ELECTRODYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRODYNAMICS
DAVID J. GRIFFITHS

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrodynamics-I
 Chapters

1. Vector analysis
2. Electrostatics
3. Potentials
4. Electric field in Matter
5. Magnetostatics
6. Magnetic field in Matter

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 Vectors (having direction and magnitude)
 Displacement, velocity, acceleration

A B (bold) A

Magnitude of vectors

Representation of vectors
• Put arrows
• Length of arrow is proportional to the magnitude of
vectors
• Arrowhead indicates its direction
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 ̶ A (minus A) vectors have same magnitude but opposite
in direction
Vector Operations
Four operations
• Addition
• Three kinds of multiplication

Addition of vectors
A+B=B+A
(Commutative)

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(Associative) Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 Multiplication by a scalar
• By a positive scalar a multiplies the magnitudes but
direction remains same
• If a is negative direction is reversed

• Scalar multiplication is distributive

a(A + B) = aA + aB

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

 Dot product of two vectors

A.B = AB cos θ
• θ is angle they form when placed tail ̶ to ̶ tail
• A.B is itself a scalar (scalar product)

• Dot product is commutative

A.B = B.A

• Dot product is distributive

A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

• If two vectors are parallel A.B = AB

A.A = A2
• If two vectors are perpendicular
A.B = 0

 Law of cosine
Example 1.1. (page no. 03)

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

• Cross product of two vectors

A xB ≡ AB sin θ ň

• ň is unit vector (magnitude 1) pointing perpendicular to

the plane of A and B

• two directions perpendicular to any plane in & out

• right hand rule
• Your fingers point in the direction of the first vector and
curl around toward the second vector then thumb
indicates the direction of ň

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

• Cross product is distributive

A x (B + C) = (A x B) + (A x C)

• Cross product is not commutative

Ax B≠BxA

• But it can be
(B x A) = - (A x B)

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

• If two vectors are parallel then their Cross product is

zero
AxA=0

• Zero vector (magnitude 0)

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 Vector algebra (Component form)

X  unit vecto r parallel to x - axis

Y  unit vecto r parallel to y - axis

Z  unit vecto r parallel to z - axis

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 An arbitrary vector A can be expanded in terms of these
basis vectors

Ax , Ay, Az are called components of A

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 Vector operation rule
 Rule -01
Add vectors, add like components

 Rule -02
To multiply a scalar, multiply each component

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 As these are mutually perpendicular to each other


X  unit vecto r parallel to x - axis

Y  unit vecto r parallel to y - axis

Z  unit vecto r parallel to z - axis

 Rule -03
To calculate the dot product , multiply like components
and add

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 A.A

 Dot product of A with any unit vector is the component

of A along that direction

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 Similarly

 AxB = ?

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 Difficult expression

 Easy way (determinant form)

 Rule -04
To calculate the cross product , form the determinant
whose first row is x, y and z (all unit vectors) whose
second row is vector A and third row is vector B

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
 Example 1.2
 Find the angle b/w the face diagonal of a cube

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Thanks

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
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DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
 Triple Product
Scalar triple product
Vector triple product

Scalar triple product

In component form

Dot & cross can be interchanged

 Triple Product
Vector triple product
can be simplified by rule BAC & CAB
A x (B x C ) = B (A .C )- C (A .B )

(A x B ) x C   C x (A x B )

(A x B ) x C   A .(B .C ) + B (A .C )

Problem:
Prove that
[ A x ( B x C )]  [ B x ( C x A )]  [ C x ( A x B )]  0
 Position vector
The location of point in three dimensions can describe
by a Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z)

The vector from origin to that point is known as

position vector
 Position vector
The Magnitude of position vector

Distance from the origin is a unit vector pointing radialy

outward

 Infinitesimal displacement vector from (x, y, z) to (x+dx,

y+dy, z+dz)
 Position vector
In electrodynamics usually two points
• Source point r’ (where electric charge is located)
• Field point r (where you are calculating electric or
magnetic field)

• Separation vector r (from source point to field point)

 Position vector
Magnitude of separation vector r

• Unit vector in the direction from r’ to r

• in Cartesian coordinates

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Differential Calculus

 Ordinary Derivatives

Gradient

Del operator

Divergence

Curl
Ordinary Derivatives

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Gradient
 The gradient is a vector operation which operates on
a scalar function to produce a vector

 The magnitude of the vector is the maximum rate of

change of the function at the point of the gradient
(slope of line)
 vector pointing in the direction of that maximum rate
of change
 Example:
 A function of three variables T(x, y, z) [temperature in
room] then for each point (x, y, z) in room T gives
temperature at that spot
 Gradient

 In rectangular coordinates the gradient of function

f(x,y,z) is

 ▼ is called del (read as gradient f )

 Gradient

 Example

 Find the direction put current coordinates into (3,4,5)

in equation

 This new vector would be the direction

 Gradient

 Home Work Problem:

 Example: 1.3 (page no. 15)

 Problem no. 1.11 (page no. 15)

 (a)
 (b)
 (c)

 Problem no. 1.12

 Del operator

 It is a vector operator that act on function

 Divergence
 It is a measure of how much a vector spread out
(diverges) from the point in question

 It always acts on vector function and answer will be a

scalar

 The divergence is a scalar function of a vector field

Applications of Divergence
Divergence
Divergence (Examples)
 Curl
 It is a measure of how much the vector swirls around
the point in question (rotation of vector field)

Always applied on vector

Result will be a vector field

Curl (Example)
 Curl

 If F(x, y, z) = xz i + xyz j – y2 k
 find curl F
i j k

  
c u rl F    F 
x y z
y
2
xz xyz

   
       i
2
y x y z

 y z 

       
   y    xz  j    xyz    xz  k
2

  x z   x y 
  2 y  xy  i   0  x  j   yz  0  k

  y  2  x  i  x j  y z kDr. M. Y. Soomro
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
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DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
 Chapter 2 (Electrostatics)
Electrostatics (Static electricity)
It is the study in which the source charges are
stationary

Fundamental Problem in electromagnetic theory

• Some electric charges q1, q2, q3 .....located at some

points (source charges)
• another charge Q (test charge)
• What force do these source charges exert on test charge

• Position of source charges are given as a function of

time
• Path followed by test particle is to be calculated
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Chapter 2 (Electrostatics)
Fundamental Problem in electromagnetic theory

• The problem can be solved by using principle of

superposition

• The interaction between any two charges is completely

unaffected by the presence of other charges
• F1 due to charge q1
• F2 due to charge q2
• F3 due to charge q3

F  F1  F 2  F 3  ........
 Chapter 2 (Electrostatics)
Fundamental Problem in electromagnetic theory

• It means if we find force on test charge Q then task is

complete
• In actual situation F also depends on:
Separation b/w charges
Their velocities and accelerations

• In reality electromagnetic effects travel at the speed of

light so there is no important for the Q:
• Position of q
• Velocity of q
• Acceleration of q
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Coulomb’s Law
The interaction between charged objects is a non-contact
force that acts over some distance of separation

The quantitative expression for this interaction is

known as Coulomb's law
 Charles-Augustin Coulomb (1736–1806) French

The force between two point charges is…

directly proportional to the magnitude of each charge (q1, q2)
inversely proportional to square of the separation
between their centers (r)
directed along the separation vector connecting their centers
(r ̂ )
 Coulomb’s Law
When two charges have the same sign:

Their product is positive, which means the force vector

is directed with the separation vector (r̂) and the action is
repulsive

When two charges have the opposite sign:

Their product is negative, which means the force vector
is directed against the separation vector (r̂) and the action
is attractive
 Coulomb’s Law
If you put two charges

Charge Q2 feels a force in the presence of charge Q1 &

force is on the line joining two charges & it is pointing
away from Q1
 Coulomb’s Law
Charge Q1 feels equal & opposite force from charge Q2

r12 means put vector at 1 draw an arrow to 2 & that vector

is called r12
Strength of Q1 = strength of Q2
F  Q 1 Q 2 ...........  (1)
1
F  2 ............  ( 2 )
r1 2
 Coulomb’s Law
Q 1Q 2
F  2
r1 2
• Well known Coulomb’s law
m a g n itu d e o f fo rc e
Q 1Q 2
F  2
r1 2

• Direction of force is given by the direction of r12

• We can write above equation as
Q 1Q 2
F  2
rˆ1 2
r1 2
• Cap means unit vector along the direction
 Coulomb’s Law
Proportionality is completely arbitrary
In CGS Coulombs' law in full form can be written as
Q 1Q 2
F  2
rˆ1 2
r1 2
In SI the proportionality constant is not equal to 1 it got
values so full equation look like
Q 1Q 2
F  (P . C ) 2
rˆ1 2
r1 2

For SI this proportionality constant is called 1

4  0

In other systems proportionality constant could be

different
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Coulomb’s Law
2
C
 0 = p e r m itiv ity o f f r e e s p a c e h a s v a lu e 8 .8 5 x 1 0
-1 2
2
N .m

So Coulomb’s law is a vector equation

It d e f i n e s a v e c t o r F i n t e r m s o f a n o t h e r v e c t o r rˆ1 2
a n d s o m e s c a la r Q 1 Q 2

F is a electrostatic force

F i s a f u n c t i o n o f Q 1 lo c a t i o n o f Q 1 r1
F is a fu n c tio n o f Q 2
lo c a t i o n o f Q 2
r2
 Coulomb’s Law
How strong is this force?

Richard Feynman finest introduction of physics which

has ever been written
 He gave talk about Electricity & Magnetism
Charges comes in two types
Positive (includes protons, ions)
Negative (includes electrons)

In any human body contains enormous number of both

charges (perfect balance)
Assuming human body did not have equal number of
electrons & protons (a little bit of unbalance)
 Coulomb’s Law
How strong is this force?

Suppose we have an excess of electrons

1% excess of electrons
Assume human weigh is 100 Kg
so roughly 1 Kg worth of proton’s equivalent charge in
electrons is excess
Human density is 1 gm/cm3
It means 1 Kg contains 1000 cm3
each cm3 contain around 1023 proton or electrons

1 % correspondence 1000x1023 electrons

 what it gave us in terms of force
 Coulomb’s Law
Suppose human with 1 % excess of electrons is standing
below another human who is also a 1 % excess of
electrons
So each of them has 1026 more electrons than protons
We can apply Coulomb’s law
Let us say distance b/w them is 1 m (arm’s length)
26 2
1 (1 0 e)
F 
-1 9
x c h a rg e o n e = 1 0 C
4  0
2
(1 m )
14
1 10
F  10
4  0 1 0

F  10
24
Kg
 Coulomb’s Law
F  10
24
Kg

 10 Newton is equal to weight of 1 Kg (means

gravitational field is 10 N per Kg)
This force can lift 1023 Kg
Weight of earth = 1024 Kg
It means that if you were standing at arm’s length from
someone and each of you had one percent more
electrons than protons, the repelling force would be
incredible
How great?
Enough to lift the Empire State Building? No! To lift
Mount Everest? No! The repulsion would be enough to
lift a “weight” equal to that of the entire earth!
 Coulomb’s Law
We can compare it with Gravitational force because if
you have two people they attract each other
gravitationally &
They also interact through electrical forces

Suppose you take two electrons separated distance d

Force due to gravity 2
G (m e )
FG  2
d

 Force due to electrical effects

2
1 e
Fe 
4  0 d
2
 Coulomb’s Law
We can work out how much electrical force is stronger
than the gravitational force G (m )
2

FG 
e
2
2 d
e
Fe 4  0 1 e
2
 2 Fe 
4  0 d
2
FG Gme

Huge number will come out (order of 1043)

Electric force b/w two electrons is 43 order of

magnitude stronger than gravitational force b/w these
two electrons
 Coulomb’s Law
Naturally
gravitational force is directly proportional to mass
Electric force is directly proportional to charge

If you took heavier particle of same charge you will get
a better answer (how much better)

Proton ~ 2000 times me

So in this case this ratio get divided by (2000)2
43
Fe 10
 10
37
6
FG 10
Force due to electricity is 1 billion billion billion billion
times stronger
1 billion = 109
 Coulomb’s Law
So electric field is enormously stronger than the
gravitational field

However in our normal experience there is no electric

field
 In fact if you look at the ancient records people talk
about gravitational but they don’t talk about electricity
They knew lightning
Greeks knew little bit about amber
They knew that amber could be rubbed and attract little
things
They knew about some magnetic materials
But this force which is billion billion billion billion
times stronger was missing (that was not there)
 Coulomb’s Law
So where does it go?
However when you will get larger & larger scale the
electric field is less & less important
At larger & larger scale gravitational field becomes
extremely important

If electromagnetic would dominates and we never notice

gravitation and we all floating around like charge dust
and we never notice that there is huge planet which is
trying to pull itself

But it does not happen

 Coulomb’s Law
If we look at the universe gravitation is the weakest
force
Magnetism next weakest force

Electricity
Nuclear forces (strongest forces)

When we talk about the electricity and magnetism we

don’t take into account nuclear forces

When we talk about the gravitation we don’t consider

electric forces
 Coulomb’s Law
Reason:
Such a large range of force each unimaginably stronger
the other that they can not compete

If you see electric force it means that nuclear forces

have cancelled completely
If you see magnetic forces in normal materials it means
electric forces have cancelled completely

If you see gravitation it means all other forces have

cancelled completely

So how does this cancellation work?

 Coulomb’s Law

There is no positive gravitational field and negative

gravitational field and all masses attract each other (we
don’t have negative kind of mass which repels)

Gravitational field is phenomenally weak but it always

adds
Electric field is phenomenally strong but it cancels

As you go to large & larger scales the electric field

becomes unimportant
 Coulomb’s Law
Diagram explaining force

Nuclear forces: form nucleus

The kind & scale in which they work is 10-15 m
If you go away from this distance nuclear forces become
attenuated (they tend to adjust and cancel out)
Due to nuclear force we get elements

Electric forces: they work at the scale length of

chemistry i.e at Angstrom (Å) distances
Due to electric forces we get
 Chemistry
 Molecules
 Metals
 Coulomb’s Law

Magnetic forces: they have much longer scale length

They can have galactic scale length
But they are very weak (much much weak than electric
force)
For example earth’s ionosphere is dominated by the
magnetic field
The entire solar system is dominated by solar magnetic
field
Entire galaxy is dominated by the galactic magnetic
field
 Coulomb’s Law
Gravitation force: weakest force becomes strongest
force
It actually forms the universe

This is a very peculiar kind of ordering

Strongest cancel out earliest

Next strongest cancel out next
Next strongest works up to a galactic scale length
Gravitational finally conquer everything

In this picture we are looking at electric & magnetic

forces (we want to understand electric force and
magnetic forces
Coulomb’s Law
 Coulomb’s Law
1 Q 1Q 2
F  rˆ1 2
4  0
2
r1 2

This is the definition when we have two charges

Suppose we have collection of charges (Q1, Q2, Q3..)

We want to know the force at some point (q)

Coulomb not only gave the law but he also found that
how this law works when multiple charges present
Vectorially add them
Result is the total force
 Coulomb’s Law
Mathematically
F  F1  F 2  F 3  ........

1 q Q1 1 qQ2 1 qQ3 1 qQ4

F  rˆ1  rˆ2  rˆ3  rˆ4
4  0 4  0 4  0 4  0
2 2 2 2
r1 r2 r3 r4

q is common so taken out

q Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
F  ( rˆ1  rˆ2  rˆ3  rˆ4 )
4  0
2 2 2 2
r1 r2 r3 r4

q
4
Q i rˆi
F 
4  0
 ri
2
i 1

Summation simply saying substitute i = 1, 2, 3, 4 and

add up results
Triple Product

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electrostatic Field
The electric field produced by stationary source charges

The electric field at a particular point is a vector whose

magnitude is proportional to the total force acting on a test
charge located at that point, and whose direction is equal to
the direction of the force acting on a positive test charge

The electric field E , generated by a collection of source

charges, is defined as
F  F1  F 2  F 3  ........

1 q Q1 1 qQ2 1 qQ3 1 qQ4

F  rˆ1  rˆ2  rˆ3  rˆ4
4  0 4  0 4  0 4  0
2 2 2 2
r1 r2 r3 r4
The Electrostatic Field

F  F1  F 2  F 3  ........

1 q Q1 1 qQ2 1 qQ3 1 qQ4

F  rˆ1  rˆ2  rˆ3  rˆ4
4  0 4  0 4  0 4  0
2 2 2 2
r1 r2 r3 r4

F
E 
q
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
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DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
 The Electric Field
The electric field E at a point in space is simply
the force per unit charge at that point
F
E   F  QE
Q
F  total electric force exerted by the source
charges on the test charge Q
This equation tells us what will be the force on a charge
Q placed in this field
Electric field due to a point charged particle
Q
E  k 2 rˆ
r

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field

It is assumed that the test charge Q is small and

therefore does not change the distribution of the source
charges

The total force exerted by the source charges on the test

charge is equal to

F  F1  F2  F3  .......

