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Nouns 1
What is a noun?
Nouns are words that indicate a person, place, or thing.

In a sentence, nouns can function as the subject or the object of

a verb or preposition. Nouns can also follow linking verbs to rename or re-identify
the subject of a sentence or clause; these are known as predicate nouns.

The Subject
The subject in a sentence or clause is the person or thing doing, performing,
or controlling the action of the verb. For example:

 “The dog chased its tail.” (The noun dog is performing the action of the
verb chase.)
 “Mary reads a book every week.” (The proper noun Mary is performing the
action of the verb read.)

Objects
Grammatical objects have three grammatical roles: the direct object of a verb,
the indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.

Direct objects
Direct objects are what receive the action of the verb in a sentence or clause. For
example:

 “The dog chased its tail.” (The noun tail is receiving the action of the
verb chase.)
 “Mary reads a book every week.” (The noun book is receiving the action of
the verb read.)

Indirect objects
An indirect object is the person or thing who receives the direct object of the
verb. For instance:

 “Please pass Jeremy the salt.” (The proper noun Jeremy is receiving the
direct object salt, which receives the action of the verb pass.)

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  “I sent the company an application for the job.” (The noun company is
receiving the direct object application, which receives the action of the
verb sent.)

Objects of prepositions
Nouns are also used after prepositions to create prepositional phrases. When a
noun is part of a prepositional phrase, it is known as the object of the preposition.
For example:

 “Your backpack is under the table.” (The noun table is the object of the
preposition under, which creates the prepositional phrase under the table.)
 “I am looking for work.” (The noun work is the object of the preposition for,
which creates the prepositional phrase for work.)

Predicate Nouns
Nouns that follow linking verbs are known as predicate nouns (sometimes known
as predicative nouns). These serve to rename or re-identify the subject. If the
noun is accompanied by any direct modifiers (such as articles, adjectives,
or prepositional phrases), the entire noun phrase acts predicatively.

For example:

 “Love is a virtue.” (The noun phrase a virtue follows the linking verb is to
rename the subject love.)
 “Tommy seems like a real bully.” (The noun phrase a real bully follows the
linking verb seems to rename the subject Tommy.)
 “Maybe this is a blessing in disguise.” (The noun phrase a blessing in
disguise follows the linking verb is to rename the subject this.)

(Go to the section on Subject Complements in the part of the guide that
covers Syntax to learn more about predicate nouns.)

Categories of Nouns
There are many different kinds of nouns, and it’s important to know the different
way each type can be used in a sentence. Below, we’ll briefly look at the different
categories of nouns. You can explore the individual sections to learn more about
each.

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Common and Proper Nouns
Nouns that identify general people, places, or things are called common nouns—
they name or identify that which is commonamong others.

Proper nouns, on the other hand, are used to identify an

absolutely unique person, place, or thing, and they are signified by capital letters,
no matter where they appear in a sentence.

Common Nouns Proper Nouns

“He sat on the chair.” “Go find Jeff and tell him dinner is ready.”

“I live in a city.” “I’ll have a Pepsi, please.”

“We met some people.” “Prince William is adored by many.”

Nouns of Address
Nouns of address are used in direct speech to identify the person or group being
directly spoken to, or to get that person’s attention. Like interjections, they are
grammatically unrelated to the rest of the sentence—they don’t modify or affect
any other part of it. For example:

 “James, I need you to help me with the dishes.”

 “Can I have some money, Mom?”
 “This, class, is the video I was telling you about.”
 “Sorry, Mr. President, I didn’t see you there.”

Concrete and Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns name people, places, animals, or things that are physically
tangible—that is, they can be seen or touched, or have some physical
properties. Proper nouns are also usually concrete, as they describe unique
people, places, or things that are also tangible. For example:

 table
 rocks
 lake
 countries
 people

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  Africa
 MacBook
 Jonathan

Abstract nouns, as their name implies, name intangible things, such as concepts,
ideas, feelings, characteristics, attributes, etc. For instance:

 love
 hate
 decency
 conversation
 emotion

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns (also known as count nouns) are nouns that can be considered
as individual, separable items, which means that we are able to count them with
numbers—we can have one, two, five, 15, 100, and so on. We can also use them
with the indefinite articles a and an (which signify a single person or thing) or with
the plural form of the noun.

Single Countable Nouns Plural Countable Nouns

a cup two cups

an ambulance several ambulances

a phone 10 phones

Countable nouns contrast with uncountable nouns (also known as non-

count or mass nouns), which cannot be separated and counted as individual units
or elements. Uncountable nouns cannot take an indefinite article (a/an), nor can
they be made plural.

Correct Incorrect
“Would you like tea?” “Would you like a tea?”

“Do you have any information?” “Do you have an information?”

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“We bought new camping equipment.” “We bought new camping equipments.”

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a collection or group of multiple people,
animals, or things. However, even though collective nouns refer to multiple
individuals, they still function as singular nouns in a sentence. This is because they
still are technically referring to one thing: the group as a whole. For example:

 “The flock of birds flew south for the winter.”

 “The organization voted to revoke the rules that it had previously
approved.”
 “The set of tablecloths had disappeared. ”

Attributive Nouns (Noun Adjuncts)

Attributive nouns, also called noun adjuncts, are nouns that are used to modify
other nouns. The resulting phrase is called a compound noun. For example:

 “The boy played with his toy soldier.”

In this sentence, toy is the noun adjunct, and it modifies the word soldier, creating
the compound noun toy soldier.
To learn more about attributive nouns, go to the section on Adjuncts in the
chapter on The Predicate.

Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun composed of two or more words working together as
a single unit to name a person, place, or thing. Compound nouns are usually made
up of two nouns or an adjective and a noun.

 water + bottle = water bottle (a bottle used for water)

 dining + room = dining room (a room used for dining)
 back + pack = backpack (a pack you wear on your back)
 police + man = policeman (a police officer who is a man)

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Noun Phrases
A noun phrase is a group of two or more words that function together as a noun
in a sentence. Noun phrases consist of a noun and other words that modify the
noun. For example:

 “He brought the shovel with the blue handle.”

In this sentence, the shovel with the blue handle is a noun phrase. It collectively
acts as a noun while providing modifying words for the head noun, shovel. The
modifiers are the and with the blue handle.

Nominalization (Creating Nouns)

Nominalization refers to the creation of a noun from verbs or adjectives.

When nouns are created from other parts of speech, it is usually through the use
of suffixes. For example:

 “My fiancée is an actor.” (The verb act becomes the noun actor.)
 “His acceptance of the position was received warmly.” (The
verb accept becomes the noun acceptance.)
 “The hardness of diamond makes it a great material for cutting tools.” (The
adjective hard becomes the noun hardness.)
 “This project will be fraught with difficulty.” (The adjective difficult becomes
the noun difficulty.)

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Common and Proper Nouns 2

Nouns fall into one of two broad categories: common nouns and proper nouns.

What is a common noun?

All nouns serve to name a person, place, or thing.

Those that identify general people, places, or things are called common nouns—
they name that which is common among others.

For example:

 “He sat on the chair.”

 “I live in a city.”

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  “We met some people.”
 “She went into politics.”
 “Our teacher is angry.”
 “Let’s go down to the lake.”

What is a proper noun?

Proper nouns, on the other hand, are used to identify a unique person, place, or
thing. A proper noun names someone or something that is one of a kind, which is
signified by the use of a capital letter, no matter where it appears in a sentence.

Names
The most common proper nouns are names, as of people, places, or events. For
example:

 “Go find Jeff and tell him dinner is ready.”

 “I lived in Cincinnati before I moved to New York.”
 “My parents still talk about how great Woodstock was in 1969.”

Brands
Proper nouns are also used for commercial brands. In this case, the object that’s
being referred to is not unique in itself, but the brand it belongs to is. For example:

 “Pass me the Hellmann’s mayonnaise.”

 “I’ll have a Pepsi, please.”
 “My new MacBook is incredibly fast.”

Appellations
When a person has additional words added to his or her name (known as an
appellation), this becomes part of the proper noun and is also capitalized. (Some
linguists distinguish these as proper names, rather than proper nouns.) For
example:

 “Prince William is adored by many.”

 “Italy was invaded by Attila the Hun in 452.”

Job Titles and Familial Roles

Many times, a person may be referred to according to a professional title or
familial role instead of by name. In this case, the title is being used as a noun of

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address and is considered a proper noun, even if it would be a common noun in
other circumstances. For example:

 “How are you doing, Coach?”

 “I need your advice, Mr. President.”
 "Mom, can you come with me to the playground?”
 “Pleased to meet you, Doctor.”

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Nouns of Address 3
What is a noun of address?
Nouns of address (technically called vocatives, but also known as nominatives of
address or nouns of direct address) identify the person or group being directly
spoken to. Like interjections, they are grammatically unrelated to the rest of the
sentence—that is, they don’t modify or affect any other part of it. Instead, they
are used to let the listener or reader know who you are addressing, or to get that
person’s attention. For example:

 “James, I need you to help me with the dishes.”

 “Can I have some money, Mom?”
 “This, class, is the video I was telling you about.”
 “Mr. President, I didn’t see you there.”
 “Hey, guy in the red shirt, can you help me?”

Punctuation
Nouns of address are found in the initial, middle, or final position in a sentence.
No matter where they occur, they are normally set apart from the rest of the
sentence by one or two commas. If they occur in the initial position, they are
followed by a comma. If they occur in the middle position, they are enclosed
between two commas, and if they occur in the final position, they are preceded by
a comma. For example:

 “James, I was wondering if you could help me with the dishes.”

 “I was wondering, James, if you could help me with the dishes.”
 “I was wondering if you could help me with the dishes, James.”

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  “Class, this is the video I was telling you about.”
 “This, class, is the video I was telling you about.”
 “This is the video I was telling you about, class.”

Capitalization

Proper nouns
Proper nouns, such as the name or title of a person, are the most frequent nouns
of address. These nouns are always capitalized, no matter where they appear in a
sentence. If a professional title is used with the name, it is capitalized as well. For
example:

 “Can you help me, James?”

 “Thank you, Mrs. Smith, for being here.”
 “It’s so nice to meet you, Doctor Jenner.”
 “Hey, Coach Frank, how are you doing today?”

Common nouns in place of titles

Common nouns can also be used as nouns of address. If the common noun is
the title of a job or family member and is used in place of a person’s name, it
should always be capitalized. For example:

 “How are you doing, Coach?”

 “I need your advice, Mr. President.”
 "Can you come with me, Mom?”
 “Pleased to meet you, Doctor.”

Compare the examples above to the following cases in which the same titles of
jobs and family members are not used to address the person directly, and
therefore are not capitalized:

 “Give that football to the coach.”

 “Was the president at the meeting?”
 “Tell your mom to come with us.”
 “Did you call the doctor yet?”

Terms of endearment
When a term of endearment is being used in place of a person’s name, we do not
capitalize the word unless it begins the sentence. For example:

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  “Would you get me a glass of water, sweetie?”
 “Thanks, pal, I appreciate your help.”
 “Love, please put away your clothes.”

Other common nouns

If they do not act as a professional or familial title, other common nouns should
generally remain in lowercase, unless they occur as the first word of the sentence.
For example:

 “This, class, is the video I was telling you about.”

 “Can you help me, guy in the red shirt?”
 “Please stand up, boys and girls.”
 “Ladies and gentlemen, please remain seated for the duration of the
performance.”

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Concrete and Abstract Nouns 4

All nouns serve to name a person, place, or thing. Depending on whether they
name a tangible or an intangible thing, nouns are classed as being
either concrete or abstract.

What is a concrete noun?

Concrete nouns name people, places, animals, or things that are or were
physically tangible—that is, they can or could be seen or touched, or else have
some defining physical properties. For instance:

 rocks
 lake
 countries
 people
 child
 air
 water
 bread

Proper nouns are also usually concrete, as they describe unique people, places, or
things.

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  Mary
 The Queen
 Africa
 my MacBook
 a Pepsi

What is an abstract noun?

Abstract nouns, as their name implies, name intangible things, such as concepts,
ideas, feelings, characteristics, attributes, etc.—you cannot see or touch these
kinds of things.

Here are some examples of abstract nouns:

 love
 hate
 decency
 conversation
 emotion
 aspiration
 excitement
 lethargy

Gerunds, verbs that end in “-ing” and function as nouns, are also abstract. For
example:

 running
 swimming
 jumping
 reading
 writing
 loving
 breathing

These all name actions as concepts. Actions themselves do not have any physical
properties—they cannot be touched, held, seen, smelled, etc., only the people or
things doing or receiving the actions can. Thus, a gerund will always function as an
abstract noun.

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Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns
Both concrete and abstract nouns can be either countable or uncountable,
depending on what they name.

Countable Nouns
Countable nouns (also known as count nouns) are, as the name suggests, nouns
that can be counted as individual units.

Concrete countable nouns

Many concrete nouns are countable. Consider the following, for example:

 cup
 ambulance
 phone
 person
 dog
 computer
 doctor

Each of these can be considered as an individual, separable item, which means

that we are able to count them with numbers—we can have one, two, five, 15,
100, and so on. We can also use them with the indefinite articles a and an (which
signify a single person or thing) or with the plural form of the noun. For example:
Singular Plural
a cup two cups

an ambulance several ambulances

a phone 10 phones

a person many people

Abstract countable nouns

Even though abstract nouns are not tangible, many of them can still be counted as
separable units. Like concrete nouns, they can take either a or an or be made
plural. For example:

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 Singular Plural
a conversation two conversations

an emergency several emergencies

a reading 10 readings

an aspiration many aspirations

Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns, on the other hand, are nouns that cannot be considered as
separate units. They are also known as non-count or mass nouns.

Concrete uncountable nouns

Concrete nouns that are uncountable tend to be substances or collective
categories of things. For instance:

 Substances: wood, smoke, air, water

 Collective categories: furniture, homework, accommodation, luggage

Uncountable nouns cannot take the indefinite articles a or an in a sentence,

because these words indicate a single amount of something. Likewise, they cannot
take numbers or plural forms, because there cannot be multiple units of them. For
example:

 “I see (some*) smoke over there.” (correct)

 “I see a smoke over there.” (incorrect)

 “I don’t have (any*) furniture.” (correct)

 “I don’t have furnitures.” (incorrect)

(*We often use the words some or any to indicate an unspecified quantity of
uncountable nouns.)
However, uncountable nouns can sometimes take the definite article the, because
it does not specify an amount:

 “They’re swimming in the water.”

 “The homework this week is hard.”

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Abstract uncountable nouns
A large number of abstract nouns are uncountable. These are usually ideas or
attributes. For instance:

 Ideas or concepts: love, hate, news*, access, knowledge

 Attributes: beauty, intelligence, arrogance, permanence

(*Even though news ends in an “-s,” it is uncountable. We need this “-s” because
without it, news would become new, which is an adjective.)
Again, these cannot take indefinite articles or be made plural.

 “He’s just looking for love.” (correct)

 “He’s just looking for a love.” (incorrect)

 “She’s gained a great deal of knowledge during college.” (correct)

 “She’s gained a great deal of knowledges during college.” (incorrect)

As with countable nouns, though, we can sometimes use the definite article the:

 “I can’t stand watching the news.”

 “Can you believe the arrogance he exhibits?”

Nouns that are both countable and uncountable

The general idea of countable versus uncountable nouns is simple. If something
can be counted with numbers, then it is countable, as the name suggests; if not,
then it is uncountable.

However, words in English often carry a number of different meanings, and these
can affect whether a word will be considered countable in one instance compared
to another.

Take, for instance, one of our previous examples regarding the abstract noun love:

 “He’s just looking for love.”

As we’ve already said, this is a clear instance of an uncountable noun. However,

the word love can also mean “a person or thing one loves.” When carrying this
particular meaning, love is countable. For example:

 “I have two loves in my life: my wife and my work.”

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Likewise, many things we would normally consider to be countable have meanings
that render them uncountable. For instance:

 “How many stones did they use to build this wall?” (countable—This refers
to individual stones.)
 “This tablet is made of stone.” (uncountable—Stone in this sense refers to
the material that composes the tablet; substances and materials
are uncountable.)

As you can see from these two sets of examples, concrete and abstract nouns can
be both countable and uncountable, depending on their specific meaning in a
sentence. There are far, far too many to list here; you will simply have to know
which meaning a word carries in a given context and decide whether that meaning
makes the noun countable or uncountable.
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Countable Nouns 5
What is a countable noun?
Countable nouns (also known as count nouns) are nouns that can be considered
as individual, separable items, which means that we are able to count them with
numbers—we can have one, two, five, 15, 100, and so on. We can also use them
with the indefinite articles a and an (which signify a single person or thing) or in
their plural forms.

Countable nouns contrast with uncountable nouns (also known as non-

count or mass nouns), which cannot be separated and counted as individual units
or elements. Uncountable nouns cannot take an indefinite article, nor can they be
made plural.

Concrete vs. Abstract Countable Nouns

Both concrete and abstract nouns can be countable. Concrete nouns name
people, places, or things that are tangible—they can be seen or touched. Abstract
nouns, on the other hand, name intangible things, such as ideas, concepts,
feelings, or attributes.

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Concrete countable nouns
Concrete nouns are a bit easier to understand as being countable—after all, they
are things that we can see and feel, and so we can usually count them. Consider
the following, for example:

 cup
 ambulance
 phone
 person
 eel
 computer
 doctor

Each of these can be considered as an individual item or unit, which means that
we are able to count them:
Singular Plural
a cup two cups

an ambulance several ambulances

a phone 10 phones

a person many people

an eel three eels

a computer a few computers

a doctor some doctors

Abstract countable nouns

Even though abstract nouns are not tangible, many of them can still be counted as
separable units. Like concrete nouns, they can take a or an or can be made plural.

Consider these abstract nouns:

 conversation
 emergency

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  reading
 aspiration
 emotion
 belief

Now let’s see how they can be counted:

Singular Plural
a conversation two conversations

an emergency several emergencies

a reading 10 readings

an aspiration many aspirations

an emotion hundreds of emotions

a belief certain beliefs

Grammar with countable nouns

When we use countable nouns, certain elements in a sentence will change
depending on whether the noun is singular or plural.

Third-person singular vs. third-person plural pronouns

If a countable noun is being represented by a third-person pronoun, we must take
care to use the correct singular or plural form.

Singular
When a noun is singular and names a person (or, sometimes, a pet) whose gender
is known,* then we use the third-person singular he, him, or his (masculine)
or she, her, or hers (feminine). For example:

 “The man left early, so I didn’t get a chance to talk to him.” (Man is singular,
so it takes the third-person singular pronoun him.)
 “The president has many things that she wants to accomplish in office.”
(President is singular, so it takes the third-person singular pronoun she.)
 “We taught our dog to know which bed is his.” (Dog is singular, so it takes
the third-person singular pronoun his.)

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If the noun names a singular place, thing, or non-domestic animal, then we must
use the third-person neuter pronoun it:

 “I hate this computer because it is so slow!”

 “The cow lowed softly as it ate.”
 “Some people dislike this town, but I’ve always loved it.”

Plural
When a noun is plural, we use the same third-person pronouns for people, places,
animals, and things: they, them, and theirs.* For example:

 “The parade floats are spectacular! I love watching them go down the
street.”
 “Bill and Samantha told me they were coming over later.”
 “Make sure the children know which bags are theirs.”

*Usage Note: “Singular they”

English does not have a way of identifying a single person with a pronoun if his or
her gender is not known, so sometimes the third-person plural forms (they, them,
etc.) are used as a gender-neutral alternative to the third-person
feminine/masculine forms. This is sometimes called “singular they.”

For example:

 “You shouldn’t judge someone until you know what they are really like.”
 “If anyone needs extra help with their studies, they should feel free to see
me after class.”

While it is still considered incorrect by some writers and writing guides, especially
in American English, “singular they” is gradually becoming accepted as the norm,
especially in instances with indefinite pronouns that sound plural but are
grammatically singular (like anyone in the example above).

Subject-Verb Agreement
Because countable nouns can be either singular or plural, it is very important to
use the correct subject-verb agreementwhen they are functioning as the subject
of a clause.

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Subject-verb agreement refers to using certain conjugations of verbs for singular
subjects and using other conjugations for plural subjects. This happens most
noticeably with the verb to be, which becomes is or was with singular subject
nouns and are or were with plural subjects.

