Groundwater

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's

surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the
fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an
unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it
can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at
which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock
become completely saturated with water is called the
water table. Groundwater is recharged from the
surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally
at springs and seeps, and can form oases or
wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for
agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by
constructing and operating extraction wells. The
An illustration showing ground water and three different
study of the distribution and movement of
wells (7, 8, 9) to reach it
groundwater is hydrogeology, also called
groundwater hydrology.

Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it
can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and
deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly
influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may
be mixed with other fluids in some instances.

Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore,
it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable
water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all
the states.[1] Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and
lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes. Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from
groundwater.[2]

Use of groundwater has related environmental issues. For example, polluted groundwater is less visible and
more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from
improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage
landfills, excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process
wastewater from mines, industrial fracking, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and
pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Additionally, groundwater is susceptible to saltwater intrusion in
coastal areas and can cause land subsidence when extracted unsustainably, leading to sinking cities (like
Bangkok)) and loss in elevation (such as the multiple meters lost in the Central Valley of California). These
issues are made more complicated by sea level rise and other changes caused by climate changes which will
change precipitation and water scarcity globally.

Contents
Characteristics
Location (aquifers)
 Water cycle
Temperature
Quantities
Uses
Issues
Overview
Overdraft
Subsidence
Seawater intrusion
Pollution
Regulations
United States
India
Canada
By country
Extraterrestrial groundwater
See also
References
External links

Characteristics

Location (aquifers)

An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains and transmits

groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and
the saturated zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper
parts of unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since gravity
causes water to flow downward.

The upper level of this saturated layer of an unconfined aquifer is Groundwater may be extracted
called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, through a water well
where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the
phreatic zone.

Substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard. An
aquiclude is a substrate with porosity that is so low it is virtually impermeable to groundwater.

A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively impermeable layer of rock or substrate such as
an aquiclude or aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its recharge zone, groundwater
can become pressurized as it flows. This can create artesian wells that flow freely without the need of a pump
and rise to a higher elevation than the static water table at the above, unconfined, aquifer.

Water cycle
Groundwater makes up about thirty percent of the world's fresh water
supply, which is about 0.76% of the entire world's water, including
oceans and permanent ice.[3][4] About 99% of the world's liquid fresh
water is ground water.[5] Global groundwater storage is roughly equal
to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack,
including the north and south poles. This makes it an important
resource that can act as a natural storage that can buffer against
shortages of surface water, as in during times of drought.[6]

Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from

precipitation, streams, and rivers when this recharge reaches the water
table.[7]

Groundwater can be a long-term 'reservoir' of the natural water cycle

(with residence times from days to millennia),[8][9] as opposed to
short-term water reservoirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface
water (which have residence times from minutes to years). The
figure[10] shows how deep groundwater (which is quite distant from
the surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural Groundwater is commonly used for
cycle. public water supplies such as tap
water through indoor plumbing
The Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one of the
largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending
for almost 2 million km2 . By analysing the trace elements
in water sourced from deep underground, hydrogeologists
have been able to determine that water extracted from
these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old.

By comparing the age of groundwater obtained from

different parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydrogeologists
have found it increases in age across the basin. Where
water recharges the aquifers along the Eastern Divide, ages
are young. As groundwater flows westward across the
continent, it increases in age, with the oldest groundwater
occurring in the western parts. This means that in order to
have travelled almost 1000 km from the source of recharge
in 1 million years, the groundwater flowing through the
Great Artesian Basin travels at an average rate of about 1
metre per year.

Recent research has demonstrated that evaporation of

groundwater can play a significant role in the local water
cycle, especially in arid regions.[11] Scientists in Saudi
Arabia have proposed plans to recapture and recycle this Groundwater withdrawal rates from the Ogallala
evaporative moisture for crop irrigation. In the opposite Aquifer in the Central United States
photo, a 50-centimeter-square reflective carpet, made of
small adjacent plastic cones, was placed in a plant-free dry
desert area for five months, without rain or irrigation. It managed to capture and condense enough ground
vapor to bring to life naturally buried seeds underneath it, with a green area of about 10% of the carpet area. It
is expected that, if seeds were put down before placing this carpet, a much wider area would become
green.[12]
Temperature

The high specific heat capacity of water and the insulating

effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and
maintain groundwater at a relatively steady temperature. In
some places where groundwater temperatures are
maintained by this effect at about 10 °C (50 °F),
groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature
inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot
weather relatively cool groundwater can be pumped through
radiators in a home and then returned to the ground in Relative groundwater travel times
another well. During cold seasons, because it is relatively
warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of
heat for heat pumps that is much more efficient than using air.

