metallurgical properties
FSSW i.e. aluminium and magnesium by Gerlich et al. [104] and [16,57–59,61–63,65,67,68,70,72,73,75,79,82,85]. This position is
Yang et al. [188] also have revealed a similar results. known for promoting higher process temperature and enables
According to these facts from various literatures, it can effective material plasticisation [73]. If one stick with par-
be quantified that dissimilar material positioning at either ticular Al alloys used, it seems that Al-alloys of 2××× and
side i.e. AS or RS, can give significantly different mechani- 5××× series are always give better result on advancing side,
cal and microstructural behaviours; two consequences can be whereas Al-alloys of 1××× and 6××× series are somewhat
projected in case of Al–Mg FSW: (i) probably higher heat gen- position flexible ability, however several opt for employ-
eration can be predicted with aluminium on advancing side, ing it on retreating side. This is probably because of lower
and, (ii) possibly the higher heat generation can also be pre- stress flow property of 1××× and 6××× Al-series as com-
dicted with increase of contact area between FSW tool and pare to 2××× and 5××× Al-series even at higher temperatures
aluminium plate i.e. tool offsetting on aluminium side. Con- [35,57–60,63–66,189–191]. The material position and its effect
trary to this, as greater shearing/stirring action is expected on on weld quality of 1×××, 2×××, 5××× and 6××× Al-series
advancing side, employing the magnesium alloy which shows with AZ31B Mg alloy are represented in Table 4. None of the
higher liquation tendency, lower deformability and lower coef- researchers reported the comprehensive data for magnesium
ficient of friction as compare to aluminium alloys on this side alloys comparing the flow stress to aluminium alloys, but
recommends a lower heat generation through plastic defor- Sheng and Shivpuri [192] have little information on the flow
mation (Ed ), frictional heat (Ef ) at workpiece/tool interface stress of magnesium AZ31B alloy. They were found strain rate
and viscous dissipation or material flow phenomenon (Ev ) of 2.0 s−1 and the maximum flow stress of 220 MPa at 200 ◦ C.
[3,40,66,81]. However, the strain rates are not comparable therefore this
Among the initial progresses, Sato et al. [35], were suc- set of data was estimation only. It can be predicted that the
cessfully produced the butt joints FSW of aluminium alloy flow stress of magnesium alloy decreases to a minimum value
1050 and magnesium alloy AZ31 grade by keeping Mg alloy by lowering the strain rate. It should also be distinguished
on the AS and Al alloy on the RS, whereas by switching that at higher peak temperatures the slip activation system
their positions headed to ineffective fabrication. Other suc- in magnesium alloys will be more, and previous research has
ceeding reports have also proposed similar setup position revealed that at higher rotational speeds, the torque produced
Table 4 – Effect of material positioning (Advancing side) during FSW of various Al alloys to AZ31B Mg alloy.
Sr. no. Al alloys Material Welding parameters Remarks/conclusion Ref.
positioning on
Advancing side
1 Al-5083 Al RS:300−400 rpm; Better joint obtained. Very thin IMC layer [57]
WS:60−100 mm/min obtained at the interface results in welds
with very less ductility.
2 Al-1050 unspecified RS:1500−3000 rpm; Joint efficiency obtained around 77%. [189]
WS:200−800 mm/min; Tool Fracture occurs near the IMCs formed in the
tilt angle:3◦ weld interface.
3 Al-1050 Mg unspecified Al12 Mg17 and Al2 Mg2 IMCs obtained. [190]
Diffusion occurred at the weld interface.
4 Al-6061 Al, Mg RS:800rpm; WS:90 mm/min; Fine transitioning of 6061-T6 into the weld [58]
Tool tilt angle:1◦ zone was observed.
5 Al-1050 Al(failed), Mg RS:2450 rpm; The IMC Al12 Mg17 was possibly formed due to [35]
(successful) WS:90 mm/min constitutional liquation during FSW and it
results into high hardness at interface.
6 Al-1060 Al RS:200−1000 rpm; The FS weld shows complex vortex flow [59]
WS:19−75 mm/min; Tool intercalation lamellae. Joint efficiency is 67%.
tilt angle of 3◦
7 Al-6040 Al, Mg (strong RS:1400 rpm; Joint efficiency was 80%. Brittle IMCs Al3 Mg2 [60]
weld) WS:200−225 mm/min; Tool and Al12 Mg17 were formed but only in
tilt angle of 2.5◦ localised regions of stir zone.
8 Al-5052 Al RS:800−1600 rpm; Joint efficiency was 67%. The maximum [63]
WS:300 mm/min tensile strength was about 132 MPa.
9 Al-6040 Mg RS:1400 rpm; Two IMCs (fine-grained Al12 Mg17 and [64]
WS:225 mm/min nano-sized-grained Al3 Mg2 ) were observed.
10 Al-2024 Al RS:500rpm; WS:45 mm/min The corrosion attack was detected in the fine [65]
sections of AZ31 alloy nearby Al-2024 areas.
11 Al-6063 Al RS:900−2700 rpm; Weld joint failure occur through the IMC [191]
WS:102−384 mm/min; Tool layer present at the interface.
tilt angle of 3◦
12 Al-6061 Al, Mg (strong RS:1400 rpm; Material position that favours a lower heat [66]
weld) WS:38 mm/min input which increases the joint strength.
RS, Rotational speed (rpm); WS, Welding speed (mm/min).
by the rotating tool in magnesium AM50 alloy is much lower up to 8 mm by using FSW technology [13,52,142,193]. Further