For example:

 “My brother is back from college.” (singular present simple tense)

 “The company was in financial trouble.” (singular past simple tense)
 “Many people are getting frustrated with the government.” (plural present
simple tense)
 “The computers were rather old.” (plural past simple tense)

For any other verb, we only need to make a change if it is in the present simple
tense. For most verbs, this is accomplished by adding an “-s” to the end if it is
singular and leaving it in its base form if it is plural. For example:

 “My father runs his own business.” (singular)

 “But his sons run it when he’s away.” (plural)

 “The dog wags his tail when he is happy.” (singular)

 “Dogs sometimes wag their tails when they’re angry or scared.” (plural)

The verbs have and do also only conjugate for singular subjects in the present
simple tense, but they have irregular forms for this: has and does. For example:

 “The apple has a mark on it.” (singular)

 “All the apples have marks on them.” (plural)

 “The teacher does not think it’s a good idea.” (singular)

 “The other teachers do not mind, though.” (plural)

Finally, the modal auxiliary verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, might,
and must do not conjugate for singular vs. plural subjects at all—they always
remain the same. For instance:

 “This phone can also surf the Internet!” (singular)

 “Most phones can do that now.” (plural)

 “The president will arrive in Malta next week.” (singular)

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  “The other diplomats will arrive shortly after that.” (plural)

Nouns that are both countable and uncountable

The general idea of countable versus uncountable nouns is simple. If something
can be counted with numbers, then it is countable, as the name suggests; if not,
then it is uncountable.

However, words in English often carry a number of different meanings, and these
can affect whether a word will be considered countable in one instance compared
to another.

Take, for instance, the following example featuring the abstract noun love:

 “He’s just looking for love.”

This is a clear instance of an uncountable noun. The abstract idea of love cannot
be counted with numbers and is thus uncountable. However, the word love can
also mean “a person or thing one loves.” When carrying this particular
meaning, love is countable. For example:

 “I have two loves in my life: my wife and my work.”

Likewise, many things we would normally consider to be countable have meanings

that render them uncountable. For instance:

 “How many stones did they use to build this wall?” (countable—This refers
to individual stones.)
 “This tablet is made of stone.” (uncountable—Stone in this sense refers to
the material that composes the tablet; substances and materials
are uncountable.)

Because the concrete noun stone has a subtly different meaning in these two
different sentences, it is considered countable in one and uncountable in the
other. Let’s look at some common examples to help reinforce the concept:

 “She doesn’t like hearing any criticism.” (uncountable—the act of making a

critical comment or judgment)
 “I have a couple of criticismsto share.” (countable—individual critical
comments or judgments)

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  “How many chickens does your uncle own?” (countable—individual live
chickens)
 “I think I’ll have chicken for dinner.” (uncountable—the meat of the chicken
as a substance or material)

 “We must all strive to avoid sin.” (uncountable—the idea or concept of sin
itself)
 “The politician has too many sins to count on one hand.” (countable—
individual acts or instances of sin)

These are just a few examples of nouns that can be both countable and
uncountable, depending on context and specific meaning. There are far, far too
many to list every single one here, so you simply have to know which meaning a
word carries in a given context and decide whether that meaning makes the noun
countable or uncountable.
===================================================================

Uncountable Nouns 6
What is an uncountable noun?
Nouns that cannot be divided or counted as individual elements or separate parts
are called uncountable nouns (also known as mass nouns or non-count nouns).
These can be tangible objects (such as substances or collective categories of
things), or intangible or abstract things, such as concepts or ideas. Nouns
that can be divided are called countable nouns, or simply count nouns.

Here are some examples of uncountable nouns:

Substances Collective categories Abstract ideas or concepts

love
wood furniture
hate
smoke homework
beauty
air accommodation
intelligence
water luggage
arrogance

22
 access

news*

(*Even though news ends in an “-s,” it is uncountable. We need this “-s” because
without it, news would become new, which is an adjective.)

Using articles with uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns cannot take the indefinite articles “a” or “an” in a sentence,
because these words indicate a single amount of something. For example:

 “Would you like tea?” (correct)

 “Would you like a tea?” (incorrect)

 “Do you have (some/any) information?” (correct)

 “Do you have an information?” (incorrect)

(We often use the words “some” or “any” to indicate an unspecified quantity of
uncountable nouns. We’ll investigate this more in a later part of this section.)
Although uncountable nouns cannot take a or an, they are sometimes able to take
the definite article the, as in:

 “Have you heard the news?”

 “The furniture in my living room is old.”

However, this is only the case if a specific uncountable noun is being described.
For example:

 “I am looking for accommodation.” (correct)

 “I am looking for the accommodation listed in this advertisement.” (correct—
references a specific accommodation)
 “I am looking for an accommodation.” (incorrect)
 “I am looking for the accommodation.” (incorrect without additional
information)

Uncountable nouns are not plural

Third-person singular vs. third-person plural pronouns

Just as uncountable nouns cannot take the indefinite articles “a” or “an” because
there is not “one” of them, it is equally incorrect to use third-person plural

23
pronouns with them, as they are not considered a collection of single things. For
example:

 Person A: “Your hair looks very nice today.”

 Person B: “Yes, I washed it last night.” (correct)
 Person B: “Yes, I washed them last night.” (incorrect)

Note that single hairs become countable. If there are two hairs on your jacket, you
can say “hairs” or use the plural pronoun “they.” The hair on your head, however,
is seen as an uncountable noun. We will discuss nouns that can be either
countable or uncountable depending on context in greater detail further on.

Plural forms of the noun

We also cannot make uncountable nouns plural by adding “-s” on the end. Again,
they are grammatically regarded as single, collective units. For example:

 “We bought new camping equipment.” (correct)

 “We bought new camping equipments.” (incorrect)

 “The teacher gave us a lot of homework.” (Correct. We can use the quantifier
“a lot” to indicate a large amount of an uncountable noun.)
 “The teacher gave us many homeworks.” (Incorrect. We also cannot use the
quantifier “many” with uncountable nouns, because it refers to individual
things.)

Subject-verb agreement
Because uncountable nouns cannot be plural, it is very important to use the
correct subject-verb agreement. Subject-verb agreement refers to using certain
conjugations of verbs with singular vs. plural subjects. This happens most
noticeably with the verb to be, which becomes is or was with singular subject
nouns and are or were with plural subjects. Because uncountable nouns are
grammatically singular, they must take singular forms of their verbs.

Here are a few examples illustrating this distinction:

 “The furniture in my living room is old.” (correct)

 “The furnitures in my living room are old.” (incorrect)
 “The furnitures in my living room is old.” (incorrect)

24
 “Their behavior is not good.” (correct)
 “Their behaviors are not good.” (incorrect)

 “The news is good.” (correct)

 “The news are good.” (incorrect)

Measurements of distance, time, and amount

A notable exception to the subject-verb rule we just discussed relates to countable
nouns that are describing measurements of distance, time, or amount. In this
case, we consider the sum as a singular amount, and so they must take singular
forms of their verbs. For example:

 “$20,000 has been credited to your account.” (correct)

 “$20,000 have been credited to your account.” (incorrect)

 “I think 50 miles is too far to travel on foot.” (correct)

 “I think 50 miles are too far to travel on foot.” (incorrect)

 “Wow, two hours flies by when you’re having fun!” (correct)

 “Wow, two hours fly by when you’re having fun!” (incorrect)

Making uncountable nouns countable

If we want to identify one or more specific “units” of an uncountable noun, then
we must add more information to the sentence to make this clear.

For example, if you want to give someone advice in general, you could say:

 “Can I give you advice?” or;

 “Can I give you some advice?”

But if you wanted to emphasize that you’d like to give them a particular aspect or
facet of advice, you could not say, “Can I give you an advice?” Instead, we have to
add more information to specify what we want to give:

 “Can I give you a piece of advice?”

By adding “piece of” to the uncountable noun advice, we have now made
it functionally countable. This means that we can also make this phrase plural,
though we have to be careful to pluralize the count noun that we’ve added, and
not the uncountable noun itself. For example:

25
  “Can I give you a few pieces of advice?”

Omitting the units from uncountable food and drink nouns

To make certain uncountable nouns plural, we add units of measurement to them,
as in “pieces of advice,” which we looked at above. We also do this with
uncountable nouns for food and drink:

 “I’d like two glasses of water and three cups of coffee, please.”
 “Chef, I need four bowls of chili and seven plates of beef, in a hurry!”

However, English speakers are fond of omitting parts of a phrase to speak more
quickly or fluidly (a process called elision), and this is often done with the units of
uncountable nouns. Because of this, it would not be uncommon to hear people
say the previous two sentences without the units of measurement, simply making
the uncountable nouns plural instead:

 “I’d like two waters and three coffees, please.”

 “Chef, I need four chilis and seven beefs, in a hurry!”

Note that this is quite informal, and it is not always acceptable to elide
uncountable noun phrases. (It would sound awkward to say “four rices” instead of
“four bowls of rice,” for example.) The only way to know when and if an
uncountable noun for food or drink can be pluralized like this is to listen to the
way native English speakers talk. If you are in doubt, simply include the units of
measurement, as that will always be correct.

Using quantifiers with uncountable nouns

As we’ve already seen, certain quantifiers (a kind of determiner that specifies an
amount of something) can only be used with uncountable nouns, while others can
only modify countable nouns. While we will examine these more in depth in the
chapter on Determiners, here are a few examples that cause particular confusion.

Too – Too Much – Too Many

We use too + an adjective to mean “beyond what is needed or desirable,” as in, “It
is too big.”

26
Too much, on the other hand, is used to modify uncountable nouns, while too
many is used with countable nouns—they are not used with adjectives. For
example, the following sentences would both be incorrect:

 “It is too much big.”

 “It is too many big.”

One particular source of confusion that can arise here is the fact that much can be
used as an adverb before too to give it emphasis, as in:

 “It is much too big.”

We also must be sure not to use too much with a countable noun, nor too
many with an uncountable noun.

 “I have too many pieces of furniture.” (correct)

 “I have too much pieces of furniture.” (incorrect)

 “I have too much furniture.” (correct)

 “I have too many furniture.” (incorrect)

Fewer vs. Less

The conventional rule regarding less vs. fewer is that we use fewer with countable
nouns and less with uncountable nouns. For example:

 “I have fewer friends than Jill has.” (correct)

 “I have less friends than Jill has.” (incorrect)

 “I have less money than he has.” (correct)

 “I have fewer money than he has.” (incorrect)

The rule carries over when we add words to an uncountable noun to make a
countable phrase (as we looked at above). We can see this distinction in the
following examples:

 “I want less toast.” (toast is uncountable)

 “I want fewer pieces of toast.” (pieces of toast is countable)

 “There is less water in the jug.” (water is uncountable)

 “There are fewer cups of water in the jug.” (cups of water is countable)

27
Measurements of distance, time, and amount
As we noted above, measurements of distance, time, or amount for nouns that we
would normally consider countable (and thus plural) end up taking singular verbs.
Likewise, these terms also take the word less, most often in the construction less
than. For example:

 “$20,000 is less than we expected to pay.”

 “We walked less than 50 miles to get here.”
 “We have less than two hours to finish this project.”
 “I weigh 20 pounds less than I used to.”

Note, however, that we generally can’t use less before these kinds of nouns:

 “We have less $20,000.” (incorrect)

 “I ran less 10 miles.” (incorrect)

Less is also used with countable nouns in the construction one less _____, as in:

 “That is one less problem to worry about.”

Fewer can also be used (albeit less commonly), but the construction usually
changes to one ______ fewer, as in:

 “That is one problem fewer to worry about.”

Rule or non-rule?
It is important to note that many grammar guides dispute the necessity of this
supposed “rule,” referencing that it was in fact implemented as a stylistic
preference by the 1770 grammarian Robert Baker, and that fewer and less had
been used interchangeably for countable and uncountable nouns for hundreds of
years before that. Specifically, it is considered by some as acceptable to
use less with countable nouns, especially in informal or colloquial writing and
speech.

As long as the sentence does not sound awkward, it is probably safe to do so.
However, many still regard the fewer vs. lessrule as indisputable, so it is
recommended to adhere to the rule for professional, formal, or academic writing.

28
Nouns that are both countable and uncountable
The general idea of countable versus uncountable nouns is simple. If something
can be counted with numbers, then it is countable, as the name suggests; if not,
then it is uncountable.

However, words in English often carry a number of different meanings, and these
can affect whether a word will be considered countable in one instance compared
to another.

Take, for instance, the following example featuring the abstract noun love:

 “He’s just looking for love.”

This is a clear instance of an uncountable noun. The abstract idea of love cannot
be counted with numbers and is thus uncountable. However, the word love can
also mean “a person or thing one loves.” When carrying this particular
meaning, love is countable. For example:

 “I have two loves in my life: my wife and my work.”

Likewise, many things we would normally consider to be countable have meanings

that render them uncountable. For instance:

 “How many stones did they use to build this wall?” (countable—This refers
to individual stones.)
 “This tablet is made of stone.” (uncountable—Stone in this sense refers to
the material that composes the tablet; substances and materials
are uncountable.)

Because the concrete noun stone has a subtly different meaning in these two
different sentences, it is considered countable in one and uncountable in the
other. Let’s look at some common examples to help reinforce the concept:

 “She doesn’t like hearing any criticism.” (uncountable—the act of making a

critical comment or judgment)
 “I have a couple of criticismsto share.” (countable—individual critical
comments or judgments)

29
  “How many chickens does your uncle own?” (countable—individual live
chickens)
 “I think I’ll have chicken for dinner.” (uncountable—the meat of the chicken
as a substance or material)

 “We must all strive to avoid sin.” (uncountable—the idea or concept of sin
itself)
 “The politician has too many sins to count on one hand.” (countable—
individual acts or instances of sin)

These are just a few examples of nouns that can be both countable and
uncountable, depending on context and specific meaning. There are far, far too
many to list every single one here, so you simply have to know which meaning a
word carries in a given context and decide whether that meaning makes the noun
countable or uncountable.
===============================================================

Collective Nouns 7
What is a collective noun?
Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a collection or group of multiple people,
animals, or things. However, even though collective nouns refer to multiple
individuals, they still usually function as singular nouns in a sentence. This is
because they still are technically referring to one thing: the group as a whole. Here
are some examples of collective nouns:

 group – A group is a single unit that is made up of a number of individuals,

whether people or things.
 collection – A collection is a single unit that typically consists of many similar
things organized together, such as paintings.
 tribe – A tribe is a single unit that is made up of a group of tribe members.
 fleet – A fleet is a single unit that is made up of several vehicles or vessels,
such as ships.
 band – A band is a single unit that consists of a number of different
musicians.

Collective nouns are used in sentences to refer to a group of people, animals, or

things. Here are some examples of collective nouns being used in sentences:

30
  “The flock of birds flew south for the winter.”
 “The organization voted to revoke the rules that it had previously
approved.”
 “The set of tablecloths had disappeared. ”

Similarity to plural nouns

Collective nouns are very similar to plural nouns. Plural nouns are nouns that refer
to multiple people, places, or things, and they primarily (but not always) end in “-
s,” “-es,” or “-ies.” They are derived from singular nouns, and so are truly plural in
form and function. For example, the following words are all plural nouns:

 dogs
 cities
 tables
 oceans
 sleds

Both plural nouns and collective nouns can refer to multiple things. The difference
is that collective nouns refer to a group of individuals in a single unit, whereas
plural nouns refer to multiple individuals. To understand the difference, consider
the following sentence:

 “The musicians played the song beautifully.”

This sentence contains the plural noun musicians. This word lets the reader know
that there are multiple musicians who played the song beautifully. Now let's look
at a similar sentence:

 “The orchestra played the song beautifully.”

This sentence contains the collective noun orchestra. This word lets the reader
know that there is a group of musicians that played the song beautifully. However,
it also lets the reader know that the multiple musicians are arranged into a single
group. The plural noun musicians in the first sentence does not do that.
Here are two more examples:

 “The soldiers marched very swiftly.” (plural noun)

 “The platoon marched very swiftly.” (collective noun)

31
As in the previous examples, both soldiers and platoon indicate multiple people.
However, only platoon lets the reader know that the soldiers are organized into a
collective unit.

Singular vs. Plural Use

Collective nouns usually function as singular nouns in a sentence, but they are
occasionally used as plurals, too. Whether they are used in a singular or plural
manner can impact which verbs and pronouns should be associated with the
word.

The way we determine in which manner the collective noun should be used is to
consider whether the members of the collective noun are being regarded as a
single, whole unit, or as multiple individuals. If they are functioning as a whole,
then you use singular verb tenses and pronouns; if they are acting individually,
then you use plural verb tenses and pronouns.

For example, the following sentence demonstrates singular use of a collective

noun:

 “The offense hopes to score a touchdown on its next play.”

Here, the collective noun offense refers to the members of the team’s offensive
unit functioning as a whole; therefore, it acts as a singular noun in the sentence.
As a result, the verb hopes and the pronoun its are also singular.
Compare this to the next sentence, which demonstrates plural use of a collective
noun:

 “The jury eat their lunches before they deliberate.”

In this sentence, the collective noun, jury, refers to the jury members acting
individually. As a result, jury functions as a plural noun in the sentence. This means
that the plural pronouns they and their are used, as is the plural form of the
verb eat.
Finally, it is worth noting that in British English, it is more common for collective
nouns to function as plurals in all instances.

Plural-only collective nouns

Certain collective nouns can only be plural, such as “police.” For example:

32
 “The police are investigating the matter.” (correct)
 “The police is investigating the matter.” (incorrect)

However, we can make the noun countable by adding more information to the
sentence. If we want to specify a single member of the police, we could say:

 “A police officer is investigating the matter.”

Here are some other examples of collective nouns that can only be plural:

 people
 children
 poultry
 vermin
 cattle

Collective Nouns and Animals

In the English language, there are many different types of collective nouns that
refer to different groupings of animals. There are hundreds of different collective
nouns used to describe animal group names, but here are a few common ones:

 flock of birds
 pod of whales
 pack of wolves
 pride of lions
 gaggle of geese
 band of coyotes
 gatling of woodpeckers
 huddle of penguins
 mob of kangaroos
 school of fish

===================================================================

Compound Nouns 8
What is a compound noun?
A compound noun is a noun consisting of two or more words working together as
a single unit to name a person, place, or thing. Compound nouns are usually made

33
up of two nouns or an adjective and a noun, but other combinations are also
possible, as well.

Generally, the first word in the compound noun tells us what kind of person or
thing it is or what purpose he, she, or it serves, while the second word defines the
person or object, telling us who or what it is. For example:

 water + bottle = water bottle (a bottle used for water)

 dining + room = dining room (a room used for dining)
 back + pack = backpack (a pack you wear on your back)
 police + man = policeman (a police officer who is a man)

Like other nouns, compound nouns can be modified by other adjectives. For
example:

 “I need to buy a large water bottle.”

 “That’s a beautiful dining room.”
 “My old backpack is still my favorite.”
 “A lone policeman foiled the attempted robbery.”

You can recognize compound nouns because the meaning of the two words put
together is different than the meaning of the words separately. For
example, water and bottle have their own separate meanings, but when we use
them together they mean a particular type of bottle that we drink water from.

Forming compound nouns

As mentioned, compound nouns are formed by combining two or more words,
with the most common combinations being noun + noun or adjective + noun.
However, combinations using other parts of speech are also possible. Below are
the various combinations used to create compound nouns.

Noun + noun
There are a great number of compound nouns formed using the noun +
noun combination. For example:

 backpack
 bathroom
 bathtub
 bedroom

34
  bus stop
 fish tank
 football
 handbag
 motorcycle
 shopkeeper
 tablecloth
 toothpaste
 wallpaper
 water bottle
 website
 wristwatch

Adjective + noun
There are also many compound nouns that are formed using the adjective +
noun combination. For example:

 full moon
 blackberry
 blackbird
 blackboard
 cell(ular) phone
 mobile phone
 hardware
 highway
 greenhouse
 redhead
 six-pack
 small talk
 software
 whiteboard

Other combinations
Although the noun + noun and adjective + noun combinations are the most
common, there are also plenty of other possibilities for forming compound nouns.
For example:

35
 Combination Examples
noun + verb haircut, rainfall, sunrise, sunset

noun + preposition hanger-on, passerby

noun + prepositional
brother-in-law, mother-in-law
phrase

noun + adjective cupful, spoonful

breakfast, washing machine, runway, pickpocket,

verb + noun
swimming pool

preposition + noun bystander, influx, onlooker, underpants, upstairs

check-in, checkout/check-out, drawback, lookout,

verb + preposition
makeup

adjective + verb dry cleaning, public speaking

preposition + verb input, output, overthrow, upturn

Writing compound nouns

Compound nouns are very common, both in written and spoken English, and there
are spelling, punctuation, and pronunciation norms that we must be aware of if
we want to use them correctly.

