CS 303

Chapter 1, lecture 2

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Computer Architecture (Very Fast Recap)
• What are the major components of a computer?
• CPU.
• Memory: main and disk.
• I/O components.
• All these are interconnected.
• What is the main objective of a computer?
• To execute user programs.
• CPU: executes the instructions.
• Memory: stores data and programs.
• I/O modules: move data between computer and external environment.

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Computer Components

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Instruction Cycle

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Instruction Components

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Program Execution

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Example of Program Execution
• Goal: add contents of memory word at address 940 to the contents of
memory word at address 941, and store the results in the latter location.
• Three instructions (with three fetch and execute stages) are needed:
• PC contains 300, address of 1st instruction. This instruction (1940) is loaded
into the IR, and PC is incremented, to 301.
• 1st four bits of instruction in IR indicate AC to be loaded from memory.
Remaining 12 bits specify memory address = 940. This will load contents of
940 (= 3) into AC.
• Next instruction (= 5941) is fetched from 301, and put in IR. Also, PC is
incremented, to 302.
• 1st four bits of instruction in IR indicates add to AC from memory address 941
(which contains 2). We do 3 + 2 = 5 and put 5 back in AC.
• Next instruction (=2941) is fetched from 302, and put in IR. Also, PC is
incremented, to 303.
• 1st four bits of IR instructions indicate to store AC contents to memory 941.
• We are now done.
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 Computer System Organization
• Computer-system consists of:
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connected through a
common bus providing access to shared memory.
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory.

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 Device Controllers
• Note that each I/O device (disk, USB) has an associated controller.
• A device controller is a piece of hardware that connects the operating
system to the various devices, such as keyboard, mouse, printer etc.
• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
• Goal of a device controller?
• Make I/O data available to the OS.
• So that the OS can act on it.
• Controller may have it’s own local buffer to store data.
• For example, data read by keyboard is put in a buffer, from where it can be read
by the OS.
• Controller has a piece of code that accomplishes its task, and it is called
a device driver.
• Device driver is software that manages device (hardware) controllers.
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Interrupts
! How does a device driver informs the CPU that it has finished its
operation?
! By causing an interrupt.
! Events in an OS are signaled by interrupts.
! Interrupts (to an OS) may be signaled by either the hardware or the
software (called traps or exceptions or system calls).
! Hardware interrupts CPU by sending a signal.
! Signal sent through the system bus.
! Software interrupts CPU by executing a system call.
! This is a piece of code.
! Key concept: an operating system is interrupt driven.
! This is how, for example, the CPU gets to know about a program that wants to start
execution.
! Many other events signaled by interrupts, as we will soon see.

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Interrupt Timeline

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Interrupt Time Line
• Here’s the sequence of events:
1.CPU is busy executing some instructions of a program.
2.CPU is interrupted.
3.It stops it’s execution, & transfers to a fixed location in memory, that
contains the interrupt service routine.
4.This routine/code is executed.
5.On completion, CPU resumes execution of interrupted program.
• Table of pointers is maintained.
• Each pointer points to a specific interrupts service routine.
• This table of pointers is stored in low memory locations, & is
called an interrupt vector, say *iv[100].
• Vector – “to direct to a desired point”.
• Both Windows and Linux service interrupts in this manner.

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Interrupt Implementation
• CPU hardware has a wire (interrupt request line) that it senses after executing
every instruction.
• When CPU detects a device controller has sent a signal on the line, it reads
interrupt number and jumps to relevant isr.
• CPU executes the isr code (to service the interrupt).
• Note that current state of CPU needs to be saved (and restored later).
• After servicing the interrupt, CPU goes back to what it was doing (execute next
instruction of the halted program). Need a state restore for this.
• In modern OSes, interrupts are assigned a priority level (which one to service
now, which one can wait a bit?).
• Vector number 0: divide error, 6: invalid opcode, 7: device not available, 14: page
fault etc.
• Integers here are indexes to array of pointers.
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Interrupt I/O Cycle
CPU I/O controller
1

device driver initiates I/O 2

CPU executing checks for

CPU receiving interrupt, 4 input ready, output

interrupt handler
processes data,
returns from interrupt

CPU resumes
processing of
interrupted task

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Types of Interrupts
Program interrupts As a result of instruction execution e.g. arithmetic
overflow, out of bounds instruction.
Timer interrupts Generated by a timer in the processor to perform
functions at regular intervals.
I/O interrupts Normal I/O completion or error conditions.
Hardware failure interrupts Power failure.

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Interrupt Vector Table (source: ece-research.unm.edu).

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