APPLIED GEOMORPHOLOGY

Applied geomorphology is a field of science where the research outcomes provide information
geomorphic landforms or processes that may be of concern to society, and, where relevant,
provides solutions to problems of geomorphic context. Applied geomorphology examines
geomorphic impacts that affect society, as well as society's impact on geomorphic forms and
processes. The application of geomorphic knowledge to problem‐solving spans all of the
classic traditions of geomorphology and is useful for human–environmental solutions across a
broad range of geographies, including coastal shoreline erosion control, landslide risk
assessments, and dam‐related river management issues. Resources, particularly maps, models,
and prediction tools, provided by applied geomorphologists are useful to scientists, engineers,
consultants, and decision‐makers involved with hazards, land‐use planning, natural resources,
environmental management, and global environmental change. Applied geomorphologists
working independently or serving on multidisciplinary advisory panels are well positioned to
influence public policy to the benefit of society and the earth sciences.

An understanding of landforms may be of great use, directly or indirectly, to human beings

who are influenced by and, in turn, influence the surface features of the earth which they
inhabit.

If landforms are properly interpreted, they throw light upon the geologic history, structure and
litho logy of a region. According to D.K.C. Jones, applied geomorphology could be defined as
“the application of geomorphic understanding to the analysis and solution of problems
concerning land occupancy, resource exploitation, and environmental management and
planning”.

Indeed, all geomorphological knowledge tends to be applied, according to R.G. Craig and J.L.
Craft. As each advance in knowledge provides a clear view of how the earth works,
geomorphologists can make use of the knowledge for evaluating resources, development
projects, locating natural hazards and mitigating the effect of natural disasters.

Geomorphic knowledge and techniques may be applied in the following areas:

i. Studying the impact of geomorphic/ environmental processes on human society and
activities and dealing with problems arising out of such impact;

ii. Investigating the changes brought about in the geomorphic/environmental processes by

human activities and dealing with the problems arising out of such interaction;

iii. Managing resources and monitoring changes in the geomorphic system to suggest suitable
remedial measures for maintaining development at a sustainable level.
Two Main Lines of Application:
The application of geomorphology, according to Charley, Schumn and Sugden, may be
considered along two lines:
(i) Geomorphology can be an aid to resource evaluation, engineering construction and
planning. In this category we may put resource inventories, environmental management, soil
and land evaluation, production of maps for hydrological, erosional and stability control,
geomorphic mapping, mapping for land systems and evaluating terrain, classification and
retrieval of information on terrain and other matters of use to earth scientists, engineers and
planners.

Applied geomorphology in this aspect can be of use in urban planning in different geomorphic
environments and in preparation of natural hazard maps, morpho-agricultural regionalisation,
land use planning, construction and management of roads.

(ii) Applied geomorphology is also concerned with human beings as geomorphic agents, in
terms of their planned or inadvertent effects on geomorphic processes and forms.

Human beings have over time tried to tame and modify geomorphic/environmental processes
to suit their economic needs. Embankments have been built to check flooding of rivers;
meandering courses of rivers have been straightened and channels diverted; coastal areas
have been sought to be protected against wave erosion by building walls; there have been
attempts to stabilise sandy areas through plantation, and check soil erosion through
afforestation. These are some examples of planned activities by human beings that have an
impact on geomorphic forms and processes.

The inadvertent effects of human activities on geomorphic forms and processes are many:
forests are cleared and grasslands burnt for cultivating crops or for building settlements;
mining activities and water extraction cause subsidence of land; building and mining activities
result in modification of terrain; excessive, unplanned deforestation causes accelerated soil
erosion and increase in sediment load leading, in turn, to recurrent floods and riparian decay.
Pollution has been a major inadvertent effect of human economic activity. Dams cause
changes in river load and accelerated erosion. High altitude construction has modified
permafrost.

Specific Applications:
We consider here some of the applications of geomorphology to the types of problems
commonly encountered by geologists, engineers and planners.
Geomorphology and Hydrology:
Water used by human beings is available from different sources—streams, lakes and rivers on
the surface of the earth or groundwater. Different stratigraphic and lithological zones present
different conditions of surface and groundwater.