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field
F  F1  F2  F3  .......
1 q1Q
F1  rˆ
4 0 r12 1

1 q2 Q
F2  rˆ2
4 0 r22

1 q3Q
F3  rˆ3
4 0 r32

1 q1Q 1 q2Q 1 q3Q

F rˆ  rˆ2  rˆ3  .....
4 0 r12 1
4 0 r22
4 0 r32

Q q1 q2 q3
F ( 2 rˆ1  2 rˆ2  2 rˆ3  .....)
4 0 r1 r2 r3 Dr. M. Y. Soomro
The Electric Field
Q q1 q2 q3
F ( 2 rˆ1  2 rˆ2  2 rˆ3  .....)
4 0 r1 r2 r3
Q n qi
F 
4 0 i 1 ri
rˆ
2 i

The electric field generated by the source charges is

equal to F
E
Q
n
1 qi
E 
4 0 i1 ri
rˆ
2 i

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Continuous Charge Distribution
In most applications the source charges are not discrete,
but are distributed continuously over some region

Charges spread on the surface or volume of the object

making continuous charge distributions
Different forms of charged bodies
Rods
Plates
Solids
Sum becomes an integral (integration used)
n
1 qi
E 
4 0 i 1 ri
rˆ
2 i E
1

1
ˆ
rdq
4 0 r 2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Continuous Charge Distribution (cont.)
If the charge is spread out along a line (distribution in
one dimension)
Charge per unit area
Example: thin charged rod
It is known as linear charge density (λ)
dq
 '
dl
or
dq   dl '
dq = small element charge
dl’ = small element of length along the line

Unit: Coulomb per meter (C/m)

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Continuous Charge Distribution (cont.)

E
1

1
rˆdq
4 0 r 2

dq
 ' or dq   dl '
dl

E
1 1
4 0  r 2
ˆ
r  dl '

 (r ' )
1
rˆdl
4 0 p r 2
E '

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Continuous Charge Distribution (cont.)
If the charge is spread out over a surface (distribution
in two dimensions)
Example: thin sheet of charges
It is known as charge per unit area (σ)
dq
 '
da
or
dq   da '
dq = small element charge
da’ = small element of area on the surface

Unit: SI unit is Coulomb per square meter (C/m2)

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Continuous Charge Distribution (cont.)

E
1

1
rˆdq
4 0 r 2

dq
 ' or dq   da '
da

E
1 1
4 0  r 2
ˆ
r da'

 (r' )
1
rˆda
4 0 s r 2
E '

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Continuous Charge Distribution (cont.)
If the charge fills a volume or charges distributed
throughout the volume of the (distribution in two
dimension)
Charge per unit volume
It is known as volume charge density (ρ)
dq
 '
d
or
dq   d '
dq = small element charge
dτ’ = small element of volume

Unit: Coulomb per cubic meter (C/m2)

 Continuous Charge Distribution (cont.)

E
1

1
rˆdq
4 0 r 2

dq
 ' or dq   d '
d

E
1 1
4 0  r 2
ˆ
r  d '

 (r' )
1
rˆd
4 0 v r 2
E '

This equation tells us how to compute the field of a

charge distribution
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 A

x B
Q -Q

Two equal, but opposite charges are placed on the x axis.

The positive charge is placed to the left of the origin and the
negative charge is placed to the right, as shown in the figure
above.

What is the direction of the electric field at point B?

A. Up
B. Down
C. Left
D. Right
E. Zero Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 _ _
 

_

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Example
A rod of length l has a uniform charge per unit length λ
and a total charge Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P
along the axis of the rod at a distance a from one end. Note
that λ= Q/l

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Example

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Example
dq

dx

dq   dx
n
1 qi F
E 
4 0 i 1 ri
rˆ
2 i
E
Q

dq
dE  ke 2
x
1 dx
dE   2
4 0 x
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Example
Integrate to total length  1 1
E ( - )
1 dx 4 0 a a
E  2
4 0 x  (l  a ) - a
E ( )
4 0 a(  a )
Use limits
a 1 dx l
E  2 1
E
a 4 0 x 4 0 a(  a)

  a dx
E
4 0 a x 2 If a >> l E
k eQ
a(  a)

 1 a
E [- ]a ke Q
4 0 x E 2
a
 Example 2.1
Find the electric field a distance z above the midpoint of
a straight line segment of length 2L which carries a
uniform line charge λ

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Example 2.1
Symmetry
Contribution to net E at field point, P from infinitesimal
line charges dλ associated with infinitesimal line segments,
dL located at ±x such that
xˆ components of net electric field at field point, P cancel
each other

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Example 2.1

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Example 2.1
z z
cos  cos  
r x z
2 2

x x
sin   sin  
r x2  z 2
 -
dENET  dE  dE
1  dL

dE  {( )( 2 )  - sin  xˆ  cos  zˆ }
4 0 r
1  dL
-
dE  {( )( 2 )   sin  xˆ  cos  zˆ }
4 0 r
dENET  ??????
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Example 2.1
dENET  dE   dE -
1  dL
dENET  2( )( )cos  zˆ
4 0 r 2

Integrate over x from 0 ≤ x ≤ L

L L
1  dL
ENET   dENET ENET   2( )( )cos zˆ
0 0
4 0 r 2

L L
ENET  { dE    dE - }
0 0
L L
ENET  { dE    dE - }
0 0
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Example 2.1
L
1  dL
ENET   2( )( )cos zˆ
0
4 0 r 2

L
1 dL z
ENET  2( )  2 cos zˆ cos 
4 0 0 r r
L
1 1 z
ENET  2( )  2 dxzˆ
4 0 0 r r
L
1 1 z
ENET  2( )  2 2 dxzˆ
4 0 0 ( x  z ) x 2  z 2
L
2 z
L
1 2 z x
ENET ( )  2 2 3 dxzˆ ENET  [ ]
4 0 0 ( x  z ) 2 4 0 z 2 z 2  x 2 0
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Example 2.1 L
2 z x
ENET  [ ] zˆ
4 0 z 2 z 2  x 2 0
2 z L
ENET ( )[ 2 ]zˆ
4 0 z L2  z 2
2 L 1
ENET ( )[ ]zˆ
4 0 z L2  z 2
2 L 1
ENET ( )[ ]zˆ
4 0 z L2  z 2

Case -1 2 L
For points far from the line (z>>L) ENET  ẑ
L2+Z2 = Z2 4 0 z 2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Example 2.1
Case -1
For points far from the line (z>>L)
L2+Z2 = Z2 2 L
ENET  ẑ
4 0 z 2

Thus at large distance, the line looks like a point charge

Therefore the field reduces to point charge q/4πε0 z2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Example 2.1
Case -2
In the limit L → ∞, we obtain the field of an infinite
straight wire: 2 L 1
ENET  ( )[ ]zˆ
2 L 1 4 0
( ]zˆ
2
ENET )[ z
z L (1 
2

4 0 z L2  z 2 L
2
)

2 L 1
ENET  ( )[ ]zˆ
4 0 z
2

zL (1  )
1 2
2
L
Since, L→ ∞, so z2/L2 =0 E
4 0 z
1 2
E
4 0 s
Here, s is the distance from the wire
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
There is a question that if we got force from Coulomb’s
law then what is need to complicated life and create a new
vector
There is a reason:
It has to do with how we view Coulomb's law

 if we look at the charge Q1 and Q2

We are saying that there is a force on Q2
How Q1 created a force on Q2
 In old days during Newton’s times it was thought that
everything acted at a distance
Sun pulled the earth from 160 million kilometers
Same way we could think of protons and electrons
interacting over a distance Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
There is a other ways to looking at the things
We could say that due to presence of Q1 has polarize the
material around this charge (material due to the presence
of charge Q1 got stressed a little bit
Because of that stress any time we place a charge there
that charge receives a kick and that kick
That kick is known as a force

Modern physics has shown that validity of this picture

(stress vector / stress field)
All of the special & general relativity, quantum
mechanics, particle physics requires such a picture

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
Picture of particle’s which create stresses in the space
around them called fields

These fields in turns react on other particles causing

force

So it better to talk about fields (not forces)

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
A convenient aid for visualizing electric field patterns is
to draw lines pointing in the direction of the electric field
vector at any point

 These lines introduced by Michael Faraday

Properties:
1. The electric field vector E is tangent to the electric
field lines at each point
2. The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the strength
of the electric field in a given region

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
E is large when the field lines are close together and
small when the lines are far apart
Electric field lines for a single positive point charge
The lines are directed radially outward from the charge in
all directions

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
The electric field lines for a single negative point charge
are directed toward the charge
The lines are closer together as they get near the charge,
indicating that the strength of the field is increasing

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
The Electric Field Lines

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Electric Flux (ΦE)
The word Flux comes from a Latin meaning ‘’to flow’’
It is a measure of how much the electric field vectors
penetrate through a given surface
Number of field lines is proportional to the product of E
and A
E  EA
The magnitude of the electric flux through a loop of the
area A is
  EA cos
 Electric Flux (ΦE)
Flux through a surface of fixed area has the maximum
value EA when the surface is perpendicular to the field
(when θ = 0°)
Flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field
(when θ= 90°)

For a closed surface:

The flux lines passing into the interior of the volume are
negative
The flux lines passing out of the interior of the volume
are positive

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law is essentially a technique for calculating the
average electric field on a closed surface

Developed by Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855)

When the electric field, because of its symmetry, is

constant everywhere on that surface and perpendicular
to it, the exact electric field can be found

In such special cases, Gauss’s law is far easier to apply

than Coulomb’s law

Gauss’s law relates the electric flux through a closed

surface and the total charge enclosed by the surface
 Gauss’s Law
Statement:
the electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to
the charge contained inside the surface

Proof:
Consider a point charge q surrounded by a spherical
surface of radius r centered on the charge
 Gauss’s Law
The magnitude of the electric field everywhere on the
surface of the sphere is q
Ek 2
r
Electric field is perpendicular to the spherical surface at
all points on the surface

The electric flux through the surface is therefore EA,

where A = 4πr2 is the surface area of the sphere
E  EA
q
E  k 2 4 r 2
r
E  4 kq
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Gauss’s Law

E  4 kq - --  (A)
1
k
4 0
1
0  E 
q
4 k
0
Electric flux through a sphere that surrounds a charge q is
equal to the charge divided by the constant ε0

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Gauss’s Law
General result:

The electric flux E through any closed surface is equal to

the net charge inside the surface, Q inside, divided by ε0

Qinside
E 
0

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=05

DR.M.Y.Soomro
 The Electric Field
The electric field generated by the source charges is
equal to F
E
Q
n
1 qi
E 
4 0 i 1 ri
rˆ
2 i
 (r ' )
E
1
 rˆdl '

4 0 r2
For continuous charge distributions p

 (r ' )
rˆdq rˆda
1 1 1

E 
'
E 4 0 r2
4 0 r 2 s

 (r ' )
E
1
 rˆd '

4 0 v
r2
 Example
A rod of length l has a uniform charge per unit length λ
and a total charge Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P
along the axis of the rod at a distance a from one end. Note
that λ= Q/l
Example
Example
dq

dx
F
dq   dx E
Q

n
1 qi
E 
4 0 i 1 ri
rˆ
2 i

dq
dE  ke 2
x
1 dx
dE   2
4 0 x
Example
Integrate to total length  1 1
E (  )
1 dx 4 0 a a
E  2
4 0 x  (l  a)  a
E ( )
4 0 a(  a)
Use limits
a 1 dx l
E  2 1
E
a 4 0 x 4 0 a(  a)

  a dx ke Q
E
4 0 a x 2
E
a(  a)

If a >> l
 1 a
E [ ]a
4 0 x ke Q
E 2
a
 Example 2.1
Find the electric field a distance z above the midpoint of
a straight line segment of length 2L which carries a
uniform line charge λ
 Example 2.1
Symmetry
Contribution to net E at field point, P from infinitesimal
line charges dλ associated with infinitesimal line segments,
dL located at ±x such that
xˆ components of net electric field at field point, P cancel
each other
Example 2.1
Example 2.1
z z
cos   cos  
r x z
2 2

x x
sin   sin  
r x2  z 2
dENET  dE   dE 
1  dL

dE  {( )( 2 )   sin  xˆ  cos  zˆ }
4 0 r
1  dL

dE  {( )( 2 )   sin  xˆ  cos  zˆ }
4 0 r
dENET  ??????
Example 2.1
 
dENET  dE  dE
1  dL
dENET  2( )( ) cos  zˆ
4 0 r 2

Integrate over x from 0 ≤ x ≤ L

L L
1  dL
ENET   dENET ENET   2( )( ) cos  zˆ
0 0
4 0 r 2

L L
ENET  { dE    dE  }
0 0
L L
ENET  { dE    dE  }
0 0
Example 2.1
L
1  dL
ENET   2( )( ) cos  zˆ
0
4 0 r 2

L
1 dL z
ENET  2( )  2 cos  zˆ cos  
4 0 0 r r
L
1 1 z
ENET  2( )  2 dxzˆ
4 0 0 r r
L
1 1 z
ENET  2( )  2 dxzˆ
4 0 0 ( x  z 2 ) x2  z 2
L
2 z
L
1 2 z x
ENET ( ) 2 ˆ ENET 
3 dxz
[ ]
4 0 0 ( x  z 2 ) 2 4 0 z 2 z 2  x 2 0
 Example 2.1 L
2 z x
ENET  [ ] zˆ
4 0 z z  x 0
2 2 2

2 z L
ENET ( )[ 2 ]zˆ
4 0 z L2  z 2
2 L 1
ENET ( )[ ]zˆ
4 0 z L2  z 2
2 L 1
ENET ( )[ ]zˆ
4 0 z L  z
2 2

Case -1 2 L
For points far from the line (z>>L) ENET  ẑ
L2+Z2 = Z2 4 0 z 2
 Example 2.1
Case -1
For points far from the line (z>>L)
L2+Z2 = Z2 2 L
ENET  ẑ
4 0 z 2

Thus at large distance, the line looks like a point charge

Therefore the field reduces to point charge q/4πε0 z2
 Example 2.1
Case -2
In the limit L → ∞, we obtain the field of an infinite
straight wire: 2 L 1
ENET  ( )[ ] zˆ
2 L 1 4 0
( ]zˆ
2
ENET )[ z
z L (1 
2

4 0 z L2  z 2 L
2
)

2 L 1
ENET  ( )[ ] zˆ
4 0 z
2

zL (1  )
1 2
2
L
Since, L→ ∞, so z2/L2 =0 E
4 0 z
1 2
E
4 0 s
Here, s is the distance from the wire
 The Electric Field Lines
There is a question that if we got force from Coulomb’s
law then what is need to complicated life and create a new
vector
There is a reason:
It has to do with how we view Coulomb's law

 If we look at the charge Q1 and Q2

We are saying that there is a force on Q2
How Q1 created a force on Q2
 In old days during Newton’s times it was thought that
everything acted at a distance
Sun pulled the earth from 160 million kilometers
Same way we could think of protons and electrons
interacting over a distance
 The Electric Field Lines
There is a other ways to looking at the things
We could say that due to presence of Q1 has polarize the
material around this charge (material due to the presence
of charge Q1 got stressed a little bit

Because of that stress any time we place a charge there

that charge receives a kick and that kick
That kick is known as a force

Modern physics has shown that validity of this picture

(stress vector / stress field)
All of the special & general relativity, quantum
mechanics, particle physics requires such a picture
 The Electric Field Lines
Picture of particle’s which create stresses in the space
around them called fields

These fields in turns react on other particles causing

force

So it better to talk about fields (not forces)

 The Electric Field Lines
A convenient aid for visualizing electric field patterns is
to draw lines pointing in the direction of the electric field
vector at any point

 These lines introduced by Michael Faraday

Properties:
1. The electric field vector E is tangent to the electric
field lines at each point
2. The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the strength
of the electric field in a given region
 The Electric Field Lines
E is large when the field lines are close together and
small when the lines are far apart
Electric field lines for a single positive point charge
The lines are directed radially outward from the charge in
all directions
 The Electric Field Lines
The electric field lines for a single negative point charge
are directed toward the charge
The lines are closer together as they get near the charge,
indicating that the strength of the field is increasing
The Electric Field Lines
 Electric Flux (ΦE)
The word Flux comes from a Latin meaning ‘’to flow’’
It is a measure of how much the electric field vectors
penetrate through a given surface
Number of field lines is proportional to the product of E
and A
E  EA
The magnitude of the electric flux through a loop of the
area A is
  EA cos
 Electric Flux (ΦE)
Flux through a surface of fixed area has the maximum
value EA when the surface is perpendicular to the field
(when θ = 0°)
Flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field
(when θ= 90°)

For a closed surface:

The flux lines passing into the interior of the volume are
negative
The flux lines passing out of the interior of the volume
are positive
 Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law is essentially a technique for calculating the
average electric field on a closed surface

Developed by Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855)

When the electric field, because of its symmetry, is

constant everywhere on that surface and perpendicular
to it, the exact electric field can be found

In such special cases, Gauss’s law is far easier to apply

than Coulomb’s law

Gauss’s law relates the electric flux through a closed

surface and the total charge enclosed by the surface
 Gauss’s Law
Statement:
the electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to
the charge contained inside the surface

