SPPU | 2020 Video

First Year Engineering Solution

ENGINEERING
PHYSICS

Dipali S. Dhake
Yogita N. Chaudhari

SCAN. STUDY. SCORE.

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 JOURNEY TO A SUCCESSFUL IN-SEM EXAM
Total Marks:30

UNIT-1 22
Topics UNIT-2 16
Topics

1st MILESTONE 1st MILESTONE

1. Electromagnetic Waves 1. Introduction to Laser
2. Electromagnetic Spectrum 2. Mechanism of Laser
3. Interference of Light 3. Various Levels of Laser Systems
4. Stokes Law 4. Characteristics of Laser
5. Interference in Thin Film of Uni- 5. Carbon Dioxide LASER
form Thickness 6. Semiconductor Laser
6. Interference in Wedge Shaped 7. Applications of Lasers
Films 8. Holography
7. Formation of Colors In Thin Film
8. Engineering Application of Interference

2nd MILESTONE
2 nd
MILESTONE
9. Introduction Fiber Optics
9. Diffraction of Light 10. Propagation Mechanism Inside
10. Fraunhofer Diffraction Due to Single Optical Fiber
Slit 11. Acceptance Angle and Numerical
11. Plane Diffraction Grating Aperture
12. Fraunhofer Diffraction at A Circular 12. Fractional Index Change
Aperture 13. Types of Optical Fiber Cable
13. Rayleigh’s Criterion for Resolution 14. Losses in Optical Fiber
14. Resolving Power of Telescope and 15. Optic Fiber Communication System
Grating 16. Advantages of Optical Fiber
Communication
3rd MILESTONE
15. Introduction to Polarization
16. Terminology in Polarization
17. Brewster’s Law
18. Malus Law
19. Double Refracting Crystal
20. Huygens’s Theory of Double Refraction
21. Optical Activity
22. Applications of Polarization- LCD
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U N I T

Wave Optics

1. Electromagnetic Waves

An Electromagnetic waves are a propagating couple of an electric and magnetic field. They
are hence known as ‘electromagnetic’ waves.
The electric and magnetic field vectors are at angle of 90 degree, and both are perpen-
dicular to direction of propagation of wave.

Electromagnetic Wave

An electromagnetic wave can be created by accelerating charges. Moving charges back

and forth will produce oscillating electric and magnetic fields, and this travel at the speed
of light.

Properties of EM Waves

They are transverse in nature.

They consist of oscillating electric (E) and magnetic (B) field vectors at right angles to each
other and at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.
They can travel through a vacuum.
They travel at the speed of light in vacuum, c = 3 × 108m/s.
Electromagnetic wave follows the principle of superposition.
Electric field part of the electromagnetic wave is the reason for the optical vision.
They obey the wave equation c = fλ.
Their frequencies remain unchanged but its wavelength changes when the wave travels
from one medium to another.

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2. Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the categorization of electromagnetic wave according to

their wavelengths and frequencies.
The behavior of an electromagnetic wave in a substance depends on its frequency or
wavelength.
Like visible light these waves can be transmitted, reflected, and absorbed but their prop-
erties are different from visible light.
The Visible light is the type of electromagnetic waves to which our eyes responds.
Human body is opaque to visible light—we cannot see through human body—but trans-
parent to X-rays. X-rays are electromagnetic waves.
Another example is our car window glass is transparent to visible light but largely opaque
to ultraviolet radiation. Ultraviolet radiation is electromagnetic waves.
Entire range of light that exists, from radio waves to gamma rays, most of the light in the
universe visible or invisible to us is represented on electromagnetic spectrum.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The behavior of an electromagnetic wave in a substance depends on its frequency or

wavelength.
The differing behaviors of different groups in the electromagnetic spectrum make them
suitable for a range of uses.

Radio Waves

Radio waves are used for communication such as television and radio.
Radio waves are transmitted easily through the air.

They do not cause damage if absorbed by the human body, and they can be reflected to
change their direction.
These properties make them ideal for communications.

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Microwaves

Microwaves are used for cooking food and for satellite communications.
High frequency microwaves have frequencies which are easily absorbed by molecules in
food.
The internal energy of the molecules increases when they absorb microwaves, which
causes heating.
Microwaves pass easily through the atmosphere, so they can pass between stations on
Earth and satellites in orbit.

Infrared
Infrared light is used by electrical heaters, cookers for cooking food, and by infrared cam-
eras which detect people in the dark.
Infrared light has frequencies which are absorbed by some chemical bonds. The internal
energy of the bonds increases when they absorb infrared light, which causes heating.
This makes infrared light useful for electrical heaters and for cooking food.
All objects emit infrared light. The human eye cannot see this light, but infrared cameras
can detect it.
This ‘thermal imaging’ is useful for detecting people in the dark.

Visible Light
Visible light is the light we can see.
It is used in fiber optic communications, where coded pulses of light travel through glass
fibers from a source to a receiver.

Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet radiation can kill bacteria that are present in the water - this sterilizes the water
and makes it safe to drink.
Ultraviolet radiation is also good for the skin as it helps to make vitamin D. However, too
much exposure to UV can cause skin problems.
Hazards of electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation has many uses, but some of the waves can have hazardous ef-
fects, particularly on human body tissues.

Ionizing Radiation
Ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays are types of ionizing radiation.
This means that they can knock electrons from the shells of atoms, turning them into ions.
This process of ionization can lead to mutations in cells, which can lead to cancer.
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase the risk of skin cancer.

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Gamma ray scan also damage or kill the cells in a person’s body.
To be safe, exposure to ionizing radiation needs to be kept as low as possible, especially
for people who work with this type of radiation every day in hospitals.
A radiographer using X-rays in a hospital must stand behind a lead shield or be in another
room when the X-ray machine is being operated.

3. Interference of Light
Interference is the optical phenomenon. In nature many times we can see the interference.
Interference is due to the superposition principle.
“When two or more wave with constant phase difference, same intensity and same am-
plitude travelling from medium each wave produces its own displacement irrespective of
each other. The resultant of these waves is the vector sum of the amplitude of each wave”.
“The modification or the redistribution of intensity of resultant wave due to superposition
of two or more waves is known as interference”.
The bright colors seen in an oil slick floating on water or in a sunlight soap bubble are
caused by interference. The brightest colors are those that interfere constructively.

Wave 1

Wave 2

Wave 1

Wave 2

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Constructive Interference
At certain points waves superimpose in such a way that resultant intensity is greater
than the intensities due to individual waves. The interference produced at these points is
known as constructive interference.
When the crest or trough of one wave coincides with crest or trough of another wave then
resultant intensity become maximum and this is constructive interference.
For constructive interference, the two waves must be in phase or having the same phase
difference.

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Constructive Interference

For constructive interference (maxima), Phase difference = 0, 2π, 4π……

The phase difference of 2π corresponds to the path difference of λ.
Path difference = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ…
 = nλ
Thus, if the path difference between two waves is an integral multiple of the wavelength,
then it produces the constructive interference or maxima.