as compare to aluminium 6061 alloy in the similar conditions studies are required for joining of Al-Mg alloys particular to
[192]. thickness of more than 8 mm and less than 1 mm (micro-FSW).
It is concluded that the lower flow stress value of 1××× and
6××× aluminium alloys series having better material amalga-
mation and intermixing irrespective of workpiece positioning. 6. Relating the process parameters to the
Conversely, Al alloys of 2××× and 5××× series which shows response variables
better flow stress as compare to magnesium counterpart that
seems to be placed on advancing side to improve plastic defor- It can be attempted to examine each and every parameters
mation and material intermixing. Therefore, it is essential and individually to get into correlations with joint consequence.
needful area of research to identify the best possible position However, the fact is that all process parameters are hav-
for Al-Mg dissimilar FSW. ing mutual dependency with one another to a definite level.
Consequently, these process parameters influence the many
response variables, such as; heat generation, power, torque,
5.5. Base metal thickness and rate of cooling, which successively affects the workpiece
response. Various important friction stir welded response or
Workpiece thickness is one of the key deciding factors dur- dependent variables are considered below.
ing tool design configuration selection and other FSW process
parameters. Any variation in workpiece thickness affects the 6.1. Power and torque
stirring action, weld nugget thickness and rate of heating and
cooling. Fabrication of a comparatively thicker workpiece by Firouzdor and Kou [3] have revealed that joining of similar alu-
using a short tool pin produces an inadequate bonding up to minium 6061 alloy through FSW produced considerably higher
the weld root [160,161]. Aluminium alloys have been welded power and torque as compared to similar magnesium AZ31
from thickness of 0.5 mm–65 mm using FSW without having alloy with similar parameters. This comparative study can
any defects like voids and porosity [193]. Various researchers be seen in Fig. 27. The study showed two remarkable phe-
have been successfully joined the aluminium and magnesium nomena: (i) the torque amplitude oscillation appears to be
Fig. 27 – Response variable of dissimilar metal (6061-AZ31) FSW variation at 1400 rpm with: (a) time-torque (b) time-power
[3].
higher in FSW of dissimilar material than in FSW of simi- of tool rotation on response variable. This decline in torque
lar material and; (ii) the torque initially increases very slowly value is much more than the value compensated by rising in
and steadily reaches to a lower value in FSW of dissimilar welding power with rotating speed, subsequently greater heat
material than in FSW of similar material [3]. During dissim- generation. Hence, higher grain growth rate appears at weld
ilar FSW of Al6061-AZ31, power and torque rises by increasing nugget zone (WNZ).
traverse or welding speed. These two values were also con-
siderably higher and increase in heat input, when Al alloy 6.2. Effect of peak temperature on FSW weld
6061 is employed on advancing side. However, lower heat gen-
eration was observed by any decrease in power and torque The measurements of peak temperature can be done by means
during dissimilar FSW of Al–Mg comparing to similar FSW of thermocouples placed inside the tool pin or within the
on either side of the material. This advocates liquation phe- sample, were reported in various research literatures. Azizieh
nomenon after aluminium-magnesium eutectic reaction, as et al. [83] used a thermocouple of K-type placed at bottom
stated previously, which leads to tool slippage and describes side of the sample for temperature measurements. The high-
the greater torque oscillation amplitude because of ‘slip-stick’ est tensile strength was achieved at peak temperature ranging
phenomenon during FSW of Al–Mg [69,44]. 430 ◦ C–460 ◦ C i.e. eutectic temperature. It was also revealed
Venkateswaran and Reynolds deliberated the parametric that by increasing peak temperatures the hardness value and
effect on power and torque stated on magnesium AZ31B- the amount of IMCs formation were increased in weld nugget
H24 alloy and aluminium 6063-T5 alloy through FSW [74]. zone. Higher rotating speed and the average peak temperature
Power calculation was obtained by the product of rotational leads to form an oxide on the top surface and leads to liqua-
speed and its spindle torque. It was seen that the torque was tion and IMCs formation whereas, at higher rotational with
decreased as tool rotating speed were increased from 900 rpm high linear speed obtained a greater weld strength. But in case
to 2700 rpm, which classified a better material flow behaviour of higher rotating and lower welding speed, better corrosion
and hence it is concluded that there is a direct dependency resistance property was perceived [49].
Fig. 28 – Effect of peak temperature on: (a) Intermetallic thickness (b) the stir zone grain size on Mg side and (c) stir zone
hardness of weldment [83].
