Industrial Pneumatics Basics

Industrial Pneumatics Basics
Presented by Stefan Catalin Suceveanu

Hi, my name is Catalin!
I am very proud to be here writing The practical knowledge which will be
these lines for you. transferred to you comes from years of
experience in teaching workers,
This course is designed on the basis
technicians, students and engineers in
that you are not looking for usual
industrial settings.
textbooks, ones you already find
hundreds of on the market. I made a We will embark on a beautiful and
real effort to make the information logical journey from the cylinder
practical and relevant for you. (where pneumatic air is used) to the
compressor (where pneumatic air is
We will only be focusing on the
produced), to understand each
practical applications and functions of
function, why each component is there
every pneumatic component on the
and how to use it to your advantage.
circuit.
Industrial Pneumatics - Basics
0.Content
0. Content
1. Intro
2. Basic Pneumatic System
3. Actuators
3.1. Actuator working principle
3.2. Differences between SA and DA cylinders
3.3. Usual linear cylinders
3.4. Rotary cylinders
4. Valves
4.1. Directional control valves
4.1.1. 2/2 Directional control valve
4.2. Additional valves
4.2.1. Speed controllers
4.2.2. Binary functions
5. FRL group
5.1. Filter
5.2. Pressure regulator
5.3. Lubricator
6. Compressed air Production and preparation
6.1. Air compressor
6.2. Air tank
6.3. Centralized air preparation
6.3.1. Dewpoint
6.3.2. Dehumidifiers
6.3.3. Main line air filter
6.3.4. Air quality standard
7. Thank you!
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1.Intro
In manufacturing, each little part used to make something, anything that's physical, needs movement.
We can quickly classify movement into 2 main types, linear and rotational movement. We also want to use
the most convenient, easy to implement and cheapest actuation type to obtain that specific movement as long
as it fits our requirements.
Linear
Rotational
There are 3 widespread methods of obtaining mechanical energy in manufacturing. Each one is converting
one type of energy into movement and, of course, each one has their advantages and disadvantages.
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2. Basic Pneumatic System

Production and preparation of the compressed air Utilization
We are going to see what a pneumatic system is made of, from the end side where we are actually using the
compressed air (where motion is created), finishing to the start side, where the production and preparation of
the compressed air takes place.
Name Image ISO symbol Function
Pneumatic The workhorse of the system,

double it converts potential elastic
acting energy from the compressed
cylinder air, into mechanical energy.
Switches between advance

5/2
and return strokes, by
Directional
pressurizing and
control .. depressurizing alternatively
valve
the chambers of the cylinder
The FRL group prepares the

Local air compressed air to be used by
preparation the cylinder, by doing the final
F R L group filtering, pressure regulation
and lubrication
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Before the compressed

air is distributed through
the entire pneumatic
Centralized network, the quality of
air the air must be
preparation improved to a
unit standardized level.
Here the air is cooled,
dehumidified and
filtered
It stores, precools, pre-

Air tank dehumidifies and
Air cancels pulsations from
reservoir the reciprocating
compressor
It forces a large volume

Compressor of atmospheric air into a
unit smaller volume, by
compressing it
If condensate forms inside the

pipe network, it leaves most of
Swan neck
N/A it on the bottom of the pipe,
connection
and air will pass through the
upper opening
It collects water in various

spots around the pneumatic
Drain
system, waiting to be manually
or automatically drained
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Now that you understand how this course is structured, we will take each component piece by piece and explain
it. We will also see functions, why one design is advantageous in a given application and so on.
We are going from end to beginning because it will help a lot in finding purpose in every piece of information.
For example, why should I care about quality of air? One can argue I just need the pressure to move my piston
inside the cylinder and do the work.
We will see there are requirements for components and if we talk about specifications first and the purpose
second, even if you give all your best, information won't stick very well.
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3.Actuators
So, we will start talking about actuators. They are of two main types:
• the linear actuator or pneumatic cylinder

• rotary actuator
The pneumatic cylinder is also divided into two main types:
• single acting
• double acting
Let's start with the symbol. Imagine it is an over-simplified cross-section of a cylinder.

Cylinder
Piston
Rod
Advance (left) and return (right)

orifices
A double acting cylinder is a cylinder on which we can actuate with pressurized air both the advance and the
return strokes. This can be seen on the symbol as both advance and return chambers have their orifice drawn
(and of course, no spring).
This is then divided into a few more types, so in terms of construction we have:
• Double acting cylinder (unilateral rod)
• Double rod, double acting cylinder
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• Rodless, double acting cylinder
magnetic coupling mechanical coupling
We can see already how each one is different from each other just by looking at the symbols. We will explore
construction within the corresponding chapter.
A single acting cylinder is a linear cylinder in which only one stroke is considered functional and the other is a
passive return stroke under the action of a compression spring. We can see the difference in this symbol given
there is a spring and there is only one input hole.
It also divides into types:
• Single acting, spring return cylinder
For it, we can only pressurize the advance stroke.
The return stroke is done under the action of the spring, by depressurizing the advance chamber.
• Single acting, spring extended cylinder
We can only pressurize the return stroke.
The advance stroke is done under the action of the spring, by depressurizing the return chamber.
As we can see from the symbols the difference is in the function of the spring. In the spring return cylinder, we
can only pressurize the advance stroke
The rotary actuators are used to obtain a rotational movement.
They are also divided into 2 main types, continuous rotation (air motors) and semi-rotary actuators.
• The continuous rotation actuator is, as its name says, a continuous rotation for
which we can measure a rpm and a torque. It is encountered less in industrial applications
(they can serve as a pneumatic screwdriver, drill and so on). It rivals the electric motor, and
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even if it has its benefits, unless there is explosion hazard in the work environment, the electric motor is
preferred for added precision and control.
• The semi rotary actuator is an actuator which has a limited rotational stroke, for
which we measure the rotational angle (usually between 0 and 270 degrees) and a torque.
As with the pneumatic cylinder it has a binary (2 states, 0 and 1, retracted or advanced)
states in which it can be.
3.1 Actuator working principle

Like in any other type of movement in the universe, every system tends to stay at an equilibrium. If an
imbalance appears, naturally, it will want to balance itself out.
In pneumatic actuations there is the need to balance the higher pressure, compressed air, with the lower
atmospheric pressure.
In electric actuations there must be a difference of potential for it to work (a + and a -).
Imagine you are pushing on a car up hill.
The resistive force is the one which you need match, just to stay in a spot. You are in a balanced state.
When you increase the output and overcome all the resistive force, then you will make progress towards your
goal. Well it is the same with any type of actuation. Let’s see what happens inside the cylinder.
GOAL
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The base formula for calculating the force for a pneumatic cylinder is (force equals pressure times area):
Now if we take that and break it down for a circular area the formula is (force equals pressure times pi times
the radius of the piston squared):
This formula is valid only for the side of

a piston without a rod, or for both sides
of a piston in a rodless cylinder.
In a rodless or double rod

cylinder, the piston areas are the same. If the side of the piston for which we
are calculating has a rod, the area will decrease.
Now let's calculate a simple example, I encourage you to try it on a piece of paper.
A pneumatic cylinder has a bore diameter of 50mm, a rod diameter of 20mm and the pneumatic system
provides us with 0,5 MPa of pressure. Calculate the advance and return forces.
First, we take the advance force (FA):
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 = 0.5 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 𝜋𝜋(25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)2 = 0.5𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 1926.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 981.25 𝑁𝑁
Secondly the return stroke (FR):
𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 0.5 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 𝜋𝜋((25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)2 − (10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)2 ) = 0.5𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 𝜋𝜋 ∗ 525𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 824 𝑁𝑁
I encourage you to calculate a few more just to get yourself more used to the procedure:
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A pneumatic cylinder has a bore diameter of X mm, a rod diameter of Y mm and the pneumatic system provides
us with Z MPa of pressure. Calculate the advance and return forces.
1. X =60 Y= 10 Z=0,4
2. X =52 Y= 12 Z=0,5
3. X =12 Y= 5 Z=0,4
4. X =63 Y= 15 Z=0,5
5. X =84 Y= 23 Z=0,95
3.2 Differences between SA and DA cylinders

Which one do you think is better, a single acting cylinder (SA), or a double acting cylinder (DA)?
Did you answer single acting? Or double acting?
With either one of the answers you are both right and wrong.
Every type of equipment has its upsides and downsides. For us to judge which is better, we need an application
to give us context.
For example, it is not recommended to use a double acting cylinder for a machine which has power saving
requirement. We need to pressurize both the advance and the return strokes and using a single acting cylinder
will cut the air consumption in half.
On the other hand, if we have a robotic arm it is better to use a less heavy double acting cylinder.
For this construction you can observe the difference between the 2 types of cylinders:
The single acting cylinder is usually constructed from the same components as the double acting, but adding a
compression spring, a stroke limiter to limit the compression of the spring and a simple air filter on the passive
orifice which would pressurize the spring chamber.
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Advantages Disadvantages
Short strokes and diameters