Destructive Interference
At certain points waves superimpose in such a way that resultant intensity is less than the
intensities due to individual waves. The interference produced at these points is known as
destructive interference.
When the crest of one wave coincides with trough of another wave then resultant inten-
sity become minimum and this is destructive interference. For destructive interference,
the two waves must be out phase or having different phase difference.

Destructive Interference

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For destructive interference (minima), Phase difference = 0, π, 3π, 5π ……

l
The phase difference of π corresponds to the path difference of .
2
l 3l 5l
Path difference = 0, , , ...
2 2 2

     = (2n ± 1) l
2
Thus, if the path difference between two waves is an odd integral multiple of half of the
wavelength, then it produces the destructive interference or minima.

Condition for Sustained Interference of Light

To obtain well defined interference patterns, the intensity at points corresponding to de-
structive interference must be zero, while intensity at the point corresponding to con-
structive interference must be maximum.
To accomplish this the following conditions must be satisfied-
i. The two interfering sources must be coherent, that is, they must keep a constant
phase difference.
ii. The two interfering sources must be monochromatic. The two interfering sources
must emit the light of the same wavelength and time-period. This condition can be
achieved by using a monochromatic common original source, that is, the common
source emits light of a single wavelength.
iii. The two interfering sources must be of same amplitude, means the amplitudes or
intensities of the interfering waves must be equal or very nearly equal so that the
minimum intensity would be zero.
iv. The two interfering sources must be close to each other, means the separation
between the two coherent sources must be as small as possible so that the width of
the fringes is large and are separately visible.
v. The two sources must be narrow, or they must be extremely small. A broad source
is equivalent to many fine sources. Each pair of fine sources will give its own pattern.
The fringes of different interference patterns will overlap.

Methods to Produce Coherent Waves

Division of Wave Front

When light from the source is allowed to pass through two different slits, original wave-
front divided into two wavefronts, travel through different paths and when they united,
they interfere.
Examples: Fresnel’s bi-prism, Lloyd’s mirror.

Division of Amplitude
The incident beam is divided into two or more beams by partial reflection at the surface
of thin film.
The amplitude, and therefore the intensity of the original wavefront, gets divided.
Examples: Interference in thin film, Newton’s rings.

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4. Stokes Law
Stokes law states that
Phase change of π or path difference (λ/2) occurs when light waves are reflected at the
surface of the denser medium.
No change of phase occurs when light waves are reflected at the surface of a rarer medium.

Reflected wave
Incident wave out of phase Refracted waves
in phase

μ1

μ2
Reflected wave
in phase

μ1

Stokes Law

5. Interference in Thin Film of Uniform Thickness

Thin layer of oil on water surface and a soap bubble are example of thin film.
If the film thickness is of the order 1 micrometer or nano meter, then it is consid-
ered as a thin film. A film with thickness of few micrometers is considered as thick
film.
When a thin film of oil spreads on the surface of water and is exposed to white light
beautiful colors are seen. The brightest colors are those that interfere constructively. This
interference is between light reflected from different surfaces of a thin film. Thus, effect is
known as thin film interference.
This phenomenon is also observed when the soap film is illuminated by white light. And
can be explained on the basis of interference between light reflected from upper and
lower surfaces of thin films.
Interference due to thin film is due to division of amplitude. When light falls on a thin film
some light rays get reflected, refracted, and transmitted.
Thus, to study the interference due to thin film there are two systems
i. Reflected System
ii. Transmitted System

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Interference in Thin Film Due to Reflected System

180° phase
change
No phase
change
Reflected
System

Thickness, t

Thin Film in Reflected System

Ray AB of monochromatic light having a wavelength (λ) incident on the upper surface of a
transparent film of thickness (t) and R.I. (µ) at an angle (i).
Ray AB is partly reflected along BR1 and partly refracted along BC at an angle(r).
The refracted ray BC reflected along CD and finally emerges out along DR2.
BR1 and DR2 are derived from the same incident ray, so they are coherent.
To calculate the path difference between BR1 and DR2, construct a perpendicular DN on
BR1 and CM on BD.
Path of BR1 and DR2 beyond DN are same, so the path difference between these two rays
is given by,
Path difference = ∆ = Path (BC + CD) in film – Path (BN) in air

D = m(BC + CD) - BN (1)……..(µ = 1)

air

From figure,

In ∆BMC,

CM
cosr =
BC

CM t
BC = =  (2)……….. (CM = t)
cosr cosr

In ∆CMD,

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CM
cosr =
CD

CM t
CD = =  (3)
cosr cosr

Put (2) and (3) in (1)

æ t t ö
D = mç + ÷ - BN (4)
è cosr cosr ø

BN
Again in DBND, sin i = , ® BN = BD sin i
BD

= (BM + MD)sini (5)

In ∆BMC,

BM
tanr =
CM

BM = CM tan r = t tan r (a)

In ∆CMD,

MD
tan r =
CM

MD = CM tan r = t tan r (b)

Put (a) and (b) in (5)

BN = (t tan r + t tan r)sin i

BN = 2t tan r.sin r  (6)

Put (6) in (4)

æ 2t ö
D = mç ÷ - 2t ´ tan r.sin i
è cos r ø

Multiply and divide by (sin r) to second term of above equation,

æ 2t ö æ sin r ö æ sin i ö
= mç ÷ - 2t ´ ç ÷´ç ÷ ´ sin r
è cos r ø è cos r ø è sin r ø

æ 2t ö æ sin2 r ö æ sin i ö
= mç ÷ - 2mt çç ÷…… ç = m÷
÷
è cos r ø è cos r ø è sin r ø

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mt
=2 (1- sin2 r)
cos r

æ cos2 r ö
= 2 mt ´ ç …… (1- sin2 r = cos2 r)
ç cos r ÷÷
è ø

D = 2 mt cos r

Ray BR1 is reflected from a denser medium to rarer medium, so according to stokes law,
ælö
additional path difference of ç ÷ or phase difference (π) is introduced.
è2ø

l
Total path difference = 2 mt cos r ±
2

Condition for constructive interference or maxima

For bright point path difference is integral multiple of λ,

l ælö
2 mt cos r ± = nl = 2n ç ÷
2 è2ø

l
2 mt cos r = (2n - 1) …….n = 1, 2, 3,  (a)
2

l
2 mt cos r = (2n + 1) …… n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 
2

Condition for destructive interference or minima

l
For dark point path difference is odd multiple of ,
2

l l
2 mt cos r ± = (2n ± 1) ´
2 2

l
2 mt cos r = 2n ´
2

= nl ……n = 0,1,2...... (b)

From (a) and (b), maxima and minima in the interference pattern depends upon two
factors,
i) Thickness of film
ii) The cosine of angler

When t = 0, the film will appear dark and as the thickness is increased, maxima and min-
ima occur alternatively.

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Interference in Thin Film Due to Transmitted System

In transmitted system ray CT1 and ET2 are consider for superposition to get the interference.

Thickness, t

Transmitted System

Total path difference between transmitted rays CT1 and ET2 = D = 2 mt cos r

l
The term is not added, because reflection at D is in the same denser medium from reflecting
2
surface. Thus, stokes law is not applied.