Limestone terrains vary widely and the ability to yield water depends on the type of rock.
Permeability in limestones may be primary or secondary. Primary permeability depends upon
the presence of initial interconnecting voids in the calcerous sediments from which the rock
was formed. Secondary (or acquired) permeability occurs because of earth movements such as
faulting, folding, warping, and due to solution or corrosion mechanism.

This secondary permeability varies notably with respect to the topography of a region, being
greatest beneath and adjacent to topographic lows or valleys. Much of the groundwater in
karst terrain is confined to solution channels.

In early stages of karst evolution conditions are not too different from those of other types of
landscapes with similar relief. But as the cycle advances, a large proportion of water is
diverted to solutionally opened passageways, and surface water gets diminished. The main
source of water in such regions then are karst springs. Such springs may supply water to meet
moderate demands, but the quality of water may be affected by pollutants and bacteria.

The sources of the spring water should be determined in such a case of pollution. The swallow
holes and sinkholes feeding water to the underground drainage systems emerging as springs
may be located. This can be done by putting some colouring material, such as fluorescein, into
the water entering nearby swallow holes (or sinkholes) and testing the various spring waters
to find out their source. A knowledge of the structural geology of the region is of use in this
context, as groundwater moves down rather than up the regional dip.

The ease with which water may be obtained in a limestone region depends on the
geomorphology of the area. If the limestones have enough permeability and are capped by
sandstone layer, there may be no difficulty in obtaining wells of large yields. Moreover, the
water would get naturally filtered as it passes through the sandstone beds.

If, however, the limestone is dense and compact, with little mass permeability, movement of
groundwater will be largely through secondary openings. In such circumstances, the yield of
water may be low or, even if adequate, subject to contamination. Karst plains lack a filtering
cover and sinkholes, swallow holes or karst valleys within an area of clastic rocks should cast
doubt on the purity of the water from springs nearby.

Groundwater potential in glaciated regions can be determined on the basis of understanding

the geomorphic history of the area, characteristics of glacial deposits and landform. Outwash
plains, valley trains and intertill gravels are likely to yield large volumes of water. Most tills are
poor sources of water because of the clay in them, but they contain local strata of sand and
gravel which may hold and supply enough water for domestic needs.

Buried preglacial and interglacial valleys could be good sources of groundwater. Their
presence (or absence) may be detected by studying the preglacial topography and geomorphic
history of the area. Buried valleys are located by constructing bedrock topography maps of
glaciated areas.

Geomorphology and Mineral Exploration:

Mineral deposits are associated with geological structure. Landscape characteristics of the
specific localities could indicate such geological structures.

Surface Expression of Ore Bodies:

Some ore bodies have obvious surface expressions as topographic forms, as outcrops of ore,
gossan, or residual minerals, or structural features such as faults, fractures and zones of
breccia. Lead-zinc lodes could be marked by a conspicuous ridge as in the case of Broken Hill,
Australia. Quartz veins could stand out prominently as they are much more resistant to
erosion than the unsilicified surroundings, as in Chihuahua, Mexico. Some veins (calcite, for
instance) and mineralised areas may be indicated by depressions or subsidence features.

Weathering Residues:
Many economically important minerals are the weathering residues of present or ancient
geomorphic cycles and geomorphology can be of use in searching for such minerals. Iron ore,
clay minerals, caliche, bauxite and some ores of manganese and nickel may be such
weathering residues. Weathering and erosion are constantly at work on the rocks of earth’s
surface, and the products of rock weathering may be of economical value.

The surfaces on which residual weathering products commonly form are pleneplain or near-
pleneplain surfaces. Such minerals are more commonly to be found upon remnants of Tertiary
erosional surfaces above present base levels of erosion. Bauxite, for instance, is either the
residue of a small amount of insoluble aluminous material in dolomites and limestones or it is
the direct product of the weathering of aluminous minerals.