Less air consumption (one less (because of added complexity, they
stroke to pressurize) are manufactured to limited
dimensions)
In the absence of pressure, the Spring gives a counter force,
cylinder has a known well-defined
lowering the efficiency
position
Single acting (SA)
Simpler directional control valve Higher complexity which drives up
needed for actuation 3/2 instead of
both price and mass
5/2
Larger diameters and longer strokes Output forces differ between strokes
Simpler in design, which drives down

More complex control
both cost and mass
Double acting (DA)
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Let's see a few applications and how to weigh in the options:
In the first example we are talking about a clamp with

which to hold a piece for drilling. In this example it is
recommended to design the machine with double
acting cylinders for both the actuation of the clamp and
the lowering of the drill. In the case of the clamp to
output the same force, a single acting cylinder would
have to be larger to compensate for the spring counter
force.
For the drill it is also better to use a double acting

cylinder to develop the same force on the drilling
bit for the entire stroke or the entire whole.
Otherwise the compression spring would modify
the pressing force and the machining might have
to suffer from uneven surfaces, longer machining
times or you would have to factor in the spring
and choose a bigger cylinder.
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In the second example we are talking about a machine which feeds parts for stamping. This time around the movement
is less sensitive to speed and force variation, given you need to move a piece from a feeder to a fix, well constrained
position. Also the stamping only needs to press a rubber end, on the part to leave a ink mark.
We can see in this example that a simple acting cylinder is more advantageous, because the action of the spring doesn't
influence our movements, in such a way, that we need to compensate for it. This way we also benefit from energy
saving, since we only need to pressurize one chamber.
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The final example is referring to a gripping hand on the end of a robotic arm. Should we use a single acting cylinder, we
would add more mass the arm compared to a double acting cylinder.
One very important aspect of robotic arms is mass

reduction. More you get away from the base of the arm,
mass has a bigger influence on accelerations or
decelerations, also max load, max speed and precision. If
there is more mass at the end of the arm this propagates
through the entire arm, asking for more powerful motors,
higher rigidity - stronger connecting elements and so on.
You can see how shedding every bit of mass

possible, at the gripping end, gives you a better
robotic arm. Because of that, not only is the
double acting cylinder a better choice than the
single acting, but also, being the easiest and
cheapest type of conventional actuation, it is the
best option in 90% of the cases.
Side info: the remaining 10% is electric/hydraulic

actuation, because sometimes very high precision
is needed.
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3.3 Usual linear cylinders
There are times when using one type of cylinders is not practical or even not possible.
When using a rod cylinder to move a part we expect it to almost double in length while extended. What if there
isn't enough space to make it possible? or
What if the cylinder we need for a given task needs to have a larger diameter than the we can accommodate
for?
Let's take a look on other types of linear cylinders that we can find on the manufacturing plant. We will have a
look on how they work and advantages they bring to the table.
1. The double rod cylinder is a cylinder which has the advantage of

being able to take higher lateral loads than single rod cylinders, also
it can work as both
a fix body and fix
rod.
fix rod fix body
2. Compact cylinders, as their name suggests are more compact lengthwise, being designed with less bulky
caps. But because of that they are very sensitive to lateral loads and they have limited speed.
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They are also very poor in dealing with radial loads,

because of the very low profile of the end caps.
If the regular cylinder would be bad in taking radial

loads because it would get warn fast, the compact
cylinders are bad at taking radial loads because might
even get jammed.
3. Rodless cylinders, are cylinders which work without a rod. Their biggest advantage is that they don’t
double in length when extended. On the outside of the cylinder there is a sleeve which follows the
movement of the inside piston in one of two ways:
• mechanically coupled
• magnetically coupled
The mechanical coupling needs to open and close a pneumatic seal which works similarly with a zip from a zip
bag. This construction is prone to defects and pressure loss. If you need a rodless cylinder it is advised to use a
magnetically coupled one as they are more robust.
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Other designs seen in manufacturing plants are of special cylinders. Here we can talk about:
1 Axial tandem cylinders which double the output force keeping the same diameter
2 Parallel tandem cylinders which double the output force, keeping the same length
3 Anti-rotational cylinders which are constructed with a profiled rod or have an oval shaped piston
hexagonal rod oval piston …
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They are particularly useful in applications like:
• Pick & Place, where the components are very strictly monitored on placement
• PCB lock guide, to be able to inspect, or even position parts correctly on the PCB
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• Profiled transfer of pieces, where alignment might be critical
3.4 Rotary cylinders

There are manufacturing processes in which we need to flip a part 180 degrees,
or turn it 90 degrees, bend a piece of material a certain angle and so on.
For example:
A high to low diameter adaptor need to have its holes tapped. Given the holes are of different diameters
it will be done with distinct tools. First the bigger one is tapped, afterwards down the line when time for the
smaller one comes the piece needs to be turn 180 degrees to position it correctly. The fast, cheap and easy way
to get it done is using a rotary pneumatic actuator. It has an advantage over electric being a lot easier to control.
Tapping 1 Flip 180° Tapping 2
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To be able to do an angular motion, the pneumatic components manufacturers have developed 2 main types of
rotary actuators:
• Rack and pinion construction

Rack and pinion construction is based in a regular cylinder, the
difference being that there are two pistons inside joined by a rack
which turn a pinion positioned in the center, which is joined by a
shaft protruding perpendicular to the cylinder body.
Top down cross-section
Side cross-section
single rack and pinion design double rack and pinion design (more compact)
The advantage is that it can develop higher torque, greater stroke angles and better cushioning ability.
The disadvantages are that it takes more space and the rack and pinion mechanism suffers from backlash. This
gives a small play, noting to worry about unless your manufacturing process has very small tolerances.
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• The vane construction

The Vane type is working by pressurizing a chamber which
pushes a paddle in a circular motion. You can see from the
top view how this happens. With the paddle a shaft is
receiving torque to rotate in a given angle. The maximum
angle this type of construction can achieve is 270 degrees. In
the real world this stroke can be adjusted from 270 degree
downwards. If you require an angle of 90 degrees or less, you
can double the torque output in the same given size
component by using a double vane design. The vane type is
of course less powerful and the angular movement is limited
to a maximum of 270 degrees, but on the other hand it is
smaller in size, has less mass and it doesn't suffer from the
backlash effect.
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Let's see how to choose between the two available types when confronted with the dilemma:
Even if, for the most part either one will do the job, there are fine details, given their advantages and
disadvantages, with which we are able to make a better design.
So if we have a stacking table,

with multiple positions, and we
have to rotate it (say 90
degrees), it is important that we
choose the more precise option,
looking at the problem of picking
the parts at the next process
from the rotated position.
Therefore, we would be better
off in going with the vane type,
as it doesn't suffer from backlash
effect. Very rarely you will see
the need of a rotation higher
than 270 degrees on a table.
Also, if we are planning to add a rotation

movement on a robotic arm, we should
always be looking for the less mass option.
In this case the vane type is still providing
us the best solution as long as the rotation
doesn't need to be more than 270
degrees.
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An example in which the rack and pinion is superior is when we have to rotate a more massive part. If we want
to rotate a long metal bar, it will give a very high torque resistance, as the further away the mass is from the
center of rotation, the more torque is needed to rotate it. Therefore, in this example a rack and pinion type
actuator will give us better results.
4. Valves
Now that we covered what a pneumatic actuator is, how it works and how to think about it when choosing the
best solution for a given task, let's see how we can control it.
As it isn't practical to insert a tube to power one stroke, then to take it out and power the other one,
the industry has provided the solution in form of a valve.
To be able to have tube inserted for the both chambers at the same
time, something has to switch between providing pressure to those
chambers alternatively. For a start, let's think about it like an on/off
switch. We want to provide air to blow some dust off the table.
When we want the air to flow, we push the button and the air flows
and, of course, when we release the button the flow stops.
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When buying a blow gun, the trigger is actually a simple mechanism

to actuate the movement of a valve. The trigger is simply opening a
passage for the air to flow and when releasing, a spring immediately
closes back that air passage.
This is called a directional control valve. As we will see, it comes in

grater complexity, and the simplest is the one in the blow gun.
When talking about a pneumatic cylinder, we most certainly have to

