EEE812A - SMART GRID TECHNOLOGIES

Module No.2 part 2 AUTOMATION AND ENERGY STORAGE:

Substation Automation, Feeder Automation. Geographic Information System (GIS),
Peak load Management, Energy Storage systems, Pumped hydro storage, CAES, FES,
storage batteries, Thermal energy storage, super capacitors.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SUBSTATION AUTOMATION
A substation automation system is a collection of hardware and software components that are
used to monitor and control an electrical system, both locally and remotely. A substation
automation system also automates some repetitive, tedious and error-prone activities to
increase the overall efficiency and productivity of the system.
Substation Automation System (SAS) provides protection, control, automation, monitoring,
and communication capabilities as a part of a comprehensive substation control and
monitoring solution.

Substation Automation System Key Benefits

 Automatic supervision of interlocks
 Graphical presentations of safety procedures
 Local & global alarm & warnings
 Detect fault location - useful for distribution systems
 Equipment diagnostics
 Intelligent interlocking system
 Diagnostics of disturbances
 Automation with supervisory & advisory control
 Substation control via operator
 IEC 61850 Substation Automation
 Substation Control & Monitoring System (SCMS)
 Enforce complex logic for device protection & coordination
 Programmable Logic Editor with compiling & execution
 Automatic generation of switching sequences
 Enterprise-wide view via intelligent one-line diagram
 Automated retrieval of all data from the substation
 Security control with multiple access levels
 Supporting third party SCADA technology
 Minimizes outages
 Reduces operating & maintenance costs
 Enhances information management
 Improves productivity
 Improves asset management
 With the introduction of microprocessor technology, digital protection and control
devices became more intelligent. New intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) can collect
and record information on many different parameters of a system, process them based
on complex logic in a fraction of a second and make decisions on abnormal situations
to send control commands to switches and breakers to clear the fault.
 In addition to their superior processing capability, modern substation devices can also
hold information in their internal storage for a certain period and transfer this
information to third-party applications for further study and analysis. IEDs can now
send information to a local or remote user via different types of communication. This
gives operators more flexibility on how and when to process the information to provide
a fast recovery time from an interruption in the substation.
 With more information remotely available, new supervisory systems were developed
to facilitate the task of a system administrator in the control center. A Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system can collect information from various
IEDs in an electrical system via different methods of communication and then control
and monitor them using various visualizing technologies – even automating the
supervision task based on predefined parameters and algorithms.
 A Human Machine Interface (HMI) is deployed in each substation to provide operators
with the local control and monitoring capabilities that are often necessary during the
configuration, commissioning or maintenance of the substation.

FEEDER AUTOMATION
Feeder automation is a constituent of distribution automation system, which principally focuses
on remote monitoring and control of the distribution systems & their equipment. ... Reactors
are employed to limit the fault current in the system.
Feeder automation is a constituent of distribution automation system, which principally focuses
on remote monitoring and control of the distribution systems & their equipment. Distribution
feeders include control devices, most common being the shunt capacitors to meet local volt-
ampere reactive (VAR) requirements or support voltage regulation. In addition, it comprises
components such as line reclosers, load break switches, and sectionalizers. Reactors are
employed to limit the fault current in the system. Integration of such automatic devices in the
feeder system is done in order to optimize the management of capital assets and enhance
operation and maintenance efficiencies with minimal human intervention.
Factors driving the feeder automation market include rising electricity prices with increased
consumption, renewable energy integration, and improved reliability and efficiency.
Distribution system is implementing new technologies for automation of components or
equipment used in the feeder systems. There are several intelligent devices, communication
infrastructure, and integration techniques being used in feeder automation systems. The
applications of feeder automation, such as automated load switching and Volt/VAR control are
seeking attraction of feeder systems to be installed in distribution networks. The automated
devices, which are installed in the feeder systems, help to automate the distribution system in
such a way that it can detect the fault in the circuit with the help of fault indicators and can
balance the load over the network while the fault is located & rectified, after which, service is
restored.
Optimization is achieved at a greater level through feeder systems such that it is resulting in
installation of many distribution feeders for applications in industrial network, then in
commercial area, and finally in residential networks. The market under study analyzes the
above mentioned application areas (commercial, industrial, and residential).
In recent years, moderate growth has been observed in the feeder automation market due to
increasing concerns of continuous power supply. Key products include hardware, software,
and services, which incorporate the feeder automation. Hardware products can be RTUs,
protection relays, automated switches, automatic circuit reclosers, network protector
monitoring and control, fault detectors, sectionalizers. Software products include SCADA
system, human machine interface, and management information systems; services are inclusive
of installation activities, commissioning of the entire feeder automation.
Figure: Distribution Feeder
In this Figure the distribution feeder can be observed coming out of the Secondary Substation;
various distribution automation controllers (IEDs) in the feeder, such as the recloser controller,
voltage regular controller, and capacitor bank controller, are positioned along the distribution
feeder. Key functions and operations of Distribution Automation include protecting the
distribution system, managing the fault, measuring the energy usage, managing the assets, and
controlling and managing system performance.
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
What is Geography GIS?
A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that analyzes and displays
geographically referenced information. It uses data that is attached to a unique location. The
six parts of a GIS are: hardware, software, data, methods, people, and network. Previously,
there were only five parts to a GIS. A geographic information system (GIS) is a system
designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical
data.