Dialami et al. [194] demonstrated that there is an uneven the Fig. 28(a), it can be seen that the formation the IMCs are
frictional interaction between the workpiece and tool. The mainly concerning with the peak temperature. The tempera-
sample material is being stirred in presence of frictional con- tures, at which there is almost no formation of IMCs (Al3 Mg2
tacts. The peak temperature of the FSW tool is reached in the and Al12 Mg17 ), are 350 ◦ C and 240 ◦ C.
place where maximum material stirred has been taken place It was reported that in these temperatures the FSW tool was
from retreating side to the advancing side of the workiece stopped in the samples and no weld was made. Therefore, it
position [194]. is impossible to eliminate the IMCs layer fully by regulating
The thermocouples were embedded at distance of 3 mm the welding parameters. On the other hand, the average peak
from either side of the faying surface and 1.35 mm down to temperature effect on the stir zone grain size on the mag-
the top plane of the sheet, Firouzdor and Kou [3] confirmed nesium side is explained in Fig. 28(b). It was clear that an
that higher peak temperature value was observed on the alu- increase in peak temperature resulting into grain growth hav-
minium side irrespective of workpiece positioning. Later on, ing higher grain size as compare to lower temperature result.
it was also validated by Fu et al. [81]. Zettler et al. [60] con- Conversely, above 500 ◦ C (at 750 rpm) the grain size was uni-
ducted the temperature measurements set up at mid of plate form and constant [83]. Higher liquation is the main cause for
thickness i.e. 10 mm from the joint centre also concluded getting uniform grain size due to decrease in frictional heating
peak temperature was higher on aluminium side predomi- throughout the FSW [6]. The hardness value increases gradu-
nantly when it was located on advancing side. In another ally by increasing the peak temperature up to 460 ◦ C and after
report, Firouzdor and Kou [3,69] also described that for get- that a rapid increment were observed. The maximum hard-
ting higher peak temperature, locating the aluminium plate on ness value obtained somewhere in the middle of stir zone
advancing side (AS) and also tool offsetting to aluminium side. which was almost double of the base material [6,39,80,83].
Whereas, keeping the magnesium alloy on advancing side and
tool offsetting to aluminium side was shown lower peak tem- 6.3. Cooling effect on FSW weld
perature, referred in Fig. 23. Subsequently by keeping the same
parameters, tensile test reveals that the heat input generation The cooling process is a best technique for metals and var-
increases and weld strength decreases. Fu et al. [81] also stated ious alloys that are sensitive at higher temperature during
that setting of higher tool offset to aluminium side leads to a fabrication. It is an improved method for creating ultra-fine
higher peak temperature as well as higher heat generation. grained joint materials. Mofid et al. [73] obtained a sound qual-
Azizieh et al. [83] also reported the peak temperature effect ity joint with reduction in peak temperature value by using
on IMCs, stir zone grain size, and hardness of the joint. From external water cooling system for AZ31C-O Mg and 5083 Al
Fig. 29 – Cooling effect on weld under various conditions: (a) horizontal hardness profiles underwater and in air conditions
(b) hardness across the thickness underwater and in ambient air and, (c) percentage elongation and tensile strength of weld
and base materials fabricated underwater and in air conditions [85].
FSW, whereas Zhao et al. [82] have stated that the similar result 64 % of magnesium AZ31 alloy. The percentage elongation of
when an underwater FSW (UFSW) technique was executed weld via UFSW was 1.3 %, which was higher than the normal
on FSW of Mg-AZ31 and Al-6013 alloy [73,82,85]. However, in FSW, shown in Fig. 29(c). But with IMCs formation, the elon-
a latest research studies by Miyamori et al. [195] have also gations were quite lower than workpiece materials [85]. The
reported the use of UFSW on carbon steel obtained greater basic reason to get the better weld joint by submerged FSW is
torque and compressive force in z-axis comparing to tradi- to form smaller temperature gradient around weld. Water is
tional FSW, since water cooling limits the temperatures and more capable of cooling down the joint as compare to air and
most likely increases the flow stress necessary for the plastic produces a better weld quality.
deformation of material [195]. In addition to this, another possible technique to limits
The rate of cooling during underwater FSW (UFSW) is faster the peak temperature is by using feedback control system
than in air, since specific heat of water is almost four times like reported by Ross and Sorensen [196]. An in-built thermo-
the air [82]. A higher rate of cooling indicates the grain growth stat assures that the favourable temperature is asserted by
in the heat affected and weld nugget zone can be quite lim- regulating the tool rotating speed in actual time. Not only it
ited. It would also be pointed that rate of cooling may differ maintains the temperature but also reduces the weld proper-