control the force it exerts (and we will cover that later), but we also
have to control its speed.
For controlling the speed we have to let air, bleed out, at an adjustable rate for the chamber that is being
emptied out, or in some cases we have to let the air in, at a slow rate in the pressurized chamber.
To understand this in a simple manner we can think at the regular water tap. As we lift the handle more and
more, the water will flow at a higher rate. If we inverse the process, we can extrapolate that if we lower the
handle more and more, we are lowering the rate at which water can escape into the sink.
In pneumatics, to be able to do so we will talk about the speed controller. It lets the air flow freely in one
direction (usually when pressurizing) and controls the flow rate in the other direction (usually when exhausting
the air from the passive chamber). We will talk about soon.
There are a few more types of valves in pneumatics, we will mention them later, but they will be covered in
detail in a future advanced pneumatics course.
4.1. Directional control valves
Directional control valves usually have a spool inside which opens or closes the air way passage. In simpler
constructions they are constructed with a poppet design.
Designing a pneumatic system asks for standardized symbols. Valves have the most variation in symbols and it
is very important to get used with the symbols.
Let's take a look on how to build up a symbol, and what it means.
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The universal symbol is starting with a rectangle which symbolizes the valve.
general valve symbol
Afterward, depending on how many positions we want to obtain this larger

rectangle is divided in smaller rectangles. In pneumatics it usually is divided in
two positions (cylinder advanced or retracted).
directional control valve with 2 ways (2 smaller rectangles)
In some safety applications in three positions and in very very rare

cases more than 3. We are calling these positions, “ways”.
directional control valve with 3 ways (3 smaller rectangles)
We will start with the simplest one, the 2/2 directional control valve (2 ports/2ways). It can only be used for air
blowing applications.
First, we draw a rectangle (a). We divide it in 2 ways (b), we now have to show the ports. The ports must serve
a function, and so they bear a name or a number. 1 or P is the pressure port where we connect the pressure
tube(c). 2 or A is the out port(d). Now we have to show how the air will flow in both positions. On the right we
symbolize with T's that the ports are closed (e) and neither one communicates with anything else. On the left
we symbolize with an arrow (f) the direction of the air when the position is activated.
a b c d e f
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In one position the air doesn't flow (we don't want to blow air) and in the other position air flows (we blow air).
To make this symbol complete, we must make it functional by adding a symbol for the
spring which holds the valve in a normal state. A normal state means that when the lever
isn't pressed it springs to the only stable position (this time it has to be a normal closed
valve, otherwise it will supply or blow air continuously until pressed)
We also have to symbolize the actuation type.

The blow gun is just a manual command, we
are going to use the general symbol for it.
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Now to be able to power a cylinder, we need at least one more port, through which we must exhaust
the pressure when in the retract stroke.
The next simplest directional control valve is the 3ports/2ways. We add to the last procedure a third port called
exhaust, noted R or 3, which of course will be necessary for exhausting the air. Commonly, this directional
control valve is used as a pneumatic button and as a control unit for the single acting cylinder.
This time around both ways direct a flow of air. We will number the 3 ports, putting the pressure (1/P)
and exhaust (3/R) on the bottom and the out port (2/A) on the top. The out port (2/A) is always connected to
the cylinder or command needed if the valve is a pneumatic button. Commonly the pressure and exhaust are
interchangeable, but for now let's number it, pressure (1/P) on the left and exhaust (3/R) on the right.
Then we must symbolize the flow direction in the given way. To obtain an equivalent function as the one before,
we will close the pressure with a T, and we will arrow the flow from the out port to the exhaust (c). On the other
way we will do exactly the opposite, we will arrow the flow from the pressure to the out port and T close the
exhaust (d).
a b c d e
3 ports drawn 2/A exhausts pressure to 3R 3/2 directional control valve NC 3/2 manual command
… directional control valve
Now let's give it a command, let's say mechanically push-button (e). On the other side if we put a spring
it will be a normal closed 3/2 directional control valve, with manual command/actuation (e). If we replace the
spring and but another button, or remove it entirely it would be a bi-stable 3/2 directional control valve, with
manual actuation (it usually is used as a switch for pressure on a line).
What if we used a simple 2/2 directional control valve to actuate the cylinder?
You can see that after the transition from the advance way of the valve, to the non-pressurizing way, the cylinder
has to be able to exhaust the air, therefore not remaining pressurized in the advance position.
cylinder advance stroke starts cylinder advance stroke is done cylinder return stroke starts cylinder return stroke ends
pressure goes from 1/P pressure keeps the piston pressure can exit the cylinder after enough pressure is exhausted
to the cylinder advance in the advanced position advanced chamber, because of the piston returns to the start position
chamber to push the piston the switching of the valve
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NC 3/2, manually actuated, directional control valve

NC - normally closed = having a spring means it is a mono-stable directional control valve
(without giving a command it naturally has a preferred position), with a preference for the 1/P
port being shut (T closed). Right position in this case.
3/2 bi-stable, manually actuated, directional control valve

bi-stable = having a no spring, means it is a directional control valve with no preference. It will
remain in the position actuated last time. It is also called a memory directional control valve.
NO 3/2, manually actuated, directional control valve

NO - normally open = having a spring means it is a mono-stable directional control valve (without
giving a command it naturally has a preferred position), with a preference for the 1/P port giving
pressure (pressure open). Right position in this case.
Moving forward, we have to think of a way of actuating a double acting cylinder. It has two chambers to
pressurize and de-pressurize. So, we need two out ports which will work alternatively. For this we commonly
use a 5/2 directional control valve, but for progression sake we will study a 4/2 directional control valve first.
The same routine applies. Big rectangle, divided in 2 (because we have 2 ways), we number 4 ports on the right.
1 or P for pressure, 2 or A for one of the out ports, 4 or B for the other out port and finally 3 or R for the exhaust
port. Then we symbolize the flow of air with arrows. This works by pressurizing one port and the other one
connected to the atmosphere and, after the spool switch, it is the other way around. So first we arrow the flow
from port 1 to port 2 for pressurizing the cylinder and port 4 to port 3 for exhausting the passive chamber.
On the other way we will symbolize the opposite function, from 1 to 4 to pressurize and from 2 to 3 to exhaust.
Now we also have to give this directional control valve a type of command, let's say double electrical command.
We symbolize the commands on both sides to the valve and now we have a 4(ports)/2(ways), bi-stable, electrical
command, directional control valve.
Initial position, Advance position

pressure goes from pressure goes from port
port 1/P through to 1/P to through port 4/B
port 4/B pressurizing pressurizing the advance
the return stroke stroke.
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As you can see from the symbol, in one of the ways, the air flows must cross each other. This in reality is not
happening, of course, but the 4 ports directional control valves are harder and more expensive to manufacture.
They are rarely encountered in industrial settings, because the 5/2 valve offers the same exact function, but it
solves the problems of the 4/2.
The 5(ports)/2(ways) directional control valve is the most common valve found in industrial applications. To
draw it's symbol we will start with the rectangle, divide it in 2 (ways), then we number the ports. In the middle
will be the pressure port 1 or P, on top there will be the 2 A and 4 B out ports and on both sides of the pressure
port there will be the exhausts 3 R and 5 S.
To arrow the flow directions we start from the pressure and connect it with port 2, then form the other out
port, 4 we go in the only direction that doesn't go across, being port 3 and finally port 5 we have to T close it.
Now, when pressurizing, the port 2 will receive pressure and 4 will exhaust to port 3.
On the other way we do the exact opposite and connect port 1 to port 4 (for pressurizing the other stroke), from
the other out port, 2, we will go to the only exhaust available without crossing, which is of course port 5 and
finally we T close the port 3.
To finish the symbol, we only have to draw the commands and let's do it like this, on the left a mechanical
roller and on the right a spring. This is now called a 5/2, mono-stable, mechanically operated directional
control valve.
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The last types we are going to talk about are to 5(ports)/3(ways) directional control valves. These valves
have the exact base function as the 5/2, but they add a third way, in which they have a special function. It can
either be a blocked center, open center or pressure center. Each of the configurations are encountered in
situations where the cylinder might have to do a supplementary, more particular type of work, or meet some
special safety requirements.
We will start as usual with a rectangle (a bit longer this time), split it in 3 ways, and at the center position
let's number the 5 ports. 1 or P for pressure, 2 or A for an out port, 4 or B for the other out port, 3 or R for one
of the exhausts ports and 5 or S for the other exhaust port. Now let's symbolize in the two outer ways the air
flow exactly as in a regular 5/2 directional control valve. In the right pressure going from port 1 to port 2, air
being exhausted from port 4 to port 3 and port 5 T blocked, in the left way, pressure going from port 1 to port
4 , air being exhausted from port 2 to port 5, and we T block port 3.
Now we are left with the canvas for the three types of 5/3 directional control valves which are found on
the market. Usually they are mono-stable on the center position and have electric command, but you can play
with the symbols however you need, then contact your supplier and ask them for that type, they should be able
to provide you any type of command needed. If it is not a mono-stable directional control valve, then it is tri-
stable directional control valve and it is manual and no other way. It also cannot have a spring only on one side
to be a bi-stable directional control valve.
mono-stable electric command directional control valve tri-stable manual command directional control valve
Now let's talk about the center. First it can be a Blocked