Quantities

The volume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated by

measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic
records from well-drilling to determine the extent, depth and thickness
of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made Dzherelo, a common source of
drinking water in a Ukrainian village
in production wells, test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at
which water is encountered and collect samples of soils, rock and
water for laboratory analyses. Pumping tests can be performed in test
wells to determine flow characteristics of the aquifer.[2]

The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of

the substrate and topography in which they occur. In general, the
more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations.
By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield
smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments.
Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have
accumulated as valley-filling sediments in major river valleys and
geologically subsiding structural basins are included among the most
productive sources of groundwater.
Reflective carpet trapping soil water
Fluid flows can be altered in different lithological settings by brittle vapor
deformation of rocks in fault zones; the mechanisms by which this
occurs are the subject of fault zone hydrogeology.[13]

Uses
Most land areas on Earth have some form of aquifer underlying them, sometimes at significant depths. In some
cases, these aquifers are rapidly being depleted by the human population.

Of all natural resources, groundwater is the most extracted resource in the world. As of 2010, the top five
countries by volume of groundwater extraction were India, China, the US, Pakistan, and Iran. A majority of
extracted groundwater, 70%, is used for agricultural purposes.[14] Groundwater is the most accessed source of
freshwater around the world, including as drinking water, irrigation, and manufacturing. Groundwater
accounts for about half of the world's drinking water, 40% of its irrigation water, and a third of water for
industrial purposes.[5]
Fresh-water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by snow
or rain, also known as meteoric water, can be over-exploited and
depending on the local hydrogeology, may draw in non-potable water
or saltwater intrusion from hydraulically connected aquifers or surface
water bodies. This can be a serious problem, especially in coastal
areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. In some
areas, the ground water can become contaminated by arsenic and
other mineral poisons.

Aquifers are critically important in human habitation and agriculture.

Deep aquifers in arid areas have long been water sources for irrigation
(see Ogallala below). Many villages and even large cities draw their
water supply from wells in aquifers. Center-pivot irrigated fields in
Kansas covering hundreds of square
Municipal, irrigation, and industrial water supplies are provided miles watered by the Ogallala Aquifer
through large wells. Multiple wells for one water supply source are
termed "wellfields", which may withdraw water from confined or
unconfined aquifers. Using ground water from deep, confined aquifers provides more protection from surface
water contamination. Some wells, termed "collector wells", are specifically designed to induce infiltration of
surface (usually river) water.

Aquifers that provide sustainable fresh groundwater to urban areas and for agricultural irrigation are typically
close to the ground surface (within a couple of hundred metres) and have some recharge by fresh water. This
recharge is typically from rivers or meteoric water (precipitation) that percolates into the aquifer through
overlying unsaturated materials.

Occasionally, sedimentary or "fossil" aquifers are used to provide irrigation and drinking water to urban areas.
In Libya, for example, Muammar Gaddafi's Great Manmade River project has pumped large amounts of
groundwater from aquifers beneath the Sahara to populous areas near the coast.[15] Though this has saved
Libya money over the alternative, desalination, the aquifers are likely to run dry in 60 to 100 years.[15] Aquifer
depletion has been cited as one of the causes of the food price rises of 2011.[16]