Placer Deposits:
Placer deposits are mixtures of heavy metals which are aggregates of materials derived
through chemical weathering or erosion of metallic formation. Placer concentration of
minerals results from definite geomorphic processes and, found in specific topographical
positions, may have a distinctive topographic expression. The type of rock forming the bedrock
floor may influence the deposition of placers.
Residual placers or ‘seam diggings’ are residues from the weathering of quartz stringers or
veins, are usually of limited amount, and grade down into lodes. Colluvial placers are produced
by creep downslope of residual materials and are thus transitional between residual placers
and alluvial placers.

Gold placers of this type have been found in California, Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere.
Part of the tin placers of Malaya is colluvial placers (the koelits) and parts are alluvial placers
(the kaksas). About one-third of the world’s platinum is obtained from alluvial placers in
Russia, Colombia, and elsewhere. Gold, tin and diamonds are among the more important
minerals obtained from alluvial placers.

Diamonds in the Vaal and Orange River districts of South Africa, the Lichtenburg area of South
Africa, the Belgian Congo, and Minas Geraes, Brazil, are obtained from alluvial placers. About
20 per cent of the world’s diamonds comes from placer deposits. Aeolian placers have yielded
gold in Australia and Lower California, Mexico. Bajada placers form in the gravel mantle of a
pediment and in the confluent alluvial fans of a bajada.

They are more likely to be found near a mountain base than out on the more gentle slopes of
a basin fill. Beach placers have yielded gold in California and Alaska, diamonds in the
Namaqualand district of South Africa, zircon in India, Brazil, and Australia, and ilmenite and
monazite in Travancore, India.

“Location of placers may be aided by drilling and geophysical testing. A magnetic survey will
usually be helpful because magnetite is likely to be associated with gold. If the bedrock is a
basic type with a higher magnetic intensity than the placer gravels, areas of magnetic “lows”
may reflect the positions of the filled channels.

“Knowledge of the bedrock geology, application of geophysical surveying, test drilling and
aerial- photograph interpretation all contribute their parts to exploration for these buried
placers, but most fundamental to this search is a thorough understanding of the geomorphic
history of the region,” observes W.D. Thornbury.

Oil Exploration:
Many oil fields have been discovered because of their striking topographic expression. Mineral
oil is considered to have been formed by the decay and decomposition of organic matter. After
formation, this oil gets trapped in rocks under structural traps or stratigraphic traps.
Sedimentary strata are folded into anticlines and synclines allowing the permeable and
impermeable strata to get closer, and the mineral oil are well-preserved within the upper
permeable and the lower impermeable beds.
Generally mineral oil is found in the porous and permeable rock structures with lower layers of
impermeable rocks. Sandstone and limestone provide ideal locations of mineral oil as they are
porous and permeable. The shale below acts as the impermeable bed. In regions of heavy
tropical forests, where topography cannot be seen through the forest, tonal differences may
indicate an anticlinal or domal structure.

More subtle evidence of geologic structures favourable to oil accumulation is being made use
of today in the search for oil. Drainage analysis of a terrain shown on aerial photography is one
such technique. A sophisticated perception of drainage anomalies of an area is required, and a
geomorphologist would most likely possess the requisite knowledge. Drainage analysis is
particularly useful in regions where rocks have low dips and the topographic relief is slight.

According to Leverson, many oil and gas sources are associated with unconformities—ancient
erosion surfaces; hence a petroleum geologist must deal with buried landscapes. Where
ancient erosion surfaces shorten permeable beds and are later sealed over by deposits, the
erosion surfaces become stratigraphic traps, most of which are along unconformities.

Geomorphology and Engineering Works:

Engineering works most often involve evaluation of geologic factors of one type or another;
terrain characteristics are among the most common factors.

Road Construction:
The most feasible highway routes would be best determined by the topographic features of
the area. Knowledge of the geologic structure, lithological and stratigraphic characteristics,
strength of the surficial deposits, geomorphic history of the area, among other things are of
importance in road engineering.

A route over a karst plain necessitates repeated cut and fill otherwise the road will be flooded
after heavy rains as sinkholes fill with surface runoff. Bridge abutments in a karst region should
be so designed that they will not be weakened by enlarged solutional cavities which are likely
to be present.