Proof:
Consider a point charge q surrounded by a spherical
surface of radius r centered on the charge
 Gauss’s Law
The magnitude of the electric field everywhere on the
surface of the sphere is q
Ek 2
r
Electric field is perpendicular to the spherical surface at
all points on the surface

The electric flux through the surface is therefore EA,

where A = 4πr2 is the surface area of the sphere
E  EA
q
E  k 2 4 r 2
r
E  4 kq
 Gauss’s Law

E  4 kq    (A)
1
k
4 0
1
0  E 
q
4 k
0
Electric flux through a sphere that surrounds a charge q is
equal to the charge divided by the constant ε0
 Gauss’s Law
General result:

The electric flux E through any closed surface is equal to

the net charge inside the surface, Q inside, divided by ε0

Qinside
E 
0
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=06

DR.M.Y.Soomro
 Example 2.1
Find the electric field a distance z above the midpoint of
a straight line segment of length 2L which carries a
uniform line charge λ

DR. M. Y. Soomro
Example 2.1

DR. M.Y. Soomro

Example 2.1
z z
cos   cos  
r x z
2 2

x x
sin   sin  
r x2  z 2
dENET  dE   dE 
1  dL

dE  {( )( 2 )   sin  xˆ  cos  zˆ }
4 0 r
1  dL

dE  {( )( 2 )   sin  xˆ  cos  zˆ }
4 0 r
dENET  ??????
DR. M.Y. Soomro
Example 2.1
 
dENET  dE  dE
1  dL
dENET  2( )( ) cos  zˆ
4 0 r 2

Integrate over x from 0 ≤ x ≤ L

L L
1  dL
ENET   dENET ENET   2( )( ) cos  zˆ
0 0
4 0 r 2

L L
ENET  { dE    dE  }
0 0
L L
ENET  { dE    dE  }
0 0
DR. M.Y. Soomro
Example 2.1
L
1  dL
ENET   2( )( ) cos  zˆ
0
4 0 r 2

L
1 dL z
ENET  2( )  2 cos  zˆ cos  
4 0 0 r r
L
1 1 z
ENET  2( )  2 dxzˆ
4 0 0 r r
L
1 1 z
ENET  2( )  2 dxzˆ
4 0 0 ( x  z 2 ) x2  z 2
L
2 z
L
1 2 z x
ENET ( ) 2 ˆ ENET 
3 dxz
[ ]
4 0 0 ( x  z 2 ) 2 4 0 z 2 z 2  x 2 0
DR. M.Y. Soomro
 Example 2.1 L
2 z x
ENET  [ ] zˆ
4 0 z z  x 0
2 2 2

2 z L
ENET ( )[ 2 ]zˆ
4 0 z L2  z 2
2 L 1
ENET ( )[ ]zˆ
4 0 z L2  z 2
2 L 1
ENET ( )[ ]zˆ
4 0 z L  z
2 2

2 L
Case -1 ENET  ẑ
For points far from the line (z>>L) 4 0 z 2

L2+Z2 = Z2
DR. M.Y. Soomro
 Example 2.1
Case -1
For points far from the line (z>>L)
L2+Z2 = Z2 2 L
ENET  ẑ
4 0 z 2

Thus at large distance, the line looks like a point charge

Therefore the field reduces to point charge q/4πε0 z2

DR. M.Y. Soomro

 Example 2.1
Case -2
In the limit L → ∞, we obtain the field of an infinite
straight wire: 2 L 1
ENET  ( )[ ] zˆ
2 L 1 4 0
( ]zˆ
2
ENET )[ z
z L (1 
2

4 0 z L2  z 2 L
2
)

2 L 1
ENET  ( )[ ] zˆ
4 0 z
2

zL (1  )
1 2
2
L
Since, L→ ∞, so z2/L2 =0 E
4 0 z
1 2
E
4 0 s
Here, s is the distance from the wire
DR. M.Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
A convenient aid for visualizing electric field patterns is
to draw lines pointing in the direction of the electric field
vector at any point

 These lines introduced by Michael Faraday

Properties:
1. The electric field vector E is tangent to the electric
field lines at each point
2. The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the strength
of the electric field in a given region

DR. M.Y. Soomro

 The Electric Field Lines
E is large when the field lines are close together and
small when the lines are far apart
Electric field lines for a single positive point charge
The lines are directed radially outward from the charge in
all directions

DR. M. Y. Soomro
 The Electric Field Lines
The electric field lines for a single negative point charge
are directed toward the charge
The lines are closer together as they get near the charge,
indicating that the strength of the field is increasing

DR. M.Y. Soomro

The Electric Field Lines

DR. M.Y. Soomro

 Electric Flux (ΦE)
The word Flux comes from a Latin meaning ‘’to flow’’
It is a measure of how much the electric field vectors
penetrate through a given surface
Number of field lines is proportional to the product of E
and A   EA
E

The magnitude of the electric flux through a loop of the

area A is

  EA cos

DR. M. Y. Soomro
 Electric Flux (ΦE)
Flux through a surface of fixed area has the maximum
value EA when the surface is perpendicular to the field
(when θ = 0°)
Flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field
(when θ= 90°)

For a closed surface:

The flux lines passing into the
interior of the volume are negative
The flux lines passing out of
the interior of the volume are positive

DR. M. Y. Soomro
 Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law is essentially a technique for calculating the average
electric field on a closed surface

Developed by Karl Friedrich Gauss

(1777–1855)

When the electric field, because of its symmetry, is constant

everywhere on that surface and perpendicular
to it, the exact electric field can be found

In such special cases, Gauss’s law is far easier to apply

than Coulomb’s law
Gauss’s law relates the electric flux through a closed
surface and the total charge enclosed by the surface
DR. M.Y. Soomro
 Gauss’s Law
Statement:
the electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to
the charge contained inside the surface

Proof:
Consider a point charge q surrounded by a spherical
surface of radius r centered on the charge
 Gauss’s Law
The magnitude of the electric field everywhere on the
surface of the sphere is q
Ek 2
r
Electric field is perpendicular to the spherical surface at
all points on the surface

The electric flux through the surface is therefore EA,

where A = 4πr2 is the surface area of the sphere
E  EA
q
E  k 2 4 r 2
r
E  4 kq
DR. M.Y. Soomro
 Gauss’s Law

E  4 kq    (A)
1
k
4 0
1
0  E 
q
4 k
0
Electric flux through a sphere that surrounds a charge q is
equal to the charge divided by the constant ε0

DR. M.Y. Soomro

(E.da) is proportional to the number of lines passing
through the infinitesimal area da
The dot product picks out the component of da along the
direction of E
It is only the area in the plane perpendicular to E

The number of field lines is proportional to the magnitude

of a charge DR. M.Y. Soomro
 d  E.da E 
1Q
4 r 2

4 0 r 2

 d   E.da
Qenclosed
   E.da E 
0
E
s

E   E.da Gauss’ Law (in Integral Form)

1 Q Qenclosed
E
4 0 r 2  E.da  0
da  4 r 2

Quantitative statement of Gauss’ Law

Gauss’ Law (in Integral Form)
Qenclosed
 E.da  0
Gauss’ Law is an integral equation

We can make it a differential equation by applying

divergence theorem (also Gauss’s or Green’s theorem)

DR. M.Y. Soomro

Divergence Theorem
Volume integral of derivative equal to
• value of function at boundaries (closed surface)
or
• total flux of vector field through closed surface S

 (.B ).d   B.da


Q
V s d
 E.da   (.E)d Q   d
Qenc    d
s V

1
 E.da  
v
Qenclosed 1
0  E.da     d 0 v
DR. M.Y. Soomro
 1
 E.da     d
0 v


 E.da  v (  0 )d

v (.E)d  v (  0 )d
1
.E  
0
Differential form of Gauss’ Law

DR. M.Y. Soomro

DR. M.Y. Soomro
Gauss’s law is a consequence of the divergence theorem
applied to Coulomb’s law and therefore

it is an alternative expression of Coulomb’s law

The law always holds but applications are limited to
symmetric charge distributions (and their combinations)

(1) Rectangular (plane) distribution

(2) Cylindrical symmetry
(3) Spherical symmetry

DR. M.Y. Soomro

Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=07

DR.M.Y.Soomro

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 1
Gauss’s Law

 E.da 
Qenclosed
 (.B ).d   B.da
0 V s

1
.E  
0

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 2
 Gauss’s Law
Problem 2.9
Suppose the electric field in some region is found to
be E  kr 3rˆ , in spherical coordinates (k is some constant)
a) Find the charge density 
b) Find the total charge contained in a sphere of radius R,
centered at the origin
    2
.E  5 0 kr
0
   0.E
R
Qenc    d   (5 0 kr 2 )(4 r 2 dr )
1  2 3 V 0

   0 2 (r  kr )
r r
1 Qenc  4 0 kR 5

   0 2 k (5r 4 )
r Dr. M. Y. Soomro 3
 Gauss’s Law
Find the total charge contained in a sphere of radius R,
centered at the origin
Qenc  4 0 kR5
Qenc   0  E.da
S
Qenc   0 (kR )(4 R )
3 2

Qenc  4 0 kR 5

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 4
 Gauss’s Law
Gauss's law in differential form can also be obtained
directly from Coulomb's law
 (r ' )
E
1
 rˆd '

4 0 v
r2

r  rr r  field point - source point

'

1 rˆ  (r' )d  1 rˆ 
4 0 v r 2
.E  .    (r )d 
'
E ' '

 4 0 v r
2


1 rˆ  (r' )d  1 rˆ 
4 0 v r 2
.E  . '
.E  .    (r )d 
' '

 4 0 v r
2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 5
 Gauss’s Law
 1

rˆ  (r )d 
 1 ˆ
r
.E  . 

'
.E  .( )  (r ' )d
' '
 4 0 v r
2
 4 0 v
r2

 3 (r )   ( x) ( y) ( z)
If either r components = non zero than any one of these
terms going to be zero (δ(x)δ(y)δ(z) = 0)
If all of them happened to zero so all points at origin
In this case the integral becomes

  

 (r ) d  
     ( x) ( y) ( z)
3

v   

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 6
 Gauss’s Law
  

 (r ) d  
     ( x) ( y) ( z)dxdydz
3

v   
 ( x)  dx 
 ( y )  dy   1
 ( z )  dz 
If we include origin in this triple integral you will get
value of 1
If we multiply by some scalar field or even a vector
field
  (r) d   f (o)
3
f( r )
v

 f(r ) (r  r0 ) d   f (r0 )
3

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 7
 Gauss’s Law
So we can pick up the vector using Dirac delta function
from the integer
rˆ
.( 2 )
r
Vector field is zero everywhere except at the origin
Yet the integral of this is equal to 4π
Why????
We know that the flux through the surface was 4π
Conclusion:
rˆ
.( 2 )  4 3 (r )
r
r  r  r0
Some common boundary point Dr. M. Y. Soomro 8
 Gauss’s Law
1 ˆ
r
.E   .( )  (r ' )d '

4 0 v
r2
1
.E      r 
3 ' '
4 ( r r ) ( ) d
4 0
0
v

The integral is going to pull out the value of ρ at r so

this is basically ρ(r)
1
.E    (r0 )d
'
1
0 .E  Qenc
v
0
1
.E 
0   dv
v

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 9
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
1. If the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, then
Gauss's law can be used with concentric spheres as
Gaussian surfaces

2. If the charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry,

then Gauss's law can be used with coaxial cylinders as
Gaussian surfaces

3. If the charge distribution has plane symmetry, then

Gauss's law can be used with pill boxes as Gaussian
surfaces

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 10
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Example:
An insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform charge
density ρ and a total positive charge Q.
Calculate the E outside the sphere

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 11
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
 Charge distribution is spherically symmetric so select
a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r > a centered
on the charged sphere
 Positively charged sphere means the field is directed
radailly outward
 On Gaussian sphere E is always parallel to dA
On Gaussian surface E is always constant

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 12
Applications of Gauss’s Law
Qinc
s E.dA   o
Qinc
s EdA   o
Qinc
E (4 r ) 
2

o
1 Q
E
4 r 2  o
Q
E  ke
o
Dr. M. Y. Soomro 13
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Example:
Find the electric field d distance r from an infinitely long
wire with uniform positive charge per unit length

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 14
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
 Symmetry suggests choosing a cylindrical Gaussian
surface that is coaxial with the line of charge

 E is perpendicular to the line of charge

 E is constant & directed outward

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 15
Applications of Gauss’s Law
Qinc
s E .dA 
o E

2 r o
l
s E.dA   o
l
 EdA 
s
o
l
E  dA 
s
o
l
E (2 rl ) 
o

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 16
Thanks

Dr. M. Y. Soomro 17
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=08

DR.M.Y.Soomro
 The Curl of E
Consider simplest possible situation: point charge at
origin 1 q
E ( 2 )rˆ
E is given by: 4 0 r

Curl of this field is zero

What happened when we calculate the line integral of this
field from point ‘a’ to point ‘b’
 The Curl of E z

Line integral rb
q
b y

 E  dl
a
ra
x
E is radial due to spherical symmetry of problem
b
1 q q
E  dl 
1 q
4 0 r 2
dr 
a
E  dl  (  )
4 0 ra rb
b
b b q 1 1
1 q
a E  dl  4 0 a r 2 dr a E  dl  4 0 ( ra  rb )
1 q ra = distance from the origin to
b rb

a E  dl  4 0 ( r ) r point a
a
rb = distance from the origin to
point b
 The Curl of E
 For any closed path ra = rb
The integral around a closed path = 0

 E.dl  0
Applying Stokes’ theorem (theorem for curl)

 (xV ).da   V.dl

s path
xE  0
 (xE).da   E.dl
s path
 The Curl of E

xE  0
By using principle of superposition

ETotal  E1  E2  E3  ........
xETotal  xE1  xE2  xE3  ........  0
 Electric Potential
The electric potential (V) is the potential energy due to the
electrostatic force
 Electric Potential
Imagine a small positive charge placed at point A in a
uniform electric field
The electric field between equally and oppositely charged
parallel plates is an example of a field that is approximately
constant
Electric Potential
 Gauss’s Law
When a charge q moves in a uniform electric field E from
point A to point B, the work done on the charge by the
electric force is

WAB  Fx  x  x  x f  xi
W  qEx (x f  xi )
 Electric Potential
Electric work in terms of the work–energy theorem
W  qEx  x
W  KE
The electric force is conservative, so the electric work
depends only on the endpoints of the path, A and B, not on
the path taken

As the charge accelerates it gains kinetic energy and

loses an equal amount of potential energy
The work done by a conservative force can be
reinterpreted as the negative of the change in a potential
energy associated with that force
 Change in electric potential energy
Suppose an object of charge q moving through a
displacement Δx in a constant electric field E
PE  Wab
PE  qEx x
SI unit:
joule ( J)
Valid only for the case of a uniform (i.e., constant)
electric field, for a particle that undergoes a displacement
along a given axis (here called the x-axis)

Because the electric field is conservative, the change in

potential energy doesn’t depend on the path
 Electric Potential
The electric potential difference V between points A and
B is the change in electric potential energy as a charge q
moves from A to B divided by the charge q:
V  VB  VA PE
V 
q
SI unit:
joule per coulomb (J/C)= volt ( V)
1 J of work must be done to move a 1-C charge between
two points that are at a potential difference of 1 V
In the process of moving through a potential difference of
1 V, the 1-C charge gains 1 J of energy
Potential energy is a scalar quantity, electric potential is
also a scalar quantity
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
PE  WAB PE
V 
PE  qEx x q

PE
  Ex x
q
PE
  Ex x
q
V   Ex x
It shows that potential difference also has units of electric
field times distance
1N / C  1V / m
 Electric Potential
For any vector function whose curl is equal to zero is the
gradient of a scalar function
The scalar function whose gradient is the electric field is
called the electric potential V

 E.dl  0
The line integral of E from point ‘a’ to point ‘b’ is same
for all paths
As line integral is independent of path, then we can
define a function r
V (r )   E.dl
0

O = standard reference point

 Electric Potential
The potential difference b/w two points ‘a’ and ‘b’
b a


V (b)  V(a)   E.dl  (  E.dl )
0 0
b a


V (b)  V(a)   E.dl  E.dl 
0 0
b o


V (b)  V(a)   E.dl  E.dl 
0 a
b

V (b)  V(a)   E.dl

Gradient Theorem
a

 ( V).dl V (b)  V(a)

a
 Electric Potential
Gradient Theorem
b

 ( V).dl V (b)  V(a)

a
b b

 ( V).dl    E.dl
a a

 V  E
E   V
Electric field is a function of a scalar potential
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Consider a charge distribution
The electric field at a point P generated by this charge
distribution is:
 (r )' 1  rˆ
  (x 2 )  (r )d 

rˆd xE 
1 ' '
E 
'

4 0 r2 4 0  v r 
v 
1 rˆ  (r' )d
4 0 v r 2
E '