Issues

Overview

Certain problems have beset the use of groundwater

around the world. Just as river waters have been over-
used and polluted in many parts of the world, so too have
aquifers. The big difference is that aquifers are out of
sight. The other major problem is that water management
agencies, when calculating the "sustainable yield" of
aquifer and river water, have often counted the same
water twice, once in the aquifer, and once in its
connected river. This problem, although understood for
centuries, has persisted, partly through inertia within The entire surface water flow of the Alapaha River
government agencies. In Australia, for example, prior to near Jennings, Florida, going into a sinkhole
the statutory reforms initiated by the Council of leading to the Floridan Aquifer groundwater
Australian Governments water reform framework in the
1990s, many Australian states managed groundwater and
surface water through separate government agencies, an approach beset by rivalry and poor communication.
In general, the time lags inherent in the dynamic response of groundwater to development have been ignored
by water management agencies, decades after scientific understanding of the issue was consolidated. In brief,
the effects of groundwater overdraft (although undeniably real) may take decades or centuries to manifest
themselves. In a classic study in 1982, Bredehoeft and colleagues[17] modeled a situation where groundwater
extraction in an intermontane basin withdrew the entire annual recharge, leaving ‘nothing’ for the natural
groundwater-dependent vegetation community. Even when the borefield was situated close to the vegetation,
30% of the original vegetation demand could still be met by the lag inherent in the system after 100 years. By
year 500, this had reduced to 0%, signalling complete death of the groundwater-dependent vegetation. The
science has been available to make these calculations for decades; however, in general water management
agencies have ignored effects that will appear outside the rough timeframe of political elections (3 to 5 years).
Marios Sophocleous[17] argued strongly that management agencies must define and use appropriate
timeframes in groundwater planning. This will mean calculating groundwater withdrawal permits based on
predicted effects decades, sometimes centuries in the future.

As water moves through the landscape, it collects soluble salts, mainly sodium chloride. Where such water
enters the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, these salts are left behind. In irrigation districts, poor
drainage of soils and surface aquifers can result in water tables' coming to the surface in low-lying areas. Major
land degradation problems of soil salinity and waterlogging result,[18] combined with increasing levels of salt
in surface waters. As a consequence, major damage has occurred to local economies and environments.[19]

Four important effects are worthy of brief mention. First, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect
infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing aquifer recharge
associated with natural flooding. Second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result
in land subsidence, with associated infrastructure damage – as well as, third, saline intrusion.[20] Fourth,
draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low-lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of
formerly freshwater and estuarine streams.[21]

Another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over-allocated aquifers has the potential to
cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems – in some cases very conspicuously but in
others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs.[20]

Overdraft

Groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource.

However, over-use, over-abstraction or overdraft, can cause major
problems to human users and to the environment. The most evident
problem (as far as human groundwater use is concerned) is a lowering
of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. As a
consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater;
in some places (e.g., California, Texas, and India) the water table has
dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping.[22] The
GRACE satellites have collected data that demonstrates 21 of Earth's
Wetlands contrast the arid landscape
37 major aquifers are undergoing deplection.[5] In the Punjab region around Middle Spring, Fish Springs
of India, for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters National Wildlife Refuge, Utah
since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating.[23] A lowered
water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater-
related subsidence and saltwater intrusion.

Groundwater is also ecologically important. The importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often

overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. Groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands, and lakes, as
well as subterranean ecosystems within karst or alluvial aquifers.
Not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. Some terrestrial ecosystems – for example, those of the open
deserts and similar arid environments – exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil,
supplemented by moisture in the air. While there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable
environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the
world's major ecosystems. Water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. Most rivers, lakes, and
wetlands are fed by, and (at other places or times) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. Groundwater feeds
soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either
groundwater or the percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. Hyporheic zones
(the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater) and riparian zones are examples of ecotones largely or
totally dependent on groundwater.

Subsidence

Subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the
above-surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. The result can look like craters on plots of land. This
occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state, the hydraulic pressure of groundwater in the pore spaces of the
aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. When groundwater is
removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the
aquifer may occur. This compression may be partially recoverable if pressures rebound, but much of it is not.
When the aquifer gets compressed, it may cause land subsidence, a drop in the ground surface.