from surface to surface i.e. varying with weld thickness. Zettler ties variation all over the joint interface, prolongs tool life and
et al. [60] stated and observed that an increase in hardness increases repeatability. Though it is very beneficial but feed-
value on the bottom portion of Al6040-AZ31 alloy fabricated back control arrangement is very complex and expensive. It
through FSW. The bottom surface recommends a rapid cool- is confirmed from the previous literatures that very limited
ing as compared to other sample surfaces; probably due to studies has been done so far relating to any temperature con-
the direct surface to surface interaction with the backing plate trol system regards to Al–Mg FSW. Therefore, it becomes very
which acts as a heat sink [60]. interesting and much needed area of research in future on
Zhao et al. [85] also reported the cooling effect on hard- dissimilar FSW of Al-Mg.
ness and tensile strength of the Al-Mg dissimilar FSW. Authors
found that the average base materials hardness of Mg-AZ31
6.4. Material flow behaviour
alloy and Al-6013 alloy are 65 HV and 125 HV respectively. In
Fig. 29(a–c), it is given that the considerable variation observed
The FSW process comprises of a very complicated phe-
with both i.e. water and air cooling effect on tensile strength
nomenon with regard to material flow and plastic defor-
and hardness value. The welds obtained in air conditions
mation. The FSW working parameters play an important
have 131 MPa of ultimate tensile strength (UTS). While, UTS
character in temperature distribution and material flow
of 152 MPa was achieved through UFSW, which was roughly
behaviour phenomenon. The material flow patterns is greatly
Fig. 30 – Material flow behaviour with: (a) simple geometry (b) complex geometry (c) a typical material flow behaviour
representation [48,87,149].
rely on tool pin geometry, flow stress, working tempera- direction. Thus, it increases the material intermixing and con-
ture and axial compressive force, which is shown in Fig. 30 siderably reduces the kissing bond defects, particularly at
[51,48,87,149]. During fabrication process, FSW tool offers two retreating side of the T-Joint.
primary functions; (i) material flow and (ii) localized heat- Pourahmad and Abbasi [75] recognized that the three differ-
ing. Complicated material flow behaviour severely changes ent regions at weld interface along thickness of the workpiece.
the weld nugget zone microhardness [160]. The material flow The first region is pointed to the upper portion of the weld,
pattern in similar and dissimilar FSW is quite different since where material is plastically deformed and its flow behaviour
onion ring structure is commonly found in stir zone of similar is strengthened with effect of the tool shoulder. Weld material
material FSW [197], while during dissimilar FSW, intercalated islands and mechanical interlocking are perceived only in the
vortex type structure is found all over stir zone [198]. Complex upper part of the joint. On the other hand, the second region
forging or stirring action is occurred at bottom region and it is pointed in the middle section of the weld, the weld interface
produces intercalated swirl like structure whereas a compos- become smoother and the extrusion of Al into Mg is less. The
ite like pattern produces in upper portion of the weld nugget third region is near the probe bottom in which the extrusion of
zone [199]. Therefore, provision of pin offset is compulsory Al into Mg is the least. The unlike material flow and different
and it gives positive effects on the material flow behaviour penetration forces are the result of these various regions.
and IMCs formations’, resulting in minimize the defect and Fig. 30(a, b) indicates the streamlines flow across threaded
produces a better joint during dissimilar material FSW. and unthreaded and pins during FSW process. It can be seen
Feistauer et al. [200] discussed the multi-pass welding from the Fig. 31(b) that the weld material is simply pushed
effect on material flow pattern at constant tool rotational into the stir zone with threaded pin configuration [201]. It is
Fig. 31 – (a) & (b) represent the FSW streamlines flow across unthreaded and threaded pin respectively. (c) & (d) represent the
expected temperature profile at perpendicular to the weld line using unthreaded and threaded pin [202].
quite clear that the material flow is intense and enlarged for
threaded pin profile comparing to unthreaded one. It is also
highlighted that the occurrence of enhanced material flows
for a threaded pin configuration. It means that FSW welding
defects generally found due to insufficient material intermix-
ing across the weld joint and it can be reduced or eradicated by
means of threaded pin [202–204]. The examination of material
flow pattern in dissimilar material FSW is an important area
of research by using various tools like simulation and mod-
Fig. 32 – Various dissimilar FSW weld zones [205].
elling so that, one can understand the proper intermixing of
plasticised material and obtains a good quality joint.
in ductility and increase in an average hardness value in the