Utility operators will need GIS to make the best decisions about key issues such as collecting
data, managing smart meter and sensor installation, analyzing customer behavior, and
incorporating renewable energy. When viewed in the context of geography, data is quickly
understood and easily shared. Furthermore, GIS technology can be integrated into any
enterprise information system framework. Simply put, GIS makes it possible for utilities to
build and operate a smart grid.
Data Management Utilities already rely on GIS to manage assets and outages and map the
location of overhead and underground circuits. GIS links utility asset data with customer
information to streamline the rollout of smart grid work orders. With GIS, utilities can capture
the mashup of information related to the smart grid, from customer behavior and the placement
of smart meters to the location of electric vehicle chargers and renewable resources. Managing
data within GIS ensures the degree of accuracy required for smart grid functionality.

Planning and Analysis:To see whether a smart grid deployment is effective, utilities use GIS
to analyze marketing campaigns and study customer behavior patterns along with demand
response. With a rich set of easy-to-use spatial analysis tools, GIS helps determine the optimal
location for smart grid components such as smart meters, sensors, and cell relays. GIS can also
help identify vulnerabilities, weigh asset investments, and gauge customer response to a smart
grid implementation.
Workforce Automation: A smart grid relies on accurate data. Mobile GIS is the surest way to
move data quickly to and from the field and the office. The productivity of a smart grid
implementation can be increased by using GIS to schedule and dispatch utility crews. A GIS
allows utilities to monitor the location and status of fieldwork. From the field, crews have
access to a set of application templates for recording and reporting the progress of smart grid
hardware installation.
Situational Awareness: Utilities bring it all together with GIS to view and track smart grid
deployment and operation. Through GIS-based graphic outputs and Web-based reporting, they
are able to quickly monitor and demonstrate how the organization is progressing on smart grid
activities. GIS provides a Web-based dashboard that shows the status of any project, alerts staff
to variances in the schedule, monitors investments, and locates new work orders.
What are the limitations of GIS?
Large amounts of data: A GIS system stores extremely large amounts of data at any given time.
This may create problems when it comes to analysis due to the complexity of the data and the
risk of generalization. It also creates problems when it comes to interpretation.

PEAK LOAD MANAGEMENT

Peak Load Management, on the other hand, is an internal decision to cut

monthly demand charges and decrease your ICAP tag. There are no direct penalties to failing
to reduce your peak demand (besides having a higher ICAP tag and in turn paying more for
your electricity supply).
Peak Load Management (PLM) & Demand Response (DR)
✓ Reduce Outage Frequency and Duration