Condition for constructive interference or maxima

l
2 mt cos r = 2n ´
2
= nλ ………..n = 0,1, 2, 3.

Condition for destructive interference or minima

l
2 mt cos r = (2n ± 1) ´
2

As the constructive interference condition in the reflected system becomes destructive

interference conditions in transmitted light, the reflected and transmitted systems are
complimentary.

6. Interference in Wedge Shaped Films

An arrangement of two surfaces in contact with each other at one point and gradually
increasing the thickness of air film at other is known as wedge shaped thin film as shown
in figure.

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θ θ

Interference in Wedge Shaped Films

From figure path difference between BR1 and DR2 is

D = m film (BC + CD) - BF…… (m air = 1)

Total path difference is given by

l
D = 2 mt cos (r + q) ± , Angle BCN = (r + θ) due to exterior angle property in geometry.
2

Condition for constructive interference or maxima

l l
2 mt cos(r + q) ± = 2n ´ = nl n = 0, 1, 2, 3……
2 2

l
2 mt cos(r + q) = (2n ± 1)
2

Condition for destructive interference or minima

l l
2 mt cos(r + q) ± = (2n ± 1) ´
2 2

l
2 mt cos(r + q) = 2n ´ = nl n = 0,1, 2, 3……
2

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Fringe width
Fringe width is defined as “The separation between two successive bright or dark fringes”.
l
w=
2m sin q

For very small angle sin q » q,

l
w= ,
2mq
This is the expression for fringe width for any medium.
For air, m = 1

l
w=
2q

7. Formation of Colors In Thin Film

            Soap Bubble              Oil Film

According to interference phenomenon, when thin film of soap bubble, or an oil film on
water or wedge-shaped air film between two glass plates interacted with light beautiful
colors spectrum is seen in reflected light.
When white light interacts with film, light reflected from top and bottom surfaces of the
film, then these rays interfere with each other and produce interference pattern of colored
fringes.
The path difference between these rays depends upon thickness(t) of film and angle of
refraction(r) of the film.
Due to constructive interference, some colors satisfied the condition of maxima
l
2 mt cos r = (2n ± 1) and will be visible with maximum intensity.
2

While other colors satisfy condition of minima i.e 2mt cos r = nl, will be absent from the
reflected system.
Similarly, if a point is observed at a different angle by keeping the same thickness or dif-
ferent points at different thickness, a different set of colors is observed at each time.
The colors visible in reflected system will be complementary to the colors visible in trans-
mitted system.

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8. Engineering Application of Interference

Testing of Optical Flatness of Surface

Flatness of a surface is measured using optical flat plate and monochromatic source of
light using the principle of interference.
An optical flat is a precisely polished flat surface, used as a reference against which the
flatness of an unknown surface may be compared.

Optical Flat

When an optical flat also known as reference plate and a work surface i.e. test plate are
placed in contact, an air wedge is formed.

1'
2'
Angle shown
larger than 1 2
actual

ss
Gla

Air

Glass

Path of Rays in Air Wedge

When monochromatic light is incident on the optical flat, we get alternate dark and bright
fringes also known as interference fringes.
The change in thickness of the air wedge will dictate the shape and orientation of the
interference fringe and their shape gives a visual representation of the flatness of the
surface being tested.

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Straight, parallel, and evenly spaced interference fringes indicate that the work surface
flatness is equal to the reference surface.

Contact edge

Flat surface

Flat Surface and Its Fringes

If the band curve towards the line of contact the surface is convex.

Contact edge

Concave surface

Convex Surface and Its Fringes

Similarly, if the band curve is in the opposite direction then the surface is concave.

Contact edge

Convex surface

Concave Surface and Its Fringes

Non-reflecting /Anti-reflecting Coating (AR)

When light falls on camera then some light gets reflected back it decreases the quality of
image.
Thus, it is necessary to reduce the reflection to improve quality of an image.
The anti-reflection coating is used in cameras, projector lens, telescopes etc, to reduce
loss of light by reflection.

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µa

λ/4µc MgF2 film

µmgf2
MgF2

µg

Anti-Reflecting Coating On Camera Lenses

When light falls on camera it gets reflected from upper and lower surfaces of an anti-
reflecting coating as shown in above figure.
Ray BC (ray 1) is reflected from surface of coating ray and ray EF (ray 2) reflected from the
surface of the lens.
To reduce the reflection the ray 1 and ray 2 must produce the destructive inference.
So, the thickness of the anti-reflecting coating is chosen such that after reflection the ray
1 and ray 2 are in out of phase to produce destructive interference.
l
So, the path difference between reflected rays is or phase difference π (destructive
2
interference).
Due to destructive interference the intensity of reflected rays reduced and thus reflec-
tions can be minimized.
The condition for minima is,
l
2mC t cos r =
2
l
2mC t = ………… (for r = 0, cosr = 1),
2
l
t= m
4 c
Thus, the thickness of anti-reflecting coating can be determined by the above formula.
There are different materials are available for anti-reflecting coating. But for by consider-
ing the wavelength of light (5500A0) the most common AR coating used are magnesium
fluoride and cryolite. The Refractive index of MgF2 i.e. mMgF = 1.38 while for cryolite it is
2

mNa = 1.36 m a = 1, mMgF = 1.38 , m g = 1.52. (i.e. mair < mcoating < m glass ) .
3 AlF 6 2

l
By adjusting thickness, t = , condition for destructive interference being satisfied, it
4
gives no light in the reflected system.

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STEPS & Problem Based on

FORMULA Interference of light
Interference in thin parallel films
Reflected light
l
2mt cos r = (2n - 1) ´ , (For maxima or bright fringe), where n = 1, 2, 3, 4……
2
2mt cos r = nl (For minima or dark fringe)
Transmitted light
2mt cos r = nl (for maxima or bright fringe)
l
2mt cos r = (2n - 1) ´ (For minima or dark fringe)
2
æ sin i ö
m=ç ÷
è sin r ø
Fringe width
l
w= mq,
2
Wedge shaped film
Reflected light
l
Condition of maxima, 2mt cos(r + q) = (2n - 1) ´
2
Condition of minima, 2mt cos(r + q) = nl

Transmitted light
Condition of maxima, 2mt cos(r + q) = nl
l
Condition of minima, 2mt cos(r + q) = (2n - 1) ´
2

E xercise - 1.1
Question Based on Interference of Light
Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.

1. Derive the conditions for maxima and minima due to interference of light reflected from
thin film of uniform thickness.
2. Derive P.D between reflected rays when monochromatic light of wavelength λ falls with
angle I on uniform thickness of film of R.I μ. Write condition of maxima & minima.
3. Why do we see beautiful colors in thin film when it is exposed to sunlight?
4. Explain any one application of interference
5. Write a short note on anti-reflection coating.

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6. Write a short note on electromagnetic waves.