The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is actually below sea level today, and its subsidence is partly caused by
removal of groundwater from the various aquifer/aquitard systems beneath it.[24] In the first half of the 20th
century, the San Joaquin Valley experienced significant subsidence, in some places up to 8.5 metres (28
feet)[25] due to groundwater removal. Cities on river deltas, including Venice in Italy,[26] and Bangkok in
Thailand,[27] have experienced surface subsidence; Mexico City, built on a former lake bed, has experienced
rates of subsidence of up to 40 cm (1'3") per year.[28]

For coastal cities, subsidence can increase the risk of other environmental issues, such as sea level rise.[29] For
example, Bangkok is expected to have 5.138 million people exposed to coastal flooding by 2070 because of
these combining factors.[29]

Seawater intrusion

Seawater intrusion is the flow or presence of seawater into coastal aquifers; it is a case of saltwater intrusion. It
is a natural phenomenon but can be caused or worsened by anthropogenic factors, such as climate change
caused sea level rise.[30] In the case of homogeneous aquifers, seawater intrusion forms a saline wedge below
a transition zone to fresh groundwater, flowing seaward on the top.[31][32] These changes can have other
effects on the land above the groundwater: as an example a 2020 study published in Nature found that coastal
groundwater in California would rise in many aquifers, increasing risks of flooding and runoff challenges.[30]

Pollution

Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers and lakes.
Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include
industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process
wastewater from mines, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge
and septic systems. Polluted groundwater is mapped by sampling soils and groundwater near suspected or
known sources of pollution, to determine the extent of the pollution, and to aid in the design of groundwater
remediation systems. Preventing groundwater pollution near potential sources such as landfills requires lining
the bottom of a landfill with watertight materials, collecting any
leachate with drains, and keeping rainwater off any potential
contaminants, along with regular monitoring of nearby groundwater
to verify that contaminants have not leaked into the groundwater.[2]

Groundwater pollution, from pollutants released to the ground that

can work their way down into groundwater, can create a contaminant
plume within an aquifer. Pollution can occur from landfills, naturally
occurring arsenic, on-site sanitation systems or other point sources,
such as petrol stations with leaking underground storage tanks, or
Iron (III) oxide staining (after water
leaking sewers.
capillary rise in a wall) caused by
oxidation of dissolved iron (II) and its
Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the
subsequent precipitation, from an
pollutant over a wider area, its advancing boundary often called a
unconfined aquifer in karst
plume edge, which can then intersect with groundwater wells or topography. Perth, Western
daylight into surface water such as seeps and springs, making the Australia.
water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. Different mechanism
have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. diffusion,
adsorption, precipitation, decay, in the groundwater. The interaction of groundwater contamination with
surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models.

The danger of pollution of municipal supplies is minimized by locating wells in areas of deep groundwater and
impermeable soils, and careful testing and monitoring of the aquifer and nearby potential pollution sources.[2]

Arsenic and fluoride

Around one-third of the world's population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10
percent, approximately 300 million people, obtains water from groundwater resources that are heavily polluted
with arsenic or fluoride.[33] These trace elements derive mainly from natural sources by leaching from rock
and sediments.

New method of identifying substances that are hazardous to health

In 2008, the Swiss Aquatic Research Institute, Eawag, presented a new method by which hazard maps could
be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater.[34][35][36][37] This provides an efficient way of
determining which wells should be tested.

In 2016, the research group made its knowledge freely available on the Groundwater Assessment Platform
GAP (http://www.gapmaps.org). This offers specialists worldwide the possibility of uploading their own
measurement data, visually displaying them and producing risk maps for areas of their choice. GAP also
serves as a knowledge-sharing forum for enabling further development of methods for removing toxic
substances from water.

Regulations

United States

In the United States, laws regarding ownership and use of groundwater are generally state laws. Regulation of
groundwater to minimize pollution of groundwater is addressed in both state and federal law; in the latter case,
through regulations issued by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
 The Rule of Capture, based on English common law, provides each landowner the ability to
capture as much groundwater as they can put to a beneficial use, but they are not guaranteed
any set amount of water. As a result, well-owners are not liable to other landowners for taking
water from beneath their land. State laws or regulations will often define "beneficial use", and
sometimes place other limits, such as disallowing groundwater extraction which causes
subsidence on neighboring property.
Limited private ownership rights similar to riparian rights in a surface stream. The amount of
groundwater right is based on the size of the surface area where each landowner gets a
corresponding amount of the available water. Once adjudicated, the maximum amount of the
water right is set, but the right can be decreased if the total amount of available water
decreases as is likely during a drought. Landowners may sue others for encroaching upon their
groundwater rights, and water pumped for use on the overlying land takes preference over
water pumped for use off the land.
The Reasonable use rule in American drainage law does not guarantee the landowner a set
amount of water, but allows unlimited extraction as long as the result does not unreasonably
damage other wells or the aquifer system. Usually this rule gives great weight to historical uses
and prevents new uses that interfere with the prior use.
EPA published its "Ground Water Rule", applicable to public water systems, in 2006. The rule
focuses on groundwater-supplied systems that may be subject to contamination from fecal
bacteria, and requires such systems to take corrective action.[38][39]
In real estate property transactions both groundwater and soil are the subjects of scrutiny. For
brownfields sites (formerly contaminated sites that have been remediated), EPA requires
preparation of Phase I Environmental Site Assessments, to investigate and disclose potential
pollution issues.[40] In the San Fernando Valley of California, real estate contracts for property
transfer below the Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) and eastward have clauses
releasing the seller from liability for groundwater contamination consequences from existing or
future pollution of the Valley Aquifer.