✓ Minimize Damage

✓ Increase Crew Efficiency

During peak periods when customers’ energy consumption exceeds a utility’s energy supply,
it may cause severe electricity disruptions like outages, grid instability and blackouts.
The Demand Response (DR) and the Peak Load Management (PLM) are powerful tools to
provide active network management solutions to help reduce the impact of limited grid
capabilities as well as maximize deployment of renewable energy sources.
DEMAND RESPONSE
The system offers several intelligent elements for demand response. The system can gather and
analyze information in real-time on the grid to determine whether the grid is at risk by high
demand at certain points (domestic consumer, industrial consumer, city, entire grid) or if
instability may affect the living grid (such as renewable energy and EV).
Selective Appliance Shut-Down
Customized Load Limiting
Under-frequency Circuitry for Rapid Response
Protection Over the Infrastructure Assets
Grouping
PEAK LOAD MANAGEMENT
The Peak Load Management (PLM) also plays a vital role in grid stabilization.
The PLM supports large numbers of consumers utilizing power limitations in periods when
demand is higher than supply.
Utilities can reduce component load, increase grid efficiency and grid resilience.
Some features available in PLM:
Peak shaving;
Grid components’ load monitoring
Asset protection
Customer planned peak load limitation and outage notifications
Advantages of Peak Load Management:
+ Can be integrated with other “SG Applications” modules for data sharing.
+ Can send notifications by SMS/Email or to mobile application.
+ Can detect overload on the feeder and on the transformer levels.
+ Can broadcast a command to meters to activate the critical mode for specified time periods.
+ Can broadcast critical loading activation commands to only selected meters, that can be
selected manually or grouped.
Technologies and Operational Strategies Used for Peak Load Management
Peak load management strategies range from low cost operational (pre-heating/cooling to avoid
peak hours) to capital intensive projects like battery storage, and much in-between. The right
technology/strategy for you will depend on your utility territory (because of rate structures),
use type (e.g. commercial office vs. manufacturing facility), and budget, among other
considerations.
Battery Storage – Energy storage systems (ESS) help regulate load flow by charging while the
grid is powering base load and the cost of electricity is low. This is typically at night when
there is lower demand for electricity vs. daytime. The battery “is then discharged to provide
additional power during periods of increased load, while costs for using electricity are
increased. It also effectively shifts the impact of the load on the grid, minimizing the generation
capacity required.” When evaluating battery system pro formas, make sure all potential
impacts are considered: rate structure (e.g. standby rates), supply contract (fixed vs. index),
demand response revenue, and more.
Thermal (Ice) Storage – Similar to battery storage, thermal storage technologies make ice
overnight to be stored and then deployed during the day for cooling, shifting all or part of a
building’s cooling needs to cheaper off-peak hours. It is designed for the average load, it runs
at night, and then uses the ice stored during the daytime to meet the cooling load in the building.
It is typically unknown to tenants and reduces operating costs.
On site generation – Generating your own electricity through solar, hydro, fuel cells, etc. will
allow you to reduce what you take from the grid, thereby lowering your peak demand. The on-
site installation of distributed energy resources (DER) can help you lower your peak demand
and possibly be incentivized by the utility during curtailment events. Click the link below to
learn about the new rate revamp for DERs in New York that will accurately reflect the values,
services and other benefits provided by Distributed Energy Resources to the grid.
Motor Control / Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) – Fixed speed motor driven applications,
such as escalators, can benefit from a motor controller. The controller will adjust the torque
output in order to meet the load’s exact requirement. This will guarantee that the output of the
motors are in constant equilibrium with its demand and avoid consuming too much energy
which is especially useful during peak grid hours.
Peak Load Management Saves Money and Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Peak Load Management should be a strategy adopted by all C&I facilities, regardless of
budget. PLM does not require expensive capital upgrades and installations such as battery
storage and on-site generation, since meaningful results can be achieved with low cost/no cost
strategies. When you add gas to the fire by way of capital improvements, PLM can save
hundreds of thousands of dollars annually, while reducing GHG emissions by shifting load
overnight (baseload nuclear and wind power) and avoiding the dispatch of the dirtiest
generation during peak hours (e.g. oil peakers).

ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS -INTRODUCTION:

Energy storage is a three-step process that consists of drawing energy, storing it and returning
it at a later stage. It consists of two dimensions: the power capacity of the charging and
discharging phases, which defines the efficiency of the storage system to withdraw or inject
energy instantaneously from or into the grid; and the energy capacity of the storing phase,
which measures how much energy can be stored and for how long.
The term “energy storage” applies to many different technologies, including batteries,
flywheels, and pumped hydroelectric storage. All technologies can store energy during periods
when the cost is low and then make the energy available during a period when the costs are
higher. Energy storage can absorb energy from renewable resources, such as solar power, that
may over produce in certain periods and then use it in later periods when it is more valuable to
the customer and the power grid.
Energy storage technology has great potential to improve electric power grids, to enable growth
in renewable electricity generation, and to provide alternatives to oil-derived fuels in the
nation’s transportation sector. Energy storage in electric applications can provide two
significant benefits to the nation’s energy system. First, it can improve the technical and
economic performance of the electric power grid, increasing reliability and potentially
decreasing costs while allowing greater penetration of intermittent sources like solar and wind
generation. Second, it enables a potential transition from an oil-based transportation system to
one based on an array of domestically sourced electricity options, greatly reducing dependence
on petroleum. In both cases, a reduction in the burning of fossil fuels could result in lower
overall carbon emissions and conventional pollutants.
ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES - TYPES AND FEATURES OF ENERGY
STORAGE SYSTEMS
There are many different kinds of energy storage technologies with various capabilities.
Batteries, pumped storage systems, ice storage, and heat-based thermal storage make up some
of the more common types of energy storage. Pumped Hydro Storage is often referred to as
“conventional energy storage”. More recent emerging forms of energy storage, such as
batteries, flywheels, and new compressed air energy technologies, are often referred to as
“advanced energy storage”. Energy storage technologies can be broadly classified as:
mechanical, electrochemical, thermal, electrical and chemical storage.