Glacial terrains present many types of engineering problems. A flat till plain is topographically
ideal for road construction, but in areas where end-moraines, eskers, kames or drumlins exist
there is need for cut and fill to avoid circuitous routes. Muck areas, which mark sites of former
lakes, are unsuited for roads which are to carry heavy traffic. If a road is built across them as
they are, heavy traffic will cause the plastic materials beneath the lake floor to flow, and ‘sinks’
in the road bed will result. To avoid this, the lacustrine fill may have to be excavated and
replaced with materials that will not flow under heavy load.
Areas with the considerable relief which characterises late youth and early maturity will
necessitate much bridge construction and many cuts and fills. In such areas landslides, earth
flows and slumping become serious problems.

In highway construction designed to carry heavy traffic, the nature of the soil beneath a road
surface, or what is called the subgrade, has become increasingly significant because of its
control over the drainage beneath a highway. The lifetime of a highway, under moderate
loads, is determined largely by two factors: the quality of the aggregate used in the highway
and the soil texture and drainage of its subgrade.

Thus an appreciation of the relationships of soils to varying topographic conditions and type of
parent material becomes essential in modern highway construction. A knowledge of soil
profiles, which to a large degree reflect the influence of geomorphic conditions and history, is
basic. Poor highway performance characterises silty-clay subgrades with a high water table,
and best performance is found on granular materials with a low water table.

Dam Site Selection:

Selecting sites for the construction of dams would be greatly helped by a synthesis of
knowledge concerning geomorphology, lithology, and geologic structure of terrains.

Five main requirements of good reservoir sites depend on geologic conditions, according to
Kirk Bryan:
(1) a water-tight basin of adequate size; (2) a narrow outlet of the basin with a foundation that
will permit economical construction of a dam; (3) opportunity to build an adequate and safe
spillway to carry surplus waters; (4) availability of materials needed for dam construction (this
is particularly true of earthen dams); and (5) assurance that the life of the reservoir will not be
too short as a result of excessive deposition of mud and silt.

Limestone terrain, for instance, may prove a difficult one for constructing a dam. The bedrock
surface may be irregular because of differential solution and, unless a true picture of the
subsurface is understood, it could lead to avoidable expenditure.

A construction in a valley is desirable from the standpoint of the size of the dam that will have
to be built, but it may not always be a good dam site. In glaciated areas, where buried bedrock
valleys containing sand and gravel fills are common, surficial topography may not give an
adequate picture of sub-surface conditions.

On a superficial level, a dam could be situated at a constriction in a valley between a valley

wall on one side and a spur end on the other. However, it is possible that the subsurface
topography is not suitable; there may be a buried preglacial valley with sand and gravel in it.
The dam, if built on such a site, would leak.
Construction of Air Strips While selecting sites for air strips, where aeroplanes may land and
take off from, requires engineering skill, the engineer could well benefit from a
geomorphologist’s knowledge of landscape characteristics. The best sites for air strips would
show an extensive flat surface with resistant geomaterials available: here a safe and suitable
runway can be constructed. Furthermore, the ground surface should show an almost level
slope, the area should be free of floods and marked by good visibility (may be free of frequent
and intense fog). These characteristics could be gathered from a morphological map of the
region where the air strip is to be built.

Locating Sand and Gravel Pits:

Sand and gravel have many engineering as well as commercial and industrial uses. Selection of
suitable sites for sand and gravel pits will entail evaluation of such geologic factors as variation
in grade sizes, lithologic composition, degree of weathering, amount of overburden and
continuity of the deposits. Sand and gravel may be found as floodplain, river terrace, alluvial
fan and cone, talus, wind-blown, residual and glacial deposits of various types.

All have distinctive topographic relationships and expressions and varying inherent qualities
and possibilities of development. Recognition of the type of deposit is essential to proper
evaluation of its potentialities. Demand for gravel is generally greater than for sand,
particularly in recent years with the decreased use of plaster in home construction, and thus
knowledge of the percentages of various grade sizes is important.