7. Explain electromagnetic spectrum.
8. A parallel beam of sodium light strikes a film of oil floating on water, when viewed at an
angle of 30° from the normal, eighth dark band is seen. Determine thickness of the film.
RI of oil is 1.46, l = 5890A °
9. A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength l = 5890A ° is incident on a thin
film of m = 1.5 such that the angle of refraction is 60° .Find minimum thickness of film so
that it appears dark. For normal incidence, what is the thickness required?
10. A soap film having refractive index 1.33 and thickness 5 ´ 10-5 cm is viewed at an angle of
35° to the normal. Find wavelength of light in the visible spectrum which will be absent
from reflected light.
11. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass wedge of refractive index 1.52. The
fringes spacing is 1 mm and wavelength of light is 5893A °, calculate the angle of wedge
in seconds of an arc.
12. A beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 5.82 ´ 10-7 m falls normally on a glass
wedge of wedge angle 20 second of an arc. If the refractive index of a glass is 1.5. Find
number of interference fringes per centimeter of the wedge length.
13. A glass of refracting index 1.5 is to be coated with a transparent material of refractive index
1.2, so that the reflection of light of wavelength 6000A° is eliminated by interference.
What is required thickness of the coating?

9. Diffraction of Light
The word ‘diffraction’ is derived from the Latin word “diffractus” which means to break
into pieces. “The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of an obstacle and
resulting into geometrical shadow (of an object) is called diffraction”.
Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object.
The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size
of the opening through which the light is passing.
If the opening is much larger than the light’s wavelength, the bending will be almost un-
noticeable. However, if the two are closer in size or equal, the amount of bending is con-
siderable, and easily seen with the naked eye.
Optical effects resulting from diffraction are produced through the interference of light waves.

Diffraction of Light

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In above figure, ideally, two lines should have been formed on the screen when light is
passed through the narrow slit.
But, due to interference and diffraction the light sent through the vertical slit is diffracted
into a pattern on the screen of numerous vertical lines spread out horizontally.
“The distribution of light intensity in dark and bright fringes is known as diffraction pattern.”

The diffraction may be divided into two groups

Fraunhofer Diffraction

The diffraction in which, the distance between source and screen is infinite from the dif-
fracting element is called Fraunhofer diffraction.
So, a pair of lenses is required in this diffraction. One is to convert that all light into a paral-
lel beam coming from a source to obstacle and other to focus the parallel diffracted rays
on a screen.

Fresnel Diffraction

The diffraction in which, the distance between source and screen is finite from a diffract-
ing element is called Fresnel diffraction.
Due to finite distance, lenses are not required in this diffraction.

Distinguish between Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction

Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel diffraction

Source and screen are at infinite distance Source and screen are at finite distance from
from diffracting element. diffracting element.
A pair of biconvex lenses is required. No lenses are required.
Incident wavefront is either spherical or
Incident wavefront is plane wavefront.
cylindrical.
The diffracted wavefront is spherical or
The diffracted wavefront is plane.
cylindrical.
It has many applications in designing It has less application in designing optical
optical instruments. instruments.

Maxima and minima are well defined. Maxima and minima are not well defined.

10. Fraunhofer Diffraction Due to Single Slit

To observe Fraunhofer diffraction at the single slit, source of light (s) is kept at the focus
of a biconvex lens(L) to convert diverging light into a parallel beam.
Another biconvex lens(L’) is placed beyond slit to focus parallel diffracted rays on a screen
placed in focal plane of lens.

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Let a parallel beam of light having wavelength (λ) incident normally on slit AB of width(a).
According to Huygens principle every point on slit act as a secondary source of light and it
emit secondary waves.
When these secondary rays travel without any deviation and focus at point C on the
screen. As these rays have no path difference, point C is principal maxima having maxi-
mum intensity.

θ
θ

θ
θ

Diffraction Due to Single Slit

When these secondary rays’ travels with a deviation angle (θ), focus at point P and P’ on
screen as shown in figure.
Intensity of point P and P’ on the screen depends on the path difference between the first
and last secondary rays reaching to that point.
To find the path difference, consider the slit AB is divided into N number of pseudo paral-
lel slits having width ∆x as shown figure.

Path Difference

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Thus, slit width (a) = Dx1 + Dx2 + Dx3 +  + DxN

From figure, in DABC,
AC
sin q =
AB
AC = ABsin q
Path difference, D = D X sin q (1)

Total path difference = asin q

2p
The phase difference f = x (Path Difference) (2)
l
2p
Therefore, Total phase difference f = ´ (asin q)
l
f p
For simplicity, a = = (asin q)  (3)
2 l
The amplitude of vibration of a wave from each small slit is same and so represented by
a small vector known as a phasor.
There are ‘N’ phasor of the same amplitude and the same phase difference.
The (N) phasors of equal amplitude and same phase difference between adjacent phasors
form an arc of a circle (PQ) with centre (O) and radius(R) as shown in figure.
The length of arc (PQ) represent maximum amplitude (Em), obtained by adding the pha-
sors without any phase difference between them.
Now consider the phasor which are deviated by an angle θ having phase difference of df.
Thus, the maximum amplitude Em which is the length of an arc in figure.

Φ/2

θ/2

θ/2

∆Φ
Phasor Diagram

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The PQ is the chord of a circle and it shows the resultant amplitude Eq .

Draw a perpendicular form apex angle f on PQ, it will bisect the chord as well as apex
angle.
Therefore in ∆OUP,

Eq
æ f ö PU
sin ç ÷ = = 2
2
è ø OP R

Eq
sin a =  (From (3))
2R

Eq = 2R sin a (4)

Now, if f is the angle, R is radius and Em is the length of arc, then

Length of arc Em
f= =
R R

Em = R f = 2R a  (From (3))

Em = 2R a  (5)

Divide equation (4) by (5),

Eq 2R sin a    sin a  
=  =
Em 2Ra a

æ sin a ö
Eq = Em ç ÷  (6)
è a ø

Equation (6) gives the resultant amplitude due to single slit.

We have the relation; intensity is directly proportional to the square of amplitude.

Thus, IqaE2q , Where Iq is the resultant intensity due to single slit.

2
2 æ sin a ö
Iq = Em ç ÷
è a ø

æ sin2 a ö
Iq = Im ç  (7)
ç a2 ÷÷
è ø

2
Where, Im = Em

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Principal maxima
The resultant amplitude due to single slit is,
æ sin a ö
Eq = Em ç ÷
è a ø

æE öé æ a 3 ö æ a5 ö æ a 7 ö ù
= ç m ÷ êa - ç ÷ +ç ÷ -ç ÷ + ú
ç 3! ÷ ç 5! ÷ ç 7! ÷
è a ø êë è ø è ø è ø úû
é æ a2 ö æ a 4 ö æ a6 ö ù
= Em ê1- ç ÷+ç ÷÷ - çç ÷÷ + ú
êë çè 3! ÷ø çè 5! ø è 7! ø úû
é æ a2 ö æ a 4 ö æ a6 ö ù
= Em ê1- ç ÷+ç ÷÷ - çç ÷÷ + ú
êë çè 3! ÷ø çè 5! ø è 7! ø úû

For principal maxima, Eq = Em

So, a = ± m p

f p
But a = = (asin q)
2 l
As a ¹ 0, sin q = 0,
When, q = 0
For q = 0 and a = 0 value the resultant intensity is maximum at C and is known as principal
maximum

Minimum intensity (minima)

For minima the intensity at P or P’ will zero.
For this, sin a = 0
b = ±mp

a = ± m p , m = 1, 2, 3, 4, ------

f æpö
a= = ç ÷ a sin q = ± mp
2 èlø
a sin q = ± ml
Therefore, points of minimum intensity lie on either side of principal maxima.