center valve, which means it doesn't allow any air to flow
through, neither in or out of the cylinder. In symbol, all ports
are T blocked. When in normal functioning, we command the
advance or the retraction of the cylinder, but if we take away
both commands, then the 5/3 blocked center directional
control valve, will rest in the center position, blocking all air
flow paths and trapping the air that is that is already in the
cylinder chambers. This will stop the cylinder on a between
extremes position.
5/3 blocked center gives us this option of stopping the cylinder
in intermediary position, compared to a regular function valve.
To be noted, the position is not kept very accurate and a load
on the rod will move it until the pressures inside equalize the forces.
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Second and most encountered type of 5/3 valve is open center,

here, we have both 2 and 4 out port connected to the 3 and 5
exhaust port and the pressure port 1 is T blocked. This way is used
for safety reasons, when there is a power outage and we, the
designers of the machine, have to take into account that the rod has
to be able to be hand moved out of the way (maybe because we
have to remove the part inside, or if keep for too long the part poses
a certain danger for the work environment and so on).
The last one is the pressure center, which very rarely

founds its way into industrial settings. It can be used to power
a double rod double acting cylinder, or a rodless double
acting cylinder. When in the center position (pressure port 1
is connected to both out ports 2 and 4, and the exhaust ports
are T blocked), it pressurizes both chambers and mimics the
function of the open center 5/3 directional control valve.
The piston having the same area of action on both
sides is will be neutral in output force and free to be moved
by hand. Comparing this with the analogy made in the
beginning of the course, when arm wrestling. If you and your
opponent have the exact force you won't be moving, staying
at equilibrium. Now anyone can come and move your hands
freely.
Let's take a look on how each type of directional control valve works, and the different constructions readily
available on the market.
4.1.1 2/2 Directional control valves

Firstly the 2/2 valve which is a poppet design directional control valve. On screen we are looking at a 2/2, electric
command, directional control valve, normally closed type on the left and normally open on the right.
Normally position describes the state of the poppet. So, the normally closed valve on the left unless acted upon
with a command, will stay shut, closing the flow of the air. It does so through the spring which holds the poppet
pressed against valve seat and opposing the pressure. Of course, when we give the command, be it manual,
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pneumatic, mechanical or electric, the poppet will move, therefore opening the way for the flow of air to pass
through.
On the right, in the normally open, things go exactly the opposite, without a command, the air has a
passage through which to flow. The poppet this time is held open by the outer spring. When the command is
given, again of any kind, depending on the construction, the poppet will lower and shut the passage for the air
flow. In this animation there is added an inner spring for the poppet to ensure a proper seal, because it might
leak small quantities of air if the movement would not be perfectly perpendicular to the seat.
And of course, when releasing the command in both versions the 2/2 directional control valves will go
back to their normal positions.

Next is the 3/2 valve which is a poppet design directional control valve. On screen we are looking at a 3/2,
electric command, directional control valve, normally closed type on the left and normally open on the right.
Of course, as before, when we give the command, be it manual, pneumatic, mechanical or electric, the
poppet will move, therefore opening the way for the air to pass through.
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As you can clearly see both the left and the right 3/2 mono-stable, electric command directional control
valves are exactly the same, but instead of the usual connection of the pressure to the port 1 (which we can see
on the left), the pressure tube is moved to the exhaust port 3, obtaining a normally open valve. This is not
possible with every construction on the market, so when ordering talk to your supplier if you are in need of a
reversable function 3/2 mono-stable directional control valve.
.. ….
This valve, of course works similarly to the previous one. In the normal state out port 2 and exhaust port 3
are connected and pressure port 1 is closed. After the command is given the pressure port 1 is connected to the
out port 2 which pressurizes the single acting cylinder. When the command is taken away, it goes back to its
normal state, where the air from the single acting cylinder is exhausted from the out port 2 to exhaust port 3.
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If we are looking to keep the single acting cylinder always extended, under the action of pressure, then we
have to move the pressure tube from the port 1 to port 3 and now the valves function has reversed. Even so,
the same ports are connected as before. Only now in the non-command faze we are getting pressure from port
3 to out port 2, pressurizing the cylinder, and port 1 is being closed. When command is given, the same as before
port 1 and 2 will be connected to exhaust the air from the cylinder and port 3 will be closed.

We are jumping over the irrelevant 4/2 valve as it is very rarely seen, and the 5/2 directional control
valve does the exact same thing and is THE most used and encountered directional control valve in industrial
settings.
Compared to the 2/2 and the 3/2 directional control valves, which are a poppet construction, the 5/2 is
a spool construction. This construction offers the needed ability to connect multiple ports alternatively.
You can see in the image the two types of poppet design, found in simple 2/2 and 3/2 directional valves
constructions and on the right the 5/2 more complex construction.
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In the simpler design valves, there is only a need for opening and closing an air path, but in the more
complex design, there is the need to connect 2 air paths at the same time alternatively.
Now, the 5/2 directional control valve comes in many different sizes and variations, but with the same
base design. We have 5 ports, the center bottom one is the pressure port 1 or P, which, in the initial position,
sends air to the retract chamber through port 2 A, and from the advance chamber of the cylinder, air is
exhausted through port 4 B, connected to port 3 R. Exhaust port 5 S is closed.
At the switching of the spool the other two ways are connected, so that air from the pressure port 1 or
P, flows to the advance chamber of the cylinder through port 4 or B, previously pressurized retract chamber,
exhausts the air to port 5 or S, through port 2 or A, and the other exhaust port 3 or R, is blocked.
We can see here a 5/2 bi-stable, solenoid command directional control valve. There is another detail you
can observe, from port 1 or P, there is another small airway, through which pressure goes into the solenoids.
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In the early development stages of industrial pneumatics there has been a race to get the lowest
powered directional control valves. At the start there was the need for about 10 watts of power to obtain the
switching of the spool, then the race had the 1 Watt target, and now we are down to even as low as 0.1 Watts
depending on the valve size, of course.
This is important as we want to drive these solenoids without power amplifiers, directly from ICBs
(integrated circuit boards) or PLCs (programmable logic controllers). This way, we reduce complexity, needed
assembly space. Still it is mandatory to check the needed command power and the output capability of your
command circuit.
The solution for this problem is implemented in form of pilots. The solenoids inside, act as a micro 3/2
directional control valve, which needs small amounts of power to open an air flow path to pressurize the piston
of the spool. As you can see in the animation, on either side of the spool there are 2 pistons, which move the it
side to side depending on the command given. In most cases there is also the secondary option of manual
switching by pressing the buttons on either side of the spool. Manual command is useful for mechanical check
before connecting electric power to the solenoids, to make sure we have the proper connections, mechanical
clearing and the setup of the machine is done right.
Next let's take a look at a mono stable 5/2 directional control valve. In terms of construction, directional
control valves are assemblies of standard components, with which manufacturers give different solutions.
Taking with us the same base body, we are changing the lateral right cap and the pistons. Now we have
a 5/2 mono-stable, solenoid (or electric) command directional control valve.
As before we have 5 ports, the center bottom one is the pressure port 1 or P, which, in the initial position,
sends air to the retract chamber through port 2 A, and from the advance chamber of the cylinder, air is
exhausted through port 4 B, connected to port 3 R. Exhaust port 5 S is closed.
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When we take the power away, at the switching of the spool the other two ways are connected, so
that air from the pressure port 1 or P, flows to the advance chamber of the cylinder through port 4 or B,
previously pressurized retract chamber, exhausts the air to port 5 or S, through port 2 or A, and the other
exhaust port 3 or R, is blocked.
One question we might ask is, where is the spring that returns the spool in the initial position? If we
look closely at the right piston, we can see it is always pressurized. Because of that, the spool is always trying
to get to the normal position under the action of the pressure. We are calling this a pneumatic spring. And
when the other command comes in, to pressurize the other spool piston it opposes the force and overcomes
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it. Look at the difference in size between the two pistons and you will see the commanded one is bigger, and it
will be able to push against the smaller one. We are calling this differential command.
Another detail to take a look at is in the way the air reaches the command piston. It goes through the poppet
solenoid valve and afterwards pressurizes the chamber, when the command is taken away, the air is
redirected from the piston chamber to the other side of the piston. We of course need to de-pressurize the
chamber so the pneumatic spring can push back the spool in the initial position. There is a very clever solution
to not overly complicate the construction in form of a special gasket, which seals in one direction, and let's air
flow in the other direction. This allows us to route the air from the command chamber to the exhaust port 3 or
R.
4.2 Additional valves