-capacitor (UC) storage

Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) storage

Pumped storage in hydroelectric plant

In this method, hydro-generators are used as motor pumps to pump water from “tail” to “head”
and store at high level using the off-peak grid period. During the peak demand, the head water
runs the generators to supply the demand. It is possibly the cheapest method of energy storage
but is applicable only with proper site facilities. Otherwise, it may be expensive. The typical
cycle energy efficiency may be 75%,and cost may be less than $0.01/kWh. Currently, there is
over 90 GW of pumped storage facility around the world. A new concept in this method is to
use wind turbines or solar cells to directly drive water pumps for energy storage.
Battery storage
It has been the most common form of energy storage for the grid. In this method, electrical
energy from the grid is converted to dc and stored in a battery. Then, the stored energy is
retrieved through the same converter system to feed the grid. Although very convenient with
high cycle efficiency (typically 90%), battery storage is possibly the most expensive (typically
> $0.1/kWh). Lead–acid battery has been used extensively, but recently, NiCd, NaS, Li-ion,
and flow batteries (such as vanadium redox) are finding favor. For example, General Electric
(GE) installed 10-MVA lead–acid battery storage in the Southern California Edison grid in
1988. The world’s largest battery storage was installed by ABB in Fairbank, Alaska, in 2003
that uses NiCd battery with a capacity of 27 MW for 15 min. Flow batteries have fast
response and can be more economical in large-scale storage.
Flywheel (FW) storage
In FW storage, electrical energy from the grid is converted to mechanical energy through a
converter-fed drive system (operating in motoring mode) that charges a FW, and then the
energy is recovered by the same drive system operating in generating mode. The FW can be
placed in vacuum or in H2 medium, and magnetic bearing can be used to reduce the energy
loss. Steel or composite material can be used in FW to withstand high centrifugal force due to
high speed. FW storage is more economical ($0.05/kWh) and has been used, but mechanical
storage has the usual disadvantages. Recently, wind turbines have been used with direct
coupling to FW system to achieve better efficiency.
Superconducting Magnet Energy Storage (SMES)
In this method, grid energy is rectified to dc, which charges SMES coil to store energy in
magnetic form(0.5LI2). Then, energy is retrieved by the reverse process. The coil is cooled
cryogenically so that dissipation resistance tends to be zero, and the energy can be stored
indefinitely. Either liquid helium (0K) or high-temperature superconductor (HTS) in liquid
nitrogen (77 K) can be used. The cycle efficiency can be higher than 95%. SMES storage is
yet very expensive.
Ultra-capacitor (UC) storage
A UC (also called super capacitor or electrical double layer capacitor) is an energy storage
device like an electrolytic capacitor (EC), but with energy storage density (Wh or 0.5CV2/kg)
as high as 100 times higher than that of EC. UCs are available with low-voltage rating (typically
2.5 V) and capacitor values up to several thousand farads. The units can be connected in series–
parallel for higher voltage and higher capacitance values. However, the Wh/kg of UC is low
compared to that of a battery (typically 6:120 ratio for a Li-ion battery). The power density
(W/kg) of UC is very high, and large amount of power can cycle through it without causing
any deterioration. In the present state of technology, UCs are yet expensive for bulk grid energy
storage.
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) storage
This a new concept for bulk energy storage assuming that a large number of battery EVs are
plugged inthe grid. A plugged-in EV can transmit electricity to the grid during peak demand
and then charge thebattery during off-peak hours. V2G technology can be used, turning each
vehicle with its 20–50-kWhbattery pack into a distributed load balancing device or emergency
power source. However, the main disadvantage is that the battery life is shortened by charge–
discharge cycles.
Hydrogen (H2) gas storage
H2 gas can be used as bulk energy storage medium and then used in FC or burned as a fuel in
IC engine. This idea has generated the recent concept of hydrogen economy, i.e., H2 as the
future clean energy source. As mentioned before, H2 can be generated easily from abundantly
available sporadic sources like wind and PV and stored as compressed or liquefied gas with
high density amassable fuel. It can be generated also from hydrocarbon fuels with underground
sequestration of undesirable CO2 gas. The overall energy efficiency of H2 storage cycle may
be 50% to 60%, which is lower than battery or PSP.
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
CAES is another grid energy storage method, where off-peak or renewable generated electricity
is used to compress air and store underground. When electricity demand is high, the
compressed air is heated with a small amount of natural gas and then burned in turbo expanders
to generate electricity. CAES system has been used in Europe. The idea of using wind turbines
to compress air directly is floating around. The development and implementation of the
electrical energy storage system could drive ground breaking
changes in the design and operation of the electric power system. Such facilitates peak load
issues, electrical stability, power quality disturbances elimination etc. Power plants are also
nowadays equipped with such systems.
See Figure 1 for the many storage technologies contained in each category.
A. MECHANICAL STORAGE SYSTEM
Mechanical Storage includes Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS), Compressed Air Energy Storage
(CAES) and Flywheels.
 Fig: Compressed Air Storage
I. PUMPED HYDRO STORAGE (PHS) :Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) stores electrical
energy as the potential energy of water. Generally, this involves pumping water into a large
reservoir at a high elevation—usually located on the top of a mountain or hill. When energy is
required, the water in the reservoir is guided through a hydroelectric turbine, which converts
the energy of flowing water to electricity. PHS is often used to store energy for long durations
for use in a future period. The location of these systems is dictated by the presence of the
required geology. Proposed pumped storage projects are also subject to rigorous environmental
clearances, which can add significantly to the time required for the installation of such a system.
Projects can take five to fifteen years to be sited, permitted and built.
II. COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE (CAES) Compressed Air Energy Storage
(CAES) converts electrical energy into compressed air, which is stored either in an
underground cave or above ground in high-pressure containers. When excess or low cost
electricity is available from the grid, it is used to run an air compressor, which compresses air
and stores it. When electrical energy is required, the compressed air is directed towards a
modified gas turbine, which converts the stored energy to electricity. A recent advancement
that is maturing through research and development by several start-ups is storage of the heat
produced during the compression. This type of CAES does not use natural gas to reheat the air
upon decompression and is therefore emissions-free, as well as more efficient overall. Similar
to pumped hydro, CAES systems are used for storing energy over longer periods.
III. FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE (FES) Flywheel storage systems store electrical
energy as the rotational energy in a heavy mass. Flywheel energy storage systems typically
consist of a large rotating cylinder supported on a stator. Stored electric energy increases with
the square of the speed of the rotating mass, so materials that can withstand high velocities and
centrifugal forces are essential. Flywheel technology is a low maintenance and low
environmental impact type of energy storage. In general, flywheels are very suitable for high
power applications due to their capacity to absorb and release energy in a very short duration
of time. In flywheel energy storage, rotational energy is stored in an accelerated rotor, a massive
rotating cylinder. The main components of a flywheel are the rotating body/cylinder
(comprised of a rim attached to a shaft) in a compartment, the bearings and the transmission
device (motor/ generator mounted onto the stator). The energy is maintained in the flywheel
by keeping the rotating body at a constant speed. An increase in the speed results in a higher
amount of energy stored. To accelerate the flywheel electricity is supplied by a transmission
device. If the flywheel’s rotational speed is reduced electricity may be extracted from the
system by the same transmission device.