The three written forms of compound nouns

Writing compound nouns is a bit complicated due to the fact that they can take
three different forms.

First, open compound nouns (or spaced compound nouns) are those that are
written as two separate words, such as washing machine, swimming pool,
and water bottle.

Second, there are hyphenated compound nouns, as in check-in, hanger-

on, and mother-in-law.

36
Third, there are closed compound nouns (or solid compound nouns)—those that
are written as one word, such as rainfall, drawback, and toothpaste.

Unfortunately, there aren’t any rules that tell us which of the three forms is
acceptable for a particular compound noun. Some compound nouns are
commonly written in two forms, as in website / web site or checkout / check-out,
while others, such as bus stop, are strictly used in one form. Where more than one
is possible, the form that is more commonly used may depend on the variety of
English (American English vs. British English, for example), the style guide of a
publication, or the personal preference of the writer.

If you’re not sure which of the three forms to use, it’s important to check a good,
up-to-date dictionary. If you are relying on the spellchecker in a word processor,
remember that this has its limits. For example, spellcheck is good for checking
whether a particular compound noun can be written as one word (closed);
however, if we write a compound noun as two words (open) and it should be
written as one word (closed), or if we write it with a hyphen and it should be
written without a hyphen, spellcheck will not catch the mistakes.

Finally, remember that, no matter which way the compound noun is written, it
always functions grammatically as a single unit.

Pluralizing compound nouns

We usually pluralize a compound noun by adding an “-s” or “-es” to the main
word, or the defining word, of the compound noun. This is usually the second
word, but not always. For example:

Singular Plural
bedroom bedrooms

football footballs

water bottle water bottles

full moon full moons

BUT

37
 Singular Plural
secretary general secretaries general

mother-in-law mothers-in-law

passerby / passer-by passersby / passers-by

When it’s not obvious which of the words is the defining word, we pluralize the
end of it. For example:

Singular Plural
haircut haircuts

check-in check-ins

checkout / check-out checkouts / check-outs

upturn upturns

Pronouncing compound nouns

In general, compound nouns are pronounced with the emphasis on the first part
of the word. For example:

 BEDroom
 BLACKbird
 CHECK-in
 GREENhouse
 MAKEup
 WATER bottle

Pronouncing compound nouns in this way helps us distinguish words that form a
compound noun like blackbird and greenhouse from other instances when the
same words would appear together, as in: “Look at that beautiful black bird,” or “I
like that green house on the corner.”
Although we normally stress the first word in a compound noun, there are certain
exceptions to this pattern. For example, we disregard this rule when pronouncing

38
compound nouns that include titles or proper nouns, as
in Secretary GENeral and Mount RUSHmore.

If in doubt, you can use a good dictionary to determine which syllable should be
emphasized.

===================================================================

Nominalization (Creating Nouns) 9

What is nominalization?
Nominalization refers to the creation of a noun from verbs or adjectives.

Most of the time, nouns are created from other parts of speech through the use
of suffixes. In other cases, the word remains the same but is simply used a
different way; this is known as conversion or zero derivation.

Suffixes
Suffixes are certain groupings of letters that can be attached to the end of words
to change their meaning. Most verbs and adjectives that become nouns are
changed using suffixes.

(Be aware, however, that the examples below only show some of the common
ways of using suffixes to change verbs and adjectives to nouns; they are not all
concrete rules, and the lists of possible suffixes are not exhaustive ones. The best
way to learn the spellings of such nouns is by using a good dictionary, or by
encountering them in everyday speech and writing.)

Verbs
There are certain patterns that we follow to decide which suffix is needed in order
to create a noun from a verb.

Gerunds
The most straightforward way of turning a verb into a noun is through the use
of gerunds. These are made by adding the suffix “-ing” to the end of the verb. For
example:

 “Walking is very pleasant.”

 “I enjoy reading.”

39
  “Listening is an important aspect of any relationship.”
 “My sleeping has been very disrupted lately.”
 “Baking is my favorite pastime.”
 “I hate running.”

Note that if the gerund takes any additional information, such as

an object, adverb, or prepositional phrase, then this entire group of words
(known as a gerund phrase) acts as a noun. To learn more about gerunds and
gerund phrases, go to the section on Gerunds in the chapter about Other Parts of
Speech.

Nouns of agency and profession

When we turn a verb into a noun to represent someone (or occasionally
something) who is an agent of that action, or who performs the action in a
professional capacity, we typically use the suffixes “-or,” “-er,” or “-r.” For
example:

 “My fiancée is an actor.” (Someone who acts.)

 “I’m training to be a teacher.” (Someone who teaches.)
 “The writer is very well known.” (Someone who writes.)
 “The company is a major employer in the area.” (Something
that employs people.)
 “The projector was broken today.” (Something that projects.)

Nouns of recipience
For verbs that become nouns to represent someone who is the recipient of an
action, we often use the suffix “-ee.”

Perhaps the most common example of this in modern English

is employee (someone whom others employ), as in:

 “The employee is disputing his wages.”

Other examples include:

 “The bank must approve you as the payee.” (Someone who is paid.)
 “There is one more interviewee waiting to be seen.” (Someone who
is interviewed.)

40
Nouns of general action
We can use a variety of different suffixes to describe an action in general. The
most common of these are “-tion,” “-sion,” “-ance,” “-ment,” and “-ence”; in some
instances, we change the ending of the verb slightly in order to take the suffix.

For example:

 “His acceptance of the position was received warmly.” (The

verb accept becomes the noun acceptance.)
 “Thank you for the invitation!” (The verb invite becomes the
noun invitation.)
 “In conclusion, we should see a spike in profits soon.” (The
verb conclude becomes the noun conclusion.)
 “Government must derive from the will of the population.” (The
verb govern becomes the noun government; the verb populate becomes the
noun population.)
 “Attendance is at an all-time low.” (The verb attend becomes the
noun attendance.)
 “I was surprised by my enjoyment of the play.” (The verb enjoy becomes the
noun enjoyment.)
 “Use the textbook as your reference if you’re confused.” (The
verb refer becomes the noun reference.)

Some other suffixes that work in this way are “-al” and “-ure,” as in:

 “Failure to find a solution is not an option.” (The verb fail becomes the
noun failure.)
 “The review will include a quick perusal of your work.” (The
verb peruse becomes the noun perusal.)

Adjectives
We change adjectives into nouns when we want to speak of them as general ideas
or concepts. Adjectives can take a variety of different suffixes, depending on how
they are spelled.

“-ness”
We often use the suffix “-ness” for many adjectives. Most of the time, we can
simply add the suffix on to the end of the adjective without making any changes to
its spelling. For example:

41
  “The hardness of diamond makes it a great cutting tool.” (The
adjective hard becomes the noun hardness.)
 “The child’s meekness is quite sweet.” (The adjective meek becomes the
noun meekness.)
 “His gruffness is not appreciated.” (The adjective gruff becomes the
noun gruffness.)
 “I don’t care for the roughness of my hands.” (The adjective rough becomes
the noun roughness.)
 “I don’t think you understand the seriousness of the situation.” (The
adjective serious becomes the noun seriousness.)
 “Please don’t underestimate my gratefulness.” (The
adjective grateful becomes the noun gratefulness.)
 However, when we use this suffix with an adjective ending in “-y,” we change
“y” to “i”:
 “We’re waiting for some steadiness in the market.” (The
adjective steady becomes the noun steadiness.)
 “The teacher puts her students’ happiness above all else.” (The
adjective happy becomes the noun happiness.)

Some adjectives ending in a “-t” preceded by a long vowel sound can take this
suffix as well:

 “Her greatness is without question.” (The adjective great becomes the

noun greatness.)
 “The flatness of the Earth was disproven long ago.” (The
adjective flat becomes the noun flatness.)

“-y”
Other adjectives that end in a “-t” preceded by a consonant will take the suffix “-y”
to become nouns. For example:

 “This project will be fraught with difficulty.” (The adjective difficult becomes
the noun difficulty.)
 “That’s enough of your modesty.” (The adjective modest becomes the
noun modesty.)
 “Honesty is a very important virtue.” (The adjective honest becomes the
noun honesty.)

42
“-ity”
When adjectives end in “-e,” they often take the suffix “-ity” to become nouns.
However, there is often a change to the spelling of the word. Usually, we simply
drop “e” and replace it with “-ity,” as in:

 “There is a scarcity of food in the city.” (The adjective scarce becomes the
noun scarcity.)
 “Kindness is a rarity in this world.” (The adjective rare becomes the
noun rarity.)

When the word ends in “ble,” though, we have to change “le” to “il,” as in:

 “This project is your responsibility.” (The adjective responsible becomes the

noun responsibility.)
 “I have no question of your ability.” (The adjective able becomes the
noun ability.)

Uniquely, we also use the “-ity” suffix to change the adjective hilarious to hilarity,
even though other adjectives with similar endings (such as serious, grievous,
callous, etc.) take the suffix “-ness.”

“-ance” and “-ence”

We often use the suffix “-ance” for adjectives ending in “-ant,” as in:

 “This is of the utmost importance.” (The adjective important becomes the

noun importance.)
 “Your ignorance is astounding.” (The adjective ignorant becomes the
noun ignorance.)

We often use the suffix “-ence” for adjectives ending in “-ent,” as in:

 “We demand greater independence.” (The adjective independent becomes

the noun independence.)
 “Silence is expected during tests.” (The adjective silent becomes the
noun silence.)

Conversion
When we use a verb or adjective as a noun without changing its spelling in any
way, it is called conversion or zero derivation.

43
Verbs
Conversion is especially common with verbs, and there are many instances where
the same word may function as a verb or a noun, depending on the context. For
example:

 “Please answer the phone, Tom.” (verb)

 “We’ll need an answer by tomorrow.” (noun)

 “I run each morning before breakfast.” (verb)

 “I’m going for a run later today.” (noun)

 “Meteorologists are forecasting a snowstorm overnight.” (verb)

 “The forecast said there would be rain in the afternoon.” (noun)

Less commonly, there are instances in which, instead of changing a word’s

spelling, we change where we pronounce a stresson the word’s syllables to
indicate a shift from a verb to a noun; this change is known as a suprafix. Let’s
look at some examples (with the stressed syllable underlined):

 “You need to convert pounds into kilograms.” (verb)

 “The church always welcomes recent converts to its meetings.” (noun)

 “Make sure you record the meeting so we can review it later.” (verb)
 “I love listening to old records.” (noun)

 “Please don’t insult my intelligence.” (verb)

 “We will not forget this insult to our company.” (noun)

The word use can also function as either a noun or a verb, but instead of changing
the stress on a syllable, we change the actual pronunciation of the word, as in:

 “We plan to use a diagnostic test to evaluate the problem.” (verb—use is

pronounced “yooz” *IPA: juz])
 “There is only one use for this tool.” (noun—use is pronounced “yuce”
[IPA: jus])

Nominal adjectives
We can also convert adjectives into nouns without changing spelling, but we
generally do so by adding the article the before the word. These are known
as nominal adjectives. For example:
44
  “The wealthy have an obligation to help the poor.”
 “We all want the best for her.”
 “This law protects the innocent.”

To learn more about how and when these are used, go to the section
about Nominal Adjectives in the chapter on Adjectives.

Infinitives
Lastly, verbs can serve the function of nouns by being used in their infinitive
form—that is, the base form of the verb with the particle to. Infinitives are not
technically an example of nominalization, because they can also act as adjectives
and adverbs, but it’s worth looking at how they work when they function as
nouns. For example:

As the subject of a clause

 “To err is human; to forgive is divine.”

 “To study mathematics at Harvard was her ultimate dream.”
 “To live in the city means adjusting to a completely different lifestyle.”

As the object of a verb

 “I’m not going unless you agree to go with me.”

 “You appear to be correct.”
 “Please be quiet; I’m trying to study.”

As an object complement
(An object complement is a word or group of words that describe, rename, or
complete the direct object of the verb.)

 “I don’t expect you to approve of my decision.”

 “She’s forcing me to work through the weekend.”
 “We need you to make a few more copies.”

=================================================================

45
 Noun Phrases 10
What is a noun phrase?
Noun phrases are groups of two or more words within a sentence that function
grammatically as nouns. They consist of a noun and other words that modify the
noun. Some grammarians also consider a single-word noun to be a noun phrase,
while more traditional grammars hold that a phrase must be made up of two or
more words. In this guide, we define a phrase as being made up of more than one
word.

Noun phrases can also have pronouns as their structural base, which we will
examine later in this section.

Identifying noun phrases

Noun phrases allow groups of words to function as a noun in the sentence. In this
way, nouns can be elaborated upon or modified to add further depth to the
sentence without losing their structural role.

The following sentence contains a basic, single-word noun, without any modifiers:

 “Whales swim.”

In this sentence, the word “whales” functions alone as the noun. Because there
are no modifiers to create a noun phrase, the reader receives no additional
information about “whales.”
The following sentence contains a noun phrase with modifiers:

 “He brought the shovel with the blue handle.”

In this sentence, “the shovel with the blue handle” is a noun phrase. It collectively
acts as a noun while providing modifying words for the head noun, “shovel.” The
modifiers are “the” and “with the blue handle.”
Here are some other examples of sentences with noun phrases marked in italics
(the primary nouns being modified are underlined):

 “The tall mountain was very large.”

 “The highway at rush hour can be frantic.”
 “The oranges that fell from the orange tree are delicious.”

46
A good way to test whether or not a phrase is a noun phrase is to replace the
phrase with a pronoun and see if the sentence is still grammatically correct. For
example, in all three examples provided above, the noun phrase can be
successfully replaced with a pronoun:

 “It was very large.”

 “It can be frantic.”
 “They are delicious.”

Noun phrases of varying length

Noun phrases can be as short as two words, or they can be longer and have many
words; the number of words in a phrase does not affect its status as a noun
phrase, so long as it functions as a noun in the sentence. For example, the
following sentences contain one very short noun phrase, and one very long noun
phrase:

 “The man sat down.”

 “The forty-five year old man with brown hair and a black shirt sat down.”

Despite their difference in length, both phrases in italics function as nouns.

Noun phrases within noun phrases

You may have noticed that many of the sentences above contain multiple noun
phrases. It is very common for a smaller noun phrase to occur within a larger one,
acting as part of the modifying information. For instance, the second sentence
above actually has three noun phrases, two of which are contained within the
longer one. Let’s look at the sentence again, this time underlining each noun being
modified and putting the smaller phrases in bold.

 “The forty-five year old man with brown hair and a black shirt sat down.”

Here are some more examples of sentences with noun phrases inside of other
noun phrases:

 “They passed an orange bus driven by a jolly old man wearing a

lady’s wig on the highway.”
 “Please hand me the book with the torn cover.”

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Modifiers

Position of modifiers
Sometimes the words that modify the noun come before the noun in the phrase,
and sometimes they come after. For example, in the following sentence, the
modifiers come before the noun:

 “Dogs often like to chase high-flying Frisbees.”

In this next sentence, the modifiers come after the noun:

 “Trucks with red stripes and large wheels came riding into town.”

The position of modifiers in a noun phrase depends on what type of modifier is

being used to describe the noun.

Types of modifiers
There are many different types of modifiers that can be used in noun phrases to
modify the noun in the phrase. Among these modifiers are adjectives, articles,
participles, possessive nouns, possessive pronouns, determiners, relative clauses,
infinitives, participle phrases, prepositional phrases, and compound nouns*.

Adjectives, articles, participles, possessive nouns, determiners, possessive

pronouns, and compound nouns tend to appear before the noun in a noun phrase.
Relative clauses, infinitives, participle phrases, prepositional phrases, and
compound phrases tend to appear after the noun in noun phrases.

(*Modifiers are usually considered to be adjectives, adverbs, or other grammatical

elements that function as one or the other. For the sake of conciseness in this
section, however, we’ll be including items that are not usually classed as
modifiers—such as articles and determiners—but still serve to give more meaning
to the noun in a noun phrase.)

Here are examples of each type of modifier in a sentence with a noun phrase:

Adjectives
Adjectives modify the noun by expressing a certain quality of the noun:

 “Bright stars shine in the sky.”

48
  “Big cities are loud.”

Articles
Articles modify the noun by revealing if the noun is definite or indefinite:

 “The dog went to the park.”

 “A boy ate an apple.”

Determiners
Determiners are words that reveal the amount of a noun in a sentence:

 “There are five bananas.”

 “Several iguanas were on the tree.”

Participles
Participles can be used to directly modify the noun by showing a past or present
action that the noun is or was involved in doing:

 “The galloping gazelle jumped high.

 “Boiled water is very hot.”

Possessive Nouns
Possessive nouns modify the noun by explaining that the noun belongs to
someone, something, or some group:

 “The mail man's truck was parked.”

 “The woman's purse was blue.”

Possessive Determiners
Possessive determiners also indicate possession. However, they indicate
possession by using a pronoun instead of a noun:

 “His wife brought him his forgotten briefcase.”

 “Her shoe was untied.”

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are created by modifying the head noun with a noun adjunct (a
word that works together with the noun to give it a different meaning). (There are
different kinds of adjuncts, which are covered in another section).

49
Compound nouns can either be one word, two words, or two words joined by a
hyphen. In every case, the noun adjunct adds to or changes the meaning of the
head noun. The following sentences show an example of each type of compound
noun:

 “He ran to the doghouse.”

 “The bus station was busy.”
 “His ex-wife called him yesterday.”

Relative Clauses
Relative clauses (also known as adjective clauses express a quality of the noun just
like adjectives do. However, adjective clauses contain a subject and a verb:

 “The car that drove up the street turned left.”

 “The light that was left on was very bright.”

Infinitives
Infinitives modify the noun by providing a verb phrase that helps elaborate on and
provide clarification of the noun:

 “He was the person to contact if you wanted pastries.”

 “She was the one to ask.”

Participle Phrases
Participle phrases modify the noun by providing a group of words with a present
or past participle that works like an adjective to modify the noun:

 “The man waving his hand for a taxi was being ignored.”
 “The geese flying overhead formed a V shape.”

Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases are used in noun phrases to provide unique, distinguishing,
or specifying information about the noun being modified:

 “The train at the station had twenty-seven cars.”

 “The snow on the field was white.”
 “A cat with white whiskers just walked by.”

50
Noun Phrases with Pronoun Bases
Although noun phrases primarily have nouns as the base word that is being
modified, sometimes these base words can also be pronouns. For example, the
following sentences have pronoun base words as opposed to noun base words:

 “He who walks by the bay at night may see the moon.”
 “Someone new slowly approached the group.”

Nouns phrases as subjects, objects, and complements

Noun phrases can be used in sentences as a subject, object, or complement. The
individual sentence will determine how the noun phrase is used. Here are some
examples of noun phrases being used as subjects, objects, and complements.

Subject
The subject of a sentence is the noun or noun phrase that is doing the action of
the verb:

 “The green bowling ball rolled down the lane.”

Object
Objects are the noun or noun phrase that receives the action of the verb. They are
the things that something happens to, as opposed to the things causing the action:

 “He rolled the green bowling ball down the lane.”

Complement
Complements are words or phrases that are necessary to make the sentence’s
subject or predicate complete. Subject complements are words that follow a
linking verb and describe the subject of the sentence. Object complements are
words that modify the direct or indirect object of the verb. Here are examples of
both:

Subject Complement

 “He was a man who owned green bowling balls.” (The noun phrase follows
the linking verb was and modifies the subject he.)

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Object Complement

 “He painted the bowling ball a greenish color.” (The noun phrase follows and
modifies the direct object bowling ball.)
 “The club elected the man their president.” (The noun phrase follows and
modifies the direct object the man.)

==================================================================

Plurals 11
How are nouns made plural?
Plurals of nouns are used to indicate when there is more than one person, place,
animal, or thing.

The normal method for making nouns plural is to add an “-s” at the end of the
noun.