There are other controls of pneumatic actuators and some other functions which we need to talk about.
Most important is cylinder output force, this one we will cover a bit later in the FRL group, but we also have
to control the speed. Some applications need to transport parts from point A to point B, as fast as possible to
cut up times, other times we have to hold parts very well or to transport thin parts which can bend to the flow
of air when moving fast. So, the need speed control is real and it is done by using a speed controller. On the
other hand, if we want to obtain the highest speed possible, we will use a quick release valve.
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We also have binary functions which must be accomplished for safety or proper faze achievement. Let's say
we don't want to let pressure actuate a cylinder if the door of the machine is open, or if the user doesn't press
two buttons at the same time. These are valves with binary functions as OR, AND. There have been developed
more advanced functions, but they are not in demand anymore, thanks to the development of electrical
controllers, which are more adaptable and easier to modify (not needing a mechanical modification).
4.2.1 Speed controller (check valve + flow controller)

To understand the concept of cylinder speed controllers quicker, we will first talk about each component
which makes it.
First there is the check valve, a component which lets air flow in one direction, and it doesn't
let it flow in the other direction. It has a seat in which a ball can seat perfectly to stop any
air from flowing if it comes in one direction, and lets the air flow freely in the other direction,
by moving the ball away and creating a path for the air to flow.
At this symbol we can add a command which lets us unlock the flow of the valve with another pneumatic
command, for the air to be able to flow freely in both directions. We call this the pilot operated check valve.
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Like the water tap, we have a pneumatic component which lets us control the flow rate. It is simply a screw
which restricts more or less (depending on our setting), the cross section through which air can flow. The symbol
is one of a line which represents the tube of pneumatic air, a flow restriction with to curved line on either side
of the line and an oblique arrow which symbolizes the fact that it is adjustable. This is called the Adjustable Flow
Control Valve or simply the flow controller.
Now that we understand the base valves, we can unite them like this: a flow controller in parallel with a check valve
gives us a speed controller. This component will modify the air flow in one direction, the direction that is blocked by the
check valve and air is able to flow only through the flow controller. When air travels the other way around, it will pass
through the component freely, unlocking the path of the check valve and even a little bit of flow will also go through the
flow controller.
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Let's see it in action on a simple pneumatic circuit. I encourage you to download a free version of fluidSIM
from FESTO pneumatics and play a little with each component to understand it better.
First we will control the advance of a double acting cylinder, we are doing this by controlling the
exhausted flow rate. By limiting the flow of air going out we create a back pressure which holds out piston at an
equilibrium. Then after a bit of air is exhausted, the piston moves a little, and the pressure in the exhaust
chamber raises again to block the movement, it again releases some of the pressure and the piston moves a
little and so on until the end of the stroke. Usually this intermittent movement isn't visible and the piston just
moves at a lower speed, but when flow of exhausted air is too low (when we tighten the flow controller to
much) it will become a stick and slip movement, where it moves a little (slips) then again stops (sticks). This is
caused by the friction of the seals which has to be overcome in order for the piston to move.
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To adjust the return stroke, it will be the same procedure, and if we want to adjust both the advance and
retract speeds, we need to mount speed controllers on both sides of the cylinder.
Now to adjust the speed of the single acting cylinder, we cannot limit the exhausted air, because there is no port available
to mount a speed controller on the spring side. In this case we have to control the air flow rate that goes in the cylinder.
For this we mount the speed controller flipped, to adjust the flow rate that goes in.
To adjust the retract speed of the cylinder we will have to be able to adjust the flow rate of the exhausted air. We just
switch the orientation of the speed controller so it can limit the air flow coming out.
And if we want to adjust both the advance and return speeds of the cylinder, we have to mount 2 speed controllers in line
with the balls facing each other (not the valve seat).
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Most of the speed controllers available on the market are designed to mount
directly on the cylinder and in this case, they have a particular function which relates
to the threaded end.
They are divided in Meter-Out and Meter-In.
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Meter-Out speed controllers adjusts the flow rate which goes out of the cylinder (from the threaded
side) and let's air flow freely inside. It is used the most, about 80% of the speed controllers are meter out. This
is because it will adjust the speeds of all double acting cylinders and rotary actuators, and it is also used to adjust
the return speed of the single acting cylinder.
Meter-In speed controller, on the other hand, adjusts the air going into the cylinder (from the tube side)
and lets the air going out to flow freely. It is used only for adjusting the advance speed of the single acting
cylinder and out of all the speed controllers they are found about 10% of the time.
The last 10% are in-line speed controllers which have the same ports on both sides, giving us the possibility to
change the orientation.
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4.2.2 Binary functions valves

In the futuristic industrial environment we can see coming in fast, automated control of the processes is going
to be more and more easy to manage, by less specialized people, if there will enough positions for people to
manage, when AI can take most of the decisions. But there are also simpler processes which can be designed
very fast and at a very low cost directly with binary pneumatic logic. These are a series of valves which engulf
binary functions found in electric command, low level program development and in ICBs.
We have a simple pneumatic cutter, manually fed with parts. Here a worker has to put the parts in, then
press a button for the cutter to actuate and finally, the
worker has to collect all the leftovers.
The concern here is about safety we do not want
the worker to press by mistake the command button and
actuate the cutter while he is handling the part. More so,
some workers are courageous and will hold the part itself
in front of the blade for speeding up the process.
To eliminate human error, or human "let's call it
bad decisions" we will have to implement a safety function
in which we are making sure that our worker will have both
hands occupied while the cutting action takes place. He
will need to press to buttons simultaneously to actuate the
cutter. The buttons also have to be at an enough distance
from each other so the worker cannot press them with just
one hand.
To do this, we are using a binary function valve called AND valve. The symbol is constructed by drawing
a rectangle, with 2 inputs X and Y and an output A. Inside we have four vertical lines which symbolize the valve
seats. Between these lines we have an H shaped valve which blocks air from reaching output A if it comes from
only one of the inputs.
This is the table for the function of the AND valve. Let's give it
no signal, no X, no Y, A is still not transmitting a signal. Next we
give signal X, but not signal Y, still A is signal-less, next we only
give signal Y but still no output on A. The only way A will output
a signal is by having both signal active at the same time. So
signal X and signal Y gives us signal A, which in turn activates
the main directional control valve and pressurizes our cylinder
to cut.
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This is happening because, if only one signal is coming in, the H inside the valve will close that side of the air
path and only when both signals are present, there will be an air path open for the pressure reach our target.
Of course, if we take any of the input signals away the output A will be canceled. We have to add, that even if
the AND valve is practical and useful, this binary function can be obtained by simply connecting the input signals
in series. Let's take a quick look at that.
We have two pneumatic buttons X and Y, and if we pressurize only one of them say the Y one, from the
out port 2 or A of the button we take the pneumatic signal to the pressure port 1 or P of the X button. Now the
output port 2 or A of the X button will be the result of the binary pneumatic function AND. Which of course
means, that only when we press both buttons the air flow can go through the entire path, from pressure source
all the way to the command of the main directional control valve to actuate the cylinder.
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The other example where binary pneumatic logic is coming in

useful to quickly solve problems. We have a pneumatically
actuated door, which is always shut. We will want to be able
to open the door from both sides of course.
For doing so we are using a shuttle valve. The shuttle valve is symbolized with to Vs opposing each other like
the check valve. In between the Vs there is a circle that represents a ball, which acts as a blocker for the air path
when air is coming from only one side.
The function of the shuttle valve is called OR binary