For every vector r we have

r  r r
' ˆ
r
x  0
r2
 1 rˆ 
xE  x    (r )d 
' '

 4 0 v r
2

xE  0
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=09

DR.M.Y.Soomro
 Today in Physics
Born 10 Feb 1902
Walter Brattain was an American physicist
 share with John Bardeen and William Shockley
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1956
for investigating semiconductors and for
the development of the transistor

The first transistor was invented at Bell Laboratories on

December 16, 1947

made possible the integrated circuit and microprocessor

that are the basis of modern electronics
TRANSfer resISTOR
 Problem 2.20
One of these is an impossible electrostatic field. Which
one?
(a) E  k  xyXˆ  2 yzYˆ  3xzZˆ 

(b) E  k  y 2 Xˆ  (2 xy  z 2 )Yˆ  2 yzZˆ 

k is a constant with the appropriate units

 Problem 2.20
(a) E  k  xyXˆ  2 yzYˆ  3xzZˆ 

   ˆ   
xE  k  (3xz )  (2 yz )  i  k  ( xy )  (3xz)  ˆj
 y z   z x 
   ˆ
+k  (2 yz)  (x y)  k  xˆ yˆ zˆ 
 x y     
xE  k  
  
xE  k (2 y iˆ  3zjˆ  xkˆ)  x y z 
 xy 2yz 3xz 
xE  k  xˆ (0-2y)+y(0-3z)+z(0-x)
ˆ ˆ 
As the curl of this vector function is not equal to zero,
this vector function can not describe an electric field
ˆ ˆ
xE  k (-2yxˆ-3zy-xk)
 Problem 2.20
(b) E  k  y 2 Xˆ  (2 xy  z 2 )Yˆ  2 yzZˆ 
   2 ˆ  2  
xE  k  (2 y z )  (2 xy  z )  i  k  ( y )  (2 yz)  ˆj
 y z   z x 
   2 ˆ
+k  (2 x y  z )  ( y )  k
2
 xˆ yˆ zˆ 
 x y   
 
xE  k  
 x2 y z 
xE  0  y 2xy+z 3yz
2


xE  k  xˆ (2z-2z)+y(0-0)+z(2y-2y)
ˆ ˆ 
xE  0
As the curl of this vector function is equal to zero it can
describe an electric field
 Problem 2.20
For the possible one, find the potential using origin as
your reference point  xˆ yˆ zˆ 
   
xE  k  
E  k  y 2 Xˆ  (2 xy  z 2 )Yˆ  2 yzZˆ   x2 y z 
 y 2xy+z 2 3yz 
E  ky 2 dx
E  ky 2 dx  0
y0
y 2

E.dl  k (2 xy  z 2 ) dy
 E.dl  2kx0  2 
0

E.dl  2kx0 y dy
  2
y0 E.dl kx y
0 0
 E.dl   2kx y dy
0
0

y0

 E.dl  2kx  y dy
0
0
Problem 2.20
E  k  y 2 Xˆ  (2 xy  z 2 )Yˆ  2 yzZˆ 
 xˆ yˆ zˆ 
E  2kyzdz    
xE  k  
E.dl  2ky0 zdz  x2 y z 
 y 2xy+z 2 3yz 
z0

 E.dl   2ky
0
0 zdz
z0

 E.dl  2ky  zdz

0
0
z0
z  2

 E.dl  2ky0  2 
0

 E.dl  ky z
2
0 0
Problem 2.20
  dx  0
2
E.dl ky
r
V    E.dl
  2
0
E.dl kx y
0 0
x0 , y0 , zo

V ( x0 , y0 , zo )   0
E.dl
 E.dl  ky z
2
0 0

V ( x0 , y0 , zo )  k ( x y  y z 2
0 0
2
0 0

V ( x, y, z )  k ( xy 2  yz 2 )
 Potential and superposition principle
For force:
The total force on Q is the vector sum of the forces
attributable to the source
F  F1  F2  ....

For Electric field: F  F1  F2  ....

Q Q Q
E  E1  E2  ....
Integrating from the common reference point to r
V  V1  V2  ....
Electric Potential of Continuous Charge
Distributions
The potential energy can be obtained for the interaction
between a continuous distribution and a point charge by
calculating the potential due to the charge distribution
We can calculate the potential for various types of charge
distributions

A uniform line of charge

A ring of charge
A charged disk
Example
A 5.00-mC point charge is at the origin, and a point
charge q2= -2.00 μC is on the x-axis at (3.00, 0) m
(a) If the electric potential is taken to be zero at infinity,
find the total electric potential due to these charges at point
P with coordinates (0, 4.00) m
(b) How much work is required to bring a third point
charge of 4.00 μC from infinity to P ?
Example
Electric Potential of Continuous Charge
Distributions
Procedure for calculating potential for continuous charge
distributions

Procedure is same as for calculating electric force due to

continuous charge distributions

 Only difference is that potential is a scalar quantity so

there is no need to consider different direction of force
element or field element from different charge elements dq
Electric Potential of Continuous Charge
Distributions
Step-I
Divide the object into charge element dq
The potential dV due to a charge element dq by assume
that it behave like a point charge is
1 dq
dV 
4 0 r
r = distance from dq to the observation point P

Step-II
Total potential it is found by adding the contributions
from all the charge elements of the object
1 dq
4 0  r
1 dq V
 dV   4 0 r
 The Curl of E
The potential difference b/w two points ‘a’ and ‘b’
b a

V (b)  V(a)    E.dl  (   E.dl )

0 0
b a

V (b)  V(a)    E.dl   E.dl

0 0
b o

V (b)  V(a)    E.dl   E.dl

0 a
b

V (b)  V(a)    E.dl

Gradient Theorem
a

 ( V).dl V (b)  V(a)

a
 The Curl of E
Gradient Theorem
b

 ( V).dl V (b)  V(a)

a
b b

 ( V).dl    E.dl
a a

 V  E
E   V
Electric field is a function of a scalar potential
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=10

DR.M.Y.Soomro

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.3 Poisson’s equation and Laplace’s equation
Poisson’s equation
 
E  V  V 
2 V 
2

0 0
.E  .(V )
This is known as Poisson’s equation
.E   V 2
Differential equation
 The divergence of the gradient of a
.E 
0 function, is called the Laplacian
As the potential is a scalar function, this approach has
advantages over trying to calculate the electric field
directly
Once the potential has been calculated, the electric field
can be computed by taking the gradient of the potential
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.3 Poisson’s equation and Laplace’s equation
Laplace’s equation

V 
2

0

In region where there is no charge ρ=0 Poisson’s equation

reduces
2V  0
This is known as Laplace’s equation

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.4 The Potential of a localized charge
distribution
To obtain the potential at an exterior point we will take
the potential to be zero at infinity & evaluate
V  0, r  
A point charge qi located at the origin will generate an
electric potential 
1 q
r

V (r)    E.dl
V ()  V(r)    4 r 2
r 0
0

q 1
V ()  V(r)   
b

V (b)  V(a)    E.dl 4 0 r 2

r
a

q 1
E
1q  V(r)   
4 0 r 2 r
4 0 r 2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.4 The Potential of a localized charge
distribution

1 q 1 q
 V(r)    V(r) 
r
4 0 r 2
4 0 r

1 q Potential due to collection of
V(r)  
4 r 2 charges
0
VTotal  V1  V2  V3  .....
r

1 q
V(r)   1 q1 1 q2 1 q3
4 r 2
VTotal    .....
0
4 0 r1 4 0 r2 4 0 r3
r


q 1
V(r)  
4 0 r r 2 1 qi n


V(r)  
4 0 i 1 ri
1 q
V(r) 
4 0 r r
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.4 The Potential of a localized charge distribution
n
1 qi
V(r)  
4 0 i 1 ri
For continuous charge distribution
1 1
V(r)  
4 0 r
dq For surface charge density
1 
V(r) 
4 0  r d
For linear charge density
1 
V(r) 
4 0  r dl
For surface charge density
1 
V(r) 
4 0  r da
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.5 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Electric field always undergoes a discontinuity when
crossing a surface charge σ

Discontinuity at a charged boundary b/w two media

Find the amount of changes in E (crossing boundary)

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.5Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Consider the interface between two media which has a
charge density σ

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Consider a Gaussian pillbox in the shape of a rectangular
parallelepiped of cross section A and height half ε of which
is above the plane and half below

E  =normal components
of E
above
E  =normal components
of E immediately above face

above
E 
=normal components of
E immediately bottom face

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Using Gauss’s law, the flux out of the parallelepiped is
due the
Flux from the top surface
Flux from the bottom surface
Flux from the side surfaces

Let us look at the normal components of the electric field

As the height of the parallelepiped becomes

infinitesimally small, the contribution to the flux from the
sides become vanishingly small

 and only the top and the bottom surfaces contribute

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
1 
 E.da   Q enc Eabove
 E below
 )
s 0 0
  EA
Normal component of E
  Eabove A  Ebelow A discontinuous by an amount
Qenc σ/ε0 at any boundary
Eabove
 A E below
 A
0
A
E A E
above
A below

0
A
A( E  E ) 
above below

0

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
What about the tangential component?

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Consider a rectangular loop of length “l” and height “ε”
which is infinitesimally small, whose plane is perpendicular
to the interface and half of which is above the interface and
half below

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
For thin rectangular loop
 E.dl  0
Perpendicular sections become infinitely small
As ε→0 ends gives nothing
sides gives
E abovel  E belowl  0 The tangential component of
electric field is continuous
l( E above
E below
)0
OR
E above  E below  0 The component of parallel to
the surface is continuous across
E above
E below
the surface

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
The normal component of the electric field discontinuous

Eabove
 E
below
 )
0
The tangential component of the electric field is
continuous above
E below
E

Eabove  Ebelow  nˆ
0

n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the

surface pointing from “below” to “above”

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Thanks

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=11

DR. M. Y. Soomro
2.3.3 Poisson’s equation and Laplace’s equation
Poisson’s equation
E  V 2V  0

.E  .(V )
.E  2V

.E 
0

 V 
2

0

V 
2

0
2.3.4 The Potential of a localized charge
distribution

b
1 q 1
V (b)  V(a)    E.dl V(r)  V(r)   r dl
4 0 r 4 0
a

1 q n
E 1

qi 1 
4 0 r 2 V(r) 
4 0 i 1 ri V(r) 
4 0  r da

1q 1 1 
V ()  V(r)    V(r)  
4 0 r
dq V(r) 
1
 r d
r
4 0 r 2
4 0

1 q
V(r) 
4 0 r r
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions

1
 E.da   Q
s 0
enc

  EA

E above
A E below
A
above
E
 E
below
 )
 
0
Qenc
E above
 A E below
 A
0
A
A( E above
 E below
 )
0
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
What about the tangential component?
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Consider a rectangular loop of length “l” and height “ε”
which is infinitesimally small, whose plane is perpendicular
to the interface and half of which is above the interface and
half below
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
For thin rectangular loop
 E.dl  0
Perpendicular sections become infinitely small
As ε→0 ends gives nothing
sides gives
E abovel  E belowl  0 The tangential component of
electric field is continuous
l( E above
E below
)0
OR
E above  E below  0 The component of parallel to
the surface is continuous across
E above
E below
the surface
 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
The normal component of the electric field discontinuous

Eabove
 E
below
 )
0
The tangential component of the electric field is
continuous
Eabove below
E

Eabove  Ebelow  nˆ
0

n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the

surface pointing from “below” to “above”
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
Potential:
Continuous across any boundary
b
Vabove  Vbelow    E.dl
a
As path length shrink to zero a=b
Vabove  Vbelow  0
Vabove  Vbelow
E  V

Eabove  Ebelow  nˆ
0
Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
V
E  V V .nˆ 
 n
Eabove  Ebelow  nˆ Normal derivative of V
0
Rate of change of in the

Vabove  Vbelow  nˆ direction perpendicular to the
0
surface
 Vabove V 
(Vabove  Vbelow )  nˆ ˆn  below nˆ   nˆ
0 n n 0
 Vabove Vbelow 
Vabove  Vbelow   nˆ nˆ (  )   nˆ
0 n n 0
Vabove Vbelow 
 
n n 0
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=12

DR.M.Y.Soomro
2.4 Work and Energy in Electrostatics
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge

2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution

2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution

2.4.4 Comments on Electrostatic Energy

2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
Suppose we have a stationary configuration of source
charges
We want to move test charge Q from point “a” to “b”

At any point along the path

from a to b, the electrostatic
force acting on Q is:

Fe  QE
The mechanical force required
to balance the electrostatic force
Fmech   Fe
Fmech  QE
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
Fmech   Fe Fmech  QE
Fmech  Fe
The mechanical work done on the Q along the path a to b
is: a

W   Fmech .dl
a
a


W   QE .dl
a
a

W  Q  E .dl
a
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
a

W  Q  E .dl      (1) W  QVab

a
The answer is independent of the
E  V
a
path from a to b

W  Q  V .dl
Electrostatic force is a conservative
a
a
force
W  Q   V .dl      (2)
a

 V  V (b)  V (a)

W  Q V (b)  V(a) 
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
W  Q V (b)  V(a)
W
 V (b)  V(a)
Q
The potential difference b/w points “a” and “b” is equal
to the work per unit charge required to carry a particle from
“a” to “b”
If point “a” is a reference point
If we want to bring the Q in from far away and put at
point r r 
a
V (a)    0
rb  r
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
W  Q V (r)  V()

W  QV ( r )
It means that W = work done on charge Q is also equal to
the potential energy
P.E  W  QV (r )

P.E. is linearly proportional to the potential V(r) (when

referenced to V(ra = ∞)
Potential Energy = amount of work W it takes to create
the system (Joules)

Potential Difference = work W it takes to create the

system per unit charge (Joules/Coulomb = Volts)
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
Units of work W = unit of Potential energy, P.E. = Joules
(SI units)
P.E  W  QV (r )
W = P.E.= Q V (r) = Coulomb-Volts = Joules
1 Coulomb x 1 Volt = 1 Joule

Fundamental unit of electric charge:

1e = 1.602×10−19 Coulombs = 1.602×10−19 C

1 eV (electron volts) = 1.60x10-19 Joules

2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
How much work does it take to assemble a collection of
point charges
Bringing them in from infinity, one by one?

Bringing in the first charge q1 takes no work, since

initially there is no electric field present
W  QV (r )

W1  0
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
Now bring in the 2nd charge q2 from infinity. The work
done in bringing in q2 from infinity is:
1 q1 q2
W2 
4 0 r12
1 q1
W2  q2 ( )
4 0 r12

r12  r12  r2  r1
r12 is the distance
(separation b/w q1 & q2)
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
Now bring in the 3rd charge q3 from infinity. The work
done in bringing in q3 from infinity is:
1 q1q3 1 q2 q3
W3  
4 0 r13 4 0 r23
1 q1 q2
W3  q3 (  )
4 0 r13 r23

1 q1q4 1 q2 q4 1 q3 q4
W4   
4 0 r14 4 0 r24 4 0 r34
1 q1 q2 q3
W4  q4 (   )
4 0 r14 r24 r34
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
Now bring in the 5th charge q4 from infinity. The work
done in bringing in q4 from infinity is:

1 q1q5 1 q2 q5 1 q3 q5 1 q4 q5
W5    
4 0 r15 4 0 r25 4 0 r35 4 0 r45

1 q1 q2q4 q3
W5  q5 (    )
4 0 r15 r25 r35 r45
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
The total work necessary to assemble the first 4 charges is
WTOTAL  W1  W2  W3  W4

1 q1 q2 1 q1 q 3 1 q 2 q3 1 q1 q 4 1 q2 q4 1 q3 q 4
WTotal  0      
4 0 r12 4 0 r13 4 0 r23 4 0 r14 4 0 r24 4 0 r34

1 q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3 q1q4 q2 q4 q3 q4

WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r23 r14 r24 r34

1 q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4

WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
1 q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4
WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34

1 n n qi q j
WTotal 
4 0

i 1 j 1 rij
j i
j > i remind us not to count the same pair twice
A nicer way to intentionally count each pair twice and
n n qq


then divide by 2 i j

i 1 j 1 rij
1 j i
WTotal 
4 0 2
1 n n qi q j
WTotal 
8 0

i 1 j 1 rij
j i
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
1 n n qi q j
 qj
n
1
WTotal 
8 0 i 1 j 1 rij
V(r) 
4 0
r
j 1 ij
j i j i

1 n n
1 qj
WTotal   qi ( )
2 i 1 j 1 4 0 rij
j i
1 n
WTotal   qi V(ri )
2 i 1
It is the amount of work to assemble to make
configuration of point charges
It is also the amount of work you will get back if you
break the system
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=13

DR. M. Y. Soomro
 ρ
1 
1  
E
4 0 r 2
ˆ
rdv
V
4 0 r dv .E 
0

 2V  
0
xE  0

E  V
V   E.dl
V E
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
Fmech   Fe Fmech  QE
The mechanical work done on theb Q along the path a to b
W  Q   V .dl      (2)
is: b

W   Fmech .dl
a
a

W  Q  E .dl
b

W  Q V (b)  V(a) 
a
b

W  Q  E .dl      (1)
a
a


W  Q  V .dl
a
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
b

W  Q  E .dl      (1) W  QVab

a
The answer is independent of the
E  V
a
path from a to b

W  Q  V .dl
Electrostatic force is a conservative
a
b
force
W  Q   V .dl      (2)
a

 V  V (b)  V (a)


W  Q V (b)  V(a) 
2.4.1 The Work Done to Move a Charge
W  Q V (b)  V(a)
W
 V (b)  V(a)
Q
ra  
V (a)    0
rb  r

W  Q V (r)  V() 
W  QV ( r )
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
How much work does it take to assemble a collection of
point charges
Bringing them in from infinity, one by one?