For example:

 one boy – two boys

 one girl – two girls
 one pen – two pens
 one pencil – two pencils
 one prize – two prizes
 one price – two prices

If a noun ends in “-s,” “-x,” “-z,” or with a cluster of consonants, such as “-sh,” “-
ch,” or “-tch” (as in “watch”), we add “-es” to render it plural.
For example:

 one coach – two coaches

 one witch – two witches
 one dish – two dishes
 one box – two boxes
 one bus – two buses
 one kiss – two kisses
 one waltz – two waltzes

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Words ending in “-y”
When the noun ends in a “-y” and it is preceded by a consonant, we change “y” to
“i” and add “-es.”

For example:

 one country – two countries

 one city – two cities
 one gallery – two galleries
 one baby – two babies
 one lady – two ladies
 one reality – two realities
 one fly – two flies
 one butterfly – two butterflies

However, when a word ends in a “-y” preceded by a vowel, then we simply add an
“-s” as usual:

 one toy – two toys

 one play – two plays
 one key – two keys
 one guy – two guys

Irregular plurals
There are some nouns that are irregular. They do not adhere to spelling rules, and
so these need to be memorized.

Here are the most common ones:

 one man – two men

 one woman – two women
 one person – two people*
 one mouse – two mice
 one goose – two geese
 one child – two children
 one tooth – two teeth
 one foot – two feet

53
(*Persons is also a plural form of person, but in modern English it is usually
reserved for more formal, bureaucratic, or legal language, as in, “Any
such persons found to be guilty of shoplifting will be prosecuted.”)
Be aware that irregular plural nouns cannot be made plural again; that is, you
cannot have childrens or feets. However, people is an exception—it can be
pluralized as peoples in some cases.

Adding “-ves” vs. “-s”

With some nouns that end in “-f,” “-fe,” or “-lf,” we replace the endings with “-
ves” to make them plural. Below is a list of some common examples:

 one life – two lives

 one wife – two wives
 one loaf – two loaves
 one leaf – two leaves
 one knife – two knives
 one thief – two thieves
 one calf – two calves
 one half – two halves
 one wolf – one wolves

However, many other words that end in “-f,” “-fe,” or “-lf” are simply made plural
with an “-s” on the end. Here are some common examples:

 one chief – two chiefs

 one brief – two briefs
 one safe – two safes
 one gulf – two gulfs
 one belief – two beliefs
 one roof – two roofs

And yet some other words can receive either “-ves” or “-s,” such as:

 one handkerchief – two handkerchiefs – two handkerchieves

 one hoof – two hoofs – two hooves
 one scarf – two scarfs – two scarves

Unfortunately, there is no steadfast rule for which words will receive a “-ves”
ending, an “-s” ending, or both—they are irregular and have to be memorized.

54
Words ending in “-ff” or “-ffe”
Words ending in “-ff” or “-ffe,” on the other hand, have straightforward plural
forms: we simply add “-s” to the end, as in:

 one cliff – two cliffs

 one bailiff – two bailiffs
 one giraffe – two giraffes
 one gaffe – two gaffes

Words with the same plural and singular forms

We also have some nouns that remain the same in singular and plural.

For example:

 one fish – two fish*

 one sheep – two sheep
 one bison – two bison
 one aircraft – two aircraft

(*Note that fish can also be pluralized as fishes. However, it is more common for
this “-es” form to be used in reference to more than one kind of fish, as opposed
to multiple fish in general.)

Uncountable nouns
Although similar in nature to the above nouns, uncountable nouns refer to things
that cannot be divided into individual units, and that therefore cannot be made
plural at all.

For example:

 rice
 butter
 milk
 advice
 news

To quantify them, we need to use a unit of measure, such as one pound of rice, a
bottle of milk, a piece of advice, etc.

55
The rules surrounding these can be quite complex, so see the section
on Uncountable Nouns to learn more.

Words from Latin or Greek

There are also nouns taken from Latin or Greek that maintain their original forms
in the plural. However, as we’ll see, some of these words have begun shifting
towards more conventional plural forms, in addition to their original spellings.

For example:

 index – indices (indexes is now also acceptable)

 appendix – appendices (appendixes is now also acceptable)
 fungus – fungi
 criterion – criteria
 nucleus – nuclei
 syllabus – syllabi
 focus – foci
 cactus – cacti (cactuses is now also acceptable)
 thesis – theses
 crisis – crises
 phenomenon – phenomena

Non-Existent Plural Adjectives

In many languages, especially languages deriving from Latin, adjectives become
plural when they are used to describe plural nouns. However, in English, adjectives
are never made plural.

For example:

 “Two blue pens.” (correct)

 “Two blues pens.” (incorrect)

 “Roses are red.” (correct)

 “Roses are reds.” (incorrect)

 “Several 10-year-old boys.” (correct)

 “Several 10-years-old boys.” (incorrect)
 “Several 10-year-olds boys.” (incorrect)

As you can see, it is always the noun that is pluralized, and never the adjective.

56
==================================================================

https://www.thefreedictionary.com/
Nouns 12
What is a Noun?

The simplest definition of a noun is a thing and nouns are the basic building blocks
of sentences. These things can represent a person, animal, place, idea, emotion –
almost anything that you can think of. Dog, Sam, we, love, phone, Chicago,
courage and spaceship are all nouns. The more nouns you know in a language, the
better you will be able to communicate your ideas. Here, we’ll take a closer look at
what makes a noun a noun, and we’ll provide some examples of how nouns are
used.

Noun examples: respect, faith, apple, seashore, peanut, motorcycle

Noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

The boy and girl were holding hands as they crossed the bridge to on the way to
town.

I love watching my cat play with the pink yarn.

It is raining! Everyone, grab your umbrella and rain hat and watch out for the
puddles!

Categories of Nouns

There are several categories of nouns, and there can be an overlap across the
categories. For example, there are common and proper nouns, and concrete and
abstract nouns, yet some nouns are both concrete and common, or concrete and
proper. It will become clear as you read on.

Common nouns are the words that refer to most general things: country, evening,
laughter, puppy, umbrella

Common noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

57
Tina loves the weekends in the country.

We enjoy swimming after breakfast.

The cup fell and broke.

Proper nouns

Proper nouns are the name that identifies someone or something, a person or a
place. Proper nouns are capitalized. John is a proper noun, since the word John
represents a particular, single example of a thing, John.

Proper noun examples: Mary, Jimmy, Aunt Audrey, Honda, Philadelphia

Proper noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

Alka loved spending time with her Aunt Seema in Paris.

Maruti and Jeep are two important carmakers.

We visited Lake Erie, which separates the United States and Canada.

Concrete nouns

Concrete nouns represent a thing that is real and tangible: pig, person, rock, smell,
air, soup, Larry are all concrete nouns.

Concrete noun examples: cup, computer, diamond, rollercoaster, shampoo, Debby

Concrete noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

The person threw the rock across the yard.

My dog, Stormy, jumped in the air and caught the ball!

Can you smell the soup, David?

Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun represents a thing that is more like a concept or idea: love,
integrity, democracy, friendship, beauty, knowledge are examples of abstract
nouns.

58
Abstract noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

Love and friendship are equally important.

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Your mind can know a million things.

Nouns can also be categorized as countable or uncountable.

Countable Nouns

A countable noun is a thing can be numbered or counted: airplane, sock, bowl,

noodle, teacher, as in two airplanes, three socks, 1000 noodles.

Countable noun examples: peach, horse, shirt, telescope

Countable noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

There are five dogs in the street.

I bought three tons of coal.

Vidisha has six pairs of blue sandals.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns can have a quantity or amount but cannot be actually

counted: water, music, clothes, understanding. In the second example above, tons
is a countable noun, but coal is not. Coal is referred to as an uncountable noun.

Uncountable noun examples: hate, confidence, attractiveness, wisdom

Uncountable noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

Love is in the air.

The four elements are air, earth, fire and water.

Her humor knows no bounds.

59
Collective Nouns

Collective nouns refer to a group of people or things: audience, team, bunch,

family, class. When speaking of collective nouns, Americans consider them as
singular, using singular verbs with them, such as the group dances happily. When
speaking British English, both singular verbs and plural verbs might be used, as in
the group dance crazily before the Queen.

Collective noun examples: government, jury, team, bunch, school, class, and room
(the people in the room or building)

Collective noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.

The team threw confetti when it was over.

Shailesh buys the band some sandwiches.

Meena told the class she was getting married.

As mentioned above, when we talk of categories of nouns, some nouns can be

described as being in more than one category. Some nouns are concrete and
countable, for example, such as raindrops and wedding rings, while some are
proper and uncountable, such as the Atlantic Ocean and Alaska.

Forms of Nouns

The same noun can appear in different forms, depending on how it is used.

A countable noun can be singular or plural. Most nouns in English form the plural
by adding -s or -es to the noun, although there are some exceptions:

One dog, two dogs, red dog, blue dog.

I missed not just one bus today, but two buses.

New York City is one of the grandest cities in the world.

Uncountable nouns and proper nouns are always considered to be singular:

The air in the countryside and in the city is clean and fresh (not the airs).

All knowledge is a good thing (not knowledges).

60
Florida has mostly warm weather in the winter.

Nouns can also indicate ownership. This form of a noun is called a possessive
noun, and is indicated by an apostrophe and the letter –s. It is equivalent to using
the word of and the noun.

The light’s color is red. (or: The color of the light is red.)

The country’s flag has blue stripes. (or: The flag of the country has blue stripes.)

The hunters’ guns were loaded. (or: The guns of the hunters were loaded.)

Note that when the noun already ends with -s, possession is indicated by adding
only an apostrophe – hunters’ guns, not hunters’s guns.

A noun can be used as the subject of a sentence, or in another capacity as an

object:

John is nice. – John is the subject of the sentence

I saw John – John is the simple (direct) object of the sentence.

I gave John the phone. – John is the indirect object of the sentence.

I gave the phone to John. – John is the object of the preposition to.

Additional Info about Nouns

Sometimes nouns are used as adjectives, which is referred to as a noun adjunct. In

fact, English is amazingly flexible in that almost any noun can also be used as an
adjective, though sometimes the use is considered comical or slangy:

Ocean view – Ocean describes the type of view you would see outside your
window.

Jazz concert – Jazz is specifying what kind of concert is being played.

Cheese omelet – It’s a certain type of omelet, eggs with cheese. Using a true
adjective as in a cheesy omelet means any type of omelet (onion and peppers,
mushroom) that has a lot of cheese.

Dog tired – Really tired – even though dogs aren’t known to be especially tired.

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Fear Factor – An example of using just any old word as a noun adjunct.

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Proper Nouns 13
What is a Proper Noun?

Proper nouns have two distinct features: They name specific one-of-a-kind items,
and they begin with capital letters, no matter where they occur within a sentence.
Here, we’ll take a closer look at proper nouns, provide proper noun examples, and
help you learn how to use a proper noun the right way.

Remember that all nouns are words naming people, animals, places, things, and
ideas. Every noun can be further classified as either common or proper. The
distinction is very easy to make once you see some examples and come up with a
few of your own.

Proper Noun Examples

In the following sentences, proper noun examples are compared with common
nouns. Notice that the proper nouns are specific and unique, while the common
nouns are much more general in nature.

Common noun: I want to be a writer.

Proper noun: Agatha Christie wrote many books.

Common noun: I’d like to adopt a cat.

Proper noun: Cleopatra is the cutest kitten ever.

Common noun: Would you like a cookie?

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Proper noun: I’m craving Oreos.

Common noun: Let’s go to the city.

Proper noun: Let’s go to San Francisco.

Common noun: My teacher starts work before sunup.

Proper noun: Mr. Ramanuj seems to understand what students need.

Common noun: I think that’s a planet, not a star.

Proper noun: I can see Jupiter tonight.

Common noun: He’s always hanging out with his girlfriend.

Proper noun: He never goes anywhere without Alka.

Common noun: There are a lot of important documents in the archives.

Proper noun: There are many important documents at The Library of Congress.

How to Use Proper Nouns

It’s easy to use proper nouns, once you know what they are. Simply place them in
your sentences as you would common nouns, ensuring that you capitalize them.
Here are some examples to help you get started.

Bina had hoped for an easy teacher for his algebra class, but she got Ms. Joshi,
whose unreasonable demands and short temper made the semester unbearable.

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→ Teacher is a common noun. Ms. Joshi is a proper noun.

Trupti had a craving, and not just any cookie would do. She went to the store and
bought a box of Oreos.

→ Cookie is a common noun. Oreos is a proper noun.

We wanted to try a new restaurant, so we went to Taste of Thai.

→ Restaurant is a common noun. Taste of Thai is a proper noun.

Proper Noun Examples

Identify the proper noun in each sentence:

1. The boy threw the ball to his dog, William.

2. I’d like you to meet my friend Miral.

3. We’ll be vacationing in Goa this year.

4. My second grade teacher was Mrs. Dave, an old battle-axe.

5. We went to Smith’s Furniture and bought a new couch to replace our old one.

6. Do you think the Dolphins will win the game?

7. I’m flying first-class on Emirate Airlines.

8. Thomas Jefferson was a president and philosopher.

9. My best friend moved to Australia to study.

10. When the Titanic sank, the captain went down with the ship.

Answers: 1 – William, 2 – Miral, 3 – Goa, 4 – Mrs. Dave, 5 – Smith’s Furniture, 6 –

Dolphins, 7 – Emirate Airlines, 8 – Thomas Jefferson, 9 – Australia, 10 – Titanic

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 Types of Nouns 14
There are several different types of nouns used to name people, animals, places,
things, and ideas. Here, we’ll take a quick look at various types of nouns so you
can recognize them when you see them and use them appropriately in sentences.

Types of Nouns in English

Nouns are among the most important words in the English language – without
them, we’d have a difficult time speaking and writing about anything. This guide to
noun types is intended as a basic overview. Every type of noun comes with its own
rules, so be sure to read more in our pages about specific types of nouns.

Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are those referring to ideas, concepts, emotions, and other
“things” you can’t physically interact with. You can’t see, taste, touch, smell, or
hear something named with an abstract noun. Some abstract noun examples are
included in the following sentences.

Success seems to come easily to certain people.

His hatred of people smoking indoors is legendary.

Shailesh has an incredible love for nature.

This is of great importance.

He received an award for his bravery.

Collective Nouns

When talking about types of noun, it’s important to remember collective nouns. A
collective noun is a word that refers to a group. It can be either singular or plural,
but is usually used in the singular. Some collective noun examples are included in
the following sentences.

Our team is enjoying an unbroken winning streak.

There’s a pack of hyenas outside.

Watch out for that swarm of bees.

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You haven’t lived until you’ve seen a herd of wild horses.

Our class graduates two years from now.

Common Nouns

Common nouns are used to refer to general things rather than specific examples.
Common nouns are not normally capitalized unless they are used as part of a
proper name or are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Some common noun
examples are included in the following sentences.

Be sure to pick a top university.

Stack those boxes carefully.

Would you like a cookie with your coffee?

People are strange.

My dog won’t stop barking.

Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns are words used for actual things you can touch, see, taste, feel,
and hear – things you interact with every day. Notice that concrete nouns can also
be countable, uncountable, common, proper, and collective nouns. Some concrete
noun examples are included in the following sentences.

Please remember to buy oranges.

Have a seat in that chair.

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Countable and Uncountable Nouns 15

In English grammar, countable nouns are individual people, animals, places,
things, or ideas which can be counted. Uncountable nouns are not individual
objects, so they cannot be counted. Here, we’ll take a look at countable and
uncountable nouns and provide both countable noun examples and uncountable
noun examples. Although the concept may seem challenging, you’ll soon discover
that these two different noun types are very easy to use.

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Countable Noun Examples

Anything that can be counted, whether singular – a dog, a house, a friend, etc. or
plural – a few books, lots of oranges, etc. is a countable noun. The following
countable noun examples will help you to see the difference between countable
and uncountable nouns. Notice that singular verbs are used with singular
countable nouns, while plural verbs are used with plural countable nouns.

There are at least twenty Italian restaurants in Little Italy.

Miraltook a lot of photographs when he went to the Grand Canyon.

Your book is on the kitchen table.

How many candles are on that birthday cake?

You have several paintings to study in art appreciation class.

There’s a big brown dog running around the neighborhood.

Uncountable Noun Examples

Anything that cannot be counted is an uncountable noun. Even though

uncountable nouns are not individual objects, they are always singular and one
must always use singular verbs in conjunction with uncountable nouns. The
following uncountable noun examples will help you to gain even more
understanding of how countable and uncountable nouns differ from one another.
Notice that singular verbs are always used with uncountable nouns.

There is no more water in the pond.

Please help yourself to some cheese.

I need to find information about Pulitzer Prize winners.

You seem to have a high level of intelligence.

Please take good care of your equipment.

Let’s get rid of the garbage.

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Uncountable nouns can be paired with words expressing plural concept. Using
these words can make your writing more specific. Here are some examples of how
to format interesting sentences with uncountable nouns.

• Garbage – There are nine bags of garbage on the curb.

• Water – Try to drink at least eight glasses of water each day.

• Advice – Alka gave me a useful piece of advice.

• Bread – Please buy a loaf of bread.

• Furniture – A couch is a piece of furniture.

• Equipment – A backhoe is an expensive piece of equipment.

• Cheese – Please bag ten slices of cheese for me.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns Exercises

Is the underlined noun countable or uncountable?

1. The children fell asleep quickly after a busy day of fun.

2. Be careful! The water is deep.

3. The parade included fire trucks and police cars.

4. We like the large bottles of mineral water.

5. My mother uses real butter in the cakes she bakes.

6. How many politicians does it take to pass a simple law?

7. Most kids like milk, but Mary hates it.

8. Most pottery is made of clay.

9. Tina can play several different musical instruments.

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10. I was feeling so stressed that I ate an entire box of cookies.

Answers: 1 – countable, 2 – uncountable, 3 – countable, 4 – countable, 5 –

uncountable, 6 – countable, 7 – uncountable, 8 – uncountable, 9 – countable, 10 –
countable

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Gerund Phrase 16
What is a gerund phrase?

Though the term might sound a bit intimidating, it really is simple. Here, we’ll take
a close look at gerund phrases and provide several examples so you can easily
recognize them and use them to create interesting sentences.

Decoding the Gerund Phrase

Time for a quick refresher: A gerund is a noun formed with a verb ending in ing.
Words like swimming, tying, dreaming, eating, fishing, and drinking can all be used
as gerunds.

Now that we’ve refreshed your memory, let’s take a look at the gerund phrase. A
gerund phrase always follows these rules:

Gerund phrases always start with gerunds.

Gerund phrases always include modifiers and often include other objects.

A gerund phrase always functions as a noun.

Gerund phrases are always subjects, objects, or subject complements in

sentences.

Gerund Phrase Examples

In the following gerund phrase examples, the gerund is highlighted in bold and the
entire gerund phrase is underlined. A brief explanation of the function of the
gerund phrase follows each example.

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Blowing bubbles on a windy day is a fun activity for children.

Blowing bubbles on a windy day is the subject of the verb is.

Piling too much laundry into a washing machine will cause it to malfunction.

Piling too much laundry into a washing machine is the subject of the verb will
cause.

Shailesh narrowly avoided driving off the cliff.

Driving off the cliff is the direct object of the verb avoided.

Eating ice cream on a hot day can be a good way to cool off.

Eating ice cream on a hot day is the subject of the verb can be.

Jessica really enjoys bothering the neighbors with loud music.

Bothering the neighbors with loud music is the direct object of the verb enjoys.

Gerund Phrase Exercises

Identify the gerund phrase in each of the following sentences:

Eating strawberries without washing them might make you sick.

A – might make you sick, B – eating strawberries C – Eating strawberries without

washing them

They were painting their house when it started to rain.

A – painting their house, B – they were painting, C – when it started to rain

I’ve been thinking about going shopping on Saturday.

A – I’ve been thinking, B – about going shopping, C- going shopping on Saturday

Alka is always baking something in the kitchen.

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A – baking something, B – Baking something in the kitchen, C – Alkais always
baking something

Thanks for taking off your shoes before coming in the house.

A – taking off your shoes, B – coming in the house, C- Both A and B

Tina is playing the violin with the bow Shailesh bought her when they went to
Italy.

A – playing the violin, B – playing the violin with the bow Shailesh bought her, C –
Tina is playing the violin

The kids were excited about eating birthday cake.

A – the kids were excited, B – about eating, C – eating birthday cake

He was taking a picture when lightning struck.

A – he was taking a picture, B – lightning struck, C – taking a picture

Please stop texting; you’re going to cause an accident.