function, simply OR. Neither of the inputs have a signal the result is
zero (X=0, Y=0 => A=0). If we only give the X signal (X=1) and not the
Y (Y=0) then the output A transmits the pneumatic signal (A=1), this
is the same the other way around, if we only give the Y and not the
X signal. And when we give both signals it is also outputting at port
A a signal.
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By pressing either of the buttons we can transmit the command to main directional control valve and
actuate the opening of the door.
Those with more experience in electric command circuits, might be asking why do we need the shuttle
valve to have the OR function? As before, with the AND valve where we could simply connect the buttons in
series, we could here connect them in parallel. The answer is that with pneumatics, air would just escape
through the other button and the signal would not reach the target. So the OR function in pneumatics can only
be obtained with a shuttle valve.
You can try it in a fluidSIM simulation, but it unfortunately doesn't show the reality. If you have the
opportunity to try it out in real life, you will observe the problem. Meanwhile, you can be confident that using
a shuttle valve is the only way to obtain the OR binary function with pneumatic signals.
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5. FRL group
Now that we understand how a pneumatic circuit works, how to automate it, we are left to deal with
assuring the reliability and good functioning of the system. We also have to discuss how to adjust and maintain
a constant pressure.
Firstly, FRL group stands for Filter-Regulator-Lubricator group which, as the name implies it is an assemble
of 3 components that prepare the compressed air to be used.
Let's take a look at each one, understand their function and how they work.
5.1. Filter
The filter is a component which removes the contaminants from the compressed air. The 3 types of
contaminants present in the compressed air, are solid particles, water and burnt oil.
Why do we need to remove each type?
Firstly, the solid particles pose a threat for the good functioning of the pressure
regulator, valves and cylinder. In the pressure regulator they can cover capillary
tubes, therefor rendering the component useless. In valves they can gunk up with
the lubrication present in the spools or poppets, slowing down or even blocking
their movement. In cylinders, the solid particles still pose the threat of gunk-ing up
together with the lubrication inside, leading to resistance in movement, causing
inefficiencies.
Water condensate leads to premature wear of the seals by washing away the lubrication
inside cylinders and valves. If the temperature of the environment drops below freezing it
can also ice up inside blocking moving parts.
And finally, the burnt oil attacks the rubber, therefore deteriorates all gaskets it
comes in contact with, reducing the life of the components. This is the only
contaminant out of the three that isn't found in the air normally, but it is introduced
into the pneumatic air by the compressor.
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At this point our pneumatic air is already pre-filtered by the main line filter which is present at the centralized
preparation stage. Most of the water is also taken out up to this point, by eliminating it when condensed in the
air tank, tube network and in heat-exchangers. The oil is usually sticking to the filter element in regular air filters,
but if there is a need for more, manufacturers have developed specialized filter elements.
Now let's see how a regular

air filter works.
Air comes in through the in

port on the left.
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When air comes in, it gets a spinning effect from a piece called
the deflector, which is fixed and has angled fins. The spinning
effect helps getting rid of the bigger solid particles and water
drops, which are thrown on the walls of the inner bowl.
Afterwards, the air goes through the filter element

from the outside in, here the smaller particles are
getting stuck in the element. The air path end goes
from the middle of the filtration element to the out
port.
In the middle of the bowl there is a baffle which separates

the spinning zone from the calm zone, where water and big
particles collect to be expelled by the drain.
The drain can be manual or automatic. The manual one

needs occasional observation, and the automated type will
drain itself when the water reaches a certain limit.
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Let's take a look at how the automated drain works.
There are actually 2 construction types, Normal-Closed and Normal Open.
First the normal closed, auto drain.
It has this ring-shaped float, which will be raised by the water due to buoyant force. The float operates a lever
which in turn opens up the simple valve at the top which blocks a small air path. When it opens air rushes in,
pressurizes the chamber and pushes a small piston against a spring. When moved out of the way, the piston
opens up radially a flow path for the water. The water rushes out encouraged by the pressure inside the bowl.
To close back up the piston has a capillary orifice through which the pressure can escape. This orifice is very
small in diameter letting air bleed out slowly, keeping the piston open for a little while (3-4 seconds) giving
enough time for the majority of the water to escape the bowl.
It is called a normal closed auto drain because unless the float raises, it will not let water escape. This can
become a little problematic in certain situations where the machine is not use for a while and water just
stagnates inside. In comparison with the normal open auto drain, it has this disadvantage.
Its advantage is that when turning on the compressor and we are building up pressure, there will be no initial
leak.
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Now let's see how the normal open auto drain works.
This Auto drain unless pressurized will stay open letting water drain out. When the system receives pressure, it
will close and work exactly the same as the normal closed one. The difference is that the piston inside the normal
open is held open, until pressure accumulates in the bowl and pushes the piston against the spring. Then when
the valve at the top opens pressure will rush in to aid the spring pushing the piston down. Afterwards, as before,
upon water drainage the valve will shut, and through the capillary orifice air will bleed out slowly keeping the
piston lowered for a little while to give water enough time to fully drain. Finally, the pressure will raise the piston
back to close the water drainage path.
As this design requires a certain pressure to operate, the disadvantage with the normal open auto drain is that,
at the system pressurizing stage, if you use to many of them, the compressor might not keep up with the initial
air leakage. But as discussed before it will keep your air filter drained at all times (when in use or not).
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The symbol for the air filter is simple, we will start with a rhombus, after which we have to symbolize a IN and
an OUT port. Now we have the standard symbol for passive pneumatic components.
There are multiple types of filters, differentiating themselves from each other mostly by the filtration level they
can achieve, but also by drain type.
So continuing from the rhombus, with a vertical dotted line we have the simple filter. If we are doing 2 dotted
vertical lines now we have a micro-filter. If we go further and draw 3 dotted lines we have a sub-micro-filter
(which removes even the smells from the compressed air).
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In terms of drain, a horizontal line 3 quarters from the top symbolizes a manual drain, if we draw another triangle
inside, it becomes a filter with auto drain.
5.2. Pressure regulator

When powering a pneumatic cylinder, the most important aspect we need to consider is output force. Let's say
we have a compressor which gives us 1MPa, 10 bars or 140 PSI. When we use some of that accumulated
pressure, it will drop slightly. If we have a large number of pressure actuators and air blowers, the pressure will
drop significantly and even if the compressor works continuously it will have a hard time compensating.
So, we will have to design our machines and systems to work at a lower pressure than, the output of the
compressor, somewhere between 0.5 to 0.7 MPa, 5 to 7 bar, or 70 to 110 PSI. Let's take the commonly used
pressure of 5 bar.
In the compressor tank we store 10 bar of pressure, which we know now it is too much. This is the function of
the pressure regulator, to bring a higher pressure down to a stable lower one, which can also be sustained by
the compressor. Also, the air compressor, isn't working non-stop, it raises the pressure, then after a threshold,
say 8.5 bar it stars again building up to the superior pressure.
This is another important function of the pressure regulator, it keeps the pressure stable on the output, even if
the input varies. Only as long as the variation doesn't go too far below a certain point.
Let's take a look on how it accomplishes this feat. To understand this quicker and easier, imagine that everything
before the pressure regulator (the left side) (air tank, heat exchangers, tubes) are a tank of pneumatic air, and
let's imagine also this about the other side (all the cylinders, tubes, valves and so on).
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In these images the indicator is showing us the out pressure. We should also keep an eye out for the reading.
The main valve on the top, opens and closes the air
path according to our adjustment.
When we rotate the screw, a spring compresses

and pushes against the main valve with a rigid
disk.
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This action lets air go from the in port to the out port.
After a while, the valve gets closed back up.

The rigid disk is radially attached to a membrane,
which separates the lower part in two zones.
On the membrane, there is pressure pushing back
against the spring. This pressure is coming in through
a capillary tube from the out port.
Right now, the force of the spring and the force of
pressure on the membrane are balanced.
If consumption starts and cylinders actuate the pressure

lowers. Think of it like there is a small bleed hole in the
imaginary tank from the right. Then the pressure force
on the membrane lowers and the spring can push on the
rigid disk to open the valve.
This opening will balance at a certain point in such a way

that it keeps the pressure steady at the out port. If we
take a look at the gauge we will observe the pressure
stabilizes itself lower than the 4 MPa setting.
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This is an indicator that for the pressure regulator to provide us with the needed setting, we must set it while
the consumption is taking place, not at rest.
The last thing to know about the pressure

regulator, is that when we lower the needed
pressure, or we even go as far as shutting it, on the
imaginary right tank there will be a higher
pressure than the setting. This in turn will push the
rigid disk further against the spring and the entire
pressure present in tubes, valves and cylinders will
be exhausted through the center of the disk to the
atmosphere.
This is called a pressure regulator relieving type.