weld region as compared to workpiece. The detail discussion
7. Microstructural and mechanical of the microstructural region is addressed in the next subsec-
behaviour of dissimilar Al-Mg FSW tions.
Microstructural area of friction stir welded material are clas- 7.1. IMCs analysis
sified into four regions: two regions are outside the shoulder
i.e. heat affected zone (HAZ) and parent material microstruc- The brittle and hard IMC thin layers are described to produce
ture, and two regions are beneath the tool shoulder area either at the lamellar shear bands or at joint interface in the
i.e. thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and stir zone weld nugget zone (WNZ). The IMCs layer thickness observed in
(SZ) microstructure, shown in Fig. 32 [205]. Dynamic recrys- the range of 1 ␮m–3 ␮m [64,81], whereas it has been reported
tallization (DRX) of aluminium and magnesium grains were that the IMC layers thickness below 10 ␮m and above 1.5 ␮m
described in the weld nugget zone (WNZ) where the weld grain may be categorised as good and defects free weld [120,121].
size is decreased as compare to the base metals i.e. below Kostka et al. [64] also reported that the appearance of
18 ␮m was perceived because of higher stirring action taken nano-sized grains of Al3 Mg2 phase developed in close vicin-
place during FSW [58,60,79,83]. Grain size refinement and the ity to the Al12 Mg17 IMC phase layer indicating the presence
occurrence of brittle IMCs makes a general fashion of decrease of both IMCs brittle phases, which is also reported by var-
Fig. 33 – Intermetallic compounds observe at various Al-Mg FSW interface (a) fine-grained Al12 Mg17 IMC splits the Al-6040
alloy (left) from Mg-AZ31 alloy (b) presence of small grains (nano-sized) of the Al3 Mg2 phase adjacent to the Al12 Mg17 (c)
SEM from different cross sectional areas in Mg-Al lap joints (d) and (e) SEM BSE images of IMC transverse cross section of a
lap weld [2,64,69].
ious researchers. Nevertheless, the IMC phase Al12 Mg17 is and Azizieh et al. [83] whereas; maximum percentage duc-
usually found more comparing to IMC phase Al3 Mg2 . Con- tility was 4.5%, 6 % and 9%, respectively. The stress-strain
cerning with what Yamamoto et al. [67] identified previously curve, percentage elongation and tensile strength of Al-Mg
but energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS or EDX) exam- alloy are shown in Fig. 34(a–c) [75,76,83]. In the previous case,
ination pointed out that the FSW of aluminium-magnesium enhancements were supposed to occur because of the post
weld certainly undergo through constitutional liquation and weld heat treatment of about 1 h at 320 ◦ C temperature. Post
produces various IMCs upon cooling [60,61,69]. Moreover, weld heat treatment of dissimilar metals would lead to a new
Al12 Mg17 phase IMC may have favourably formed as a result set of residual stresses due to difference in thermal expan-
of its lower eutectic temperature [83]. The various IMCs sion coefficients of Al and Mg. However in this study, the
phases obtained during Al-Mg FSW at interface, is shown in tensile strength was improved after heat treatment. Because
Fig. 33(a–e). It is very crucial to maintain the peak temperature the difference between the thermal expansion coefficients of
in order to avoid the IMCs formation to some extent. There- Al and Mg is not much, the increase of tensile strength could
fore, it is very interesting and needful area of research to find be attributed to the effect of more stress relief than the gener-
the optimum set of parameters to get off the IMCs problem. ation of new stress for 1 h post heat treatment. Even though, it
does not seem to be a good compromise, as the joint efficiency
was roughly 19% with tensile strength of 36 MPa only [75]. On
7.2. Tensile strength or joint efficiency
the other hand Liang et al. [76] perceived better percentage
elongation once the fracture location shifted to Al alloy HAZ
One of the most common weld quality analyses is mechani-
area from the weld interface, where fracture after necking for-
cal characterisation such as; hardness and tensile test. Joint
mation was detected. The reason for the shifting of fracture
efficiency () is a term to express the joint quality and it is
location is unclear, but microstructure of sample cross sec-
defined as the ratio of joint tensile strength to the base metal
tion seems to show a weld interface of Type 3 (refer Section
tensile strength. From various reports, it can be concluded
3.2).
that, a higher joint efficiency can be attained with optimum
On account of the large interpenetrating feature (IPF) and
welding parameters despite of dissimilar workpiece. However,
complex geometry the strain while loading may have been
fracture location generally occurs at the joint interface and the
homogenously dispersed to permit material deformation on
fracture surface gives the clear evidence of presence of IMCs
soft HAZ alloy to start the first yield. No clarification was men-
which shows detrimental effect on the joint quality. Moreover,
tioned for higher elongation stated by Azizieh et al. [83], but
the percentage elongation of weld is considerably lesser as
possibly this may also because of the formation of Type 3 bond
compare to base metals; approximately 2% shows at the weld
interface. To obtain as high tensile strength (joint efficiency)
interface [16,63]. The main reasons of being low elongation
as base metal and keeping the IMCs formation as low as pos-
value are studied by Pourahmad et al. [75], Liang et al. [76],
Fig. 34 – (a) Nominal stress-strain curves for various rotational speeds at constant traverse speed of 300 mm/min (b) Typical
nominal stress-strain curves for the tensile test of the Al- Mg weld (c) Tensile strength and percentage elongation of
as-welded and heat treated samples [16,75].
sible is still a challenging task and it needs to be explored which was probably a result of grain refinement, solid solu-
extensively. tion strengthening, dynamic recrystallization and mechanical
twinning. This greater hardness is also because of the Al12 Mg17
7.3. Hardness variation phase IMC existence. The nano-sized grains (recrystallized
grains) are mostly established in centre of the weld nugget
The variation in average hardness value is mainly dependent zone (WNZ) and by this reason maximum hardness value is
on three factors, i.e. material flow, process temperature, and located in same region, shown in Fig. 35(a–h). Singh et al. [207]
rate of strain [16]. Also depends on the distribution of magne- observed the complex material flow behaviour and this was
sium particles in aluminium matrix throughout the welding the main reason for maximum microhardness levels in WNZ.
process [45]. Higher volume fraction of IMCs particles also The hardness of WNZ is always higher comparing to the base
enhances the average hardness of nugget zone (NZ). The most metals due to the presence of brittle IMCs and fine grain size
conceivable reason for higher hardness on any weld section after substantial plastic deformation. The hardness level dis-
is: (i) presence of higher IMCs volume fraction and, (ii) rela- tribution is found to be heterogeneous for Al − Mg butt joint
tively higher distribution of fine lamella structure. As validated arrangement, shown in Figs. 35(b, g and h). Hardness levels
by Stathers et al. [206], hardness assessment is a consistent differ not only in various weld regions but also from top to
characterization technique for calculating the tensile strength bottom along weld thickness. Fabrication of Al-Mg workpiece
properties (i.e. yield and ultimate tensile strength) in the heat through FSW with appropriate ductility (i.e. lower hardness)
affected zone. in stir zone is an interesting and much demanding area of
Higher heat generation occurs at higher rotational speed, research and need to be explored significantly.
lower welding speed [48,49], higher shoulder diameter [54],
and higher tilt angle [175] which resulting into higher IMCs 7.4. Various defects and failure mechanism during
volume fraction and higher average hardness in stir zone FSW of Al-Mg
[13,93]. Strengthening phenomenon due to IMCs formation
significantly increases the hardness value [93,138]. Various Selection of inappropriate welding parameters or a wrong
hardness profiles has been mentioned by several researchers welding strategies leads to several welding defects. Radio-
for Al-Mg joining through FSW are presented in Fig. 35. The graphic testing is used to perceive the blind defects in the FSW
maximum hardness value was noticed at Al-Mg weld line weldments [88,89]. Among all associated defects, the most
Table 5 – Common friction-stir welding defects: [3,28,35,69,75,76,87,160,203,208–232].