B. ELECTROCHEMICAL STORAGE SYSTEMS

In this section, various types of batteries are described. Most of them are technologically
mature for practical use. Electrochemical storage includes various battery technologies that use
different chemical compounds to store electricity. Each of the numerous battery technologies
have slightly different characteristics and are used to store and then release electricity for
different durations ranging from a few minutes to several hours. There are two main categories
of batteries: (1) traditional solid rechargeable batteries where the chemical energy is stored in
solid metal electrodes, and, (2) flow batteries where chemical energy is stored in varying types
of flowing liquid electrolytes kept in tanks separate from the actual electrochemical cells.
Now the battery storage system improves the reliability to the utility or customer, because it
can provide you energy as and when required, power balance is achieved by both charging and
discharging. Reduces system loss and improves overall efficiency because it is locally being
supplied, reduces peak electricity demand and makes grid more resilient and stable. Provides
ancillary services like fault ride through reactive power and virtual inertia.
I. SOLID RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES:
• Lead Acid: Lead acid batteries have been in commercial use in different applications for over
a century. Lead acid is the most widely used battery technology worldwide. High performance
variations of lead acid batteries are classified as advanced lead acid and are known to have a
longer life.
• Lithium Ion batteries are increasingly used in many applications in buildings, computers,
automobiles and aeroplanes, consumer electronics and on the power grid. They include various
types of chemistries, and include lithium combined with cobalt, nickel, manganese and
phosphate based cathodes. They can be adapted to many different use cases and are quickly
becoming a dominant technology for new energy storage projects.
• High Temperature Sodium: This type of battery is made from inexpensive, non-toxic
materials. The battery operates at a high temperature (above 300oC) and has been shown to
have a long cycle life.
• Zinc-based batteries combine zinc with various chemicals and are earlier in their development
stage than some of the other battery technologies. Historically, zinc batteries were not
rechargeable but developers are overcoming challenges to produce fully rechargeable zinc-
based chemistries. This technology is known for being lightweight, low-cost, and non-toxic.

II.
FLOW BATTERIES
• Flow batteries differ from conventional batteries in that energy is stored in the electrolyte (the
fluid) instead of the electrodes. The electrolyte solutions are stored in tanks and pumped
through a common chamber separated by a membrane that allows for transfer of electrons—
flow of electricity—between the electrolytes. • There are many different types of flow batteries,
of which at least three varieties are currently commercially available: vanadium redox flow
batteries, zinc-iron flow batteries, and zinc-bromine batteries. Variations such as zinc-iron flow
batteries and hydrogen-bromine flow batteries are also under development.
ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
Electrical Storage includes super capacitors and superconducting magnetic energy storage
(SMES) systems which store electricity in electric and electromagnetic fields with minimal
loss of energy. A few small SMES systems have become commercially available, mainly used
for power quality control in manufacturing plants such as microchip fabrication facilities.
These technologies are ideal for storing and release high levels of energy over short bursts.
APPLICATIONS AND ROLE OF ENERGY STORAGE IN POWER SYSTEM
• • Penetration of renewable energy requires more frequency control capability in the
power system. Energy storage can be used to enhance the capability through the control of
charging and discharging from network operators, so that the imbalance between power
consumption and generation is lessened.
• In some cases, energy storage can reduce investment in power system infrastructure such as
transformers, transmission lines and distribution lines through load levelling in certain areas at
times of peak demand. ENERGY STORAGE for this purpose may also be used to enhance
frequency control capability.
• A further option is so-called demand-side management, involving smart grids and residential
users. With intelligent consumption management and economic incentives consumers can be
encouraged to shift their energy buying towards periods when surplus power is available. Users
may accomplish this shift by buying and storing electricity for later use.