A – you’regoing to cause, B – please stop texting, C – going to cause an accident

Answer Key: 1: C, 2: A, 3: C, 4: B, 5: C, 6: B, 7: C, 8: C, 9: C

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Common Noun 17
At some point, everyone has the same question: What is a common noun? Here,
we’ll take a look at common nouns and provide some common noun examples so
you can easily recognize common nouns when you see them. Don’t worry, this will
be painless.

What is a Common Noun?

A noun is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, or idea. All nouns can
be further classified as proper or common. Common nouns are words used to
name general items rather than specific ones. Go into your living room. What do

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you see? Lamp, chair, couch, TV, window, painting, pillow, candle – all of these
items are named using common nouns.

Common nouns are everywhere, and you use them all the time, even if you don’t
realize it. Wherever you go, you’ll find at least one common noun. Street, closet,
bathroom, school, mall, gas station; all of these places are named using common
nouns.

People in general are named using common nouns, though their official titles or
given names are proper nouns. When we refer to people using common nouns,
we use words like teacher, clerk, police officer, preacher, delivery driver,
boyfriend, girlfriend, grandma, cousin, and barista.

The takeaway is this: common nouns are general names and unless they are part
of a title like Postmaster General or begin a sentence, they’re not usually
capitalized.

Common Noun Examples

The following common noun examples will help you to recognize common nouns.
In the sentences that follow, common noun examples are italicized. Notice that
the examples providing proper nouns name specific versions of the same type of
person, animal, place, thing, or idea.

Common Noun: You broke my favorite mug.Proper Noun: I can’t believe you broke
my Snoopy mug.

Common Noun: I really want a new pair of jeans.Proper Noun: I really want to buy
a new pair of Levis.

Common Noun: I wish I could remember the name of that painter.Proper Noun: I
really love art by Van Gogh.

Common Noun: They’re all waiting for us at the restaurant.Proper Noun: Everyone
else is at Bill’s Burgers.

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Common Noun: I really want to live in a big city someday.Proper Noun: Of all the
places I’ve lived, Denver was best.

Common Noun: Let’s go to watch a live game at the stadium.Proper Noun: Let’s
try to get good seats at Wrigley Field.

Common Noun Exercises

Choose the common noun or the phrase containing the common noun to fill in
each blank.

1. I’d really like some ____________ after lunch.

A. Entenmann’s chocolate cake

B. Vanilla pudding with coconut

C. Marie Callender’s peach pie

D. Breyer’s ice cream

2. I received ______________ from my grandmother today.

A. A copy of War and Peace

B. A photo of Abraham Lincoln

C. A handmade sweater

D. A pack of Trident gum

3. Please call ____________.

A. Jennifer

B. The police

C. Aunt Sally

D. Smith’s department store

4. _______________ brought our drinks promptly.

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A. Simon

B. Rinaldi

C. The waiter

D. A flight attendant named Sarah

5. I heard that ________________ is going to San Francisco in May.

A. My cousin

B. Bernard

C. Wilson

D. The whole Nuggets baseball team

Answer Key:

B – I’d really like some vanilla pudding with coconut after lunch.

C – I received a handmade sweater from my grandmother today.

B – Please call the police.

C – The waiter brought our drinks promptly.

A – I heard that my cousin is going to San Francisco in May.

More Common Noun Exercises

Identify the common noun in each sentence:

1. Tina finally got her degree.

A – Tina, B –her, C – degree

2. Alka and her brother are going to Disneyland next month.

A – Alka, B – brother, C – Disneyland

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3. I told Prakash that I prefer vegetarian food.

A – told, B – Prakash, C – food

4. Shailesh went to the park with his friend Preety.

A – Shailesh, B – park, C – Preety

Answer Key: 1: C, 2: B, 3: C, 4: B

Is the highlighted noun a common noun or a proper noun?

1. Kevin loves to eat at the restaurant on the corner.

2. I went to the dentist for a root canal.

3. We’re going to have pizza for dinner.

4. His favorite car is a Porsche.

Answer Key: 1: Proper noun, 2: Common noun, 3: Common noun, 4: Proper noun

Identify the common noun in each sentence:

1. This calendar covers January through December.

A – calendar, B – January, C – December

2. John named his boat the Simran.

A – John, B – boat, C – Simran

3. North America and Asia are continents.

A – North America, B – Asia, C – continents

4. This book was co-written by doctors Smith and Klein.

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A – book, B – Smith, C – Klein

5. Nick and Terry got into a fight with Dennis.

A – Nick and Terry, B – fight, C – Dennis

Answer Key: 1: A, 2: B, 3: C, 4: A, 5: B

Fill in the blank with the common noun that fits best:

1. I’m going to see the _____________ about my tooth.

A – Dr. Ling, B – dentist, C – cardiologist

2. The ________________ sank during the storm.

A – Karen II, B – bridge, C – sailboat

3. Of all animals, _____________ are my favorite.

A – dog, B – dogs, C – pretzels 4

4. The ___________ were named Nick and Jerry.

A – kitchen, B – library, C – spa

5. The __________________ is full of books, including classics by everyone from

Shakespeare to Tolkien.

A – Nick and Terry, B – fight, C – Dennis

Answer Key: 1: B, 2: C, 3: B, 4: A, 5: B

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Plural Nouns 18
Plural nouns are words used to indicate that there is more than one person,
animal, place, thing, or idea. The difference between singular and plural nouns is
simple once you know what to look for. Here, we take a look at singular and plural

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nouns, providing both singular nouns examples and plural noun examples to help
you recognize plural nouns when you see them.

What is a Plural Noun?

The answer is a relatively easy one, as grammar goes. A plural noun is a word that
indicates that there is more than one person, animal place, thing, or idea. When
you talk about more than one of anything, you’re using plural nouns. When you
write about more than one of anything, you usually use the same word, simply
adding an s, es, or ies to the end. There are a few exceptions to this rule, but not
many – one of the best is that a single moose is a moose, and a group of moose
are still moose.

Singular and Plural Nouns

The difference between singular and plural nouns is easy to spot. When a noun
indicates one only, it is a singular noun. When a noun indicates more than one, it
is plural.

Singular Noun Examples

The following sentences contain singular nouns examples.

The boy had a baseball in his hand.

My horse prefers to wear an English saddle.

That cat never seems to tire of jumping in and out of the box.

You stole my idea and didn’t give me any credit.

Your mom is going to be upset about that broken lamp.

It’s not difficult to grow a tree as long as you give it plenty of water.

I can’t believe you let your dog stick his head out the window while you drive.

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Plural Noun Examples

The following sentences contain plural noun examples.

The boys were throwing baseballs back and forth between bases.

Our horses are much happier wearing lightweight English saddles.

Those cats never seem to tire of chasing one another in and out of those boxes.

You stole my ideas and didn’t give me any credit.

Our moms are going to be upset that we stayed out all night going to parties.

It’s not too difficult to grow trees as long as you provide them with plenty of
water.

I can’t believe you allow your dogs to climb all over the seats while you are driving.

Singular – Plural Nouns Exercises

Transform each of the following words into plurals:

Day, Tax, Taxi, Lady, Mountain

Answers 1-5:

Days, Taxes, Taxis, Ladies, Mountains

Choose the correct plural for each of the words that follows:

Choice

a. Choices b. Choices c. Choiceies

Box

a.Boxs b. Boxies c. Boxes

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Thief

a.Thiefies a. Thiefs c. Thieves

Army

a.Armys b. Armies c. Army

Owl

a.Owls b. Owlies c. Owelds

Answers:

–a–c–c–b–a

Choose the best word to fit into each of the following sentences:

The men sharpened their _____________ before throwing them at the targets.

A – knife B – knifes C – knives

Please eat the rest of your _____________.

A – pease B – Peas C – Peies

I’d like you to stop leaving your ________________ on the floor.

A – Socks B – Sockses C – Sox

We saw a lot of _________________ at the park.

A – Deers B – Deeries C – Deer

This recipe calls for a lot of _____________.

A – Tomatos B – Tomatoes C – Tomaties

Answers:

–C–B–A–C–B

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 Gerunds 19
What are gerunds?

Although the term might sound foreign, the gerund is a common part of speech
that most of us use every day, whether we know it or not. Here, we’ll take an in-
depth look at gerunds and provide you with several examples of gerunds so you’ll
feel comfortable using them in your writing, and so that you will be able to
recognize them when you see them.

Gerunds: The Basics

Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. They’re very easy
to spot, since every gerund is a verb with ing tacked to its tail. There are no
exceptions to this rule.

Like all things grammar, gerunds do take a tiny bit of detective work to spot. The
problem here is that present participles also end with the letters ing. Besides
being able to spot gerunds, you should be able to tell the difference between a
gerund and a present participle.

Let’s go back to the definition of a gerund for a moment. Remember that gerunds
are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. Present participles do not
act as nouns. Instead, they act as modifiers or complete progressive verbs. To find
gerunds in sentences, just look for a verb + ing that is used as a noun. It’s that
simple.

Examples of Gerunds

As you read these examples of gerunds, notice the verbs they contain, and notice
that every single one of them ends in ing. By the end of this quick lesson, you’ll
have no problem recognizing gerunds when you see them.

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Swimming in the ocean has been Tina’s passion since she was five years old.

Let’s go dancing at the club tonight.

I delayed telling Jignesh the bad news.

Mary decided that flying above the clouds was the most incredible experience
she’d ever had.

Shailesh avoided doing his math assignment because the World Series was on.

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Compound Nouns 20
What are compound nouns? Here, we’ll take an up-close look at compound nouns
so you can recognize them when you see them, plus we’ll provide you with some
compound noun examples that will help you use them effectively.

What is a Compound Noun?

Compound nouns are words for people, animals, places, things, or ideas, made up
of two or more words. Most compound nouns are made with nouns that have
been modified by adjectives or other nouns.

In many compound nouns, the first word describes or modifies the second word,
giving us insight into what kind of thing an item is, or providing us with clues about
the item’s purpose. The second word usually identifies the item.

Compound nouns are sometimes one word, like toothpaste, haircut, or bedroom.
These are often referred to as closed or solid compound nouns.

Sometimes compound nouns are connected with a hyphen: dry-cleaning,

daughter-in-law, and well-being are some examples of hyphenated compound
nouns.

Sometimes compound nouns appear as two separate words: full moon, Christmas
tree, and swimming pool are some examples of compound nouns that are formed

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with two separate words. These are often referred to as open or spaced
compound nouns.

Compound Noun Examples

The more you read and write, the more compound noun examples you’ll
encounter. The following sentences are just a few examples of compound nouns.
Compound noun examples have been italicized for easy identification.

Compound nouns can be made with two nouns:

Let’s just wait at this bus stop.

I love watching fireflies on warm summer nights.

While you’re at the store, please pick up some toothpaste, a six-pack of ginger ale,
and some egg rolls.

Compound nouns can be made with an adjective and a noun:

Let’s watch the full moon come up over the mountain.

Please erase the blackboard for me.

Compound nouns can be made with a verb and a noun:

Be sure to add bleach to the washing machine.

Let’s be sure to stay somewhere with a swimming pool.

Compound nouns can be made with a noun and a verb:

He always gets up before sunrise.

I really could use an updated hairstyle.

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 Collective Nouns 21
Collective nouns are names for a collection or a number of people or things.
Words like group, herd, and array are collective noun examples. Here, we’ll take a
closer look at collective nouns, and provide even more examples, placing them in
context so you can gain a greater understanding of how they work.

What is a Collective Noun

You might not know it, but you encounter collective nouns in everyday speech.
Collective nouns are words for single things that are made up of more than one
person, animal, place, thing, or idea. You can’t have a team without individual
members; even so, we discuss a team as a single entity.

Collective Noun Examples

Remember that nouns are words naming people, animals, places, and things.
Collective nouns are in a class all their own. Once you’ve read these examples,
you’ll find it much easier to recognize collective nouns when you see them.

1. Our class took a field trip to the natural history museum.

2. The herd of bison ran across the prairie, leaving a massive dust cloud in its
wake.

3. We waited anxiously for the jury to come to a verdict.

4. This year’s basketball team includes three players who are over six feet tall.

5. Napoleon’s army was finally defeated at Waterloo.

6. The town council has approved plans to create a new park.

7. He comes from a huge family: he’s the oldest of eleven kids.

8. The rock group has been on tour for months.

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9. Everyone in the audience applauded loudly when Vidisha appeared on stage.

List of Common Collective Nouns

This list of common collective nouns contains words that describe groups of
animals, people, or things. These words are sometimes interchangeable, and
English writers and speakers often use them to describe different things. For
example, the word swarm is usually used to discuss a group of insects such as ants,
flies or bees, but many writers use it to talk about a very busy crowd of people.
Once you are familiar with these words, you’ll notice that they are used in a
variety of situations.

Herd– A group of herbivore animals

Pack– A group of canine animals such as wolves or dogs; also used to describe
playing cards and packages containing multiple objects

Flock– A group of birds; also used to discuss small hooved animals such as sheep
or goats

Swarm– A group of insects

Shoal– A group of fish

Group – A very general term used to describe people, places, things, and animals

Crowd – Usually used to describe a group of people

Gang – Usually used to describe a group of criminals; also used to describe a group
of workers, particularly sailors or dock workers

Mob – Normally used to describe an angry or unruly group of people; also used to
describe a group of kangaroos

Staff – A group of people who work in the same place

Crew – Usually used to denote a group of workers; also used to describe aircraft
and ships personnel

Choir – A large, organized group of singers

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Orchestra – A large, organized group of instrumentalists, led by a conductor

Panel – A group of experts

Board – A group of people, usually professionals, who take on an advisory role

Troupe – A group of actors or acrobats; also used to describe a group of monkeys

Bunch – Usually a group of smallish objects such as grapes, flowers, keys, or

bananas

Pile – An untidy collection of items such as rubbish

Heap – A mounded collection of items; used interchangeably with “pile”

Set – A tidy group of matched objects such as dishes; also used to describe rules or
a social group of people

Stack – A group of items neatly laid one on top of another; i.e., a stack of books

Series – Used to discuss movies, books, or events that follow one after another,
i.e. Star Trek or Harry Potter

Shower – Usually used to describe rain, although it can be used to describe gifts or
compliments

Fall – Often used to discuss weather, such as rain, snow or hail

What happens if you can’t decide whether a collective noun is singular or plural?

You can use different words to compose your sentence to be sure there is no
agreement error. For example, you can insert the word “members” after a
collective noun or use a different word such as “players” instead of “team” or
“zebras” instead of “herd” or “students” instead of “class.” Reread what you have
written to be sure it sounds natural, and give yourself some time to practice. Soon
enough you’ll be able to use plural verbs without worrying whether you have
made mistakes.

How to Use Collective Nouns

85
People who are new to writing often encounter some trouble with sentence
agreement when using collective nouns. This is understandable, because a
collective noun can be singular or plural, depending on a sentence’s context. How
do you know if a collective noun is singular? How can you tell if it’s plural? What
pronouns and verbs are best for pairing with the collective noun you’ve chosen?

Here’s a simple trick you can use to decide how to use collective nouns in
sentences: Imagine a herd of zebras grazing peacefully on the savanna. Suddenly,
a lion jumps out of a clump of tall grass. What do the zebras do? They run away as
a single unit as they attempt to make a getaway, galloping across the savanna in
the same direction.

Often, people behave in the same way, engaging in a single activity in unison with
everyone else in their group. When individuals are in a team, a choir, a committee,
or part of any other collective noun, that noun is singular and is paired with
singular pronouns and singular verbs. As you read the examples that follow, notice
that each individual who is part of the collective noun is doing the same action at
the same time as others who are part of that collective noun.

Every morning, the herd follows its leader to the watering hole for a drink.

→ Herd is a singular collective noun. Follows is a singular verb, and the word its is
a singular pronoun. All the animals in the herd arrive at the watering hole at the
same time.

Today, Ms. Kennedy’s class takes its SOL test.

→ Class is a singular collective noun. Takes is a singular verb, and the word its is a
singular pronoun. All the students in Ms. Kennedy’s class are taking the same test
at the same time.

86
The committee agrees that people are misusing their cell phones, so its verdict is
that phones must not be used during working hours.

→ Committee is a singular collective noun. Agrees is a singular verb, and the word
its is a singular pronoun. All the members of the committee are thinking alike.

Now imagine three teenagers in the living room. Are they all doing the same thing
at once? Not likely! One is watching TV intently. Another is reading a book and
listening to music. The third has one eye on the TV and the other on his computer.
There is a single group of teenagers, but the members of the group are doing
different things.

Members of collective nouns can act the same way, as individuals doing their own
thing. When members of a collective noun act as individuals, that collective noun
is plural and must be paired with plural pronouns and plural verbs. As you read the
following examples, you’ll notice that members of the collective noun are not
functioning in unison.

After eight hours sitting in the stuffy courtroom, the jury stretch, look at their
watches, and head to their cars for the commute home.

→ Jury is a plural collective noun in this instance. Stretch, look, and head are plural
verbs, and their is a plural pronoun. The members of the jury are stretching and
looking at their individual watches before they head to different cars to go to their
own homes.

After taking a test, the class start their papers on Shakespeare’s sonnets.

→ Class is a plural collective noun in this instance. Start is a plural verb, and theiris
a plural pronoun. Although the students are in the same class, they are beginning
their own papers on different sonnets written by Shakespeare.

87
Collective Noun Exercises

Each of these sentences contains a collective noun. Select the correct answer from
the options that follow the sentence:

1. Keys, marbles, and rubber bands were just a few of the things in the pile of
objects in his drawer.

A – marbles, B – things, C – pile

2. The boys decided to join the navy after graduation.

A – boys, B – navy, C – graduation

3. After the performance, all the actors joined hands and bowed toward the
audience.

A – performance, B – actors, C – audience

4. The team celebrated heartily after scoring a winning goal.

A – team, B – winning, C – goal

5. Most of the students on the council are also on the honor roll.

A – students, B – council, C, – honor roll

6. The boat’s crew worked all night to stop the leak.

A – boat’s, B – crew, C – leak

7. The talent show featured several individual performers, along with three bands.

A – show, B – performers, C – bands

8. Our extended family includes great-grandparents and second cousins.

A – family, B – great-grandparents, C – cousins

9. All of the students are attending a school assembly on Friday.

A – students, B – school, C – assembly

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10. The senate will be voting on three education funding bills tomorrow.

A – senate, B – bills, C – tomorrow

11. The teachers and administrators held a meeting in the faculty office.

A – teachers, B – administrators, C – faculty

12. The sheep clustered in a tight flock to ward off the cold weather.

A – sheep, B – flock, C – weather

Answer key: 1 – C, 2 – B, 3 – C, 4 – A, 5 – B, 6 – B, 7 – C, 8 – A, 9 – C, 10 – A, 11 – C,
12 –B

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Abstract Nouns 22
What are abstract nouns? You probably can recall that nouns are words that name
people, animals, places, things, and ideas. Here, we’ll define abstract nouns,
provide abstract noun examples, and give you the information you need for using
an abstract noun to write interesting sentences.

What are Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are words that name things that are not concrete. Your five
physical senses cannot detect an abstract noun – you can’t see it, smell it, taste it,
hear it, or touch it. In essence, an abstract noun is a quality, a concept, an idea, or
maybe even an event.

Abstract nouns and concrete nouns are usually defined in terms of one another.
Something that is abstract exists only in the mind, while something that is
concrete can be interacted with in a physical way. Qualities, relationships,
theories, conditions, and states of being are some examples of the types of things
abstract nouns define.

89
Types of Abstract Nouns

It’s not always easy to determine if a noun is abstract or concrete. Many grammar
experts argue over whether certain terms, making things even worse. The line
separating abstract nouns from concrete nouns is often quite blurry. For example,
many abstract noun lists include the word laughter, but others leave it out, as it’s
something that can be heard, seen, and physically felt.

Abstract Noun Examples

The following lists contain different types of abstract nouns. Certain abstract
nouns, especially the ones describing feelings and emotions, easily fit into multiple
categories, as they can be used in different ways. Get to know them, and it’ll be
easier for you to spot an abstract noun when you see one.