Sr. No. Various defect Origin location Root cause Image of various defects
1 Kissing bond Stir zone interface (i) Oxide layer removal from
defects faying surface; (ii) Higher
welding speed; (iii)
Insufficient material flow
2 Tunnelling On advancing side (i) Lower plunge depth; (ii)

defects between the SZ and TMAZ Higher welding speed; (iii)
under the weld surface Inappropriate tool pin
offset; (iv)Lower rotating
speed; (v) Wrong tool
design selection.
3 Void/cavity On AS of the weld, and (i) Too high traverse speed;

defects below the weld surface (ii) Inappropriate forging
load; (iii) Inappropriate tool
tilt angle.
4 Lack of Beneath the stir zone at (i) Local variations in the

Penetration the joint interface plate thickness; (ii)
defects Inappropriate tool design;
(iii) Incorrect plunge depth;
(iv) Very short pin length.
5 Hooking Advancing side of TMAZ (i) Lower welding speed; (ii)

defects and retreating side of lap Higher rotational speed; (iii)
welding Inappropriate tool design;
(iv) Improper tool tilt angle.
– Table 5 (Continued)
Sr. No. Various defect Origin location Root cause Image of various defects
6 Flash defects Around the tool-pin and (i) Excess heat input; (ii)
tool-shoulder Lower welding speed; (iii)
Higher rotating speed.
7 Macro & Bonding surface to stir (i) Unsuitable pin offset; (ii)
micro crack zone depth Lack of material flow; (iii)
Low heat input; (iv)Stress
concentration in weld
8 Fragmented Stir zone(SZ) (i) Improper tool pin

defect eccentricity; (ii) High
rotational speed.
fundamental defects which are considered during dissimi- the kissing-bond is perceived only in the retreating side of the
lar FSW are mentioned in the Table 5 [3,75,209]. Considering joint. To evade this defect, comprehensive material intermix-
the kissing-bond defects, this is occurred as a result of inef- ing during FSW is necessary by providing proper material flow
fective material stirring due to insufficient compressive force around the tool pin [211–213]. On the other hand, tunnelling
from tool which appears in the TMAZ and SZ interface. This defect is a very common type of defect in friction stir welding,
defect is considered as an extension of the hooking defect in which also considerably affects the weld mechanical prop-
the TMAZ. In hooking defects, the weld thickness was much erties. Balos and Sidjanin [214] studied the tunnelling effect
thinner comparing to normal welding. In such defects, there and reported that how this defects decreases the mechanical
is almost negligible metallic bond occurs in welding zones of properties by 25%–82%. This kind of defects usually appears at
the base materials [210,211,235,236]. It should be noted that advancing side of the workpiece between the WNZ and TMAZ.
Fig. 35 – Hardness level distribution for Al−Mg dissimilar FSW: (a) Al-1050 and Mg-AZ31 [35]; (b) AA 6061-T4 and Mg-AZ31B
[6]; (c) Al-5052 and Mg-AZ31 [39]; (d) Al-Mg-(Zn) alloys [52]; (e) Al-Mg-Si (6061Al -T4) alloys [142]; (f) A383 and Mg-AZ91 [90];
(g) Al-6013 and Mg-AZ31 [82]; and (h) Al-6063 and Mg-AZ31B [74].
Like other FSW defects, this is also taken place due to inap- zone and appropriate material flow intermixing behind the
propriate welding parameters selection such as: welding and probe [217,218].
rotatory speed, improper tool design and tool offset [215,216]. In addition to this voids and cavity defects are usually
The tunnelling defect can be eliminated or minimized by ade- found at the advancing side of the weld and they may or may
quate heat input and its distribution on either side of the weld not break comprehensively to the weld surface as mentioned
in Table 5 [219]. The formation of voids and cavities may occur present and to the authors’ concern, none of the researchers
due to the very low tool rotational speed. The presence of voids has been reported any work to measure the residual stresses
strongly leads to reduction in ductility and somewhat the precisely for fabrication of Al–Mg alloys through FSW, which
weld strength also. Higher traverse speed and lower rotational may be a feasible area of research in future.
speed results in insufficient material flow and heat generation
[210,219]. To eliminate such defects, an optimum welding and
rotational speed should be selected. Furthermore, the most
8. Applications
frequent occurring defect is lack of penetration. This defect
generally found due to a short tool plunge depth or pin length
The applications of aluminium-magnesium alloys fabricated
or both may cause a bottom section of the weld root to remain
through the FSW have been reported in various litera-
unstirred, which exhibits as incomplete weld root penetration.
tures and the main components in various sectors are as
When it is subjected to a load, the joint may deteriorate along
summarized below: [51,53,59,63,67,74,79,82,104,114,126,150,
the weld line. This defect may also appear due to the unsuit-
186,192,211,215,220,228,229,233,237].
able tool probe offset, uneven sample thickness, improper