Bringing in the first charge q1 takes no work, since

initially there is no electric field present
W  QV (r )

W1  0
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
Now bring in the 2nd charge q2 from infinity. The work
done in bringing in q2 from infinity is:
1 q1 q2
W2 
4 0 r12
1 q1
W2  q2 ( )
4 0 r12

r12  r12  r2  r1
r12 is the distance
(separation b/w q1 & q2)
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
Now bring in the 3rd charge q3 from infinity. The work
done in bringing in q3 from infinity is:
1 q1q3 1 q2 q3
W3  
4 0 r13 4 0 r23
1 q1 q2
W3  q3 (  )
4 0 r13 r23

1 q1q4 1 q2 q4 1 q3 q4
W4   
4 0 r14 4 0 r24 4 0 r34
1 q1 q2 q3
W4  q4 (   )
4 0 r14 r24 r34
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
Now bring in the 5th charge q4 from infinity. The work
done in bringing in q4 from infinity is:

1 q1q5 1 q2 q5 1 q3 q5 1 q4 q5
W5    
4 0 r15 4 0 r25 4 0 r35 4 0 r45

1 q1 q2q4 q3
W5  q5 (    )
4 0 r15 r25 r35 r45
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
The total work necessary to assemble the first 4 charges is
WTOTAL  W1  W2  W3  W4

1 q1 q2 1 q1 q 3 1 q 2 q3 1 q1 q 4 1 q2 q4 1 q3 q 4
WTotal  0      
4 0 r12 4 0 r13 4 0 r23 4 0 r14 4 0 r24 4 0 r34

1 q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3 q1q4 q2 q4 q3 q4

WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r23 r14 r24 r34

1 q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4

WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
1 q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4
WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34
1 n n qi q j
WTotal 
4 0

i 1 j 1 rij
j i
j > i remind us not to count the same pair twice
A nicer way to intentionally count each pair twice and
n n qq


then divide by 2 i j

i 1 j 1 rij
1 j i
WTotal 
4 0 2
1 n n qi q j
WTotal 
8 0

i 1 j 1 rij
j i
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
1 n n qi q j
 qj
n
1
WTotal 
8 0 i 1 j 1 rij
V(r) 
4 0
r
j 1 ij
j i j i

1 n n
1 qj
WTotal   qi ( )
2 i 1 j 1 4 0 rij
j i
1 n
WTotal   qi V(ri )
2 i 1
It is the amount of work to assemble to make
configuration of point charges
It is also the amount of work you will get back if you
break the system
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=14

DR. M. Y. Soomro

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
W1  0 W2 
1 q1 q2
W3 
1 q1 q3

1 q2 q3
4 0 r12 4 0 r13 4 0 r23

1 q1q4 1 q2 q4 1 q3 q4
W4   
4 0 r14 4 0 r24 4 0 r34

WTOTAL  W1  W2  W3  W4

1 q1 q2 1 q1 q 3 1 q 2 q3 1 q1 q 4 1 q2 q4 1 q3 q 4
WTotal  0      
4 0 r12 4 0 r13 4 0 r23 4 0 r14 4 0 r24 4 0 r34

q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4

1
WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
1 q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4
WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34
1 n n qi q j
WTotal 
1 n


n qi q j WTotal 
8 0
 rij
4 0 i 1 j 1 rij i 1 j 1
j i
j i

1 n qj
n n qi q j V(r)  r

i 1 j 1 rij
4 0 j 1
j i
ij

1 j i
WTotal  1 n
4 0 2 WTotal   qi V(ri )
2 i 1

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem 2.31
a) Three charges are situated at the corners of a square
(side a). How much work does it take to bring in another
charge +q, from far away and place it in the fourth
corner?
b) How much work does it take to assemble the whole
configuration of four charges?
V  V1  V2  V3
1 q
V1 
4 0 a
1 q
V2 
4 0 a
1 q
V3 
4 0 a 2
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem 2.31
1 q 1 q 1 q
V  
4 0 a 4 0 a 4 0 a 2

1 q 1
V (2  )
4 0 a 2

W  qV

 Since the potential is zero at infinity

1 q2 1
W (2  )
4 0 a 2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem 2.31
b) How much work does it take to assemble the whole
configuration of four charges?

 It takes no work to bring in the first charge

 The second charge requires (supposing it is the
negative)
W  qV
q 2
W2 
4 0 a
 Since the potential is zero at infinity. The third charge
requires 1 q( q) 1 q( q)
W3  
4 0 a 4 0 a 2
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem 2.31
1 q( q) 1 q( q)
W 
4 0 a 4 0 a 2

q2 1
W (  1)
4 0 a 2

We have already calculated the work required for the

fourth charge 1 q2 1
W (2  )
4 0 a 2

The work for the total configuration

1 q 2 1 1 1 q2 1
W  0  (  1)  (2  )
4 0 a 4 0 a 2 4 0 a 2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem 2.31
1 q 2 1 1 1 q2 1
W  0  (  1)  (2  )
4 0 a 4 0 a 2 4 0 a 2

q2 q2
W 
2 2 0 a  0 a

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
Four charges are arranged at the corners of a square ABCD
of side d. Find the work required to put together this
arrangement

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
1 n
WTotal   qi V(ri )      (1)
2 i 1
1
W   VdV      (2)
2

.E     0.E
0
1
W    0 (.E )VdV
2
0
W 
2  (.E )VdV      (3)
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
0
W 
2  (.E )VdV      (3)

 f (.A)dv   A.(f )dv   fA.da

V V s

f V
A E

 V(. E)dv   E.(V )dv   VE.da

V V s

0  
W     E.(V )dv   VE.da       (4)
2 V s 
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
0  
W     E.(V )dv   VE.da       (4)
2 V s 
E  V V   E 1
W   VdV
2
0  
W     E.( E)dv   VE.da 
2 V s 
0  2 
W    E dv   VE.da       (5)
2 V s 
0
W 
2 
all space
E 2 dv
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
A spherical conducting shell of inner radius a and outer
radius b carries a total charge +Q distributed on the surface
of a conducting shell. The quantity Q is taken to be positive.
(a) Find the electric field in the interior of the conducting
shell, for r < a, and (b) the electric field outside the shell,
for r > b. (c) If an additional charge of -2Q is placed at the
center, find the electric field for r >b. (d) What is the
distribution of charge on the sphere in part (c)?

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
(a) Find the electric field in the interior of the conducting
shell, for r < a

Apply Gauss’s law to the Gaussian surface illustrated in

Figure

Qinside
EA  E 
0

Note that there isn’t any charge inside this surface):

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
Qinside
EA  E 
0
Qinside
E (4 r ) 
2
0
0
E 0

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
(b) the electric field outside the shell, for r > b
Qinside Q
E (4 r ) 
2

0 0
Q
E (4 r ) 
2

0
1 Q
E
4 0 r
2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
(c) If an additional charge of -2Q is placed at the center,
find the electric field for r >b
Compute the new electric field outside the sphere,
for r > b

Apply Gauss’s law as in part (b), including the new charge

in Qinside
Qinside
E (4 r ) 
2

0
Q  2Q
E (4 r ) 
2

0
Q
E
4 0 r
2

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
(d) What is the distribution of charge on the sphere in part
(c)?

Write Gauss’s law for the interior of the shell

Qinside Qcenter  Qinner surface
EA  EA 
0 0
Find the charge on the inner surface of the shell, noting
that the electric field in the conductor is zero
Qcenter  Qinner surface  0

Qinner surface  Qcenter

Qinner surface  2Q
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Problem
Find the charge on the outer surface, noting that the inner
and outer surface charges must sum to Q:
Qouter surface  Qinner surface  Q

Qouter surface  Qinner surface  Q

Qouter surface  Q

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Problem 2.31
The electric field inside a
uniformly charged spherical shell
is zero. It is also zero for the
conducting material in the region
a < r < b. The field outside is the
same as that of a point charge
having a total charge Q located at
the center of the shell

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
 Problem 2.31
The construction of a Gaussian
surface for calculating the electric
field inside a spherical shell

The construction of a Gaussian

surface for calculating the
electric field outside a spherical
shell

Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Thanks
Dr. M. Y. Soomro
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=15

DR.M.Y.Soomro
2.4.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution
1 q1q2 q1q3 q1q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4
WTotal  (      )
4 0 r12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34

1 n n qi q j
WTotal 
1 n


n qi q j WTotal 
8 0
 rij
4 0 i 1 j 1 rij i 1 j 1
j i
j i
1 n qj
n n qi q j V(r) 
4 0
r

i 1 j 1 rij
j 1
j i
ij

1 j i
WTotal  1 n
4 0 2 WTotal   qi V(ri )
2 i 1
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
1 n
WTotal   qi V(ri )      (1)
2 i 1
1
W   VdV      (2)
2

.E     0.E
0
1
W    0 (.E )VdV
2
0
W 
2  (.E )VdV      (3)
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
0
W 
2  (.E )VdV      (3)

 f (.A)dv   A.(f )dv   fA.da

V V s

f V
A E

 V(. E)dv   E.(V )dv   VE.da

V V s

0  
W     E.(V )dv   VE.da       (4)
2 V s 
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
0  
W     E.(V )dv   VE.da       (4)
2 V s 
E  V V   E 1
W   VdV
2
0  
W     E.( E)dv   VE.da 
2 V s 
0  2 
W    E dv   VE.da       (5)
2 V s 
0
W 
2 
all space
E 2 dv
Example
Find the energy of a uniformly charged spherical shell of
total charge q and radius R 1 q
1
W   VdV
W 
8 0 R   da
2
2
1 1 q
W    Vda W 
2 8 0 R
Potential at the surface of sphere
1 q
V 
4 0 R
1 1 q
W    da
2 4 0 R
Comments on electrostatics energy
0
W 
2 
all space
E 2 dv

Energy of stationary charge distribution is always

positive
1 n
W   qi V(ri )
2 i 1
Energy of stationary charge distribution can be positive
or negative
Both are correct

Where is the energy stored?????????

2.5 Conductors
In insulator each electron attached to a particular atom

In conductor one or more electrons per atom

Perfect conductor contain unlimited supply of free

charges

In real life there is no perfect conductors

Basic electrostatic properties of ideal conductors
1. E = 0 inside a conductor
2. ρ=0 inside a conductor
3. Any net charge resides on the surface
4. A conductor is an equipotential
5. E is perpendicular to the surface, just outside a
conductor
Thanks
Electrodynamics-I
Lec=16

DR.M.Y.Soomro
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
1 n
WTotal   qi V(ri )      (1)
2 i 1
1
 f (.A)dv   A.(f )dv   fA.da
W   VdV      (2)
V V s

2 f V
A E
    0.E
.E 
0
1
W    0 (.E )VdV  V(. E)dv   E.(V )dv   VE.da
2 V V s

0
W 
2  (.E )VdV      (3)

0  
W     E.(V )dv   VE.da       (4)
2 V s 
2.4.3 The Energy of a Continuous Charge
Distribution
0  
W     E.(V )dv   VE.da       (4)
2 V s 
E  V V   E
0  2 
W    E dv   VE.da       (5)
2 V s 
0
W 
2 
all space
E 2 dv
 Basic Properties of ideal conductor
E= 0 inside a conductor
when conductor is placed in a uniform external electric
field
the free charges inside the conductor (electrically neutral)
re-distribute themselves to create/produce inside E = 0
on extremely short timescales of ~ femto→ pico-seconds
(~ 10−15 −10−12 sec)
The redistributed free charges pile up on the surface(s) of
the conductor in such a way as to produce inside E = 0
These induced charges produce an internal electric field
of their own, which exactly cancels the external field
 2.5.2 induced charges
If +q charge hold near a
uncharged conductor

Two will attract one another

q will pull minus charges near

side

q repel plus charge to the far

side

As negative induced charge is

close to q there is a net force of
attraction
2.5.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor
As the field inside a conductor is zero

Eabove  Ebelow  nˆ
0
The E immediately outside is

E nˆ
0
Same as field is perpendicular to the surface
Vabove Vbelow 1
  
n n 0
V 1
 
n 0
V
   0
n
2.5.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor
In the presence of E surface charge will experience a
force f E
Force per unit area

Problem
As electric field is discontinuous at surface charge so
which value we supposed to use

E above

E below
in between
2.5.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor
Answer
Average of the two
f   Eaverage
1
f   ( Eabove  Ebelow )
2
2.5.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor
Attention on a small patch surface surrounding the point
in question
Tiny enough so it essentially flat and surface charge on it
is essentially constant

Total E consist of two parts

Attributable to the patch itself

Attributable due to everything else (other region of the
surface +any external source that may be present
E  E patch  Ebelow
2.5.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor

Eabove  Eother  nˆ
2 0

Ebelow  Eother  nˆ
2 0
2Eother  Eabove  Ebelow
Eabove  Ebelow
Eother 
2
1
Eother  ( Eabove  Ebelow )
2
Eother  Eaverage
2.5.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor

Eother  Eaverage
This valid for any surface (for conductor)
The field is zero inside

( )nˆ outside
0

( )nˆ average
2 0
2.5.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor
The force per unit area
f   Eaverage 
Eaverage ( )nˆ
f 
1 2
 nˆ
2 0
2 0
This produce an outward electrostatics pressure on the
surface tending to draw the conductor into the field

If we sum up the infinitesimal force contribution from all

patches associated with entire conducting surface
 2
2
 2 0 dA 2 0
A
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=18

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
2.5.4 Capacitors
A capacitor is a device store electric charges

Computer RAM memory

Electronic flash for cameras
Radios and electronic circuits

The capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the

magnitude of the charge on either conductor (plate) to the
magnitude of the potential difference between the
conductors (plates):
q
C
V
The parallel-plate capacitor
Capacitance of a PPC can be easily calculated from three
fact
1. Magnitude of the electric field between two plates is
given by 
E
0
σ is the magnitude of the charge per unit area on each
plate

2. Potential difference between two plates is V = Ed

where d is the distance between the plates

3. Charge on one plate is given by q =σA, where A is the

area of the plate
The parallel-plate capacitor
q
C
V

A
C
Ed
A
C

( )d
0
A
C  0
d
The parallel-plate capacitor
Gauss’s law
For positively charged plate
Q
 E.dA   0
Q Q
2 EA  E
0 2 0 A

For negatively charged plate

Q Q
2 EA   E
0 2 0 A
Using principle of superposition
Q Q Q
E  E
2 0 A 2 0 A 0 A
The parallel-plate capacitor
b
Vba    E.dl
a

Choose a path from “a” to “b”

(anti-parallel to E)
b
Vba    Edl cos1800 Vba  Ed
a
Qd
Vba 
0 A Q
C
Q Qd
C
Vba 0 A
0 A
C
d
Chapter-03
Special Techniques
3.1 Laplace’s equation
Primary task of electrostatics:
Find electric field of a given stationary charge
distribution
1 rˆ
Coulomb’s law E   dv
4 0 r 2

Problem:
Difficult to calculate due to integrals
 Best strategy:
1 1
Calculate potential V V   dv
4 0 r

Integral is tough to handle analytical

 Laplace’s Equation
1 1
V 
4 0 r
 dv

The corresponding electric field E can then be obtained

from the gradient of V
E  V
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
In many electrostatic problems, conductors are involved
and the charge distribution ρ is not known in advance (only
the total charge on each conductor is known)

In conductors ρ may be not known because charge is

moving anywhere on conductor

Only thing we can control directly the total charge (or

potential) of each conductor

A better approach to determine the electrostatic potential

is to start with Poisson's equation 
V 
2

0
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
In this situation:
It is usually better to recast problem in differential form
Poisson’ equation 
V 
2

0

It is a second-order differential equation

Using appropriate boundary conditions it will be

equivalent to 1 1
V
4 0  r  dv
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
 Very often we want to find potential in region where
there is no electric charge (charge free region)

In this region Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's

equation
 V 0
2

 if ρ = 0 everywhere then V = 0 there may be many

charges elsewhere but we focused on those regions where
there is no charge

V V V
2 2 2

In Cartesian coordinates   0

x y z
2 2 2
 3.1 Laplace’s equation V V V
2 2 2

  0
x y z
2 2 2

 This is fundamental formula for the electrostatics

We can say that electrostatics is the study of Laplace’s
equation

Universal equation appearing in many branches of

physics
Gravitation
Magnetism
Theory of heat
Study of soap bubbles

Solutions of Laplace’s equation known as harmonic

functions
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
There are an infinite number of functions that satisfy
Laplace's equation and the appropriate solution is selected
by specifying the appropriate boundary conditions