There are also non-relieving pressure regulators,
but rarely they are used. The only reason for which
to use a non-relieving type is when the gas is not
air and it is a poisonous like carbon dioxide or
combustible like methane.
The symbol is not hard, but it is the one which gives beginners the most problems. We start with a square, we
symbolize an IN and an OUT. Now following the exact functioning of the regulator, it is like this. In the middle
there is a membrane, on which a spring acts from the top, which is adjustable, and on the other side there is
pressure acting in a feedback loop, coming from the OUT port. If it is the reliving type than it also has this triangle
on the side to show it exhausts air to the atmosphere.
58
5.3. Lubricator
To maintain good working pneumatic components, there is the need to create a film of lubrication between
the moving parts.
Friction, in every mechanical system is an enemy. You can try this little experiment, rub a pencil rubber on
the desk and see how it feels, then try to wet the desk and rub it again with the pencil rubber. Try to apply the
same vertical force the be easily comparable.
We can obviously feel the difference. It not only reduces the friction force, but because of that the wear and
tear lowers.
This component, in today's industrial environment is not necessarily needed anymore. Some manufacturers
provide all their cylinders pre-lubricated for life. They use a petroleum jelly technology, borrowed from the
aviation industry which is very high performance. But if you use a lubricator on those cylinders, you will wash
away that high-performance lubricant and you need to carry on with using the lubricator going forward.
Let's take a look on how the pneumatic lubricator works. The

assembly comprises a body which has a straight air path, but
with a rubber flap. Most of the air flows directly over the bent
flap, but in the process, the flap gives the air flow some
resistance. This resistance is small and it will direct air into the
oil bowl beneath. There like in a hairspray pressure will push
liquid up the straw, through a screw adjustable cross section.
This is used to adjust the number of oil drop we want the air
to take.
59
On the top there is a see-through drop

channel to be able to supervise the
operation.
One caution this component has, and you

really have to be careful about it, is the
need of turning off the pressure when
refilling.
The symbol is simple it starts with a rhombus, an IN and an OUT, then it has a line at the top that represents the
drop channel.
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6. Compressed air production and preparation

Now that we talked about how to use it, and what to look for when designing a machine, we are able to talk
about how to produce, store and prepare the compressed air.
We will cover the basic compressor unit, talk about functions, designs and what to be careful about. We will
also cover the centralized preparation, humidity, dew point, and prefiltration.
6.1 Air compressor

The obvious function of the air compressor is to take a large volume of air and force it in a smaller volume,
this way increasing the pressure.
The most widespread air compressor is the reciprocating type, which has a cylinder in which a piston raises
and lowers to intake the atmospheric air and to compress it. To do so it has a crank shaft which when it rotates
gives the piston a linear movement. At the top there are 2 one-way valves. One of them is for the intake, which
lets the air go into the cylinder, but not leave it, and the other is for exhausting the compressed air into the tank
but not letting it come back into the cylinder head.
In the lower part of the assembly there is also oil, to lubricate the friction between the piston head and
cylinder walls, which unfortunately, is not visible in this image.
This one is a one stage compressor. Let's see a dual stage compressor.
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This compressor works the same, but the crankshaft is a bit longer and has 2 pistons which are sliding
alternatively to compress or intake air. The left, larger piston is the first stage which rises the pressure a certain
amount, afterwards it is sent through a intercooler to lower the temperature of the air and finally inside the
second smaller cylinder, the air is compressed further by the stage 2 piston.
We cannot say that single or double stage compressors are better than one another until we have a
context to put them in. This graph shows us that the single stage compressor has higher efficiency in the lower
pressure range until 0.7 MPa or 7 bar or 100 psi. Beyond that the dual stage compressor is of higher efficiency.
62
Working on the same principle, is the membrane compressor, which has the advantage of isolating the
compressed air from the oil bath beneath.
Another popular design is the screw compressor.
This design is working by rotating two screws which interlock each other. They work as a pair, one is the male
screw, the other is a female screw. At the intake port their channels interlock and form higher volumes, as we
go down their length these volumes are getting smaller and smaller. From their rotating effect they air travels
only one way, from higher volume side to the lower volume side, this way the air gets compressed.
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The advantage this design has over the reciprocating compressor is that it doesn't need a tank. In the
reciprocating compressors the flow of pressure is intermittent. Which means that when compressing, the result
at the out port is pressure, but when intaking air the result at the out port is zero. This characteristic of the
reciprocating compressor is not found in the screw compressor. Now I said it doesn't need one because of the
characteristic, but there are other advantages of using a tank we will talk about in a minute.
A downside of the screw compressor is the high purchase price. The male and female screws need to have
very well finished surfaces. And given the complex shape of the screws this is an expensive process for the
manufacturers.
Another design not so spread in industry, but worth mentioning is the rotary vane compressor consists of a
rotor with radially spaced longitudinal slots. Inside the stator, the rotor is placed eccentrically. During the
rotation, blades called vanes, change their positions from fully extended to fully inserted depending on the
position in relation with the stator. Where the volume increases the air is taken in and where the volume
decreases and pressure builds up the air is exhausted to the out port. These compressors give problems at the
front and back where sealing tends to fail, but this design also has the advantage of high flow rate in smaller
body, compared to the reciprocating compressors.
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6.2 Air tank

Pneumatics have a big advantage over hydraulics and electrics when it comes to storing energy.
Firstly, in hydraulics there is not any possibility of storing the energy, there you either use it or you dump the oil
back in the reservoir.
Secondly compared to electrics the storing solution of compressed air is far cheaper when comparing a metal
volume to a stack of batteries.
The tank as simple as it is, serves some important functions in pneumatics:
1. First and foremost is the storing possibility, by having power available even when there is power
outage. We can still actuate manually/ pneumatically command directional control valves and bring our
machines in a safe position. But maybe more important it also helps the compressor in the peak consumption
periods.
2. Secondly it serves as a cushion form the pulsatory pressure characteristic of the reciprocating cylinder.
This is how the pulses of pressure are looking on a graph. Now at the other end, at machine side this is how the
tank is cushioning the pulses, practically rendering them unnoticeable.
3. It serves as a pre-cooler for the compressed air. Since air gets really hot while being compressed, it
needs to cool down. While in contact with the metal walls of the tank, the air is exchanging heat. It is advisable
to store your compressed air tank in the coolest spot you have available.
4. Lastly the tank also de-humidifies the compressed air. While cooling the water present in the air
condenses on the walls and drips on the bottom of the tank. It is advisable to use an auto drain on the
compressed air tank.
There isn't much to talk about in terms of construction, but we can mention the tank comes in various
shapes and sizes and we can also mention the safety precautions the manufacturers are implementing.
65
There usually is a safety valve or pressure release valve, which opens and releases pressure if it gets too
high. Sometimes the safety valve is adjustable, giving the user the ability to set their own safety limit. There are
also a port available for a pressure gauge and a thermometer. These are visual indicators for the state of the
compressed air inside the tank.
And sometimes we can also find a sight window through which we can inspect the interior of the tank
for, water, rust and dust particles.
6.3 Centralized air preparation

As we already know, the compressed air has contaminants of which we must take rid of.
Firstly, after the compression of air, it gets really hot. The first part of compressed air preparation will be cooling
it down. The main reason isn't really to have cool air, but dry air. As we have seen, pneumatic components have
lubrication for the moving parts and water is a real danger for that. With the evolution of the industry, most
components have become resistant to rusting, but there is also a concern for this problem. And finally, in
extreme conditions, water can also freeze. This can cause blockage in different components, cracking as ice
expands in volume and so on.
66
Secondly there is the issue of solid particles and burnt oil. These two are, for the most part, handled together
by the air filter. The burnt oil is not only a problem for the pneumatic components, but it also is a problem for
clean rooms. As we exhaust the air to the surroundings, it can contaminate food, pharmaceuticals and even
silicon wafers.
If we have processes with low tolerance to contaminants, we must take extra measures to be safe from burnt
oil mist and even smell.
6.3.1 Dewpoint
Let's take a closer look on the water problem. The composition of air is about 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and
the remaining 1% is composed of other gases like Carbon dioxide, Neon, Hydrogen, Krypton, Methane, Helium,
and Water Vapor.
67
The quantity of water vapor the

air holds, is dependent on the
temperature. The higher the
temperature, the higher the
quantity of water vapor, holding
ability air has (the scale is not
linear, IT IS LOGARITHMIC).
68
20g
Let's take a simple example. On this graph we can see that at

20 degrees Celsius the air can hold around 20 grams of water in
form of vapor per cubic meter. This means that the air is 100%
saturated with water. If we had a higher level of water into a
higher temperature air and it cooled down, then the excess
water would condensate and water drops would form.
In the past we used to refer to the quantity of water in the air, in percentages called relative humidity. Now
there is a more practical system for air humidity called dewpoint. This is a system which tells us the level of
water vapor in the air, directly in degrees.
Therefore, if we say that our compressed air has a dewpoint of