Secondary maxima
The condition for secondary maxima is given by,

æ 1ö
a = ± ç m + ÷ p,m = 1,2,3…
è 2ø

2
æ sin a ö
Iq = Im ç ÷
è a ø

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2
é ì æ m + 1ö ü ù
ê ísin ç ÷ pý ú
Iq ê î è 2 ø þ ú
=
Im ê ìæ m + 1ö ü ú
ê íç ÷ pý ú
êë îè 2 ø þ úû

m = 1, 2, 3------
= 0.045, 0.016, 0.0083------
This shows that intensity of secondary maxima decreases rapidly.

Intensity distribution of diffraction pattern due to single slit

Intensity
a Bright central maxima

π π π π π π

Intensity Distribution

The diffraction pattern due to single slit consists of bright central maximum and on both
sides having alternate minima of zero intensity and secondary maxima of decreases
intensities.

11. Plane diffraction grating (N slits diffraction)

A plane diffraction grating is an arrangement of large number of close, parallel, straight,
transparent and equidistant slits each of equal width(a) with neighboring slits being sepa-
rated by an opaque region of width (b).
On plane glass plate fine lines drawn by diamond pen.

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The light cannot pass through lines drawn by diamond pen.

There are about 15,000 lines per inch on such a grating to produce diffraction of visible
light.
The spacing (a + b) between center of adjacent slits is known as a grating element.
1
Number of lines ( N ) = lines per cm.
(a + b)

Theory of plane diffraction grating

Step 1:
Consider plane diffraction grating having (N) number of slits each of width (a) and sepa-
rated by opaque space (b).
The distance between centers of the adjacent slit is (a + b) known as a grating element.
When a plane wavefront of monochromatic light incident normally on a grating, every
point in each slit act as a source of secondary wavelets and sends in all directions.
The secondary wavelets travelling along incident light are brought to focus at a point(P0)
on screen.
The rays which diffracted through an angle (θ) incident at point P on screen and now we
want to calculate resultant intensity at point P.

Step 2:
Resultant amplitude due to single slit is given by,
æ sin a ö æpö
Eq = Em ç ÷ where, a = ç l ÷ (a sin q)
è a ø è ø
é æ sin a ö ù
All secondary wavelets replaced by a single wave of amplitude êEm ç ÷ ú starting from
ë è a øû
mid-point of slit.
Let S1, S2, S3-------SN be mid points of N slits.

Plane Diffraction Grating

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Step 3:
Therefore, path difference between S1P1 and S2P2 = S2K1 = (a + b) sin q

æ 2p ö
And Phase difference in S1P1 and S2P2 = D f = ç ÷ (a + b) sin q
è l ø

Similarly, path difference between S3P3 and S1P1 = S3K 2 = 2(a + b) sin q

æ 2p ö
And Phase difference in S3P3 and S1P1 = 2Df = ç ÷ 2(a + b) sin q
è l ø

æ 2p ö
Therefore Df = ç ÷ (a + b) sin q
è l ø
Therefore, phase difference between adjacent vibration being constant equal to
æ 2p ö
Df = ç ÷ (a + b) sin q
è l ø

Step 4:
From vector addition method, resultant amplitude given by

æ sin a ö æ sinNb ö
Eq = Em ´ ç ÷ç ÷
è a ø è sin b ø

The resultant intensity is given by,

éæ sin a ö2 ù éæ sinNb ö2 ù p
Iq = Im êç ÷ ú ´ êç ÷ ú , Where b = ´ (a + b) sin q
êè a ø ú êè sin b ø ú l
ë û ë û

Step 5:
Principal maxima

The resultant intensity of light at point P is given by, sin b = 0

Or b = ± m p m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ------

æ sin Nb ö
But for these values, ç ÷ becomes indeterminate.
è sin b ø

Hence taking limits as b = ±m p

æ sin Nb ö (sin Nb)

lim ç lim
÷ = b=±
b=±mp è sin b ø m p d(sin b)

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N cos Nb
= lim
cos b

b = ±mp

Ncos Nmp
= = N ----m = 0 and cos0 = 1
cosmp
2
æ sinNb ö 2
lim ç ÷ =N
è sin b ø

b = ±mp

éæ sin a ö2 ù
2
Therefore Iq = Im ´ N êç ÷ ú
êè a ø ú
ë û
Iθ = N2* intensity due to single slit.
As b = ± m p

p
´ (a + b)sin q = ± mp
l

(a + b) sin q = ± ml m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ------

Where m = order of spectrum.

Minima
Intensity is minimum when sin Nb = 0 but sin b ¹ 0 and m can have all integral values except 0,
N, 2N, 3N-------nN because for that we get principal maxima.
Nb = ± m p

p
N ´ (a + b)sin q = ± mp
l
N(a + b)sin q = ± ml

Step 6:
Intensity distribution
Second-order
rainbow
First-order
rainbow
Central
white
First-order
rainbow
Second-order
rainbow
Grating

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Intensity Distribution of Diffraction Grating

12. Fraunhofer Diffraction at Circular Aperture

Let us consider a circular aperture of diameter (d)

A plane wave front incident normally on this aperture AB.
So, each and every point of wavefront on the circular aperture will acts as a source of sec-
ondary wavelets.
These waves spread in all directions and all diffracted beam be focused on screen by a
convex lens(L).

Diffraction at Circular Aperture

The waves which are travelling normal to the circular aperture are focused at point P0 and
shows maximum intensity due to same phase difference in all waves.
Now the waves travelling at an angle θ with respect to the normal. So, all these waves
meet at point P1 on screen. Assume P0P1 = Y
So, the path difference between waves from A and B reading P1 is given by AC.
In ∆ ABC,

AC AC
sin q = =
AB d

AC = dsin q

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In comparison with single slit diffraction the point P1 will be of minimum intensity for in-
tegral multiple of wavelength (λ) i.e. path difference is mλ and for maximum intensity the
l
path difference is odd multiple of .
2
For minima, mathematically

dsin q = m l,

and for maxima

l
dsin q = (2m + 1) , Where m = 1,2,3, ------
2

As point (P1) is at minimum intensity, then all other points are geometrically at the same
distance from point P or P1. Therefore, every point lying on circular structure of radius (r)
which has minimum intensity.
This diffraction pattern is just like rotating the intensity distribution graph of single slit dif-
fraction above central axis passing through P which traces the circular aperture perfectly
symmetrical.
The point P produces circular ring of uniform intensity.
This produces a diffraction pattern due to circular aperture produces central bright disc’s
(Airy’s disc) surrounded by alternate dark and bright Airy rings.
Consider that, the lens is very close to circular aperture or the screen is at a far distance
from the lens,

r
Therefore, sin q = q = , (1)
f

Where, f = Focal length of lens.