Feelings States Emotions Qualities Concepts Ideas Events

Anxiety Being Anger Beauty Charity Beliefs Adventure

Confusion Chaos Despair Beauty Comfort Communication Birthday

Fear Freedom Happiness Brilliance Culture Curiosity Career

Pain Liberty Hate Courage Deceit Democracy Childhood

Pleasure Luxury Indifference Dedication Energy Friendship Death

Satisfaction Misery Joy Determination Failure Interest Future

Sensitivity Nervousness Grief Generosity Faith Knowledge Holiday

Stress Openness Love Honesty MotivationThought Life

Sympathy Peace Sadness Patience Opportunity Sacrifice Marriage

Warmth Pessimism Sorrow Trust Perseverance Wisdom Past

More Examples

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Although you may not realize it, you experience abstract nouns every day and in
many different types of situations. Once you’ve read these abstract noun
examples, you’ll probably find it very easy to come up with some abstract nouns of
your own.

• Love, fear, anger, joy, excitement, and other emotions are abstract nouns.

• Courage, bravery, cowardice, and other such states are abstract nouns.

• Desire, creativity, uncertainty, and other innate feelings are abstract nouns.

These are just a few examples of non-concrete words that are sensed. The
following sentences contain abstract noun examples which have been italicized for
easy identification. Notice that although the ideas expressed are real, they are
things you can’t see, touch, taste, smell, or hear.

• I want to see justice served.

• I’d like the freedom to travel all over the world.

• John felt a nagging sense of doom.

• Love is a kind of irresistible desire; it’s hard to define.

• When Alka jumped into the lake to rescue a drowning cat, her bravery
astonished onlookers.

Abstract Nouns Exercises

Many abstract nouns are formed from adjectives, though some are formed from
verbs or nouns. You’ll find one of these words in parenthesis at the end of each
sentence. Use it to form an abstract noun to fill in the blank.

91
1. _______________ is something almost everyone appreciates. (kind)

2. The wrestlers exhibited immense ___________________. (strong)

3. As the sun dipped below the horizon, _______________ came over the city.
(dark)

4. It is my _______________ to welcome the mayor. (please)

5. Our ________________ will last forever. (friend)

Answer Key: 1 – Peace 2 – Pilgrimage 3 – Scarcity 4 – Power 5 – Tact

===================================================================

Gerunds and Infinitives 23

What’s the difference between gerunds and infinitives? Here, we take a closer
look at how these elements differ from one another. Gerund and infinitive rules
are reviewed, so you can recognize both and use them effectively.

Gerund and Infinitive: What’s the Difference?

Knowing the difference between gerund and infinitive can save you from making
costly grammar mistakes when writing. In a nutshell, a word formed from a verb
acting as a noun and ending in ing is a gerund. Infinitive phrases – normally
referred to as infinitives – are formed with the word to in front of a verb. Both
gerunds and infinitives can be subjects in sentences, and both gerunds and
infinitives can serve as the object of a verb.

Now that you know how these two elements can work in similar ways, it’s time to
note an important difference in the gerund/infinitive equation: A gerund can be
the object of a preposition; an infinitive cannot.

Gerund & Infinitive Examples

92
Examples of gerunds

Gerunds are formed with the letters “ing”. For example:

• Thinking

• Acting

• Walking

• Talking

• Fishing

• Caring

• Writing

• Listening

Examples of infinitives

Infinitives are prefaced with the word “to”. For example:

• To think

• To act

• To walk

• To talk

• To fish

• To care

• To write

• To listen

93
Both Gerunds and Infinitives can act as the subject of a sentence:

Thinking is something that comes naturally.

To think is something that comes naturally.

You can use a gerund or an infinitive as the object of a verb:

I like fishing.

I like to fish.

Only a gerund can be the object of a preposition. An infinitive cannot:

We are thinking about walking in the woods.

Gerund & Infinitive Usage

At first glance, it may seem difficult to know when to use an infinitive and when to
use a gerund. You will find the following guidelines for gerund/infinitive usage
helpful.

Gerunds

Gerunds are best for use in sentences about actions that are real or complete, or
that have been completed.

• I stopped worrying about the future.

In this example, the worrying was real and it happened until I stopped.

• We really enjoy climbing mountains.

94
In this example, the climbing is real and it’s something we like to do.

Infinitives

Infinitives are best for use in sentences about actions that are unreal or abstract,
or that will occur in the future.

• I’d like you to think about something.

In this example, I’m asking you to think about something, but the thinking hasn’t
happened yet.

• Can we take a walk without you stopping to smoke?

In this example, we’re talking about taking a walk and the smoking hasn’t
happened yet.

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Types of noun 24
There are several different types of noun, as follows:

Common noun

A common noun is a noun that refers to people or things in general, e.g. boy,
country, bridge, city, birth, day, happiness.

Proper noun

A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place, or thing, e.g.
Steven, Africa, London, Monday. In written English, proper nouns begin with
capital letters.

95
Concrete noun

A concrete noun is a noun which refers to people and to things that exist
physically and can be seen, touched, smelled, heard, or tasted. Examples include
dog, building, coffee, tree, rain, beach, tune.

Abstract noun

An abstract noun is a noun which refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions - things
that cannot be seen or touched and things which have no physical reality, e.g.
truth, danger, happiness, time, friendship, humour.

Collective nouns

Collective nouns refer to groups of people or things, e.g. audience, family,

government, team, jury. In American English, most collective nouns are treated as
singular, with a singular verb:

The whole family was at the table.

In British English, the preceding sentence would be correct, but it would also be
correct to treat the collective noun as a plural, with a plural verb:

The whole family were at the table.

For more information about this, see matching verbs to collective nouns.

A noun may belong to more than one category. For example, happiness is both a
common noun and an abstract noun, while Mount Everest is both a concrete noun
and a proper noun.

Count and mass nouns

Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns (or count nouns)
are those that refer to something that can be counted. Uncountable nouns (or
mass nouns) do not typically refer to things that can be counted and so they do
not regularly have a plural form.

===================================================================

96
 Countable and uncountable nouns 25
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns (or count nouns)
are those that refer to something that can be counted. They have both singular
and plural forms (e.g. cat/cats; woman/women; country/countries). In the
singular, they can be preceded by a or an. Most nouns come into this category.
A smaller number of nouns do not typically refer to things that can be counted and
so they do not regularly have a plural form: these are known as uncountable
nouns (or mass nouns). Examples include: rain, flour, earth, wine, or wood.
Uncountable nouns can't be preceded by aor an. Many abstract nouns are
typically uncountable, e.g. happiness, truth, darkness, humour.
Some uncountable nouns can be used in the plural as well, depending on the
meaning or context of the word. Take a look at these sentences:

uncountable because it's referring to the

Would you like some coffee?
drink in general

countable, because it's referring to a cup

He ordered a coffee.
of coffee

uncountable, because it refers to the

There's no truth in the rumours.
quality or state of being true

The fundamental truths about countable, because it's referring to facts or

human nature. beliefs that are true

In the Oxford Dictionary of English and the New Oxford American Dictionary,
nouns that are chiefly uncountable are described as ‘mass nouns’. This type of
noun entry may also include an example sentence showing a countable use of the
type described above. For example:
 beer noun [mass noun] an alcoholic drink made from yeast-fermented malt
flavoured with hops: a pint of beer | [count noun] he ordered a beer.
There are some words that should only be used with countable nouns and some
that you should only use with uncountable nouns. Here are the main examples:

word with countable with uncountable examples

97
 noun? noun?

fewer students; few

few, fewer ✓ ✗
cars

little, less,
✗ ✓ less food; little time
least

many, several books; many

✓ ✗
several changes

much pleasure; much

much ✗ ✓
sleep

You often hear people using less with countable nouns (e.g. ‘there are less
cars outside the school gates’). Although it's a common mistake, it is still a mistake
and you should try to avoid making it in formal writing or speaking.
Matching verbs to collective nouns
Collective nouns are nouns which stand for a group or collection of people or
things. They include words such
as audience, committee, police, crew, family, government, group, and team.
In American English, most collective nouns are treated as singular, with a singular
verb:
√ The whole family was at the table.
√ The government is doing a good job.
√ He prefers an audience that arrives without expectations.
In British English, most collective nouns can be treated as singular or plural:
The whole family was at the table.[singular collective noun; singular verb]
The whole family were at the table.[plural collective noun; plural verb]
The government is doing a good job.[singular collective noun; singular verb]
The government are doing a good job.[plural collective noun; plural verb]
There are a few collective nouns (in both British and American English) that
are always used with a plural verb, the most common of which
are police and people:
√ She's happy with the way the police have handled the case.

98
X She's happy with the way the police has handled the case.
√ It's been my experience that people are generally forgiving.
X It's been my experience that people is generally forgiving.
If you aren't sure whether to use a singular or a plural verb with a collective noun,
look it up. Most dictionaries will tell you which is correct.
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Noun 26
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Noun (disambiguation).

A noun (from Latin nōmen, literally meaning "name")[1] is a word that functions as
the name of some specific thing or set of things, such as living creatures, objects,
places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.[2][note 1] However, noun is not
a semantic category, so that it cannot be characterized in terms of its meaning.
Thus, actions and states of existence can also be expressed by verbs, qualities by
adjectives, and places by adverbs. Linguistically, a noun is a member of a
large, open part of speech whose members can occur as the main word in
the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.[3]
Lexical categories (parts of speech) are defined in terms of the ways in which their
members combine with other kinds of expressions. The syntactic rules for nouns
differ from language to language. In English, nouns are those words which can
occur with articles and attributive adjectives and can function as the head of
a noun phrase.

History
See also History of parts of speech

Word classes (parts of speech) were described by Sanskrit grammarians from at

least the 5th century BC. In Yāska's Nirukta, the noun (nāma) is one of the four
main categories of words defined.[4]
The Ancient Greek equivalent was ónoma (ὄνομα), referred to by Plato in
the Cratylus dialog, and later listed as one of the eight parts of speech in The Art of

99
Grammar, attributed to Dionysius Thrax (2nd century BC). The term used in Latin
grammar was nōmen. All of these terms for "noun" were also words meaning
"name".[5] The English word noun is derived from the Latin term, through
the Anglo-Norman noun.
The word classes were defined partly by the grammatical forms that they take. In
Sanskrit, Greek and Latin, for example, nouns are categorized by gender and
inflected for case and number. Because adjectives share these three grammatical
categories, adjectives are placed in the same class as nouns.
Similarly, the Latin nōmen includes both nouns (substantives) and adjectives, as
originally did the English word noun, the two types being distinguished as nouns
substantive and nouns adjective (or substantive nouns and adjective nouns, or
short substantives and adjectives). (The word nominal is now sometimes used to
denote a class that includes both nouns and adjectives.)
Many European languages use a cognate of the word substantive as the basic term
for noun (for example, Spanish sustantivo, "noun"). Nouns in the dictionaries of
such languages are demarked by the abbreviation s. or sb. instead of n., which
may be used for proper nouns or neuter nouns instead. In English, some modern
authors use the word substantive to refer to a class that includes both nouns
(single words) and noun phrases (multiword units, also called noun
equivalents).[6] It can also be used as a counterpart to attributive when
distinguishing between a noun being used as the head (main word) of a noun
phrase and a noun being used as a noun adjunct. For example, the noun knee can
be said to be used substantively in my knee hurts, but attributively in the patient
needed knee replacement.
Definitions
Nouns have sometimes been defined in terms of the grammatical categories to
which they are subject (classed by gender, inflected for case and number). Such
definitions tend to be language-specific, since nouns do not have the same
categories in all languages.
Nouns are frequently defined, particularly in informal contexts, in terms of
their semantic properties (their meanings). Nouns are described as words that
refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity, etc. However
this type of definition has been criticized by contemporary linguists as being
uninformative.[7]
There have been offered several examples of English-language nouns which do not
have any reference: drought, enjoyment, finesse, behalf (as found in on behalf

100
of), dint(in dint of), and sake (for the sake of). Moreover, there may be a
relationship similar to reference in the case of other parts of speech: the verbs to
rain or to mother; many adjectives, like red; and there is little difference between
the adverb gleefully and the noun-based phrase with glee.[note 2]
There are placeholder names, such as the legal fiction reasonable person (whose
existence is not in question), an experimental artifact, or personifications such
as gremlin.
Linguists often prefer to define nouns (and other lexical categories) in terms of
their formal properties. These include morphological information, such as
what prefixes or suffixes they take, and also their syntax – how they combine with
other words and expressions of particular types. Such definitions may nonetheless
still be language-specific since syntax as well as morphology varies between
languages. For example, in English, it might be noted that nouns are words that
can co-occur with definite articles (as stated at the start of this article), but this
would not apply in Russian, which has no definite articles.
There have been several attempts, sometimes controversial, to produce a stricter
definition of nouns on a semantic basis. Some of these are referenced in
the § Further reading section below.
Gender
Main article: Grammatical gender

In some languages, genders are assigned to nouns, such as masculine, feminine

and neuter. The gender of a noun (as well as its number and case, where
applicable) will often entail agreement in words that modify or are related to it.
For example, in French, the singular form of the definite article is le with masculine
nouns and la with feminines; adjectives and certain verb forms also change (with
the addition of -e with feminines). Grammatical gender often correlates with the
form of the noun and the inflection pattern it follows; for example, in
both Italian and Russian most nouns ending -a are feminine. Gender can also
correlate with the sex of the noun's referent, particularly in the case of nouns
denoting people (and sometimes animals). Nouns arguably do not have gender in
Modern English, although many of them denote people or animals of a specific sex
(or social gender), and pronouns that refer to nouns must take the appropriate
gender for that noun. (The girl lost her spectacles.)

101
Classification
Proper nouns and common nouns
Main article: Proper noun

A proper noun or proper name is a noun representing unique entities (such

as India, Pegasus, Jupiter, "Kaumaryasaurav", Confucius, or Pequod), as
distinguished from common nouns which describe a class of entities (such
as country, animal, planet, person or ship).[11]
Countable and uncountable nouns
Main articles: Count noun and Mass noun

Count nouns or countable nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can
combine with numerals or
counting quantifiers (e.g., one, two, several, every, most), and can take an
indefinite article such as a or an (in languages which have such articles). Examples
of count nouns are chair, nose, and occasion.
Mass nouns or uncountable (or non-count) nouns differ from count nouns in
precisely that respect: they cannot take plurals or combine with number words or
the above type of quantifiers. For example, it is not possible to refer to a
furniture or three furnitures. This is true even though the pieces of furniture
comprising furniture could be counted. Thus the distinction between mass and
count nouns should not be made in terms of what sorts of things the nouns refer
to, but rather in terms of how the nouns present these entities.[12][13]
Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses; for example, soda is
countable in "give me three sodas", but uncountable in "he likes soda".
Collective nouns[edit]
Main article: Collective noun

Collective nouns are nouns that – even when they are inflected for the singular –
refer to groups consisting of more than one individual or entity. Examples
include committee, government, and police. In English these nouns may be
followed by a singular or a plural verb and referred to by a singular or plural
pronoun, the singular being generally preferred when referring to the body as a
unit and the plural often being preferred, especially in British English, when
emphasizing the individual members.[14]Examples of acceptable and unacceptable
use given by Gowers in Plain Words include:[14]
"A committee was appointed to consider this subject." (singular)

102
"The committee were unable to agree." (plural)

* "The committee were of one mind when I sat on them." (unacceptable use of
plural)

Concrete nouns and abstract nouns[edit]

Further information: Physical body and Abstract object

Concrete nouns refer to physical entities that can, in principle at least (i.e. different
schools of philosophy and sciences may question the assumption, but, for the most
part, people agree to the existence of something. E.g. a rock, a tree, universe), be
observed by at least one of the senses (for
instance, chair, apple, Janet or atom). Abstract nouns, on the other hand, refer
to abstract objects; that is, ideas or concepts (such as justice or hatred). While this
distinction is sometimes exclusive, some nouns have multiple senses, including
both concrete and abstract ones: consider, for example, the noun art, which
usually refers to a concept (e.g., Art is an important element of human culture.)
but which can refer to a specific artwork in certain contexts (e.g., I put my
daughter's art up on the fridge.)
Some abstract nouns developed etymologically by figurative extension from literal
roots. These include drawback, fraction, holdout and uptake. Similarly, some
nouns have both abstract and concrete senses, with the latter having developed
by figurative extension from the former. These
include view, filter, structure and key.
In English, many abstract nouns are formed by adding a suffix (-ness, -ity, -ion) to
adjectives or verbs. Examples are happiness (from the
adjective happy), circulation (from the verb circulate) and serenity (from the
adjective serene).
Alienable vs. inalienable nouns[edit]
Some languages refer to nouns differently, depending on how ownership is being
given for the given noun. This can be broken into two categories: alienable
and inalienable. An alienable noun is something that does not belong to a person
indefinitely. Inalienable nouns, on the other hand, refer to something that is
possessed definitely. Examples of alienable nouns would be a tree or a shirt or
roads. Examples of inalienable nouns would be a father or shadow or hair.

103
Pingelapese[edit]
The Pingelapese language uses a distinction between nouns.[15] There are several
classifier forms: The first is for objects which tend to be pretty large in size and not
being a favourite possession (tree or shirt), and the second is for small,
controllable, favourite objects like dogs, books or spears. A third form would be
set aside for food objects like bananas, oranges or fish. Drinks like water or
coconut liquor also have classifier forms. A fifth classifier would be designated for
things that are to be chewed but not fully consumed. The only example of this was
from the book Papers in Kosraean and Ponapeic: the fruit, pandanus, is chewed for
the sweet/bitter juice, but what remains after consuming the juice discarded. The
6th classifier forms are set aside for ways of transportation (bikes, canoes, and
boats). The last two classifiers are designated for land and houses.
Noun phrases[edit]
Main article: Noun phrase

A noun phrase is a phrase based on a noun, pronoun, or other noun-like words

(nominal) optionally accompanied by modifiers such
as determiners and adjectives. A noun phrase functions within a clause or
sentence in a role such as that of subject, object, or complement of a verb or
preposition. For example, in the sentence "The black cat sat on a dear friend of
mine", the noun phrase the black cat serves as the subject, and the noun phrase a
dear friend of mine serves as the complement of the preposition on.
Pronouns[edit]
Main article: Pronoun

Nouns and noun phrases can typically be replaced by pronouns, such

as he, it, which, and those, in order to avoid repetition or explicit identification, or
for other reasons. For example, in the sentence Gareth thought that he was weird,
the word he is a pronoun standing in place of the person's name. The
word one can replace parts of noun phrases, and it sometimes stands in for a
noun. An example is given below:
John's car is newer than the one that Bill has.

But one can also stand in for larger parts of a noun phrase. For example, in the
following example, one can stand in for new car.
This new car is cheaper than that one.

104
Nominalization[edit]
Main article: Nominalization

Nominalization is a process whereby a word that belongs to another part of

speech comes to be used as a noun. In French and Spanish, for example, adjectives
frequently act as nouns referring to people who have the characteristics denoted
by the adjective. This sometimes happens in English as well, as in the following
examples:
This legislation will have the most impact on the poor.

The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong.

The Socialist International is a worldwide association of political parties.

Demystifying Nouns in Wordnet

WordNet is an excellent resource for all sorts of NLP tasks. Having said that,
understanding some of the relationships between terms can be quite difficult. For
example, when you are searching for a noun, you are faced with all sorts of
relationships such as holonyms, meronyms, hyponyms and meronyms when all
that you are looking for is just plain synonyms. In this article, I am going to try to
explain some of the relationships for nouns. Please note that this is not WordNet
specific, this is more about understanding some basic linguistics.