SERVICES AND FUNCTIONS OF BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE FOR GRID

OPERATORS
Battery Energy Storage (BES) systems offers a wide range of primary and ancillary services
and functions for grid operators. These include:
Peak saving in low voltage grid - Typical duration is 2 hours, with 1 to 2 cycles per day BES
can store energy in periods of low demand, and release that energy during periods of high
demand. This reduces peak demand in low voltage (LV) electricity grids, and allows grid
operators to defer investment into upgrading their network capacity.
Load levelling in LV grid - Typical duration would be up to 8 hours BES can help grid operators
to avoid a fatal overload in power of grid devices, by shifting load from peak to base load
periods in order to reduce the maximum currents flowing from the high voltage grid through
constrained grid assets.
Integration of renewable energy into the grid (Numerous small cycles per day)- BES can
provide control power to limit fluctuations of feed-in electric power into the low voltage grid,
and potentially also for large photovoltaic farms in the middle voltage grid. It can also shave
off renewable peak generation in times of high production and low consumption, minimising
grid congestion and/or RES curtailment. This function also provides voltage support on
distribution feeder lines. This may allow for the deferral of any necessary grid upgrade or
extension.
Frequency regulation - Numerous small cycles per day, quick response time BES can store
energy or feed in energy in order to balance a grid area with high frequency instabilities. This
defers the need for grid upgrade or extension. BES can also provide primary reserve capabilities
to wind and solar generators, which is crucial in grids with high renewable penetration and
subsequent low inertia due to a lack of conventional generation. BES can also optimise reserve
power generation from conventional generators.
Voltage control - Numerous small cycles per day, quick response time BES can help to
maintain the voltage profile within a defined range, with the aim to guarantee standard of
supply. BES achieves this by storing energy when the voltage is high, and feeding in when
voltage is low.
ENERGY STORAGE FOR HOMES AND BUILDINGS
Small and medium-size users (i.e. households, industry) which use tailored BES as a
component in their smart system can benefit in the following ways (non-exhaustive list):
Time-shift for self-consumption - Typical duration is 1-6 hours, with typically 1 cycle a day
BES can provide power during RES non-generation hours, allowing the household or building
to decrease the dependency on the electrical-grid. In the mid-term, this could reduce the overall
electricity price by smart-metering, where stored energy is discharged during peak load hours
when electricity prices are high.
Smoothing of RES feed - Typical duration ranges from milliseconds to a few minutes, with
numerous small cycles per day BES has the capacity to smooth RES generation by providing,
absorbing and delivering power to limit fluctuations of feed-in electricity in the low voltage
grid. This will improve overall grid conditions, with higher shares of renewable energy
deployed. Appropriate energy sources are photovoltaic and wind energy.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) - Typical duration is 15 minutes to 1 hour, with the
number of cycles depending on the grid stability. BES allows for increased power safety in
areas with weaker low voltage grids. It has the capacity to provide backup power through the
entirety of a power outage period. The number of cycles is dependent on overall grid stability.
THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE
thermal energy storage (TES), a technology that stocks thermal energy by heating or cooling
a storage medium, so that the stored energy can be used later, either for heating and cooling
applications or for power generation.
Thermal energy storage is like a battery for a building's air-conditioning system. It uses
standard cooling equipment, plus an energy storage tank to shift all or a portion of a building's
cooling needs to off-peak, night time hours. During off-peak hours, ice is made
and stored inside IceBank energy storage tanks.
Thermal energy storage (TES) systems are much preferred in many engineering applications,
which have the ability to bridge the gap between energy supply and energy demand. Cooling
or heating energy redistribution requirements can be effectively met using TES systems.

Energy storage systems are designed to accumulate energy when production exceeds demand,
and to make it available at the user’s request. They can help to match energy supply and
demand, exploit variable renewable (solar and wind) energy sources, increase the overall
efficiency of the energy system and reduce carbon-dioxide emissions.

This brief deals primarily with heat storage systems or thermal energy storage (TES), a
technology that stocks thermal energy by heating or cooling a storage medium, so that the
stored energy can be used later, either for heating and cooling applications or for power
generation. TES systems are used particularly in buildings and industrial processes. With these
applications, approximately half of the energy consumed comes in the form of thermal energy,
the demand for which can vary within the day and from one day to the next.
TES systems can help balance energy demand and supply on a daily, weekly and even seasonal
basis. They can also reduce peak demand, energy consumption, emissions and costs, while
increasing overall system efficiency. The conversion and storage of solar and wind energy
helps to further increase the share of renewables in the energy mix. TES is becoming
particularly important for electricity storage in combination with concentrating solar power
(CSP), whereby solar heat can be stored for electricity production when sunlight is not
available.