We have 1st secondary minima condition only when,

l
dsin q = 1 ´ l or sin q = q = (2)
d

From (1) and (2)

r l
=
f d

l
r=f
d

Where r is radius of Airy’s disc, so as the diameter of aperture decreases the radius of
Airy’s disc increases.
The diffraction pattern consisting of a central bright disc surrounded by bright and dark
rings. The central bright disc is often called Airy’s Disc.

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Airy’s Disc

13. Rayleigh’s Criterion for Resolution

Monochromatic light passing through a small circular aperture produces diffraction pattern.
The effect of passing light through a small circular aperture is shown in the picture below.

Just resolved Well resolved Un-resolved

Instead of a bright spot with sharp edges, we obtain a spot with a fuzzy edge surrounded
by circles of light. This pattern is caused by diffraction.
The Rayleigh criterion states that two closely spaced point sources are just resolved by an
optical instrument only if central maximum in the diffraction pattern of one coincide the
first minimum in the diffraction pattern of the other and vice-versa.

y y y

y=x y>x y<x

x x x
Just resolved Well resolved Un-resolved

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Two-point sources are regarded as just resolved when the principal maximum of one
image coincides with the first minimum of the other.
The principal maxima of two wavelengths are largely separated. Hence two wavelengths
are said to well resolved.
If wavelengths of the two sources are small, then their principal maxima will be still nearer
said to be unresolved.

14. Resolving Power

The ability of the instrument to produce just separate diffraction pattern of two close ob-
jects is known as its resolving power.

Resolving Power of Telescope

In telescopes, very close objects such as binary stars or individual stars of galaxies sub-
tend very small angles on the telescope.
To resolve them we need very large apertures. We can use Rayleigh’s to determine the
resolving power. The angular separation between two objects must be

l
Dq = 1.22
d

1 d
Therefore, Resolving power = =
Dq 1.22l

Thus, higher the diameter d, better the resolution. The best astronomical optical tele-
scopes have mirror diameters as large as 10m to achieve the best resolution.
Also, larger wavelengths reduce the resolving power and consequently radio and micro-
wave telescopes need larger mirrors.

Resolving Power of Grating

λ + dλ

θ
λ

Resolving Power of grating

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Let AB represent the surface of a plane transmission grating having a grating element
(a+b) and N total number of slits.

Let a beam of light having two wavelengths λ and dλ is normally incident on the grating.

Let P1 is nth primary maximum of a spectral line of wavelength λ at an angle of diffrac-

tion q and P2 is the nth primary maximum of wavelength ( l + dl) at a diffracting angle
(q + dq).

According to Rayleigh criterion, the two wavelengths will be resolved if the principal maxi-
mum ( l + d l) of nth order in a direction (q + d q) falls over the first minimum of nth order
in the same direction (q + dq)
Let us consider the first minimum of nth order in the direction (q + dq) as below.
The principal maximum of λ in the q direction is given by
(a + b)sin q = nl (1)

The equation of minima is N (a + b)sin q = ml,

where m takes all integers except 0, N, 2N, …, nN, because for these values of m, the con-
dition for maxima is satisfied.
Thus, first minimum adjacent to nth principal maximum in the direction (q + dq) can be
obtained by substituting the value of ‘m’ as (nN + 1).

Therefore, the first minimum in the direction of (q + dq) is given by

N(a + b)sin(q + dq) = (nN + 1) l

(1)
N(a + b)sin(q + dq) = n + (2)
N

The principal maximum of ( l + dl) in direction (q + dq) is given by

Dividing equation (1) by equation (2), we get

(1)
n+ l = n( l + d l)
N

l
nl + = n l + ndl
N

l
= ndl
N

l
= nN
dl

l
R.P = = nN
dl

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STEPS & Problem based on

FORMULA Diffraction of Light
Single slit diffraction
condition of principal maxima:
q=0

condition of minima:
asin q = ±n l, n = 1, 2, 3 ….
condition of secondary maxima:
l
asin q = ±(2n + 1) ,
2
n = 1, 2, 3 ….
Total angular width of central maximum:

l
2q = 2sin-1
a
Diffraction grating
Conditions of principal maxima are
(a + b)sin q = ± m l, m = 0, 1, 2, 3 ….
Conditions of minima are
N(a + b)sin q = ± m l, (m may have all valued except 0, N, 2N, 3N..)
Resolving power of grating
R.P of grating
l
= = mN,
dl

E xercise - 1.2
Question Based on Diffraction of Light
Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.

1. What do you mean by diffraction?

2. Derive an expression for resultant amplitude and resultant intensity between diffracted
waves in Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit.
3. Write the conditions of maxima and minima in diffraction pattern due to single slit?
5. Find half angular width of central maximum in Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a slit of
width 12 ´ 10-5 cm, when illuminated by light of wavelength 6000A °.
6. A monochromatic light of wavelength 5500 A0 incident normally on slit of width 2 ´ 10-4 cm
Calculate angular position of first and second minimum.

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7. What is highest order spectrum that is visible with light of wavelength 6000A° by means
of grating having 5000 lines per cm?
8. How many liner per cm are there on surface of plane transmission grating which gives
1storder light of wavelength 6000A° at an angle of diffraction 30°.
9. A grating has 620 rulings/mm and is 5.05 mm wide. What is the smallest wavelength
interval that can be resolved in third order at l = 481mm ?
10. A Plane grating just resolve two lines in the second order. Calculate grating element if
dl = 6A °, l = 6 ´ 10-5 cm and width of ruled surface is 2 cm.
11. Calculate minimum numbers of lines in a grating which will just resolve in 1st order whose
wavelengths are 5890A° and 5896A °.

15. Introduction to Polarization

Polarization, in Physics, is defined as a phenomenon caused due to the wave nature of

electromagnetic radiation.
Sunlight travels through the vacuum to reach the Earth, which is an example of an electro-
magnetic wave.
These waves are called electromagnetic waves because they form when an electric field
interacts with a magnetic field.

O Direction of
Polarization

Length of
electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic Waves

The interference and diffraction phenomenon establishes the wave nature of light but fail
to check the exact nature of light waves.
The exact nature of light waves that are transverse nature has been established by the
polarization phenomenon.
Rasmus Bartholin (Erasmus Bartholinus) was the first to report on a physical effect based
on what we call today “polarization”, where he presents the astonishing properties of cal-
cite crystal.
There are two types of waves longitudinal or transverse wave.
In the longitudinal wave vibration of particles is parallel to the propagation of waves and
in the transverse wave vibration of particles is perpendicular to the propagation of waves.

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In a transverse wave, particles execute periodic vibration in many numbers of directions.