Floodplain deposits are likely to contain high proportions of silt and sand and show many
variable and heterogeneous lateral and vertical gradations. Alluvial fan and cone gravels are
angular in shape as well as variable in size, especially near their apices. Talus materials, in
addition to being angular, are too large to be suitable for most uses and are limited in extent.

Wind-blown sands may be satisfactory sources of sand but have no gravel in them. Residual
deposits lack assortment and are likely to contain pebbles that are too deeply weathered to be
suitable for use as aggregate in cement work. A high percentage of iron-coated chert when
used as aggregate usually has deleterious effects. Residual deposits are furthermore likely to
be limited in extent.

Terraced valley trains and outwash plains are usually favourable sites for pits, for they do not
have a thick overburden and are usually extensive.

Geomorphology and Military Geology:

Thornbury points out the importance of geomorphology in the context of war.

“World War I was largely stabilised trench warfare, and the information that was most useful
was more geologic than geomorphic in nature (Brooks, 1921). Information about the kind of
rock that would be encountered in digging trenches, in mining and countermining and the
possibilities of water supply and supplies of other geologic materials was most utilised.
Topography did play a role in maneuvering and planning routes of attack, but it can hardly be
said that the Allies utilised basic geomorphic knowledge to any great extent.

“With development of the blitzkrieg type of warfare during World War II, topography became
more important, because the effectiveness of a blitz depends to a large degree upon the
trafficability of the terrain. As a consequence, in more recent years terrain appreciation or
terrain analysis have become semi-magic words with the military. A geomorphologist may lack
knowledge as to how best to utilise terrains in military operations, but certainly his concepts of
terrain conditions are far more adequate than those of the military specialist or other
geologists for that matter. He appreciates that landforms are the result of an interaction of
geomorphic and geologic processes through time; that landforms are not groups of unrelated
and haphazard individual forms but have systematic relationships that reveal their origins and
tell much about the underlying bedrock geology and structure, as well as the soils and
vegetation of a region. As Erdmann (1943) put it, the geomorphologist has ‘an eye for the
ground or an instinctive eye for configuration, the judgement of how distant ground, seen or
unseen, is likely to lie when you come to it… Terrain is the common denominator of geology
and war.’ Whether it is in connection with the interpretation of topographic maps or aerial
photographs, this basic appreciation of different types of terrain is fundamental to a proper
planning of military campaigns.”

Regarding the use of aerial photographs in this connection, Hunt (1950) stated: “Even where
geologic maps are lacking or are on such a small- scale as to be practically useless for tactical
intelligence, geologic principles can be applied with advantage to interpreting the terrain from
aerial photographs. Little training in reading vertical photographs is required to recognise
mountains, hills, lakes, rivers, woods, plains or some kinds of swamps. But much more than
that can and should be interpreted from the pictures for the purposes of acquiring complete
terrain intelligence. It is essential to know the kind of hill, the kind of plain, the kind of river or
lake, and so on, because by knowing this it is frequently possible to reconstruct the geology.
The interpreter, with some confidence, can then make predictions as to water supply, the kind
and depth of soil, traffic-ability, ground drainage and other construction problems,
construction materials, movement and cover, and many of the other elements that are
essential to an adequate estimate of the terrain situation. In brief, therefore, aerial
photographs are useful to the preparation of terrain intelligence insofar as they provide
information on the geology of’ the area. Identification of a hill or other terrain feature is but a
small part of the story that can be read from a photograph; all important is the recognition of
the significance of the particular landform, in terms of kind of ground and slope.”
Geomorphology and Urbanisation:
Geomorphological knowledge applied to urban development has become important enough
to grow into a separate branch, namely, urban geomorphology. This branch of geomorphology
is concerned with “the study of landforms and their related processes, materials and hazards,
ways that are beneficial to planning, development and management of urbanised areas where
urban growth is expected,” according to R.U. Cooke.

A city or town depends for its stability, safety, basic needs and, later, its expansion on
geomorphological features: lithological and topographical features, hydrological conditions
and geomorphic features. An urban geomorphologist begins work even before urban
development through field survey, terrain classification, identification and selection of
alternative sites for settlements. During and after urban development, an urban
geomorphologist would be concerned with studying the impact of natural events on’ the
urban community and that of urban development on the environment.