India

In India, 65% of the irrigation is from groundwater[41] and about 90% of extracted groundwater is used for
irrigation.[42] The groundwater regulation is controlled and maintained by the central government and four
organizations; 1) Central Water Commission, 2) Central Ground Water, 3) Central Ground Water Authority, 4)
Central Pollution Control Board.[43]

Laws, regulations and scheme regarding India's groundwater:

2019 Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal groundwater scheme), a 5 years (2020-21 to 2024-25) scheme
costing INR 6 billion (US$854 million) for managing demand side with village panchayat level
water security plans, was approved for implementation 8,350 water-stressed villages across 7
states, including Haryana, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and
Uttar Pradesh.[44]
2013 National Water Framework Bill ensures that India's groundwater is a public resource, and
is not to be exploited by companies through privatization of water. The National Water
Framework Bill allows for everyone to access clean drinking water, of the right to clean drinking
water under Article 21 of 'Right to Life' in India's Constitution. The bill indicates a want for the
states of India to have full control of groundwater contained in aquifers. So far Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, West Bengal,
Telangana, Maharashtra, Lakshadweep, Puducherry, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli are
the only ones using this bill.[43]
In 2012, National Water Policy was updated, which had previously been launched in 1987 and
updated in 2002 and later in 2012.[45]
 In 2011, the Indian Government created a Model Bill for Groundwater Management; this model
selects which state governments can enforce their laws on groundwater usage and regulation.
1882 Easement Act gives landowners priority over surface and groundwater that is on their
land and allows them to give or take as much as they want as long as the water is on their land.
This act prevents the government from enforcing regulations of groundwater, allowing many
landowners to privatize their groundwater instead accessing it in community areas. 1882
Easement Act's Section 7(g) states that every landowner has the right to collect within his
limits, all water under the land and on its surface which does not pass in a defined channel.[43]

Canada

A significant portion of Canada’s population relies on the use of groundwater. In Canada, roughly 8.9 million
people or 30% of Canada's population rely on groundwater for domestic use and approximately two thirds of
these users live in rural areas.[46]

The Constitution Act, 1867, does not give authority over groundwater to either order of
Canadian government; therefore, the matter largely falls under provincial jurisdiction
Federal and Provincial governments can share responsibilities when dealing with agriculture,
health, inter-provincial waters and national water-related issues.
Federal jurisdiction in areas as boundary/trans-boundary waters, fisheries, navigation, and
water on federal lands, First Nations reserves and in Territories.
Federal jurisdiction over groundwater when aquifers cross inter-provincial or international
boundaries.

A large federal government groundwater initiative is the development of the multi-barrier approach. The multi-
barrier approach is a system of processes to prevent the deterioration of drinking water from the source. The
multi-barrier consists of three key elements:

Source water protection,

Drinking water treatment, and
Drinking water distribution systems.[47]

By country
Groundwater is an important water resource for the supply of drinking water, especially in arid countries.

Extraterrestrial groundwater
Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars
may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the
subsurface of Jupiter's moon Europa.[48]

See also
Baseflow
Groundwater-dependent ecosystems
Groundwater banking
Groundwater flow
 Groundwater model

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External links
USGS Office of Groundwater (https://water.usgs.gov/ogw/)
IAH, International Association of Hydrogeologists (https://iah.org/)
The Groundwater Project (https://gw-project.org/) - Online platform for groundwater knowledge

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