So, two similar transverse waves may differ from one another due to their different direc-
tion of vibration.
Therefore, transverse waves in which vibrations are restricted to the direction of one par-
ticle cannot be symmetrical and must exhibit some characteristics having any relation to
the direction of propagation.
This dependence of certain properties on directions or this property of asymmetry or
one-sidedness is called polarity.
A wave having such characteristics said to be polarized and the phenomenon is called
polarization.
The phenomenon in which light restrict to vibrate in a single direction is called polarization.

Direction of
polarization Direction of
polarization

Transverse Oscillation and Polarization

In the above figure transverse oscillations in one rope are in a vertical plane, and those in
the other rope are in a horizontal plane.
The first is said to be vertically polarized, and the other is said to be horizontally polarized.
Vertical slits pass vertically polarized waves and block horizontally polarized waves and
vice versa.
The Sun and many other light sources produce waves that are randomly polarized. Such
light is said to be unpolarized because it is composed of many waves with all possible di-
rections of polarization.

16. Terminology in Polarization

Ordinary Light

The ordinary light beam having vibrations along all possible plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation is said to be unpolarized light.

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Polarized Light

The light beam having vibrations along the single direction perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of light is called plane polarized light.

When plane polarized light has vibrations in plane of paper they are denoted by a straight
arrow and when vibration present in perpendicular to plane of paper represented by
dots.

Difference between Polarized and Unpolarized light

Polarized Light Unpolarized Light

The oscillation is confined to only one plane. The oscillation occurs in many planes.
It is coherent in nature. It is incoherent in nature.
Its intensity depends on the nature of Its intensity depends on the nature of
polaroid used. source.
In polarized light electric vector is confined to In unpolarized light plane of vibration of
a plane and magnetic vector H is normal to electric vector continuously and C random
the plane. change.

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Polarizing Material

Polaroid materials, also known as polarizing filter, act as a polarizing slit for light, allowing
only polarization in one direction to pass through.
The axis of a polarizing filter is the direction along which the filter passes the electric field
of an EM wave.

Polarizing filter
E

Polarization
Axis direction

Direction
of Ray

Working of Polarizing Filter

Plane of Polarization

The plane containing the direction of propagation of light, but containing no vibrations is
known as the plane of polarization.
Or
The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is known as the plane of polarization.

Plane of Vibration

The plane containing the crystallographic axis, the direction of vibration and direction of
propagation of light is known as the plane of vibration.
The plane of polarization is always perpendicular to the plane of vibration.

Plane of Vibration

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Polarization of Light

This is an optical experiment used to demonstrate transverse characteristics of light

waves.
In this experiment, ordinary light incident normally on a crystal plate (T1) i.e. on a thin
plate of tourmaline of calcite crystal, cut with faces parallel to its vertical axis.

Polarizing filter
E T1
Analyzing filter
Axis
T2
E
Axis

Polarizing filter
E T1 Analyzing filter
Axis T2
E

Axis

Polarizing filter
E
T1
Analyzing filter
Axis
T2
E

Axis

Polarization of Light

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When T1 and T2 are parallel to each other or rotate simultaneously, the intensity of
­transmitted light remains the same.
But if plate T1 is kept fixed and only T2 is rotated then the intensity of transmitted light
decreases and become zero when T1and T2 are exactly perpendiculars to each other.
And again, goes on increasing if rotated that crystal T2 and total light transmitted when T1
and T2 become exactly parallel to each other.
A polarizing filter transmits only the component of the wave parallel to its axis, E cos θ,
reducing the intensity of any light not polarized parallel to its axis.
This shows the transverse nature of light.

17. Brewster’s Law

When unpolarized light of certain wavelength is incident upon the surface of a transpar-
ent substance it experiences maximum plane polarization at the angle of incidence whose
tangent is the refractive index of the substance.

ip ip
B
rp

Polarisation By Reflection

Above figure shows a beam of AB of unpolarized light incident upon a surface XY of a glass
slab at the polarizing angle ip.
The reflected beam BC is completely plane polarized and the refracted beam BD is par-
tially plane polarized.
Let rp is the angle of refraction.
According to Brewster’s Law,

Angle CBD = 90°

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But from above diagram, We have

ip + rp = 90o

Therefore, rp = 90° - ip

sin ip sin ip sin ip

m= =  =  
sin rp sin (90 - ip ) cos rp
But
or m = tan i p

18. Malus Law

When unpolarized light is incident on the polarizer, then transmitted light is plane
polarized.
Then plane polarized light is incident on the analyzer and get transmitted.
The intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer varies with the angle between the plane
of the polarizer and analyzer.
Consider two tourmaline plates i.e. polarizer and analyzer are arranged in a parallel way.
Polarizing filter
E T1 Analyzing filter
Axis T2
E

Axis

Malus Law

A beam of unpolarized light incident normally on polarizer.

Then transmitted light incident on the analyzer and again get transmitted.
If polarizer is kept fixed and analyzer is rotated about the direction of propagation, inten-
sity of light transmitted by analyzer get changes.
The law of malus states that, when a completely plane polarized light beam is incident on
the analyzer, then the intensity of polarized light emerging from analyzer is proportional
to the square of cosine of the angle between planes of polarizer and analyzer.
Therefore, according to the law of malus,
I µ cos2 q

I = I0 cos2 q,

I = Intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer.

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I0 = Intensity of light transmitted by the polarizer.

q = angle between the plane of the polarizer and the plane of the analyzer.
If E0 = amplitude of plane polarized light incident on the analyzer. It can resolve into two
Component.
E0 cos q = parallel to the plane of the analyzer.
i)

E0 sin q = perpendicular to the plane of the analyzer.

ii)

Out of these two, the only parallel component is E0 cos q is transmitted and perpendicular
component cut-off.

I = (Amplitude)2 = (E0 cos q)2 = E02 cos2 q = I0 cos2 q

0
θ

θ
θ 0

Vector Diagram of Malus Law

19. Doubly Refracting Crystals

Another interesting phenomenon associated with polarized light is the ability of some crys-
tals to split an unpolarized beam of light into two. Such crystals are said to be birefringent.
This phenomenon is called double refraction or birefringence.

Double Refraction in Birefringent

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Each of the separated rays has a specific polarization. One behaves normally and is called
the ordinary ray, whereas the other does not obey Snell’s law and is called the extraordi-
nary ray.
Birefringent crystals can be used to produce polarized beams from unpolarized light.
Uniaxial crystals: In uniaxial crystals, there is only a single direction called as optic axis
along which two refracted rays are transmitted with the same velocity. Out of these two
refracted rays, only one follows the ordinary laws of refraction.
Examples: Tourmaline, Calcite and Quartz.
Biaxial crystals: In biaxial crystals, there are two directions or two optic axes along which
the velocities of refracted rays are the same. None of the refracted rays obeys the laws of
refraction. Examples: Topaz, Argonite, Copper sulphate, cane sugar and mica.
Calcite crystals: Calcite is colorless and transparent crystal. It is also called Iceland spar
because found in large quantities in Iceland. Naturally occurring calcite crystals shown in
figure has rhombohedral cleavage.