Solutions of Laplace's Equation in One, Two, and

Three Dimensions

Laplace’s equation in one dimension

Laplace’s equation in two dimension
Laplace’s equation in three dimension
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
V V V
2 2 2

  0
x y z
2 2 2

Suppose V depends on only one variable x

d 2V
2
0
dx
dV ( x)
Integrating both sides once   dx
2
dx
d V ( x)
 dx
2
dx   dx
dV ( x)
 m (Ist constant of integration)
d dV ( x) dx
 dx ( dx )dx   dx
dV
 d( dx
)   dx
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
dV ( x)
 m (Ist constant of integration)
dx
dV ( x)
 dx
dx   mdx

 dV (x)  m dx
V (x)  mx  b (b = 2nd constant of integration)

V (x)  mx  b
equation for a straight line
It is the general solution for d 2V
2
0
dx
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
Depending on the boundary conditions for the problem,
suppose V (x = 5) = 0 Volts and
V (x =1) = 4 Volts
these two boundary conditions uniquely specify the
values of b and m
we have two equations, and two unknowns (m & b)
solve simultaneously:
V ( x  5)  0 V ( x  5)  0  b  5m  b  5m
V ( x  1)  4  b  1m  4  5m  1m
V ( x  1)  4
4  4m
V (x)  5 1x m = -1 and b  5
V (x)  5 1x (it is equation of a straight line for this problem)
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
General features of 1-D Laplace’s Equation

∇2V (x) = 0 and potential V ( x)

V (x) is the average of V (x + a) and V (x − a) for any a as
long as x + a and x - a are located in the region between the
boundary points
1
V (x)  V( x  a)  V( x  a)
2

∇2V= 0 allows NO local maxima or minima–extrema

must occur at endpoints
3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
1
V (x)  V( x  a)  V( x  a)
2
V( x  r )  V(x  r) s( x  R)  b  s(x  R)  b

2 2
s x  xR  b  s x  xR  b
2
2s x  2b 2(s x  b)
2 s xb mx  b
2
V ( x)  mx  b
3.1.3. Laplace's Equation in Two Dimensions
V V V
2 2 2

  0
x y z
2 2 2

In two dimensions the electrostatic potential depends on

two variables x and y V V
2 2

 0
x y
2 2

This equation does not have a simple analytical solution

as the one-dimensional Laplace equation does

However, the properties of solutions of the one

dimensional Laplace equation are also valid for solutions of
the two-dimensional Laplace equation
3.1.3. Laplace's Equation in Two Dimensions
1. The value of V at a point (x, y) is equal to the average
value of V around this point
1
V ( x, y ) 
2 R  VRd

Method of relaxation on which the computer solutions to

Laplace’s equations are based

2. V has no local maxima or minima; all extremes occur at

the boundaries.
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=19

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
Chapter-03
Special Techniques
3.1 Laplace’s equation
Primary task of electrostatics:
Find electric field of a given stationary charge
distribution
1 rˆ
Coulomb’s law E   dv
4 0 r 2

Problem:
Difficult to calculate due to integrals
 Best strategy:
1 1
Calculate potential V V   dv
4 0 r

Integral is tough to handle analytical

 Laplace’s Equation
1 1
V 
4 0 r
 dv

The corresponding electric field E can then be obtained

from the gradient of V
E  V
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
In many electrostatic problems, conductors are involved
and the charge distribution ρ is not known in advance (only
the total charge on each conductor is known)

In conductors ρ may be not known because charge is

moving anywhere on conductor

Only thing we can control directly the total charge (or

potential) of each conductor

A better approach to determine the electrostatic potential

is to start with Poisson's equation 
V 
2

0
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
In this situation:
It is usually better to recast problem in differential form
Poisson’s equation 
V 
2

0

It is a second-order differential equation

Using appropriate boundary conditions it will be

equivalent to 1 1
V
4 0  r  dv
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
 Very often we want to find potential in region where
there is no electric charge (charge free region)

In this region Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's

equation
 V 0
2

 if ρ = 0 everywhere then V = 0 there may be many

charges elsewhere but we focused on those regions where
there is no charge

In Cartesian coordinates V

2
V
2
V
2

  0
x y z
2 2 2
 3.1 Laplace’s equation V V V
2 2 2

  0
x y z
2 2 2

 This is fundamental formula for the electrostatics

We can say that electrostatics is the study of Laplace’s
equation

Universal equation appearing in many branches of

physics
Gravitation
Magnetism
Theory of heat
Study of soap bubbles

Solutions of Laplace’s equation known as harmonic

functions
 3.1 Laplace’s equation
There are an infinite number of functions that satisfy
Laplace's equation and the appropriate solution is selected
by specifying the appropriate boundary conditions

Solutions of Laplace's Equation in One, Two, and

Three Dimensions

Laplace’s equation in one dimension

Laplace’s equation in two dimension
Laplace’s equation in three dimension
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
V V V
2 2 2

  0
x y z
2 2 2

Suppose V depends on only one variable x

d 2V
2
0
dx
Integrating both sides once
d 2V ( x)
 dx
2
dx   dx dV ( x)
  dx
dx
d dV ( x)
 dx ( dx )dx   dx dV ( x)
 m (Ist constant of integration)
dx
dV
 d( dx
)   dx
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
dV ( x)
 m (Ist constant of integration)
dx
dV ( x)
 dx
dx   mdx

 dV (x)  m dx
V (x)  mx  b (b = 2nd constant of integration)

V (x)  mx  b
equation for a straight line
It is the general solution for d 2V
2
0
dx
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
Depending on the boundary conditions for the problem,
suppose V (x = 5) = 0 Volts and
V (x =1) = 4 Volts
these two boundary conditions uniquely specify the
values of b and m
we have two equations, and two unknowns (m & b)
solve simultaneously:
V ( x  5)  0 V ( x  5)  0  b  5m  b  5m
V ( x  1)  4  b  1m  4  5m  1m
V ( x  1)  4
4  4m
V (x)  5 1x m = -1 and b  5
V (x)  5 1x (it is equation of a straight line for this problem)
 3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
General features of 1-D Laplace’s Equation

∇2V (x) = 0 and potential V ( x)

V (x) is the average of V (x + a) and V (x − a) for any a
as long as x + a and x - a are located in the region between
the boundary points
1
V (x)  V( x  a)  V( x  a)
2
∇2V= 0 allows NO local maxima or minima–extrema
must occur at endpoints
3.1 Laplace’s equation in one dimension
1
V (x)  V( x  a)  V( x  a)
2
V( x  r )  V(x  r) s( x  R)  b  s(x  R)  b

2 2
s x  xR  b  s x  xR  b
2
2s x  2b 2(s x  b)
2 s xb mx  b
2
V ( x)  mx  b
3.1.3. Laplace's Equation in Two Dimensions
V V V
2 2 2

  0
x y z
2 2 2

In two dimensions the electrostatic potential depends on

V V
2 2
two variables x and y  0
x y
2 2

This is not a DE, it is a partial differential equation

Simple rules do not apply

This equation does not have a simple analytical solution

as the one-dimensional Laplace equation does

However, the properties of solutions of the one

dimensional Laplace equation are also valid for solutions of
the two-dimensional Laplace equation
3.1.3. Laplace's Equation in Two Dimensions
1. The value of V at a point (x, y) is equal to the average
value of V around this point
1
V ( x, y) 
2 R  VRd

Method of relaxation on which the computer solutions to

Laplace’s equations are based

2. V has no local maxima or minima; all extremes occur at

the boundaries
Laplace's Equation in Three Dimensions
Three dimensions the electrostatic potential depends on
three variables x , y , and z  2V  2V  2V
  0
x y z
2 2 2

1
V ( x, y) 
2 R  VRd

2. V has no local maxima or minima; all extremes occur at

the boundaries
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=20

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
3.1.5 Boundary conditions and Uniqueness
Theorems
For determining V using Laplace’s equation we must use
suitable boundary conditions
What appropriate boundary conditions

Set of boundary conditions presented in the form of

uniqueness theorem

First uniqueness theorem

Second uniqueness theorem
First Uniqueness Theorem
The solution to Laplace’s equation in some volume v is
uniquely determined if potential V is specified on the
boundary surface s
First Uniqueness Theorem
Consider a volume within which the charge density is
equal to zero

Suppose that the value of the electrostatic potential is

specified at every point on the surface of this volume

The first uniqueness theorem states that in this case the

solution of Laplace's equation is uniquely defined

Suppose there were solutions V1 and V2 of Laplace's

equation in the volume
First Uniqueness Theorem
2V1  0 2V2  0
Since both V1 and V2 are solutions, they must have the
same value on the boundary
It means V1 = V2 on the boundary of the volume

Consider a third function V3, which is the difference

between V1 and V2
V3  V1  V2
This is a potential as well so it has to satisfy Laplace's
equation 2V  2V  2V
3 1 2 2V3  0
First Uniqueness Theorem
Boundary conditions of V3:
Boundary conditions for V3 = 0
It means all around this region we are talking about V3=0
because
V1  V2
Importance of Uniqueness theorem:
It is a license to imagination
When you are solving these problems using all you find a
solution it does not matter what method you use as long as
the boundary conditions are same
First Uniqueness Theorem
Interesting thing is that uniqueness theorem is also true for
Poisson’ equation 
 2V  
0
we have some charges in region
Uniqueness theorem will work by the same reasoning

Suppose we have two solution V1 and V2

Satisfy boundary conditions & specified

V3  V1  V2
First Uniqueness Theorem
2V3  2V1  2V2
 
 V3    ( )
2
2V3  0
0 0
What boundary conditions for V3 = boundary conditions
for V1 - boundary conditions for V2

V3 = 0 everywhere

It means V1  V2

This proves that there can be no two different functions V1

and V2 that are solutions of Laplace's equation and satisfy
the same boundary conditions
Second Uniqueness Theorem
Related with conductors

The first uniqueness theorem can only be applied in those

regions that are:

1. Free of charge
2. Surrounded by a boundary with a known potential
Second Uniqueness Theorem
In the laboratory the boundaries are usually conductors
connected to batteries to keep them at a fixed potential

In many other electrostatic problems we do not know the

potential at the boundaries of the system

Instead we might know the total charge on the various

conductors that make up the system

Total charge on a conductor does not imply a knowledge

of the charge distribution ρ since it is influenced by the
presence of the other conductors
Second Uniqueness Theorem
In addition to the conductors that make up the system,
there might be a charge distribution ρ filling the regions
between the conductors

For this type of system the first uniqueness theorem does

not apply
Second Uniqueness Theorem
The second uniqueness theorem states that the electric field
is uniquely determined if:

1. The total charge on each conductor is given

2. The charge distribution in the regions between the
conductors is known

Proof:
Suppose that there are two fields E1 and E2 that are
solutions of Poisson's equation in the region between the
conductors  
.E1  .E2 
0 0
where ρ is the charge density at the point where the
electric field is evaluated
Second Uniqueness Theorem
 
.E1  .E2 
0 0
Both obey Gauss’s law in integral form for a Gaussian
surface enclosing each conductor
Qi Qi

surface
E1.da 
0 
surface
E2 .da 
0
conductor conductor

for outer boundary

Qtotal

Qtotal E2 .da 

outer
E1.da 
0 outer
0
boundary boundary
Second Uniqueness Theorem
Difference
E3  E1  E2
In the region b/w the conductors It obeys
.E3  .E1  .E2
 
.E3  
0 0
Qi Qi
.E3  0  E .da  
3
0

0
Over each boundary surface
 E .da  0
 E .da   E .da   E .da
3
3 1 2
Second Uniqueness Theorem
Product rule
.( fA)  f (.A)  A.( f)
.(V3E3 )  V3 (.E3 )  E3.(V3 ) E3  V3
.(V3E3 )  V3 (.E3 )  E3.( E3 )
.(V3E3 )  V3 (.E3 )  E32
.(V3E3 )  V3 (.E3 )  (E3 )2
Apply divergence theorem to the left region b/w the
conductors
 .(V3E3 )dv   3 3    3 dv
2
V E .da (E )
V V
Second Uniqueness Theorem
 .(V3E3 )dv   3 3    3 dv
2
V E .da (E )
V V

The surface integral covers all boundaries of the region in

question (conductors and outer boundary)

V3 is a constant over each surface (if the outer boundary is

infinity V3 = 0

As  E .da  0
3

 3 dv  0
2
(E )
V
Second Uniqueness Theorem
 3 dv  0
2
(E )
V
But this integrand is never negative
Only way the integral can vanish is if E3=0 everywhere

Consequently:
E1=E2

Theorem is proved
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=22

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
3.2 The Method of Images
A useful technique for finding E and V for a certain
special classes of electrostatic and magnetostatic problems
that have some (or high) degree of mirror-reflection
symmetry

Idea is to convert a difficult electrostatic problem

involving spatially extended charged objects (e.g. charged
conductors) and
then replace them with a finite number of carefully,
intelligently chosen / well-placed discrete point charges
Solving the simpler point-charge problem is the solution
for the original, more complicated problem
3.2 The Method of Images
Replace a charged surface of a conductor (which is at
constant potential by an equipotential surface (at same
potential) due to one (or more) such / so-called “image
charges”
3.2 The Method of Images
Point charge q located near an infinite, grounded
conducting plane:

A grounded conductor is a special type of equipotential:

infinite amounts of electrical charge (± Q) can flow from / to
ground to / from the conducting surface so as to maintain
electrostatic potential V = 0 (Volts) at all times

In reality no such thing particularly for AC / time-varying

electromagnetic fields
3.2 The Method of Images
3.2 The Method of Images
Question:
What is the potential in the region above the plane
3.2 The Method of Images
Potential is not only due to charge q
1 q
V
4 0 r
Charge q will induce certain amount of negative charge on
the nearby surface of the conductor

Total potential:
1. Directly due to charge q
2. Due to induced charge

 Difficult:
 We don’t know how much charge is induced or how it is
distributed
3.2 The Method of Images
Solve Poisson’s equation in the region z > 0 with a single
point charge q at (0,0,d)

1. V = 0 when z = 0 (since conducting plane is grounded)

2. V → 0 far from the charge (x2+ y2+ z2 >> d2)

 According to first uniqueness theorem: there is only one

function that satisfy these conditions
3.2 The Method of Images
Replaced ∞-conducting grounded plane V(x, y, z = 0) = 0
with an image point charge –q located at (x, y, z) = (0,0,−d )
3.2 The Method of Images
Principle of Superposition determine total potential at
observation point
Vtotal  V1  V2
1 q 1 q
Vtotal  
4 0 r 4 0 r

1 q q
Vtotal  (  )
4 0 r r
1 q q
Vtotal  (  )
4 0 x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2
x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2
3.2 The Method of Images
1 q q
Vtotal  (  )
4 0 x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2
x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2

If we set z = 0 x2  y 2  d 2

It means we have satisfy boundary conditions

If we go to infinity the denominator goes to zero

For z ≥ 0 the potential of a point charge above an infinite

grounded conductor is given by
1 q q
Vtotal  (  )
4 0 x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2
x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2
3.2 The Method of Images
Side view of problem:
3.2 The Method of Images
Mirror reflection:
Induced surface charge
Electric field immediately any conductor
 E  V
E nˆ
0
 
V  nˆ V   nˆ
0 0
V 

n 0

V
   0
n
V
= normal derivative of V at the surface
n
 Induced surface charge
V
   0
n
Normal direction is z-direction
V V
1 q

q
   0 4 0
( )
z z 0
x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2
x  y  (z  d )
2 2 2

  1 q q 
   0  (  )
z  4 0 x  y  ( z  d )
2 2 2
x  y  ( z  d ) 
2 2 2

1   q q 
   0 (  )
4 0 z  x  y  ( z  d )
2 2 2
x  y  ( z  d ) 
2 2 2
 Induced surface charge
1   q q 
   0 (  )
4 0 z  x  y  ( z  d )
2 2 2
x  y  ( z  d ) 
2 2 2

1  1 
3
1 
3

   0  q( x  y  ( z  d ) ) .2( z  d )( )  q( x  y  ( z  d ) ) 2( z  d )) 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 0  2 2 

 
1  q( z  d ) q( z  d ) 
   0 
4 0  2 3 3

 ( x  y  ( z  d ) )
2 2 2
( x  y  ( z  d ) ) 
2 2 2 2

 
1  qz  qd qz  qd 
   0 
4 0  2 3 3

 ( x  y  ( z  d ) )
2 2 2
( x  y  ( z  d ) ) 
2 2 2 2
Induced surface charge
 
1  qz  qd qz  qd 
   0 
4 0  2 3 3

 ( x  y  ( z  d ) )
2 2 2
( x  y  ( z  d ) ) 
2 2 2 2

At z = 0
 
1  qd qd 
   0 
4 0  2 3 3

 ( x  y  d )
2 2 2
( x  y  d ) 
2 2 2 2

 
1  2qd 
   0
4 0  2 3

 ( x  y  d ) 
2 2 2

1 qd

2 3
( x2  y 2  d )
2 2
Induced surface charge
1 qd

2 3
(x  y  d )
2 2 2 2

Maximum occur when denominator has minimum value

which is occur when x = y = 0
At this you will get maximum charge density
Induced surface charge
1 qd

