This document discusses computer storage structures and memory hierarchy. It explains that main memory can directly access by the CPU but is too small, so secondary storage like hard disks are used. Hard disks have tracks and sectors to logically divide the disk surface. Caching copies frequently used data between slower and faster storage. The operating system uses multiprogramming and multitasking to improve CPU utilization by switching between ready processes. Dual mode operation separates user and kernel modes to protect system integrity.
This document discusses computer storage structures and memory hierarchy. It explains that main memory can directly access by the CPU but is too small, so secondary storage like hard disks are used. Hard disks have tracks and sectors to logically divide the disk surface. Caching copies frequently used data between slower and faster storage. The operating system uses multiprogramming and multitasking to improve CPU utilization by switching between ready processes. Dual mode operation separates user and kernel modes to protect system integrity.
This document discusses computer storage structures and memory hierarchy. It explains that main memory can directly access by the CPU but is too small, so secondary storage like hard disks are used. Hard disks have tracks and sectors to logically divide the disk surface. Caching copies frequently used data between slower and faster storage. The operating system uses multiprogramming and multitasking to improve CPU utilization by switching between ready processes. Dual mode operation separates user and kernel modes to protect system integrity.
This document discusses computer storage structures and memory hierarchy. It explains that main memory can directly access by the CPU but is too small, so secondary storage like hard disks are used. Hard disks have tracks and sectors to logically divide the disk surface. Caching copies frequently used data between slower and faster storage. The operating system uses multiprogramming and multitasking to improve CPU utilization by switching between ready processes. Dual mode operation separates user and kernel modes to protect system integrity.
1 Storage Structure • CPU can load instructions only from main memory. • Any program to be run must be stored there. • All memory provides an array of bytes. • Each byte is addressable using a memory location. • Memory – CPU: load instruction. • CPU – memory: store instruction. • Main memory is too small to accommodate all programs. • Hence, we have external memory, also known as disks.
2 Storage Structure • Main memory – only large storage that the CPU can access directly. • Random access (any memory cell accessed in same amount of time). • Typically volatile (contents lost on power down).
• Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides
large nonvolatile storage capacity. This consists of: • Hard disks (HD) – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material • Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors • The disk controller takes care of the interaction between the device and the computer.
• Solid-state disks (SSD) – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile.
• Various technologies. • Becoming more popular. • More on this later in chapters on memory management.
3 Storage Definitions and Notation Review The basic unit of computer storage is the bit . A bit can contain one of two values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits. Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent: numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word, which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally
measured and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes. A kilobyte , or KB , is 1,024 bytes; a megabyte , or MB , is 1,0242 bytes; a gigabyte , or GB , is 1,0243 bytes; a terabyte , or TB , is 1,0244 bytes; and a petabyte , or PB , is 1,0245 bytes. Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits (because networks move data a bit at a time).
4 Storage-Device Hierarchy
5 Caching • Would have studied this in CSL 211. • What is caching? • Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware, operating system, other software). • Data in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily. • Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if data is there. • If it is, data used directly from the cache (fast). • If not, data may be copied to cache and used. • Challenge: cache smaller than data being cached. • Cache management important design problem. • Cache size and replacement policy.
6 Operating-System Operations • After review of architecture, let’s focus back on operating systems. • Bootstrap program – simple code to initialize the system, load the kernel (discussed earlier). • No user programs to run, no I/O to process, kernel simply waits for an event, signaled by in interrupt. • Interrupt driven (hardware and software) • Hardware interrupt by one of the devices. • Software interrupt (exception or trap): • Software error (e.g., division by zero). • Request for operating system service. • Other process problems -> infinite loop, processes modifying each other or the operating system. 7 Multiprogramming and Multitasking • Multiprogramming. • Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times. • Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute. • A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory. • One job selected and run via job scheduling. • When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job. • Advantage: > CPU utilization, keeps users satisfied.
• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently
that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing. • Illusion is that system executes multiple programs “simultaneously”. • Response time should be less, say, < 1 second. • Each user has at least one program executing in memory [process. • If several jobs ready to run at the same time [ CPU scheduling. • If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run. • Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory.
8 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
9 Dual Mode • Software interrupt from a user program so that an OS service be provided. This interrupt is called a system call. • The OS and user programs share computer hardware. • Incorrect or malicious program should not cause other programs, or the OS to operate incorrectly. • E.g. process hogging an IO device or the CPU. • Need a security mechanism that distinguishes between user code and OS code. • Such a mechanism is called – dual mode operation. • Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other programs from each other. • Two modes: User mode and kernel mode. • In kernel mode, CPU can execute all instructions & access all areas of memory (unrestricted access). • In user mode, CPU is restricted to certain instructions & accesses certain areas of memory. 10 Dual Mode Operation • Mode bit provided by hardware. • Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code. • Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode. • System call changes mode from user -> kernel, return from call resets it back to user. • What if user code tries to execute a privileged instruction? • Hardware traps to the OS, which may terminate the process, dump it’s code to memory for examination (core dump). • Example of privileged instructions: • Go from user à kernel mode. • Interrupt management. • I/O device management.
11 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
12 Source: Julia Evans, Twitter.
13 UNIX time utility • Try this command: time find /usr. • Three kinds of time shown in the output: • real 0m0.007s • user 0m0.001s • sys 0m0.004s • User time –> time spent executing user code. • Sys time –> time spent executing kernel code. • Real time –> total time spent, including wait times. • User + Sys = CPU time used by process, across all CPUs. 14 How a Modern Computer Works
A von Neumann architecture
15 1. Single CPU systems ! We now briefly discuss some popular computer architectures. ! When hardware was expensive, most systems used to have a single general-purpose processor (CPU). ! As opposed to general purpose CPUs, we now have special purpose CPUs. ! For example, for graphics (GPUs) or for capturing motion (motion co- processor) on the iPhone. ! The motion co-processor collects data from motion sensors (accelerometer, compass), used by various motion based apps. ! In a single CPU machine, at any point of time, only one program may run (instructions of only one program may be executed). " However, we can still simultaneously support multiple programs, even with a single CPU. How? " Using multiprogramming.
16 2. Multiprocessor Systems • Multiprocessors (parallel) systems growing in use and importance. • Have multiple CPUs on the same machine. • Advantage of this? • Can support more programs at a time. • However, the CPUs do share the memory & I/O devices (contention reduces expected gain). • Multiprocessors first appeared in servers, but are now available on basic desktops, laptops, & even mobile phones. • Advantages of multiprocessors: 1. Increased throughput (more work done/unit time). 2. Economy of scale (multiple CPUs sharing memory & IO devices vs. single CPU machines, each with their own memory & IO devices, good for programs that share data). 3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance. If one of the CPUs breaks down, load of that CPU can be re-distributed to remaining CPUs. 17 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