Relationships in WordNet

 For nouns: Antonym, Hypernym, Instance Hypernym, Hyponym, Instance

Hyponym, Member holonym, Substance holonym, Part holonym, Member
meronym, Substance meronym, Part meronym, Attribute, Derivationally related
form , Domain of synset (topic, region, usage), and Member of this domain (topic,
region, usage).
 For verbs: Antonym, Hypernym, Hyponym, Entailment, Cause, Also see, Verb
Group, Derivationally related form, and Domain of synset (topic, region, usage).
 For adjectives: Antonym, Similar to, Participle of verb, Pertainym (pertains to
noun), Attribute, Also see and Domain of synset (topic, region, usage).
 For adverbs: Antonym, Derived from adjective, and Domain of synset (topic,
region,usage)

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Hyponyms and Hypernyms
Hyponyms: a word or phrase that is a more specific than the given word.
Hypernyms: a word or phrase that is a more general than the given word.
Hyponyms have a direct relationship with hypernyms where hyponym is the
specific term and hypernym is the more general term. Let us take the word 'limb'
as an example. What is more specific than limb?

 arm is a kind of limb

 leg is a kind of limb

So in this case 'arm' and 'leg' are the hyponyms and 'limb' is the hypernym
because arm and leg are the more specific terms in this relationship. Here is a list
of hyponyms from WordNet for 'limb' in the human limb sense:

hind limb -- (a posterior leg or homologous structure in other animals)

forelimb -- (the front limb (or homologous structure in other animals such as a
flipper or wing))
flipper -- (the flat broad limb of aquatic animals specialized for swimming)
leg -- (a human limb; commonly used to refer to a whole limb but technically only
the part of the limb between the knee and ankle)
crus -- (the leg from the knee to foot)
leg -- (a structure in animals that is similar to a human leg and used for
locomotion)
thigh -- (the part of the leg between the hip and the knee)
arm -- (a human limb; technically the part of the superior limb between the
shoulder and the elbow but commonly used to refer to the whole superior limb)
cubitus -- (the arm from the elbow to the fingertips)
forearm -- (the part of the superior limb between the elbow and the wrist)

Wikipedia article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyponymy_and_hypernymy

Meronyms
Meronyms: something that is part of a larger thing. Let us take arm as an example.
What is part of an arm?

 bicep is part of an arm

 wrist is part of an arm

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Here is a list of meronyms from WordNet for 'arm' in the human limb sense:
HAS PART: brachial artery, arteria brachialis
HAS PART: cephalic vein, vena cephalica
HAS PART: forearm
HAS PART: hand, manus, mitt, paw
HAS PART: ulnar nerve, cubital nerve, nervusulnaris
HAS PART: biceps brachii, musculus biceps brachii, biceps humeri
HAS PART: triceps brachii, musculus triceps brachii
HAS PART: elbow, elbow joint, human elbow, cubitus, cubital joint,
articulatiocubiti
HAS PART: wrist, carpus, wrist joint, radiocarpal joint, articulatioradiocarpea
HAS PART: arm bone
HAS PART: humerus

Wikipedia article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meronymy

Holonyms
Holonym: a word that represents the physical whole of a given word. Basically, the
opposite of meronyms. Let us take the same arm as an example. What is an arm a
part of?

 an arm is part of a body

 an arm is part of a human being
Here is a list of holonyms from WordNet for 'arm' in the human limb sense:
PART OF: body, organic structure, physical structure
PART OF: homo, man, human being, human
Here is another example, for the word 'toe'. What is a toe a part of?

 a toe is part of a human foot

Wikipedia article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonymy

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 What is a noun? 27
A noun is word that identifies people, things, and places. From there we can make
two classifications: common nouns and proper nouns.

Unlike proper nouns which refer to specific names of people, things, and places,
common nouns are actually generic names of nouns. Try to go to your local
supermarket, what do you see?

You’ll probably see milk, bread, beef, coffee, eggs, carts, counters, chips, ice
cream, tissue, shampoo, detergent, diapers, etc.
All of the italicized words above are examples of common nouns. Aside from
naming or labelling general things, this kind of nouns can also refer to general
names of places, people, ideas, events, or animals.

Examples:

 park
 actor
 lake
 platypus
 doctor
 starfish
 festival
 museum
 chef
 puppy
When used in sentences, common nouns are introduced by the articles “the,”
“an,” or “a.”

Examples:

 I went to the park with my little brother.

 He proudly said that he is an actor.
 The lake is literally freezing.
 When I was a kid, I wanted to become a doctor.
 Spongebob’s friend, Patrick, is a starfish.
Another thing that you should know about common nouns is that they can come
in either singular or plural form. You probably already know that “singular nouns”

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refer to only only one person, animal, place, thing, idea, or event, while the term
“plural nouns”means that you are talking about two or more persons, animals,
things, places, ideas, or events.

The most common rule for transforming a common noun into its plural form is to
add “s” or “es” at the end of the word.

Examples:

 cap-caps
 bottle- bottles
 speaker- speakers
 astronaut- astronauts
 dinosaur- dinosaurs
 peacock- peacocks
 beach- beaches
 island- islands
 birthday- birthdays
 street fair- street fairs

What are the Different Usage of Common Nouns?

Common nouns can act as the subject, the direct object, the indirect object, or the
predicate nominative.

 Common nouns are usually used as the subject in the sentence. Simply put, the
subject refers to the doer of the action or to what or who the sentence is all
about.

Examples:

 The painter sold his awesome painting for just a hundred bucks.
In the sentence above, the common noun “painter” is the one who performed the
action of selling his painting.

A doctor must always do his best to save the lives of his patients.

The underlined common noun (doctor) is the one being talked about in the
sentence above.

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Common nouns can function as the direct object in the sentence. The direct object
is the receiver of the action and answers the question “What?”

Example:

 Luke built a treehouse.

The verb in the sentence above is “built.” Now, you can ask “What did Luke
build?” Obviously, it was a treehouse. Therefore, the underlined common noun
serves as the direct object in the sentence.

Common nouns can serve as the indirect object in the sentence. Basically, the
indirect object refers to the receiver of the direct objectand answers the question
“For whom?”
Example:

 Luke built his daughter a treehouse.

The verb in the sentence above is “built” and the direct object is “treehouse.”
Now, you can ask “For whom did Luke build a treehouse?” Just by reading the
sentence above, you can easily see that it is for his daughter. Therefore, the
underlined common noun is the indirect object in the sentence.
Common nouns can function as the predicate nominative. The predicate
nominative always comes after the linking verb and is used to restate the subject.

Example:

 Marion is an athlete.

In the sentence above, you can notice that the underlined common noun restates
or stands for the subject “Marion.” Basically, the subject and the predicate
nominative are the same thing.

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 Countable and Uncountable Nouns 28
There are many different types of nouns in English. Objects, ideas, and places can
all be nouns. Every noun is either countable or uncountable.

Countable nouns are nouns you can count, and uncountable nouns are nouns you
can't count. Countable nouns can take the singular or the plural form of a verb.
Uncountable nouns always take the singular form of the verb. Study the rules and
examples below.

What Are Countable Nouns?

Countable nouns are individual objects, people, places, etc. which can be counted.
Nouns are considered content words meaning they provide the people, things,
ideas, etc. about which we speak. Nouns are one of the eight parts of speech. For
example, apple, book, government, student, island.

A countable noun can be both singular—a friend, a house, etc.—or plural—a few
apples, lots of trees, etc.

Use the singular form of the verb with a singular countable noun:

There is a book on the table.

That student is excellent!

Use the plural form of the verb with a countable noun in the plural:

There are some students in the classroom.

Those houses are very big, aren't they?

What Are Uncountable Nouns?

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Uncountable nouns are materials, concepts, information, etc. which are not
individual objects and can not be counted. For example, information, water,
understanding, wood, cheese, etc.

Uncountable nouns are always singular. Use the singular form of the verb with
uncountable nouns:

There is some water in that pitcher.

That is the equipment we use for the project.

Adjectives With Countable and Uncountable Nouns.

Use a/an with countable nouns preceded by an adjective(s):

Tom is a very intelligent young man.

I have a beautiful grey cat.

Do not use a/an (indefinite articles) with uncountable nouns preceded by an

adjective(s):

That is very useful information.

There is some cold beer in the fridge.

Some uncountable nouns in English are countable in other languages. This can be
confusing! Here is a list of some of the most common, easy to confuse
uncountable nouns.

accommodation

advice

baggage

bread

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equipment

furniture

garbage

information

knowledge

luggage

money

news

pasta

progress

research

travel

work

Obviously, uncountable nouns (especially different types of food) have forms that
express plural concepts. These measurements or containers are countable:

water - a glass of water

equipment - a piece of equipment

cheese - a slice of cheese

Here are some of the most common containers / quantity expressions for these
uncountable nouns:

accommodation - a place to stay

advice - a piece of advice

baggage - a piece of baggage

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bread - a slice of bread, a loaf of bread

equipment - a piece of equipment

furniture - a piece of furniture

garbage - a piece of garbage

information - a piece of information

knowledge - a fact

luggage - a piece of luggage, a bag, a suitcase

money - a note, a coin

news - a piece of news

pasta - a plate of pasta, a serving of pasta

research - a piece of research, a research project

travel - a journey, a trip

work - a job, a position

Here are some more common uncountable food types with their container /
quantity expressions:

liquids (water, beer, wine, etc.) - a glass, a bottle, a jug of water, etc.

cheese - a slice, a chunk, a piece of cheese

meat - a piece, a slice, a pound of meat

butter - a bar of butter

ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard - a bottle of, a tube of ketchup, etc.

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 Nouns 29
GRAMMAR TIPS

A noun is a word that names something: either a person, place, or thing. In a

sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject
complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective.

Types of Nouns

Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and they come in a wide
variety of types. Nouns can name a person:

Albert Einstein

the president

my mother

a girl

Nouns can also name a place:

Mount Vesuvius

Disneyland

my bedroom

Nouns can also name things, although sometimes they might be intangible things,
such as concepts, activities, or processes. Some might even be hypothetical or
imaginary things.

shoe

faucet

freedom

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The Elder Wand

basketball

Proper Nouns vs. Common Nouns

One important distinction to be made is whether a noun is a proper noun or a

common noun. A proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is
always capitalized.

Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?

Tina is the name of a specific person.

I would like to visit Old Faithful.

Old Faithful is the specific name of a geological phenomenon.

The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun, sometimes known as a generic

noun. A common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or group and is not
capitalized unless appearing at the beginning of a sentence or in a title.

The girl crossed the river.

Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of the girl by reading this
sentence, though we know the action she takes. River is also a common noun in
this sentence.

Types of Common Nouns

Common or generic nouns can be broken down into three subtypes: concrete
nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns. A concrete noun is something that is
perceived by the senses; something that is physical or real.

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I heard the doorbell.

My keyboard is sticky.

Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.

Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the senses.

We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.

Courage is an abstract noun. Courage can’t be seen, heard, or sensed in any other
way, but we know it exists.

A collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.

That pack of lies is disgraceful.

Pack of lies as used here is a collective noun. Collective nouns take a singular verb
as if they are one entity – in this case, the singular verb is.

A pride of lions roamed the Savanna.

Pride of lions is also a collective noun.

Nouns as Subjects

Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun. The
subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb
in that sentence.

Tina is happy.

Tina is the subject of this sentence and the corresponding verb is a form of to be
(is).

Nouns as Objects

Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be either a direct
object (a noun that receives the action performed by the subject) or an indirect
object (a noun that is the recipient of a direct object).

Give the books to her.

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Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is the indirect object (who
the books are being given to).

Nouns as Subject and Object Complements

Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this example, the
noun teacher is used as a subject complement.

Mary is a teacher.

Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like to be, become, or seem. A
teacher is what Mary is.

A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.

I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements in this sentence. Verbs
that denote making, naming, or creating are often followed by object
complements.

Appositive Nouns and Nouns as Modifiers

An appositive noun is a noun which immediately follows another noun in order to

further define or identify it.

My brother, Michael, is six years old.

Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the subject of the sentence, my

brother.

Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.

He is a speed demon.

Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to modify demon.

Plural Nouns

Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural
nouns can be formed by adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there are
many exceptions.

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cat—cats

These two cats are both black.

Note the plural verb are.

tax—taxes

house—houses

Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be
extraordinarily high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns
can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.

Here is a cat.

Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.

Here are a few cats.

Here are some cats.

Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible
to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air).
They are always considered to be singular, and can be used with some, any, a
little, and much.

An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Intelligence is an uncountable noun.

Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.

This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so

homework is an uncountable noun.

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Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something; i.e., they have something.
You can identify a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the
possessive with an apostrophe and an s.

The cat’s toy was missing.

The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of ‑ ’s at the end of cat.

When a singular noun ends in the letter s or z, the same format often applies. This
is a matter of style, however, and some style guides suggest leaving off the extra s.

I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.

Mrs. Ramanuj’s coat is still hanging on the back of her chair.

Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form a possessive.

My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.

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Noun 30
Definition of noun
: any member of a class of words that typically can be combined with
determiners (see DETERMINER SENSE B) to serve as the subject of a verb, can be
interpreted as singular or plural, can be replaced with a pronoun, and refer to an
entity, quality, state, action, or conceptThere are two nouns in this sentence.
What is a noun?More Example SentencesLearnMore about noun
What is a noun?
Nouns make up the largest class of words in most languages, including English. A
noun is a word that refers to a thing (book), a person (Betty Crocker), an animal
(cat), a place (Omaha), a quality (softness), an idea (justice), or an action
(yodeling). It's usually a single word, but not always: cake, shoes, school bus,
and time and a half are all nouns.

120
There are a number of different categories of nouns.

There are common nouns and proper nouns. A common noun refers to a person,
place, or thing but is not the name of a particular person, place, or thing.
Examples are animal, sunlight, and happiness. A proper noun is the name of a
particular person, place, or thing; it usually begins with a capital letter: Abraham
Lincoln, Argentina, and World War I are all proper nouns.
A collective noun is a noun that names a group of people or things, such
as flock or squad. It's sometimes unclear whether the verb for a collective noun
should be singular or plural. In the United States, such nouns
as company, team, herd, public, and class, as well as the names of companies,
teams, etc., are treated as singular, but in the United Kingdom they are often
treated as plural: (US) "The team has been doing well this season." vs. (British)
"The team have been doing well this season."
Gerunds are nouns that are identical to the present participle (-ing form) of a
verb, as in "I enjoy swimming more than running."
An attributive noun is a noun that modifies another noun that immediately
follows it, such as business in business meeting. These nouns look like adjectives
but they're not.
For learners of English, the most important feature of a noun is whether it can
be counted. A count noun is a noun that can be used after a or an or after a
number (or another word that means "more than one"). Count nouns have both
singular and plural forms and can be used with both singular and plural verb
forms, as with the word letter in "A letter for you is on the table. Letters for you
arrive regularly." Sometimes the plural form of a count noun is the same as its
singular form, as in "I saw a deer in my yard yesterday. There are a lot of deer in
the woods near my house."
A mass noun (or noncount noun) refers to something that cannot be counted.
Mass nouns are normally not used after the words a or an or after a number.
They have only one form and are used with singular verb forms, as in
"Portuguese is one of the languages they speak," and "The information was
unclear."
Some nouns are not count or mass nouns. Nouns which only ever refer to one
thing are called singular nouns: "Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun," "We
heard a terrible din in the alley." And a plural noun refers to more than one
person or thing, or sometimes to something that has two main parts. Plural
nouns have only one form and are used with plural verb forms:
"Townspeople are invited to a forum on the project," "These scissors are dull."
A particular noun can have any or all of these kinds of uses.

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(count) I've read that book several times.
(mass) Time seemed to stop when I saw him for the first time.
(singular) The time is 3:22.

(plural) Fuel costs three times as much as it did five years ago.

Examples of noun in a Sentence

Recent Examples on the Web

The order of nouns in Mr. Holzer’s subtitle announces the priority of biography
over art.— John Wilmerding, WSJ, "‘Monument Man’ Review: The Man Who
Gave Us Lincoln," 8 Mar. 2019In part because ‘69’ can serve a noun, verb, or
adjective, the exhibition is appropriately all-encompassing.— Rachel
Hahn, Vogue, "Exclusive: 69’s Anonymous Designer on the Brand’s Retrospective
at MOCA," 20 July 2018
Instead, the word can only be described by playing cards that contain nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and relations.— Nate Anderson, ArsTechnica, "Eight great
board games we played at PAX Unplugged," 8 Dec. 2018To be a citizen, in that
framing of things, is to embrace the verb as well as the noun.— Megan
Garber, The Atlantic, "To Be a Good Citizen, First Pay Attention," 27 June
2018Allergan, the company that made Botox the proper-noun-Kleenex of wrinkle
reducers, is making a killing: Botox sales were up 14.5 percent in the second
quarter of 2018 to $934.5 million, according to CNBC.— Cheryl Wischhover, Vox,
"The push to make Botox as common as getting a blowout," 12 Sep.
2018According to The Elements of Eloquence author Forsyth, English adjectives
are always listed in this order when used before a noun: opinion, size, age,
shape, color, origin, material and purpose.— Heather Finn, Good Housekeeping,
"We Bet You've Never Heard This English Language Rule," 6 Sep. 2016Sure, there
is Chaser, a Border collie from Spartanburg, South Carolina, who was trained to
understand 1,022 nouns.— Laura M. Holson, The Seattle Times, "Your Dog May
Be Smart, but She’s Not Exceptional," 8 Oct. 2018This principle has long been
implicit in the use of masculine nouns to cover feminine cases too.— The
Economist, "Language activists are trying to make French gender-neutral," 17
May 2018
These example sentences are selected automatically from various online news
sources to reflect current usage of the word 'noun.' Views expressed in the
examples do not represent the opinion of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send
us feedback.

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Noun Examples
A noun is a part of speech that names a person, place, thing, idea, action or
quality. All nouns can be classified into two groups of nouns: common or proper.

Proper nouns refer to the individual name of a person, place or thing. Examples
might include Barcelona, Leonardo da Vinci, or Toyota Corolla.

Common nouns are more generalized by comparison, and they can be further
divided into abstract, collective, compound, countable concrete, uncountable
concrete and verbal.

The best way to understand this part of speech is to take a look at several noun
examples. Let's get started.

Types and Examples of Nouns

The chart below includes the various types of proper and common nouns, as well
as definitions and examples of each type of noun:

Nouns Used in a Sentences

To get an even better grasp on these various noun examples, take a look at these
example sentences containing some nouns from the above worksheet. The nouns
are highlighted in bold (note some sentences have more than one noun, but to
keep things simple we've highlighted just one).

1. Let me give you some advice.

2. Life finds a way.

3. With great power comes great responsibility.

4. His biggest regret was not traveling more.

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5. The weary army marched on.

6. The congregation gathered to worship.

7. The team from Springfield won the championship.

8. It takes a village to raise a child.

9. The teacher writes notes on the blackboard.

10. The board of directors consists of nine individuals.

11. Joey caught a grasshopper with his bare hands.

12. Sarah needs to replace her keyboard.

13. The sunlight beamed through the attic window.

14. Be careful around that rattlesnake!

15. The wheelchair costs a lot of money.

16. Can you add a banana to my smoothie?

17. That's his favorite book.

18. Her blue eyes instantly captured his attention.

19. Hidden from view, the panther stalks its prey.

20. Catch the beautiful sunset from atop Haleakala.

21. Learning to play ukelele has been very challenging.

22. Walnuts are on sale today.

23. Due to the thin air, Georgina found it hard to breathe.

24. Have you donated blood lately?

25. The economics of the matter are quite complex.

26. It's cheaper to buy insurance online.

27. Lorraine prefers juice over water.

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28. Can I get the pork cutlet with rice instead of noodles?

29. Eugene stores the wood in the garage.

30. Camping is a great summer activity for the whole family.

31. Bernice enjoys climbing on the weekends.

32. Casey's been doing a lot of flying lately.

33. Did you know that Africa is much larger than Greenland?

34. Visiting Big Ben was a highlight of the trip to London.

35. Roger drives a blue Honda.

36. Final applications are due by the end of January.

37. Minnesota borders directly with Lake Superior.

38. How many students attend Stanford University?

39. If I had known about it, I would have signed up for the loyalty program at
Starbucks.

40. I don't know why Susan is so upset.

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Collective Nouns 31
Typically, words that identify more than one person, place, or thing are made
plural in the English language. One "dog" becomes many "dogs." Collective nouns,
however, are an exception. This unique class of nouns denotes a group of people,
animals, objects, concepts, or ideas as a single entity. Once you review a few
examples, you'll know exactly what these nouns are all about.

Comparing Countable, Mass, and Collective Nouns

Things start to sound really technical when we discuss countable, mass, and
collective nouns. Let's clear some of that up right now.

125
Countable nouns, also known as count nouns, can be counted by a number or
quantified by size. They appear in both singular and plural form. Examples include
"three" puppies and "a hundred" love notes.

Mass nouns are also referred to as uncountable or non-count nouns. They signify
unbounded amounts, such as of liquids, small objects, and abstract or
immeasurable concepts. For example, "water," "rice," and "education" can all be
considered mass nouns. A noun is considered a mass noun when its use can't be
counted, modified, or quantified in a relevant manner.

Collective nouns are a subset of count nouns because they refer to a group of
countable nouns as a single collective unit. For example, there are 12 eggs in a
dozen and 52 cards in a deck.