Total induced charge 2 3
( x2  y 2  d )
2 2

Q    da

Cartesian coordinates da = dx dy r 2  x2  y 2
But it is easier to used Polar coordinates da  rdrd
1 qd
Q rdrd 2 qd 1
2 Q 
3
rdr
(r 2  d )2 2
2 3

θ is uniform so 2
(r 2  d )
2 2

 d  2 rdr
0
Q  qd 
qd 1 3
Q  rdrd (r 2  d )2 2

2 3
(r 2  d 2 ) 2
Induced surface charge
rdr
Q  qd  3
(r 2  d )
2 2

Substitution
1 1
u u  1(r 2  d 2 )

2
r2  d 2
1 2 2  32 rdr
du   (r  d ) .2r du   3
2 (r 2  d ) 2 2


r   1 1 
Q  qd  
Q  qd U
r 0  r d
2 2 2 2

r  d 0

Q  q
Force
Force b/w q and –q
Charge q is attracted toward the plane
1 q2
F  zˆ
4 0 (2d ) 2

 with two point charges and no conductor (z > 0, z < 0)

1 n
W   qiV
2 i 1
1 q2
W 
4 0 2d
For a single charge and conducting plane energy is half
2
(z > 0) 1 q 2 1 1 q
W  W  ( )
4 0 4d 2 4 0 2d
Why half????? 0
W  dv
2
E
2
Force
we can obtain W actual by calculating the work required
to bring +q in from infinity to a distance d above the
grounded ∞-conducting plane

The mechanical force required to oppose the electrical

force of attraction is: 1
d
q2
Fmech   FE W
4 0  (2 z)

2
dz

1q2
Fmech  zˆ q2
d
1
4 0 (2 z )
 z 2 dz
2
W
d 16 0
W   Fmech .dl d
 q 2
1
d W 
W 
q2 1
dz 16 0 z 

4 0 (2 z ) 2
Force
d
q 2
1
W 
16 0 z 

q2
W 
16 0 d

1 1 q2
W  ( )
2 4 0 2d
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=23

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
 ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point
charges q and –q separated by a distance

The direction from –q to q is said to be the

direction of the dipole

The mid-point of locations of –q and q is called the centre

of the dipole
 Physical significance of dipoles
In most molecules, the centres of positive charges and
of negative charges lie at the same place

Therefore, their dipole moment is zero

CO2 and CH4 are of this type of molecules

They develop a dipole moment when an electric field is

applied
 Physical significance of dipoles
Polar molecules
In some the centres of negative charges and of positive
charges do not coincide

Therefore they have a permanent electric dipole moment,

even in the absence of an electric Field

Such molecules are called polar molecules

Water molecules (H2O)

 Electric dipole moment (p)
The product of charges and their separation is known as
dipole moment
p  qd
The field of an electric dipole
The electric field of the pair of charges (–q and q) at any
point in space can be found out from Coulomb’s law and
the superposition principle
Calculate the Electric Field of the dipole
Calculate the Electric Field of the dipole
The positive charge set up electric field E

The negative charge set up electric field E

E  E  E
The magnitudes of the fields from each charge are
1 q
E  E       (A)
4 0 r 2

d 2
From figure: r  x  ( )
2 2

2
1 q
E  E       (B)
4 0 x 2  ( d ) 2
2
Calculate the Electric Field of the dipole
Total Fields
As the fields E+ and E- have equal magnitudes and lie at
equal angles θ with respect to the z direction so the x
components of the field is zero
E sin   E sin   0
The total field E has only a z component with
magnitude
E  E cos   E cos 
E  2 E cos       (C)
Calculate the Electric Field of the dipole
x d 2 d 2
cos   cos   r  x ( )
2 2

r r 2
d
cos   2
d 2
x ( )
2

E  2E cos      (C)

1 q d 2
E  (2)
4 0 x 2  (d 2)2 x 2  (d ) 2
2 1 p
E
1 qd 4 0 [ x  (d 2) ]
2 2 32

E
4 0 [ x  (d 2) ]
2 2 32
Calculate the Electric Field of the dipole
1 p
E
4 0 [ x  (d 2) ]
2 2 32

This gives the magnitude of the electric field at P due to

the dipole
It has cylindrical symmetry about the z axis (we could
have chosen the x-axis to have any direction perpendicular
to the dipole axis)
Calculate the Electric Field of the dipole
Situation:
If point P had distance x very large compared with the
separation d 1 p
Use the binomial expansion E
4 0 [ x  (d 2) ]
2 2 32
n(n  1) 2
(1  y)n  1  ny  y  .........
2!
1p 1 1 p
E E [1  ( d 2  32
) ]
4 0 x [1  (
3
d 2 32
) ] 4 x 3 2x
2x 0

1 p 3 d 2
E [1  ( )( )  .......]
4 0 x 3
2 2x
If z>>d p 1
E
4 0 x 3
Electric Field of Continuous Charge Distribution
Continuous charge distributions is a collections of
infinitesimal charge elements

These charge elements can be treated as point charges

By integrating all charge distributions we can find the

total force

Same method can be used to calculate the electric field

due to the continuous charge distributions
3.4 Multipole Expansion
If you are far away from a charge distribution it look like
a point charge

Potential of this distribution

1 Q
V
4 0 r
Q is the total charge charge

If Q = 0 then potential is then approximately zero

3.4 Multipole Expansion
There are often situations when an observer is far away from
a localized charge distribution ρ (r฀) and wants to know
what the potential V (r฀) and / or the electric field intensity
E (r฀) are far from the localized charge distribution.

Potential of this distribution

Q is the total charge charge

If Q = 0 then potential is then approximately zero

3.2 The Method of Images
Replace a charged surface of a conductor (which is at
constant potential by an equipotential surface (at same
potential) due to one (or more) such / so-called “image
charges”
Induced surface charge
Electric field immediately any conductor
 E  V
E nˆ
0
 
V  nˆ V   nˆ
0 0
V 

n 0

V
   0
n
V
= normal derivative of V at the surface
n
Force
we can obtain W actual by calculating the work required
to bring +q in from infinity to a distance d above the
grounded ∞-conducting plane

The mechanical force required to oppose the electrical

force of attraction is: 1
d
q2
Fmech   FE W
4 0  (2 z)

2
dz

1q2
Fmech  zˆ q2
d
1
4 0 (2 z )
 z 2 dz
2
W
d 16 0
W   Fmech .dl d
 q 2
1
d W 
W 
q2 1
dz 16 0 z 

4 0 (2 z ) 2
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=24

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
Special Techniques for Calculating Potential

Laplace’s Equation

The Method of Images

Separation of Variables

Multipole Expansion
Special Techniques for Calculating Potential
The Method of Images

1. The Classical Image Problem

2. The Induced Surface Charge

3. Force and Energy

 Multipole Expansion
Approximate Potentials at Large distances
 Multipole Expansion
Approximate Potentials at Large distances
Find the approximate
potential at points far from
the dipole
1 q q
V ( p)  (  )
4 0 r r

r2  r 2  ( d2 )2 rd cos

2 d d2
 r (1  cos  2
)
r 4r
r  d
2 d
 r (1 cos  )
r
 Multipole Expansion
Approximate Potentials at Large distances
r  d
2 d
 r (1 cos  )
r
1
1 1 d  1 d
 (1 cos ) 2  (1  cos  )
r r r r 2r

1 1 d
(  ) cos 
r+ r- r2
1 qd cos
V ( p) 
4 0 r2
 Multipole Expansion
Example
For an arbitrary localized charge distribution Find a
systematic expansion of the potential?
1 1
V ( p)  
4 0 r
 d

r 2  r 2  r2  2rr cos

2 2 r 2 r
r  r [1  ( r )  2( r )cos ]
r r
rr 1   ( )(  2cos  )
r r
1
1 1  1 1 3 2 5 3
 (1 ) 2  (1        )
r r r 2 8 16
 Multipole Expansion
1
1 1  1 1 3 2 5 3
 (1 ) 2  (1        )
r r r 2 8 16
1 1 r r 3 r r 5 r 3 r
 [1  ( )(  2cos  )  ( ) 2 (  2cos  ) 2  ( ) (  2cos  )3  ]
r 2 r r 8 r r 16 r r

1 r r 2 3 1 r 3 5 3
 [1  ( )cos  ( ) ( cos 2   )  ( ) ( cos3   cos  )  ]
r r r 2 2 r 2 2

1 r n

r ( ) Pn (cos  )  d 
r
n 0

1 1
V (r ) 
4 0  r ( n1) 
( r ) n
Pn (cos  )  d
n 0
1 1 1 1 32 1
 [
4 0 r   d  r2
 r  cos  d  r3
 ( cos  )  d 
( r )
2 2
]
Monopole term Dipole term Quadrupole term
Multipole expansion
Chapter-04
Electric Fields in Matter
1. Polarization
2. Field of a Polarized Object
3. The Electric Displacement
4. Linear Dielectrics
Chapter-04
Electric Fields in Matter
1. Polarization
o Dielectrics
o Induced dipoles
o Alignment of polar molecules
o Polarization
4-1 Polarization
Dielectrics
Most everyday objects belongs to one of two large
classes
Conductors
Insulators (dielectrics)

Conductors have unlimited supply of charges that are

free to move through the material
One or two electrons per atom are nor associated with
any particular nucleus
Dielectrics
In Insulators:
An “ideal” dielectric material is one which contains no
free charges
All charges are attached to specific atoms or molecules
they can move a bit within the atom or molecules

Those microscopic displacement are not effective as

rearrangement of charges in a conductor

Off course their cumulative effects account for the

characteristic behavior of dielectric material
Dielectrics
Principle mechanisms in Dielectrics:

1. Stretching
2. Rotating

These are the mechanisms by which electric fields can

distort the charge distribution of a dielectric atom or
molecule
Induced dipoles
When a neutral atom placed in an electric field E
What will happen?
As atom is uncharged field has no effect on it
Incorrect……

Atom as a whole electrically neutral

Positively charged core (nucleus) (Rnucleus = few
fermi….1 fermi = 10-15m
Negatively charged electron cloud bound to nucleus

Typically radius of orbiting electrons is few angstroms (1

Å = 10-10m)
Induced dipoles
The typical electric field strength “seen” by an electron
orbiting the hydrogen nucleus (a single proton) due to the
nuclear electric charge is:
 1 Qnucl  1 1.6 x1019
e
Enucl  e
Enucl 
4 0 r 2 4 x8.85 x1012 (1010 )2

e
Enucl  1.44 x1011Volts / m

The nucleus “sees” this same electric field strength, due

to the electron’s electric charge
Compare this internal electric field strength to the
electric field strengths available in a laboratory
lab
Eext 103  106V / m
Induced dipoles
e 11 lab
103  106V / m
Enucl  1.44 x10 Volts / m external
E

lab e
Eext Enucl

 Because of this, when an atom is placed in an external

electric field, because Eext << Eint the atom “sees” the
externally applied field as a perturbation to its internal
electric field
Neutral atom, no externally-applied electric field
A Neutral Atom in an Externally Applied Uniform
Electric Field
Suppose we place a neutral atom between the plates of
parallel plate capacitor
Atomic nucleus feels a net force
Fnucl  Qnucl Eext Fnucl  eE0
Electron “cloud” feels a net force of
Fe  Qe Ee Fe  eE0
It mean according to Newton’s 3rd law forces are equal
and opposite
Fe   Fnucl Fe  eE0
A Neutral Atom in an Externally Applied Uniform
Electric Field

Fe   Fnucl Fe  eE0

A Neutral Atom in an Externally Applied Uniform
Electric Field
Net effect of the externally-applied electric field
1. Nucleus is displaced a tiny amount (a small fraction of
size of atom) from its original position
2. The centroid (i.e. center) of the electron “cloud” is
displaced a tiny amount
Induced dipoles
As electrons of the atom are bound to the nucleus, the
mutual attraction of the atomic Coulomb force keeps the
atom together – electron cloud is bound to nucleus

As due to the external uniform electric field

1. the displacement of +Qnucl is increased by an amount
d/2
2. the displacement of the centroid of the electron “cloud”
charge distribution is also increased by an amount d/2

we see that an electric dipole moment p=Qd is induced

(i.e. created) in the atom by the application of the external
electric field
Induced dipoles
Typically linear relationship exists between the induced
electric dipole moment p and the externally-applied
electric field pE ext

p   Eext
Constant of proportionality is known as atomic electric
polarizability
Value of α is depends on the detailed structure of atom

SI unit: Coulomb  meters Coulomb2

p  
 Newton / Coulomb Newton / m
Eext
Induced dipoles
The atomic polarizabilities of atoms are often expressed
in terms 
4 0

Elements atomic polarizabilities

H 0.667
He 0.205
Li 24.3
C 1.76
Na 24.1
Cs 59.6
Induced dipoles
Molecules polarize more readily in some directions than
others

For CO2
When field is applied along the axis of molecules then
polarizability is 4.5x10-40 C2.m/N
 When field is applied perpendicular to molecules then
polarizability is 2x10-40 C2.m/N

When field is at some angle to the axis:

Resolve into parallel and perpendicular components
p    E   E
Induced dipoles
p   Eext
Replaced by the most general linear relation b/w E & P
px   xx Ex   xy E y   xz Ez
p y   yx Ex   yy E y   yz Ez
pz   zx Ex   zy E y   zz Ez
 Physical significance of dipoles
Polar molecules
A polar molecule is one in which the centres of gravity of
protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative charge) do
not coincide
Example:
N2O
H2O
HCL
NH3
Polar molecules has generally asymmetrical distirbution
of charge
These molecules have permanent dipole moment in the
range of 10-30 C.m
 Physical significance of dipoles
Polar molecules
This is reason that polar molecules can be called
permanent electric dipoles
In the absence of any external electric field, the electric
dipole moments of polar molecules points in the random
directions
Electric dipoles moments of polar
molecules cancel each other

Conclusion:
Average dipole moment per unit
volume of a dielectric is zero
 Physical significance of dipoles
Polar molecules
In the presence of external electric field the polar
molecules tend to align themselves in the direction of the
electric field
Thermal vibrations of
molecules present
A better alignment can be
obtained by:

1. working at lower temperature

2. working with stronger electric fields
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=25

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
 Problem 4.7
Energy of an ideal dipole in an electric field
Consider the work done by the electric field in turning the
dipole through an angle θ
The work done by the external field in turning the dipole
from an initial angle θ0 to a final angle θ is

dW   d  dW    d 

W    d
0

W    d 0
0
As torque tends to decrease θ,
so torque  and d are in opposite directions

 .d   d
Energy of an ideal dipole in an electric field

  pE sin 
W    d
0

W    pE sin  d
0


W   pE  sin  d
0

W   pE   cos

0

W  pE (cos  cos 0 )
Energy of an ideal dipole in an electric field
As the work done by the agent that produces the
external field is equal to the negative of the change in
potential energy of the system of the field + dipole
U  W W  pE(cos  cos0 )
U   pE(cos   cos0 )

We arbitrary define the reference angle θ0 to be 900 and

choose the potential energy U(θ0) = 0 at that angle
At any angle θ the potential energy is
U   pE cos 

U   p.E
 4.2 The Field of a polarized object
Bound Charges
Consider a piece of polarized material
Containing microscopic dipoles lined up
Question:
What is the field produced by this polarized object????