abutting plates setting and incorrect tool configuration [211].
(i) Automobile sector: wheel rims, engine chassis, truck bod-
To eradicate this defect, complete intermixing throughout the
ies, car frames and fuel tankers.
weld root is necessary by giving suitable pin length and tool
(ii) Aerospace sector: Wings, fuselages, aviation fuel tanks,
plunging depth so that stirring action can be done even the
cryogenic tank.
bottom most part of the sample, however keeping in mind
(iii) Railway sector: Container bodies, goods wagons, carriages
that the pin tip will not touch the backing plate. By the existing
and trams.
literature, it is advised to choose 0.1-0.3 mm shorter tool pin
(iv) Shipbuilding and marine sector: Marine and transport
as compare to plate thickness [210,220,224]. In addition to the
structures, helicopter platforms, panels for deck and floor,
defects list, hooking defect is also a considerable FSW defect,
masts and booms for sailing boats, offshore accommoda-
which appears only in the thermo-mechanically affected zone
tion.
(TMAZ), adjacent to the weld nugget region. This defect might
not appear in the heat affected zone (HAZ), since this region
is only affected from the heat of TMAZ region [213,226,232].
The other considerable defect is flash defect. This defect is 9. Upcoming perspective and outlook
generally occurred by excessive heat input, which plasticise
the weld material near tool-shoulder region and ejects huge The friction stir welding has been found a greater use in
volumes fraction of soft material in the form of weld flash. aerospace, automobile, marine and railways industries over
However, if the pin plunge depth is higher, the soft material advancement in material development estimations, equip-
adjacent to the pin is extruded. Therefore, the suitable pin ment intelligence, structural designs and testing programmes,
length selection becomes very crucial to avoid such defects tooling and process parameters innovations. There is several
in FSW [221–229]. Whereas, high stress concentration leads to points still need to be addressed in upcoming research for
crack formation has also been conveyed in the various existing dissimilar Al-Mg FSW:
literature. Though not as critical as in various conventional
fusion welding processes, confined melting during FSW and (a) The internal residual stresses set up during mechani-
the following cooling would cause hot surface cracking at high cally and thermally induced loads applied can be decrease
stress [35,69,76,87,208,222,223,230]. These surface cracks are by selecting appropriate process variables and by using
also believed to be occurs due to crack initiation and accelerate post weld heat treatment (PWHT). Therefore, these are
through mechanical interlinking. Cracks may be in the form of the interesting and much needed future research in this
macro or micro level. Micro-cracks are seen only by the high domain.
resolution radiographic testing like TEM and SEM. To evade (b) Mostly, lap and butt joint configuration have been reported
this problem, heat input and its distribution is the key factor through FSW. However, it requires much perfection for
to control such defects during FSW. other weld configuration also like real structural design.
Considering various defects in dissimilar FSW, fragmented (c) Various variants of FSW would be a possible solution for
defects also comes under main defects. These are excep- suppressing IMCs formation namely; back heating assisted
tionally found during welding of Al-Mg, Al − Cu and Al-steel welding, cooling assisted FSW (CFSW), stationary shoulder,
through FSW and usually do not observe for similar material laser-assisted FSW, reverse dual-rotation FSW (RDR-FSW),
FSW. The hard IMCs fragments scattered in the Al matrix are and ultrasonic-assisted FSW.
deliberated as fragmented defects. The uneven material flow (d) The material flow behaviour is the very critical and compli-
unable to dispense these hard particles uniformly, thus these cated phenomenon during FSW and still it requires more
fragments and sharp edges makes the weld region remains understanding.
unfilled and leads to form voids and microcracks. Optimum (e) The research works revealed that post-weld heat treatment
welding parameters mainly the appropriate tool pin eccen- (PWHT) intensely decrease the intergranular corrosion
tricity and lower rotating speed can eliminate such types of depth after friction stir welding. To the authors’ knowl-
defects [160,222,224,227,234]. Selection of optimum welding edge, corrosion behaviour of Al-Mg fabricated through the
parameters and proper setup are the crucial factors to get FSW has not much studied therefore, a proper study and
a defect-free and sound quality dissimilar Al–Mg joint. At analysis need to be done in this area of research.
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Recent Research Progress in Solid State Friction-Stir Welding of Aluminium-Magnesium Alloys: A Critical Review