It has been pointed out by R.U. Cooke that “various geomorphological problems hitherto not
understood by the planners and engineers lead to destruction and damage to urban
settlements in varying environmental realms viz., settling of foundation materials in the dry
lands of oil-rich states and in the periglacial regions; destruction of foundations by weathering
processes; damage of highways; damage to buildings through inundation during floods in the
subtropical humid regions etc.

All these and many other problems arise in part from mismanagement or misunderstanding of
geomorphological conditions.” Very little attention is paid to understanding the
geomorphological conditions before the development of existing urban centres mainly in the
developing countries. This results in uncontrolled growth, giving rise to squatter settlements or
shanty towns. It commonly creates serious social and environmental problems.

Geomorphology and Hazard Management:

Events, natural or man-induced, exceeding a tolerable level or of an unexpected nature may
be called hazards. A geomorphic hazard, says Chorley, may be defined as “any change, natural
or man- made, that may affect the geomorphic stability of a landform to the adversity of’ living
things”. These hazards may arise from long-term factors such as faulting, folding, warping,
uplifting, subsidence caused by earth movements, or changes in vegetation cover and
hydrologic regime caused by climatic change. More immediate and sudden hazards are
volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, floods, etc.

Geomorphic knowledge can be of use in identifying and predicting such hazards and in
assessing their effects and proper management.
Regular measurement of seismic events and earth tremors by seismic methods; regular
measurement of ground surface, mainly tilt measurement by tilt metres; constant
measurement of temperature of crater lakes, hot springs, geysers, fumaroles; monitoring of
gases coming out of craters, hot springs, geysers; monitoring of changes in the configuration of
dormant or extinct volcanoes by lasers; measurement of local gravity and magnetic fields and
their trends etc., help in making predictions of possible eruptions in the areas having past case
histories of vulcanism. The path of lava flow can be better predicted on the basis of detailed
analysis of topography and identification of possible eruption points.

The geomorphic knowledge of the behaviour of a river system and its morphological
characteristics viz. channel geometry, channel morphology and channel pattern, river
metamorphosis, bank morphology etc., may help in controlling river floods through flood
control measures.

These include steps:

(i) To delay the return of runoff resulting from torrential rainfall to the rivers;

(ii) To hasten the discharge of water (by straightening the meandering channels);

(iii) To divert the flow of water (through, diversion channels);

(iv) To reduce the impact of floods (through construction of protective embankments); and

(v) To forewarn the occurrence of floods.

Without the knowledge of the nature of erosion in the upper catchment area and sediment ”
load characteristics of the river, the construction of levees to confine the flood water within
the valley may prove disastrous: if the rate of erosion is very high in the upper catchment area,
resulting in high sediment load, there would be more sedimentation in the valley causing a
gradual rise in the river bed; this may lead to sudden flash floods whenever the levee is
breached.

Earthquakes may be natural or man-induced geomorphic hazards. The geomorphic knowledge

of the stability of terrain and probable impacts of man-made structures (such as dams and
reservoirs) on crustal stability is of paramount importance in identifying weaker zones which
are likely to be affected by seismic events. Similarly, the geomorphic study of the nature of hill
slopes and their associated lithologies enable us to know the stability or instability of the hill
slopes. This knowledge would help in identifying and mapping unstable hill slopes unsuitable
for human settlements and road construction.
Geomorphology and Regional Planning:
Applied geomorphology has a place in regional planning. A balanced growth of a country’s
economy requires a careful understanding of what each region offers in terms of resources,
natural and human. Detailed information on topography, soils, hydrology, litho-logy and
terrain characteristics are of obvious interest to enlightened regional planners who may then
devise development projects best suited for the region.

Other Applications:
The applications of geomorphic principles are most striking in the fields discussed above. But
there are several other areas in which applied geomorphology is of use. As Thornbury points
out, soil maps are to a considerable degree topographic maps, and the differentiation of the
various members of any soil series rests fundamentally upon the different topographic
conditions under which each member of the soil series developed. Modern beach engineering
(M.A. Mason; W.C. Krumbein), to be successful, must be based upon an appreciation of the
processes of shoreline development.