Calcite crystal

It is bounded by six faces shown in the figure, each of which is a parallelogram with angles
102° and 78° .
The rhombohedron has only two corners A and H where all the face angles are obtuse
(102°) , these two corners appear at the blunt corners of the crystal.
At the rest six corners one angle is obtuse (102°) and two are acute (78°) .

Optical Axis of Doubly Refracting Crystal

The optic axis of doubly refracting crystal is a direction along which all plane waves are
transmitted with a single velocity without showing the effect of double refraction.
Or a line bisecting any one of the blunts corners (A, or H) and making equal angles with
each of three edges meeting there, is an optic axis.
Any line parallel to this line is also an optic axis.

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Optical Axis of Doubly Refracting Crystal

Principal Plane or Principal Section of Doubly Refracting Crystal

A plane containing the optic axis of the crystal and perpendicular to its two opposite re-
fracting faces are known as a principal section or principal plane of crystal for that pair of
faces shown in the figure.

Principal Plane

Principal Plane of Birefringent

Thus, there are three principal sections of the crystal for that pair of the face.
A principal section always cuts the surface of calcite in parallelogram having angles 109°
and 71° .

Ordinary and Extra-ordinary Rays

When a light ray incident on the double refracting crystal is split into two rays, i.e. ordinary
ray(O-ray) and extra-ordinary ray (E-ray).
Out of these two rays, ordinary rays are plane polarized in principal plane, i.e. its vibra-
tions are perpendicular to the principal plane and they are at right angles to plane of the
paper shown by dots (.)

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While extra-ordinary rays are plane polarized in a plane parallel to principal plane i.e.
its vibrations are in a principal plane. They are in the plane of the paper shown by
arrow.
Special cases
If a beam of an unpolarized light incident along the optic axis or parallel to the optic axis,
it is split up into O-ray and E-ray and both ray travel along the same direction with same
velocities.
If a beam of unpolarized light incident normally to optic axis, then beams split up
into O-ray and E-ray, but both ray travel along the same direction with different
velocities.

20. Huygens’s Theory of Double Refraction

Huygens’s explained the phenomenon of double refraction in uniaxial crystals on the

basis of the wave theory of light.
When a beam of unpolarized light (PQ) incident on double refracting crystal, it splits into
two refracted rays QS and QR i.e. E-ray and O-ray respectively figure.

Huygens’s Theory of Double Refraction

The ordinary wave travels with the same velocity (Vo) in all directions and so the corre-
c
sponding wave front is spherical and R.I. of this wave is m 0 = and is constant.
v0
The velocity of extra-ordinary wave (Ve) varies with direction and hence correspond-
c
ing wave front is elliptical and R.I. of this wave is me = and is different in different
ve
directions.

The speed of both rays, i.e. E-ray and O-ray are same along the optic axis. Hence sphere
and ellipsoid touch each other at a point on the optic axis.
In certain crystals such as calcite, tourmaline, etc, Ve>Vo, therefore ellipsoid is outside the
sphere and so µe < µo. Such crystals are called as negative crystals.
In certain crystals such as quartz, ice etc, Vo > Ve, therefore sphere is outside the ellipsoid
and so m 0 < me . Such crystals are called as positive crystals.

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me > m0 m0 > me

Positive Crystal Negative Crystal

21. Optical Activity

When the plane polarized light is passed through a certain substance like sugar crystal,
sugar solutions, quartz etc. plane of vibration is rotated.
This phenomenon of rotation of the plane of vibration of plane polarized light is called
optical activity.

Polarizing filter
E
Optically
Axis active

E Analyzing filter

θ Axis

E
E

Optical Activity

The amount of rotation by which plane of vibration turned depends upon the thickness of
quartz plate and wavelength of the incident light.
The substance which shows this property is called optically active substance.
There are two types of optically active substance- Right-handed or dextrorotatory and
Left-handed or Levorotatory.

Right-handed or Dextrorotatory
The substance which rotates the plane of vibration in clockwise direction w.r.t. observer
looking towards light travelling towards him is called dextrorotatory.

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Left-handed or Levorotatory

The substance which rotates the plane of vibration in anticlockwise direction w.r.t. an ob-
server looking towards light travelling towards him is called levorotatory.
Example. Cane sugar is dextrorotatory and fruit sugar is levorotator and some quartz are
dextro and some are levo rotator depending on arrangement of molecules of quartz.

22. Applications of Polarization -Liquid Crystal Diode (LCD)

Liquid Crystal Display is a passive device, i.e. does not emit light of its own, and works on
the principle of polarization.
The common applications of LCD are wristwatch, calculator, clock and general displays.
Liquid crystals are optically active, which can rotate the plane of polarization of the pass-
ing plane polarized light.
Therefore, the thickness of the liquid crystal is taken in such a way that it rotates the plane
of polarization by 90°.
Furthermore, this property can be turned off by the application of a voltage. That means,
we can control the polarization of light passing through the liquid crystal by controlling
the voltage supply.
The use of two polarizers to control the brightness of light is the core principle behind
LCDs.

E LCD - no voltage
90° rotation

Light

E LCD -voltage on
no rotation

Dark

Working Principal of LCD

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Construction of LCD

In LCD liquid crystal is sandwiched between two glass plates. Out of these plates,
glass plate A is etched in the form of seven segment display to display digits or
alphabets.
The whole assembly is placed between two polarizers with the crossed plane of
polarization.

Polarizer 1

Polarizer 2

Working of LCD

When an unpolarized light incident on polarizer 1, it gets linearly polarized.

After passing through the liquid crystal it gets rotated by 90° and therefore passes through
the polarizer 2 whose transmission axis is perpendicular to that of polarizer 1.
The mirror on the back side reflects back the light which emerges unobstructed from
front polarizer 1.
This produces uniform illumination.
When an external voltage has applied the molecules within electrodes will get aligned in
the direction of the field.
Therefore, the plane of polarization will not change in this region and will be absorbed by
the polarizer. This gives a dark digit or alphabets.

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STEPS & Problem based on

FORMULA Polarization of light rays
Brewster’s Law
µ = tanip

Law of Malus
I
=  cos2 q
I0

E xercise - 1.3
Question Based on Polarization of light rays
Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.

1. What is polarized and unpolarized light? Explain how the phenomenon of Polarization of
light is used in liquid crystal display (LCD).
2. State and explain Brewster’s Law.
3. What do you mean by polarization of light.
4. State and explain Law of malus.
5. Explain Huygens’s theory of double refraction.
6. A polarizer and analyzer are arranged so that amount of transmitted light is maximum.
What will be percentage reduction in intensity of transmitted light when the analyzer is
rotated through
i) 30° ii)  90°
7. Polarizer and analyzer are set with their polarizing directions parallel so that the intensity
of transmitted light is maximum. Through what angle should either be turned so that the
intensity be reduced to
1
i) and ii) 25% of maximum intensity
2
8. A ray of light is incident on the surface of a glass plate of refractive index 1.732 at the
polarising angle. Calculate the angle of refraction of the ray.

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