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Recent research progress in solid state friction-stir

Mr. Virendra Pratap Singh is a research 1. Introduction

Table 1 – Major FSW constraints [54–56].

Rotational speed “Stirring action”, frictional heat, plastic

materials are extensively used in aerospace and automobile

Crystal structurea BCC HCP FCC

Fig. 3 – Basic FSW tool-sample arrangement [51].

is also related with several other dissimilar welding pro-

enhance the appropriate mechanical interlocking [3,40,67,76].

3.4. Al-Mg joint interface

The development of chemical reaction based mechanical

on aluminium-magnesium (Al-Mg) and magnesium-silicon

leads to low temperature generation in the nugget zone (NZ)

Fig. 18 – Various FSW tool shoulder geometry [148].

Fig. 19 – Different pin/probe geometry [47,154–158].

and marks into irregular material ﬂow. These irregular mate-

RS, Rotational speed (rpm); WS, Welding speed (mm/min).

in ductility and increase in an average hardness value in the

Table 5 – Common friction-stir welding defects: [3,28,35,69,75,76,87,160,203,208–232].

2 Tunnelling On advancing side (i) Lower plunge depth; (ii)

3 Void/cavity On AS of the weld, and (i) Too high traverse speed;

4 Lack of Beneath the stir zone at (i) Local variations in the

5 Hooking Advancing side of TMAZ (i) Lower welding speed; (ii)

8 Fragmented Stir zone(SZ) (i) Improper tool pin

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