The problem of soil erosion (C.B. Brown; H.V. Peterson) is essentially a problem involving
recognition and proper control of such geomorphic processes as sheet-wash erosion,
gulleying, mass-wasting and stream erosion. The severity of erosion is not determined by the
angle of slope alone. It may not be serious on steep slopes where those slopes are underlain
by permeable materials, and it may be serious on slight slopes where they are on impermeable
materials. The related problem of land classification also entails an appreciation of varying
types of terrains and the best uses that may be made of them.

Application of geomorphology can be of immense use in controlling the adverse effects of

human activities on geomorphic forms and processes. Indeed, this field has also developed
into a separate branch, ‘anthrop geomorphology’.

Technique of Applied geomorphology:

Applied geomorphology deals with the interactions of geomorphology with anthropogenic
activities.

So the basic aspects of applied geomorphology are as follows:

1. Mapping of landforms viz. slope elements which affect and/or modify human activity.

2. Attempting to interpret aerial photographs and images taken by remote sensing methods.

3. Monitoring the environmental changes, especially when such changes are not sustainable in
nature.

4. Endeavoring to assess the causes of unsustainable changes.

5. Proposing remedies for hazards caused by unsustainable changes.

Interpretation of Aerial Photographs and Satellite Images:

Preparation of specialised maps and interpreting them has become easier and accurate with
the introduction of air photographs and satellite imageries. Air photographs (taken from
airplanes) are taken on different scales and the distributional patterns of relevant features are
transferred on the maps bearing the same scales to make them up-to-date.

Nowadays, aerial photographs are being used for evaluating landforms and land use vis-a-vis
city developmental plans, major construction projects, etc. Satellite imageries are useful for
studying global and country-level climatic phenomena (weather forecasting has become more
accurate with the introduction of meteorological data gathered by satellites) but these
imageries are also of paramount importance in mineral prospecting, preparation of land use
inventories and forecasting agricultural output etc.

Remote Sensing:
Remote sensing deals with the collection of information regarding objects from a certain
distance without coming into contact with them. An assembly of electro-optical devices called
‘sensors’ as well as cameras measure spectral behaviour of objects under study. Nowadays,
the most widely used remote sensing techniques are linked with the sensing of
electromagnetic radiation emitted from the terrestrial objects. Different objects have different
scattering properties called signatures owing to their different molecular composition. A
thorough knowledge of signatures is vital for interpreting satellite images.

Importance of Remote Sensing Technique:

Remote sensing is necessary for sustainable management of natural resources like soil, forest,
crops, oceans, urban and town planning etc. Resource planners require such techniques for
timely information on the condition and extent of resources. Since these resources are
dynamic and replenishable in nature, the ground-based monitoring systems can hardly
monitor the condition of these resources without a gap of days or weeks. Satellite-based
surveys enjoy a definite advantage of repetitivity.

These surveys are conducted from a height of 500-900 km above the surface. “Nowadays
Geographical Information Systems or GIS technology has been used along with remote sensing
techniques. GIS may be defined as spatial, integrated data-handling programmes used to
gather, store and retrieve spatial data from the real world. GIS contain selected data, only
those properties geographical investors consider to be relevant.” (Oxford Dictionary of
Geography)

Remote Sensing Survey enjoys the following advantages over ground surveys:
1. Synoptic view or wide coverage of a large area is possible.
2. Permanent record of ground conditions is subject to verification later at any time.

3. Interpretation of remote sensing data requires much less time than do cumbersome ground
surveys.

4. Remote sensing technique is capable of accessing thermal and microwave regions not
accessible to the naked eye.

5. Ground surveys involve more time, money and infrastructure in comparison to remote
sensing surveys.

6. Ground surveys, if repeated, are highly uneconomical.

7. The same remote sensing data is useful for different purposes; for example, the same data
may be used by soil scientists for soil surveys, by geohydrologists for groundwater surveys or
by agricultural scientists for crop surveys.

8. Remote sensing surveys are free from handicaps like bad weather conditions.