SUPER CAPACITORS

Capacitance plays an important role as an indispensable energy storage system in the micro
grid. As a new type of energy storage device, super capacitor has become one of the preferred
devices for micro grid energy storage with its irreplaceable superiority. The micro grid consists
of micro power supplies, loads, energy storage, and energy managers. The form of energy
storage in the micro grid is: connected to the DC bus of the micro power supply, the feeder
containing the important load or the AC bus of the micro grid. Among them, the first two can
be called distributed energy storage, and the last one is called central energy storage. When
connected to the grid, the power fluctuations in the micro grid are balanced by the large grid,
and the energy storage is in the charging standby state. When the micro grid is switched from
grid-connected operation to isolated network operation, the central storage energy is
immediately activated to make up for the power shortage. The fluctuation of the load during
the running of the micro grid or the fluctuation of the micro power supply can be balanced by
the central energy storage or the distributed energy storage. Among them, there are two ways
to balance the power fluctuation of the micro power supply, and the distributed energy storage
and the micro power supply that needs energy storage are connected to a certain feeding line,
or the energy storage is directly connected to the DC bus of the micro power supply.

1) Provide short-term power supply

There are two typical modes of operation in the micro grid: under normal circumstances, the
micro grid and the conventional distribution network are connected to the grid, which is called
the grid-connected operation mode; when the grid fault is detected or the power quality is not
met, the micro grid will be timely The grid is disconnected and operated independently, called
the isolated mode. Micro grid often needs to absorb some of the active power from the
conventional distribution network. Therefore, when the micro grid is switched from the grid-
connected mode to the isolated mode, there will be power shortage. Installing the energy
storage device will help the smooth transition of the two modes.

2) Used as an energy buffer

Due to the small scale of the micro grid, the inertia of the system is not large, and the network
and load often fluctuate very much, which has an impact on the stable operation of the entire
micro grid. We always expect high-efficiency generators (such as fuel cells) in the micro grid
to always operate at its rated capacity. However, the load on the micro grid does not remain
constant throughout the day. Instead, it fluctuates as the weather changes. In order to meet the
peak load supply, peak load adjustment must be carried out using a fuel-and-gas peaking power
plant. Due to the high fuel price, the operation cost of this method is too expensive. The super
capacitor energy storage system can effectively solve this problem. It can store the excess
power of the power supply when the load is low, and feed back to the micro grid to adjust the
power demand when the load is high. The high power density and high energy density of the
super capacitor make it the best choice for handling peak loads, and the use of super capacitors
requires only the storage of energy equivalent to the peak load.

3) Improve the power quality of the micro grid

The energy storage system plays an important role in improving the power quality of the micro
grid. Through the inverter control unit, the reactive power and active power provided by the
super capacitor energy storage system to the user and the network can be adjusted, thereby
achieving the purpose of improving the power quality. Because super capacitors can quickly
absorb and release high-power electric energy, it is very suitable to be applied to the power
quality adjustment device of the micro-grid to solve some transient problems in the system,
such as instantaneous power failure and voltage swell caused by system failure. Problems such
as voltage dips, etc. At this time, super capacitors are used to provide fast power buffering,
absorbing or supplementing electric energy, and providing active power support for active or
reactive power compensation to stabilize and smooth fluctuations in grid voltage.

4) Intelligent distributed grid system super capacitor is essential

From the perspective of the future development of smart grids, intelligent distributed grid
systems will be the mainstream of future grid systems. In order to realize the construction of
the intelligent distributed power grid system, it is necessary to have a buffer device such as a
distributed energy storage device and a central energy storage device. In the case of unstable
energy production processes, a buffer is needed to store energy. In the case where the process
of energy generation is stable and the demand is constantly changing, it is also necessary to use
an energy storage device. A fuel cell is different from wind or solar energy, and as long as it
has fuel, it can continuously output stable electric energy. However, load demand varies greatly
over time. If there is no energy storage device, the fuel cell will have to be large to meet the
peak energy demand, and the cost is too high. By storing excess energy in the energy storage
device, it is possible to provide the required peak energy through the energy storage device in
a short time. In distributed grid systems, the transient impact of power systems is inevitable,
and the superior performance of super capacitors can reduce the impact of transient impact on
overall system performance. Therefore, in the future intelligent distributed grid system, the
ultra-capacitor bank energy storage system is indispensable.