For a single dipole “p” the electrostatic potential

generated by this material is equal to
1 r. ˆp
V
4 0 r 2
r is vector from the dipole to the point at which we are
evaluating the potential
Bound Charges
1 r.ˆp P
p
p  Pdv
V
4 0 r 2 V
1 r.Pˆ 1 rˆ
V dv ( ) 2
'

4 0 r 2
r r
1 ˆ
r.P
V 
4 0 v r 2
dv

1 rˆ
V  ( 2 ).P dv
4 0 v r

1 1
V  P. ( )dv
/

4 0 v r
Bound Charges .( fA)  f (.A)  A.( f)
1 1
V  P. ( )dv
/

4 0 v r 1
A.( f)  P. ( )
/

Integrating by parts r
A.( f)  .( fA)  f (. A)

1  / 1 1 / 
V    .( ) P dv   ( .P)dv 
4 0  v r v
r 
1  / P 1 / 
V    .( )dv   ( .P)dv 
4 0  v r v
r 
1 / P 1 1 /
V 
4 0 v
 .( )dv 
r 
4 0 v r
( .P)dv
Bound Charges
1 P 1 1 /
V   .( )dv   ( .P)dv
/

4 0 v r 4 0 v r
Using Divergence theorem  (.V )dv   V .da
v s
1 1 1 1 /
V 
4 0 s r
P.da  
4 0 v r
( .P)dv

P.da  P.nˆ
 b  P.nˆ b  .P
1 b 1 b
V
4 0 
s
r
da 
4 0 
v
r
dv

It means that potential of a polarized object is the same

as that produced by a volume charge density plus a surface
charge density
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
Field produced due to a polarized object is identical to the
field that produced by certain distribution of bound charges
Bound charges are perfectly genuine accumulation of
charge
What is the reason for that accumulation???
Suppose we have a long string of dipoles

At two ends two charges left plus at right and minus at
left
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
To calculate amount of bound charges from a given
polarization
Take a polarized tube (all polarized)

Take slices (take one cross-section)

This behave as the same net negative charge at one end

and net positive charge on other end
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
The dipole moment of chunk is P(Ad)
p  PV p  P( Ad )
A = cross-sectional area of the tube
d = length of chunk
In terms of charge q at the end qd

Bound charge accumulate at the right end of the tube

q = PA
If ends perpendicularly slice q
b 
b  P A

For oblique cut charge is same but A  Aend cos

q
b   b  P cos  b  P.nˆ
Aend
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
The effect of Polarization
Produced bound charge over the surface of material
 b  P.nˆ
If polarization is non-uniform then we get
Surface bound charges
Bound charge within the material

Divergence of P
Results in a accumulation of
negative charge
Net bound charge in a given
volume is equal and opposite to the
amount on the surface
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
P.nˆ per unit area

 b dv   P.da   dv    P.da
v
b
s
v s

  dv    (.P)dv
v
b
v

b  .P
Thanks
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=26

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
Field produced due to a polarized object is identical to the
field that produced by certain distribution of bound charges
Bound charges are perfectly genuine accumulation of
charge
What is the reason for that accumulation???
Suppose we have a long string of dipoles

At two ends two charges left plus at right and minus at
left
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
To calculate amount of bound charges from a given
polarization
Take a polarized tube (all polarized)

Take slices (take one cross-section)

This behave as the same net negative charge at one end

and net positive charge on other end
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
The dipole moment of chunk is P(Ad)
p  PV p  P( Ad )
A = cross-sectional area of the tube
d = length of chunk
In terms of charge q at the end qd

Bound charge accumulate at the right end of the tube

q = PA
If ends perpendicularly slice q
b 
b  P A

For oblique cut charge is same but A  Aend cos

q
b   b  P cos  b  P.nˆ
Aend
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
The effect of Polarization
Produced bound charge over the surface of material
 b  P.nˆ
If polarization is non-uniform then we get
Surface bound charges
Bound charge within the material

Divergence of P
Results in a accumulation of
negative charge
Net bound charge in a given
volume is equal and opposite to the
amount on the surface
Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
P.nˆ per unit area

 b dv   P.da   dv    P.da
v
b
s
v s

  dv    (.P)dv
v
b
v

b  .P
4.3-The Electric Displacement
Gauss’s law in the presence of Dielectrics
Effect of polarization:
Produce accumulation of bound charges
1. Within the dielectric b  .P
2. On the surface of dielectric b  P.nˆ

 Field due to polarization of the medium is just the field

of this bound charge

 Free charge:
 Consists of electrons on a conductor or ions embedded
in the dielectric material (any charge that is not a result
of polarization)
Gauss’s law in the presence of Dielectrics
Field attributable to bound charge plus the field due to the
any other charge (free charge)

Within the dielectric total charge density

  b   f  0.E  .P   f

.E   0.E  .P   f
0
 0.E   .( 0 E  P)   f

 0.E  b   f D  0 E  P

b  .P .D   f
Gauss’s law in the presence of Dielectrics
Gauss’s law (differential form)
1
.E  
.D   f 0
Gauss’s law (integral form)
1
 D.da  Q fenc  E.da  
s 0
Qenc

Qfenc = total free charge enclosed in the volume

This is expression of Gauss’s law in the context of
dielectrics because it makes reference only to free charges
We can control Free charge
If we put free charge in electric field polarization takes
place
Polarization produced bound charge
Gauss’s law in the presence of Dielectrics
Gauss’ Law for D physically tells us that the electric
displacement field is sensitive to the free charge

.D   f

Gauss’ Law for E tells us that the electric field intensity is

sensitive to the total charge
1
 E.da  
s 0
Qenc
Example 4.4
A long straight wire carrying uniform line charge is
surrounded by rubber insulation out to a radius a
Find the electric displacement
Solution:
Draw cylindrical Gaussian
surface of radius s and
length L
D(2 s)  
 D.da  Qfenc

D(2 rL)   L D
2 s
this formula holds inside the rubber dielectric (r < a) as
well as outside the rubber dielectric (r > a)
It means this formula is valid for any r
Example 4.4
In region r > a P = 0 (no rubber dielectric for r > a )
D  0 E  P
D  0 E
1 
E D D
0 2 s


E s>a
2 0 s

Inside the rubber E can not be determined since we don’t

know P
4.3.2 A Deceptive Parallel
Some similarities and difference b/w E and D

Make Assignment by utilizing your understanding about

E and D
4.3.3 Boundary Conditions
Recast electrostatic boundary conditions in terms of D
1
E
E 
 
o
above below


Dabove 
 Dbelow f

Discontinuity in the components perpendicular to an

interface Eabove  Ebelow
Dabove  Dbelow  Pabove  Pbelow
D  0 E  P

Discontinuity in the parallel components

Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=27

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
4.3.3 Boundary Conditions
Recast electrostatic boundary conditions in terms of D
1
E
E 
 
o
above below


Dabove 
 Dbelow f

Discontinuity in the components perpendicular to an

interface Eabove  Ebelow
Dabove  Dbelow  Pabove  Pbelow
D  0 E  P

Discontinuity in the parallel components

4.4 Linear Dielectrics
The Polarization of a for an ideal, linear, homogeneous &
isotropic dielectric due to external electric field
Lines up atomic or molecular dipoles
For many substances
PE
P   0 e E
χ electric susceptibility of the medium (scalar quantity)
The value of χ depends on:
1. microscopic structure of substance
2. external conditions such temperature

Material obey equation known as linear dielectrics

(class A dielectrics)
4.4 Linear Dielectrics
In above equation E is total field
1. Part due to free charges P   0 e E
2. Part of polarization
In linear media
D  0 E  P
D   0 E   0 e E
D   0 (1  e ) E
DE    0 (1  e )
D E
ε is constant called permittivity of the material
In vacuum ρ = 0 so P = 0 so ε0 is called permittivity of
free space
4.4 Linear Dielectrics
D   0 (1  e ) E    0 (1  e )

 (1   e )
0
 r  1  e
εr is called relativity permittivity or dielectric constant of
the material
4.4 Linear Dielectrics
We may expect that in linear dielectrics difference b/w E
and D removed
As P and D are now proportional to E (not valid)

Consider interface b/w a polarized dielectric and vacuum

P = 0 on one side but on other side P ≠ 0

If space is filled with homogeneous, linear dielectric

.D   f xD  0
So D can be found from free charge
D   0 Evac D E
4.4 Linear Dielectrics
D   0 Evac D E
Evac is the field the free charge distribution would
produce in the absence of any dielectric
   0 (1  e )
1
E D 
  (1   e )
0
1
E  Eva  r  (1  e )
r
4.4.2 Boundary Value problems with Linear Dielectrics
In a homogeneous linear dielectric the bound charge
density is proportional to the free charge density
b  .P P   0 e E
  D
 f  .( 0 e E) D E E
D 
b  .( 0  e )

0  0
b  .(  e D)  1  e 
1
  0  1  e
e
b  .( )D .D   f
1  e
e
 b  ( ) f
1  e b   f
 4.4.2 Boundary Value problems with Linear Dielectrics
Discontinuity occur in the component perpendicular to an
interface

Dabove 
 Dbelow f D E

 above Eabove

  below Ebelow

 f E  V

 aboveVabove   belowVbelow   f

( aboveVabove   belowVbelow )   f

 aboveVabove   belowVbelow   f
Vabove Vbelow
 above   below   f
n n
4.4.2 Boundary Value problems with Linear Dielectrics
Potential itself continues
Vabove  Vbelow
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=28

DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
4.4 Linear Dielectrics
PE
P   0 e E
D  0 E  P
D   0 E   0 e E
D   0 (1  e ) E
DE
D E    0 (1  e )

 (1   e )
0  r  1  e
4.4.2 Boundary Value problems with Linear Dielectrics
In a homogeneous linear dielectric the bound charge
density is proportional to the free charge density
b  .P P   0 e E
  D
 f  .( 0 e E) D E E
D 
b  .( 0  e )

0  0
b  .(  e D)  1  e 
1
  0  1  e
e
b  .( )D .D   f
1  e
e
 b  ( ) f
1  e b   f
 4.4.2 Boundary Value problems with Linear Dielectrics
Discontinuity occur in the component perpendicular to an
interface

Dabove 
 Dbelow f D E

 above Eabove

  below Ebelow

 f E  V

 aboveVabove   belowVbelow   f

( aboveVabove   belowVbelow )   f

 aboveVabove   belowVbelow   f
Vabove Vbelow
 above   below   f
n n
4.4.2 Boundary Value problems with Linear Dielectrics
Potential itself continues
Vabove  Vbelow
4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric System
The total energy stored in the capacitor is equal to the
work done during the charging process
1
W  CV 2
2
If the capacitor is filled with a linear dielectric (dielectric
constant K) than the total capacitance will increase by a
factor K: C  KCVac

C   r CVac

A general expression for the energy of a capacitor with

dielectric materials present can be found by studying the
charging process in detail
4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric System
Consider a free charge ρf held at a potential V
During the charging process the free charge is increased
by ρf
The work done on the extra free charge is equal to
0
W 
2
E dV
2
Due to the presence of dielectric material
0
W    r E 2 dV
2  0 r  
1
W    0 r E 2 dV
2
1
W    E 2 dV
2
4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric System
1
W    E 2 dV
2
1
W    EEdV D E
2
1
W   D.EdV
2
1
W 
2 Volume
D.E dV

This equation can be used to calculate the energy for a

system that contains linear dielectrics
 4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
In electric field conductor attracted into the field
Similarly in electric field dielectric is also attracted into
the field
Bound charges tend to accumulate near free charge of
opposite sign

Consider:
Slab of linear dielectric material
Slab is partially inserted b/w plates of parallel plate
capacitor
4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
Conditions:
1. Field is uniform inside parallel plate capacitor
2. Field is zero outside parallel plate capacitor

If first condition is true then net force on dielectric is zero

as field is everywhere is perpendicular to plate
The electric force exerted by the field on the positive
bound charge of the dielectric is directed upwards and is
canceled by the electric force on the negative bound charge
 4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
Outside the capacitor the electric field is not uniform and
the electric force acting on the positive bound charge will
not be canceled by the electric force acting on the negative
bound charge

For the system vertical components of the two forces

(outside the capacitor) will cancel, but the horizontal
components are pointing in the same direction and therefore
do not cancel

The result is a net force acting on the slab, directed

towards the center of the capacitor
4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
Fringing field around edge (in most case it can be ignore)
In this case is responsible for whole effect
Non-uniform fringing field = pull dielectric into capacitor

Let W be the energy of the system

The work to be done to pull the dielectric out by an
infinitesimal distance ds is equal to
dW  Fme ds
Fme   FField

1 Q  CV
W  CV 2
2
1 Q2
W
2 C
 4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
Consider the situation where the slab of dielectric is
inserted to a depth s in the capacitor

The capacitance of this

system is equal to
C  Cvac  Cdielectric
0a K  0 sa
C 
d d
 0 ( w  s)a K  0 sa 0a
C  Cvac 
d d d
0 a K  0 sa
C (w  e s) Cdielectric 
d d
 4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
If the total charge on the top plate is Q then the energy
stored in the capacitor is equal to
0 a
1Q 2
C (w  e s)
W d
2 C
1 2 d
W Q
2  0 a  w  e s 
The force on the dielectric can now be calculated and is
equal to Q
dW V
Ffield  C
ds
1 2 dC
1 Q 2 dC Ffield  V
Ffield  2 ds
2 C 2 ds
Thanks
ELECTRODYNAMICS-I
LEC=29
DR.M.Y.SOOMRO
Chapter-05 Magnetostatics

Steady currents play the key role in magnetism as do

electric charges in electrostatics
Chapter-05 Magnetostatics
Magnetic Fields
When a charged particle is moving through a magnetic
field a magnetic force acts on it

1. This force has its maximum value when the charge

moves in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field
lines
2. This force is decreases in value at other angles
3. This force becomes zero when the particle moves along
the field lines
Chapter-05 Magnetostatics
Magnetic Fields
Electric force exerts a force on a charged particle whether
it’s moving or at rest
Electric force is directed parallel to the electric field
Magnetic force on a moving charge is directed
perpendicular to the magnetic field
 Magnetic Fields
In electricity
the electric field at some point in space is defined as the
electric force per unit charge acting on some test charge
placed at that point

Properties of the magnetic field

at some point in terms of the magnetic force exerted on a
test charge at that point
 Magnetic Fields
Our test object is a charge q moving with velocity v
It is found experimentally that:
strength of the magnetic force on the particle is proportional
to the
1. magnitude of the charge q
2. the magnitude of the velocity v
3. the strength of the external magnetic field B
4. the sine of the angle θ between the direction of v and the
direction of B

These observations can be summarized as:

F  qvB sin 
F
The magnitude of the magnetic field as: B 
qv sin 
 Magnetic Fields
Units:
If F is in newtons, q in coulombs, and v in meters per
second then
the SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T), also called
the weber (Wb) per square meter (1 T = Wb/m2)

Example:
If a 1-C charge moves in a direction perpendicular to a
magnetic field of magnitude 1 T with a speed of 1 m/s, the
magnetic force exerted on the charge is 1 N
Magnetic Fields
Units:
Wb N N
 B  T  2  
m C.m / sec A.m

cgs unit for magnetic field

gauss (G)

Relationship b/w gauss and tesla

1T  104 G
Earth’s magnetic field near its surface is 0.5 G, or
0.5 x104 T
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A LONG, STRAIGHT WIRE
During a lecture demonstration in 1819, Danish scientist
Hans Oersted (1777–1851) found
Electric current in a wire deflected a nearby compass
needle

That was a link b/w magnetic field with an electric

That was the beginning of our understanding of the origin
of magnetism

A simple experiment first carried out by Oersted in 1820

clearly demonstrates that a current-carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A LONG, STRAIGHT WIRE
Ørsted's experiment:
In this experiment several compass needles are placed in
a horizontal plane near a long vertical wire
When there is no current in the wire, all needles point in
the same direction (that of Earth’s field), as one would
expect
When the wire carries a strong, steady current, the
needles all deflect in directions tangent to the circle
MAGNETIC FIELD OF A LONG, STRAIGHT WIRE
Ørsted's experiment:
These observations show that the direction of B is
consistent with a convenient rule, right-hand rule

Point the thumb of your right hand along a wire in the

direction of positive current, as in Figure Your fingers then
naturally curl in the direction of the magnetic field B
 Lorentz force law
In a region where there is an electric field and a magnetic
field the total force on the moving force is equal to:
Ftotal  Felectric  Fmagnetic

Ftotal  qE  q(vxB)
This equation is called the Lorentz force law and provides
us with the total electromagnetic force acting on q

Important difference b/w electric field and the magnetic field

1. Electric field does work on a charged particle (it
produces acceleration or deceleration)
2. magnetic field does not do any work on the moving
charge
Lorentz force law
magnetic field does not do any work on the moving
charge
dwmagnetuc  Fmagnetic .dl

dwmagnetuc  q (vxB).v  dt

dwmagnetuc  0
We conclude that the magnetic force can alter the
direction in which a particle moves, but can not change its
velocity
4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric System
The total energy stored in the capacitor is equal to the
work done during the charging process
1
W  CV 2
2
If the capacitor is filled with a linear dielectric (dielectric
constant K) than the total capacitance will increase by a
factor K: C  KCVac

C  Cr CVac

A general expression for the energy of a capacitor with

dielectric materials
4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric System
0
W  dV
2
E
2
0  0 r  
W   E dV2
r
2
1
W    E 2 dV
2 D E

1
W   D.EdV
2
4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
Conditions:
1. Field is uniform inside parallel plate capacitor
2. Field is zero outside parallel plate capacitor

dW  Fme ds
Fme   FField
1
W  CV 2 Q  CV
2
1 Q2 0a
W Cvac 
2 C d
K  0 sa
C  Cvac  Cdielectric Cdielectric 
d
 0 ( w  s )a K  0 sa
C  0 a
d d C (w  e s)
d
 4.4.4 Forces on Dielectrics
If the total charge on the top plate is Q then the energy
stored in the capacitor is equal to
0 a
1Q 2
C (w  e s)
W d
2 C
1 2 d
W Q
2  0 a  w  e s 
The force on the dielectric can now be calculated and is
equal to Q
dW V
Ffield  C
ds
1 2 dC
1 Q 2 dC Ffield  V
Ffield  2 ds
2 C 2 ds
Thanks