20 degrees Celsius, it means our air has 20 grams of water per
cubic meter. Pay very close attention as this does not refer to the
air temperature at all. We can have pneumatic air at 57 degrees
Celsius (which is the temperature) and its dewpoint at 0 degrees
Celsius (which tells us it has 5 grams of water vapor).
69
The benefit for calling the humidity in

degrees is that, a certain component in the
specifications, will say it brings down the
dewpoint to -30 degrees.
Now we know that after air passes

through this component, there will not be
water, at any stage, in the system, as long as
the temperature doesn't go below -30
degrees Celsius. You can see how the
dewpoint system of characterizing the
humidity is cutting away a lot of headaches
for the machine designers.
6.3.2 Dehumidifiers
Let's take a look on how to eliminate the contaminates for the pneumatics air.
Firstly, the water. As we cool down the air, condensate will form, which can easily be drained.
We have a few popular methods of dehumidifying the pneumatic air.
1. The air cooled aftercooler
The hot humid air travels through a series of

air ducts, which are passed through a number of
blades. This is a heat exchanger in which the air
blown over the blades takes away the heat from the
compressed air inside. When cooling, the condensate
will form inside the ducts and the water will be
drained from the bottom.
70
2. The water cooled aftercooler
It works similarly to the air

cooled aftercooler. The difference is
that this time, pneumatic hot,
humid air passes over the water
ducts. The heat from the air is taken
away by the water and condensate
will form on the exterior of the
ducts. Finally the condensate
accumulates on the bottom, where
it is drained (either manually or
automatically).
3. Refrigerated air dryer
This method has the highest output, being able to dehumidify large quantities of air and eliminates lots
of water from the air.
71
Let's follow the air flow. At the top we

can see the humid, hot air coming into a
primary heat exchanger, called the
reheater. Here we pre-cool the air with
the already cooled air from the main heat
exchanger.
The reason we are doing this, is to get the

temperature of the cooled air higher, so
that condensate doesn’t form down the
line in the system. It also increases the
efficiency of the air dryer, by pre-cooling
the hot humid air a bit.
Let's also take a quick look on how the refrigerated circuit

works. The refrigerant also benefits from the temperature
effects of compressing and expansion. We will start at the
compressor, where low temperature and low-pressure
refrigerant comes in, it's compressed and high temperature at
high pressure refrigerant exists.
Next it goes through the condenser, where we

eliminate the dense high temperature from the
high pressure gas, with an air cooled heat
exchanger. Out the condenser exits a low
temperature, low pressure liquid.
72
Meanwhile we also let it expand through a

series a capillary tubes, which lowers the
temperature drastically. Now we have a very
low temperature liquid which will absorb
heat from the pneumatic air in the main heat
exchanger.
Then the pre-cooled air is going in the main heat

exchanger, where it is cooled powerfully by the
refrigerated gas. Now the cool, dried air is
separated from the condensate which formed in
the process by the drain separator. Finally, the air
cooled dry air goes back to the first heat exchanger
and pre-cools the hot, humid air.
4. Heatless air dryers
The last popular method for dehumidifying

compressed air is the most performant one. It eliminates
the highest percentage of water from the air, but has a
low output and it is usually found on specific low
tolerance machines.
73
The humid compressed air comes in

and goes through one of the tanks. In the tanks
there is a material which absorbs water, like
silicon dioxide (popularly called silica gel).
After dehumidifying, the air goes through a
one way valve with a restriction bypass.
Most of the air 80 to 90% goes on to power the

machine, but the rest 10 to 20 % is used to
reactivate the silicon dioxide in the other tank,
as it saturates with water.
The quantity of air going for reactivation is set

by the un-adjustable restriction. The air from
the reactivated silica gel will be exhausted to
the atmosphere.
Finally, when the tank now used to dry the air

gets water saturated itself, by the switching of
the spool we inverse the functions of the
tanks.
These are the main ways to dehumidify the pneumatic air. This process usually takes up energy and it is a major
reason for the high cost of industrial quality pneumatic air.
There is also the need of eliminating condensate which appears in air ducts downstream. This is done by using
regular air filters or drains placed at the lowest points of the distribution network.
74
6.3.3 Main line air filters

After dehumidifying the compressed air, we will want to take care of particles.
Aldo we also have a filter at the machine, there is the need for
retaining bigger particles with a more coarse air filter.
For that we will use a so called main line filter. Its function is to give us a standard
air quality and also to drain any condensate which made it this far.
Each pneumatic component manufacturer offers line air filters with a standard filtration level. It, for the
most of them, is 5 micrometers. This means that any particle which has one of the dimensions bigger than 5
micrometers will not pass the filtration element.
You might ask, why 5 micrometers and not less or more? Because it is the particle dimension limit which
ensures good functioning for the usual configurations downstream at the machines. After this coarse filtration
the pneumatic air can be further filtered for even smaller tolerances at the point of need.
Let's take a look on how it works.

The main line filter is different from the
usual filter in design, because, here the
compressed air comes in through the
middle of the filtration element and
exists the filter through the outside of
the element.
75
We can also note that the spinning

effect isn't present anymore. To
improve performance, we can also
see it is constructed in multi-layer
configuration. First there is a screen
which caches the biggest particles
and keeps them away from the first
element layer where most of the
particles are blocked.
The first layer is a folded element, for the benefit of increasing the action surface area. The second layer is
another metal screen used for helping condensate form. The exterior layer is a composite material which adds
a final filtration stage to let only the rated particles go through and exit downstream.
The condensate falls to the bottom and accumulates in the bowl to be drained, either manually or automatically.
6.3.4 Air quality standard

To define a method of having the same language between all the manufacturers, when it comes to air quality,
the International Standardization Organization (ISO) has defined the ISO8573-1:2010 standard.
76
A manufacturer, or a process regulation authority will rate the needed air quality by giving it a class.
Let's take an example:
If we say the needed air quality is class 2 4 1
The number 2 is for solid particles and it means, that the solid particles per cubic meter will be:
Under or equal to 400.000 between 0.1 and 0.5 micrometers

Under or equal to 6.000 between 0.5 and 1 micrometers
Under or equal to 100 between 1 and 5 micrometers
The next number, 4 is for the water content, which tells us that the quantity of water vapor the air can have is Under or
Equal to 3 degrees Celsius.
Finally, number 1 refers to the allowable oil content in the air by mg per cubic meter. Which in this case is 0.01
77
CONGRATULATIONS!
I am very proud to see that you
made it to the end.
This is just a first step in your

development towards becoming
an expert on pneumatics.
If you have any questions don’t

hesitate to ask, we will help you
ASAP. Good luck!

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Presented by Stefan Catalin Suceveanu

2. Basic Pneumatic System

Name Image ISO symbol Function

Pneumatic The workhorse of the system,

Switches between advance

The FRL group prepares the

Name Image ISO symbol Function

Before the compressed

It stores, precools, pre-

It forces a large volume

Name Image ISO symbol Function

If condensate forms inside the

It collects water in various

• the linear actuator or pneumatic cylinder

The pneumatic cylinder is also divided into two main types:

Let's start with the symbol. Imagine it is an over-simplified cross-section of a cylinder.

Advance (left) and return (right)

• Double acting cylinder (unilateral rod)

• Double rod, double acting cylinder

• Rodless, double acting cylinder

magnetic coupling mechanical coupling

It also divides into types:

• Single acting, spring return cylinder

For it, we can only pressurize the advance stroke.

• Single acting, spring extended cylinder

We can only pressurize the return stroke.

The rotary actuators are used to obtain a rotational movement.

3.1 Actuator working principle

Imagine you are pushing on a car up hill.

This formula is valid only for the side of

In a rodless or double rod

First, we take the advance force (FA):

𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 = 0.5 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 𝜋𝜋(25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)2 = 0.5𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 1926.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 981.25 𝑁𝑁

Secondly the return stroke (FR):

𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 0.5 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 𝜋𝜋((25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)2 − (10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)2 ) = 0.5𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∗ 𝜋𝜋 ∗ 525𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 824 𝑁𝑁

3.2 Differences between SA and DA cylinders

Did you answer single acting? Or double acting?

Short strokes and diameters

Simpler in design, which drives down

Let's see a few applications and how to weigh in the options:

In the first example we are talking about a clamp with

For the drill it is also better to use a double acting

One very important aspect of robotic arms is mass

You can see how shedding every bit of mass

Side info: the remaining 10% is electric/hydraulic

3.3 Usual linear cylinders

1. The double rod cylinder is a cylinder which has the advantage of

fix rod fix body

They are also very poor in dealing with radial loads,

If the regular cylinder would be bad in taking radial

hexagonal rod oval piston …

They are particularly useful in applications like:

• Profiled transfer of pieces, where alignment might be critical

3.4 Rotary cylinders

Tapping 1 Flip 180° Tapping 2

• Rack and pinion construction