Common Collective Nouns

There are many types of nouns that refer to units or groups in a collective sense.
Here are some common examples:

Array of magazines

Audience of one

Band of brothers

Batch of DVDs

Bucket of water

Bowl of cereal

Box of chocolate

Bevy of options

Board of Directors

Bunch of flowers

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Case of soda

Cast of clowns

Choir of singers

Class of students

Committee of experts

Company of dancers

Crowd of fans

Cup of tea

Department of Technology

Deck of cards

Faculty of Penn State

Family of trees

Firm of lawyers

Galaxy of stars

Gang of bandits

Group of fans

Jury of peers

Packet of salt

Party of two

Pile of garbage

Senate of the United States

Society of people

Staff of Dunder Mifflin

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String of pearls

Tub of water

Vault of money

Note that, when group nouns are acting as individuals rather than a whole, it's
appropriate to add or replace words to create references to the individuals. For
example, you might add the word "members" after collectives like board or
committee, or inserting "players" for "team" or "students" for "class."

Collective Nouns for Animal Groups

Next, there are unique collective nouns to identify a specific group of animals, be
they mammals, birds or insects. Common collective animal nouns include:

Brood of chickens

Herd of elephants

School of fish

Colony of ants

Hive of bees

Skein of swans

Clutch of rabbits

Litter of puppies

Swarm of wasps

Drove of horses

Nest of robins

Team of vipers

Flight of doves

Pack of wolves

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Tribe of goats

Flock of ducks

Plague of locusts

Troop of chimpanzees

Gaggle of geese

Pride of lions

Yoke of oxen

Using Collective Nouns Correctly

Nouns in the collective class can be used in either the singular or plural form,
depending on the context of the sentence. For example, "family" is a collective
noun because it refers to more than one person sharing a relationship. However,
you can also use this in its plural form to refer to several "families."

Using collective nouns in sentences can be confusing because it's sometimes

difficult to discern whether to use plural or singular verbs and pronouns. To use
verbs and pronouns correctly, identify whether the collective noun refers to the
group working as individuals or collectively in unison.

When the unit is acting in unison, it is appropriate to use the singular form.

When the members of the unit are acting as individuals, it is appropriate to use
plural forms of verbs and pronouns.

Example Sentences

Consider these two sentences and how they illustrate whether the singular or
plural forms are appropriate.

The class waits (singular verb) for its (singular pronoun) teacher quietly.

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Here, the class is referred to as a unit acting in unison; the students are all doing
the same thing at the same time.

The class begins (plural verb) their (plural pronoun) homework assignments while
they (plural pronoun) wait (plural verb) for their (plural pronoun) teacher.

The class of students are a unit, but are acting as individuals; they are each doing
their own homework assignments.

The Collective Whole

Gradual shifts in the ways words are used have contributed to the formation of
this special class of nouns. To help you remember, there are a variety of online
and printable worksheets, quizzes, and activities focused on collective nouns. To
further test your knowledge, take a look at this Collective Noun Worksheet.

===================================================================

Possessive Nouns 32
Many people have trouble distinguishing between possessive nouns and plural
nouns. Simply put, possessive nouns demonstrate ownership, while plural nouns
indicate more than one person, place, or thing. Let's take a look at a couple
distinguishing features of possessive nouns.

Look for the Apostrophe

Possessive nouns typically include an apostrophe. For example:

Jennifer's imagination ran wild as she pictured the accident.

The kitten's favorite toy is a stuffed catnip mouse.

Think of the apostrophe as a hook or hand reaching out to take ownership of the
object. Without that little hook or hand grabbing onto the "s" or the next word,
the noun is simply pluralized.

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Grammar Rules for Possessive Nouns

There are five basic rules for possessive nouns.

Rule #1: Making singular nouns possessive

Add an apostrophe + "s" to most singular nouns and to plural nouns that don't end
in "s."

You'll use this rule the most, so be sure to pay attention to it. English has some
words that are plural but do not add an "s." Words like children, sheep, women,
and men. These irregular plural words are treated as if they were singular words
when making noun possessives.

If a singular noun ends in "s," you can either add an apostrophe + "s" or just an
apostrophe. Both are considered correct, and often which you choose depends on
how awkward the word sounds with an extra "s" on the end: "Mr. Roberts' house"
sounds better than "Mr. Roberts's house."

Examples:

Singular nouns: kitten's collar, Joe's car, James'/James's book

Plurals not ending in s: women's dresses, sheep's pasture, children's toys

Rule #2: Making plural nouns possessive

Add just an apostrophe to plural nouns that already end in "s."

You don't need to add an extra "s" to plural nouns that already end in "s." Simply
tuck the apostrophe onto the end to indicate that the plural noun is now a plural
possessive noun.

Examples:

The companies' workers went on strike together.

You need to clean out the horses' stalls.

The two countries' armies amassed on the border.

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Rule #3: Making hyphenated nouns and compound nouns plural

Compound words and hyphenated words can be tricky. Add the apostrophe + "s"
to the end of the compound words or to the last word in a hyphenated noun.

Examples:

My mother-in-law's recipe for meatloaf is my husband's favorite.

The United States Post Office's stamps are available in rolls or packets.

Rule #4: Indicating possession when two nouns are joined together

You may be writing about two people, places, or things that share possession of an
object. If two nouns share ownership, indicate the possession only once, and on
the second noun. Make sure to add the apostrophe + "s" to the second noun only.

Examples:

Jack and Jill's pail of water is prominently featured in the nursery rhyme.

Abbot and Costello's comedy skit "Who's on First" is a classic.

Rule #5: Indicating possession when two nouns are joined, and ownership is
separate

This is the trickiest rule of all, but you probably won't need to refer to it too often.
When two nouns indicate ownership, but the ownership is separate, each noun
gets the apostrophe + "s." The examples below may help you understand exactly
what this means.

Examples:

Lucy's and Ricky's dressing rooms were painted pink and blue. (Each has his or her
own dressing room, and they are different rooms).

President Obama's and Senator Clinton's educations are outstanding. (Each owns
his or her education, but they attained separate educations).

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 Compound Nouns 33
A compound noun contains two or more words that join together to make a single
noun, like "keyboard." A compound noun is a type of compound word that is used
to designate a person, place, or thing. Compound nouns can be formed in several
ways, which is one reason why writing these words can be tricky. Let's go ahead
and clear the air surrounding this topic.

What Is a Compound Noun?

A compound noun is formed when two words are combined to make a completely
new word. This means that the meaning of the new word must be significantly
different than either of its parts individually.

For example, a hot dog (or hotdog) - i.e., a type of sausage typically eaten on a bun
- may be hot, but it's certainly not a dog. The combination of these two words
means something entirely different than the mere combination of the adjective
"hot" and the noun "dog," which would refer to an overheated, panting canine.
Observe the difference below:

I want to eat a hot dog when we go to the county fair.

The hot dog was grateful to find a shady spot for a nap.

The first sentence uses "hot dog" as a compound word, but the second does not.
The meaning is quite different in each sentence, and English speakers should have
no trouble telling the difference between pets and food!

How Are Compound Nouns Formed?

Compound nouns, like all compound words, can be formed in three ways:

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Closed Form: These compound nouns simply push two words together to form a
single word, with no additional punctuation or spaces. Examples include softball,
redhead, makeup and keyboard.

Hyphenated Form: These compound nouns connect two or more words with one
or more hyphens between them. Examples include six-pack, five-year-old, and
son-in-law.

Open Form: These are compound nouns that function as one unique word, but are
still written as two or more separate words, with a space between each
component. Examples include post office, middle class, and attorney general.

Most compound nouns contain at least one noun. Of course, this isn't universally
true, given words like takeoff, but it's a good point for consideration. The other
word or words used to create compound nouns may be adjectives, prepositions,
or verbs. The second word is often the "main" word, with the first word modifying
it or adding to its meaning.

Closed, Open or Hyphenated?

Truth be told, there are no rules governing why some compound words are
hyphenated, some are closed, and others remain open. Sort of like our friend, the
irregular verb, you simply have to study a word list or consult your dictionary.

In American English, if you're dealing with a common word, you can err on the side
of closed form. If it's not a common word, then you might want to consider using a
hyphen or open form. It's also worth noting that compound nouns that have
become commonplace sometimes lose the space or hyphen over time. For
example, "on-line" is now online. "Take-out" is now takeout.

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While American English errs on the side of closed form, British/Canadian English
errs on the side of a hyphen. For example, the Shorter Oxford Dictionary uses pot-
belly while the American Heritage Dictionary uses potbelly.

Hyphens Avoid Ambiguity

Given the inconsistencies that revolve around compound nouns, it can be hard to
know when to hyphenate. While the hyphenated form is less common than the
closed form hyphenated compound nouns do have one benefit. They help avoid
ambiguity.

For example, if you choose to write laughing-gas instead of "laughing gas," you're
making it clear that the gas is not laughing and it's functioning as a compound
noun.

Also, you may be able to avoid a proverbial slap on the wrist knowing that some
words have more than one acceptable form. For example, we don't normally write
"dry-cleaning" or "ink-well." Rather, we write dry cleaning and inkwell. But, you
shouldn't get red-lined for using either form.

Compound Noun List

The best way to try to make some sense of this complex member of the English
language is to get a sense of how compound nouns are formed. We've listed the
examples in groups that indicate the parts of speech that make up each compound
noun.

adjective/adjective: red-orange, turquoise blue, golden yellow

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Red-orange is one of this year's most popular colors.

adjective/noun: blackboard, full moon, top hat

The teacher needed help erasing the blackboard.

adjective/verb: dry-cleaning, public speaking, wet sanding

Be sure to pick up the dry-cleaning on your way home.

noun/noun: toothpaste, wallpaper, fish tank

Toothpaste now comes in many flavors.

noun/preposition: love-in, hanger on, passer-by

During the 1960s, a love-in was a form of peaceful protest.

noun/verb: haircut, snowfall, photo shoot

Go get a haircut before the photo shoot.

preposition/noun: underworld, bystander, afterlife

Many mythologies feature an underworld.

preposition/verb: output, backbone, overthrow

The CEO wanted to increase her factory's output of new products.

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verb/noun: swimming pool, breakwater, washing machine

I can't wait to dive into that swimming pool.

verb/preposition: takeout, check-in, drawback

Let's order takeout for dinner.

Plural and Possessive Rules for Compound Nouns

To no surprise, there are no hard and fast rules concerning the plural form of
compound words, especially since some hyphens are omitted over time.

In hyphenated words, usually the "s" goes at the end of the noun, as in daughters-
in-law or mayors-elect.

Sometimes the "s" is at the end, as in go-betweens and higher-ups.

In the open form, the "s" is often added to the noun, as in bills of fare, assistant
secretaries of state, notaries public and full moons.

To make a compound word possessive, you usually add apostrophe + s to the end
of the word, as in mother-in-law's car or five-year-old's birthday.

If the compound word is plural, it can get a little strange with two "s" sounds close
together, as in fathers-in-law's attire. If you can, it would be better to reword the
sentence so the plural compound word does not need to be possessive: the attire
of the fathers-in-law.

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Making Language Richer

Compound nouns are just one way in which the English language has become
richer over time. While your brain is wrapping itself around the subject, take a
look at the cousins to compound nouns. Taking the time to familiarize yourself
with compound adjectives and compound verbs will help you round out your
understanding of compound words.

=================================================================

Types of Nouns 34
There are several ways to classify the types of nouns that exist in the English
language. Traditionally, it is taught that nouns are words that refer to people,
places, things, or ideas.

Modern linguistics finds this definition to be problematic because it relies on non-

specific terminology, such as "thing," to define a noun. Yet, most of our social
understanding of nouns defers to this traditional definition.

So, let's clear things up and dive a little deeper. Below, you'll find the major
classifications of the types of nouns in English, along with an example or two so
you can see these types of nouns in action.

Classifications of Nouns

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific entities. Proper nouns like Nebraska,
Steve, Harvard, or White House are capitalized to show their distinction from
common nouns, such as "man" or "building."

Common Nouns

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Common nouns refer to general, unspecific categories of entities. So, while
Nebraska is a proper noun because it names a specific state, state is a common
noun because it can refer to any state. While Harvard refers to a particular
institution of higher learning, the common noun university can refer to any such
institution.

Material Nouns

Material nouns refer to materials or substances from which things are made. Let's
take cotton, for example. Cotton is an adjective when used in cotton dress.
However, cotton is a material noun when used to describe the crop. For example:
We use cotton from a local farm in our t-shirts.

Compound Nouns

A compound noun contains two or more words that join together to make a single
noun. Compound nouns can be two words written as one (closed form) such as
softball and toothpaste, words that are hyphenated (hyphenated form) such as
six-pack and son-in-law, or separate words (open form) such as post office and
upper class that go together by meaning.

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns can occur in both single and plural forms, can be modified by
numerals, and can co-occur with quantifying determiners such as many, most,
more, several, etc.

For example, the noun bike is a countable noun.

There is a bike in that garage.

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In this example, the word bike is singular because it refers to one bike that is
sitting in a particular garage.

However, bike can also occur in the plural form.

There are six bikes in that garage.

In this example, the plural noun bikes refers to more than one bike because it is
being modified by the numeral six.

In addition, countable nouns can co-occur with quantifying determiners like

"several," rather than a numeral.

In that garage, several bikes are broken.

Uncountable Nouns

Conversely, some nouns are not countable. They're called uncountable nouns or
mass nouns. For example, the word clutter is an uncountable noun.

The garage is full of clutter.

This sentence makes grammatical sense. However, the following example does
not.

That garage is full of clutters.

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Uncountable nouns usually cannot take plural forms. Therefore, clutters isn't
grammatical.

Substances, liquids, and powders are entities that are often signified by mass
nouns such as milk, rice, wood, sand, water, and flour. Other more abstract
examples that cannot be counted would be air, freedom, or intelligence.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of something in particular. Often,
collective nouns are used to refer to groups of animals. Consider the following
sentences.

Look at that gaggle of geese.

There used to be herds of wild buffalo on the prairie.

A bevy of swans is swimming in the pond.

A colony of ants live in the anthill.

Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns are nouns that refer to things that exist physically and can be
touched, seen, smelled, felt, or tasted. Here are some examples:

Can I pet your dog?

Please pass the salt.

Your sweater is made of such soft wool.

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Concrete nouns can be perceived by at least one of our senses.

Abstract Nouns

More ethereal, theoretical concepts use abstract nouns to refer to them. Ideas,
qualities or conditions like love, hate, power, and time are all examples of abstract
nouns.

All you need is love.

I hate my new school.

We must use this time wisely.

In these sentences, the abstract nouns refer to concept or entities that cannot be
perceived concretely or touched physically.

Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns demonstrate ownership over something else. The best way to
spot them is to look for an apostrophe. Here are some examples:

Melissa's imagination ran wild as she daydreamed about her trip to Ireland.

Ireland's landscape is truly breathtaking.

The puppy's favorite toy is the squeaky newspaper.

These nouns are demonstrating ownership, but they're also still persons, places, or
things.

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Pronouns

Personal pronouns take the place of nouns when referring to people, places or
things, and therefore play the part of a noun in a sentence. They include I, you, he,
she, it, and they.

Amy works at a flower shop. She enjoys her job.

The Greeks invented democracy. They sought freedom and equality.

These pronouns take on other forms depending on the type of function they're
performing in a sentence.

When used to signify possession of another noun, pronouns take on their

possessive form, including mine, ours, hers, and theirs.

Marley loves pepperoni pizza. The last slice of pizza is hers.

When used as the object of a preposition, pronouns take on their objective case.
Examples include him, her, me, us, and them.

Jennifer is paying for the tickets. Hand the money over to her.

Things don't look good for John and Ray. The police are on to them.

Gerunds

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Gerunds are verbs that function as nouns. Sounds funny, right? They are a little
funny because, at first glance, they appear to be verbs. In truth, they're acting as a
noun. Here's an example:

Do you mind my borrowing these shoes?

In this sentence, "mind" is the verb and borrowing is a noun, the direct object of
the sentence. Anytime you spot a word ending in -ing, pause and take a good look
at its place in the sentence.

Test Your Noun Knowledge

There are many different types of nouns, each designed to serve a different
purpose in a sentence. Some get specific, such as proper nouns. Others are more
generic, such as abstract nouns.

No matter the type, each noun is always going to refer to a person, place, thing, or
idea. That's why the traditional definition of a noun is always going to stick
around. At its core, it's accurate. There's just a lot more to be said for them than
that.

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Common Noun 35
There are many different types of nouns. In fact, an entire universe of nouns
exists, ranging from abstract nouns to mass nouns. Each serves its own unique
purpose in everyday communication, but the type of noun you're most likely to
come across is the common noun - the most basic noun classification. Let's take an
in-depth look into common nouns and how they work.

What is a Common Noun?

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The standard definition of a noun is that it names a person, place, thing, or idea.
But that's not all there is to a noun.

A noun can refer to anything that is living or nonliving, animate or inanimate.

It can also name a place or an abstract idea or concept.

A common noun is your everyday noun, such as aunt or state. They are not
capitalized unless they start a sentence or are part of a name, like Aunt Dorothy.

A common noun is a more generalized version of a proper noun, which names a

specific living or nonliving thing, place, or idea. Proper nouns include the names of
the months (e.g., November), the days of the week, organizations, people and
their titles (e.g., Queen Elizabeth), places, books, plays, movies (e.g., Jurassic Park),
newspapers, and more.

Nouns are basic to sentence structure because they, along with pronouns, serve as
the subject of the sentence. And, of course, no sentence can be complete without
a subject.

Types of Common Nouns

There are five classifications of common nouns:

Countable nouns

Uncountable nouns

Collective nouns

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Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Let's look at each one of these individually and explain the rules of usage.

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns can be both singular and plural. They are distinct units that are
easily tallied or numbered, like:

five cats

one hundred miles

a thousand kisses

A singular countable noun must be preceded by a determiner. These are words

that clarify, such as: a, an, the, that, this, one, our, my, and which. Use a countable
noun in a sentence like this:

The dolphin is friendly.

My car is red.

I bought this dress on sale.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns, also called non-countable nouns, are singular only. You
cannot use "a" or "an" with them; it doesn't make sense to refer to "a water."
However, you can use other words to describe their quantity, like:

droplets of water

tons of fresh air

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blades of grass

Certain quantifiers may be used such as: a lot, any, some, and too much. Here are
some example sentences with uncountable nouns:

There is too much furniture in here.

A little generosity goes a long way.

Do you have any sugar?

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns represent a group of things. The singular form refers to one unit
or group, and the plural form refers to more than one unit or group. Examples
include:

class

department

family

herd

jury

society

team

You're not trying to count the individual number of units with these nouns. Rather,
it's clear an entire group is being addressed as a collective whole.

Let's take the faculty on a retreat.

We saw the dance troupe out at the restaurant.

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Is the entire school here?

Concrete Nouns

Concrete nouns represent something physical that can be experienced through

the senses. They can be common, proper, singular, plural, countable, uncountable,
or collective. Examples include:

cheese

computer

flower

guitar

house

salt

These nouns can be tasted, touched, seen, heard, or smelled. They're definitive,
specific entities, as opposed to things we can't actually touch, like air or love.

I hope we have fish for dinner tonight.

She bought a new fountain pen.

This book is fantastic.

Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns refer to things that aren't concrete. They cannot be seen, touched,
heard, smelled, or tasted. They refer to emotions, ideas, concepts, traits,
experiences, or states of being. Examples include:

culture

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deceit

hatred

love

maturity

peace

sympathy

These nouns stand in stark contrast to concrete nouns. We'll never be able to
touch or hold them in a literal sense. Here are some example sentences with
abstract nouns.

He's filled with curiosity.

Athens is the birthplace of democracy.

She has no trust in him.

We Live in a Noun World

Most sentences have at least one noun. An exception would be an imperative

sentence with an implied subject like, "Leave now!" where "you" is understood.
Typically, however, we need at least one noun to make a complete sentence.
Surely, without nouns, all our favorite novels, poems, movies, and plays wouldn't
exist.

Now that you understand what a common noun is, it would be a good idea to
continue your noun studies with a review of proper nouns. And, when you're
ready, draw back the curtains and experience the many different types of nouns in
the English language.

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 Irregular Plurals 36
The vast majority of nouns in the English language are made plural by adding an
"s" or "es" to the end of the word. For example, book, apple, house, table, door,
cat, bush, boss are just some of the many words that become plural with the
simple addition of an "s" or "es" (books, apples, houses, tables, doors, cats,
bushes, bosses).

However, certain nouns have irregular plurals which do not behave in this
standard way and, even though most irregular plurals follow a pattern, there are
always exceptions to watch out for.

Regular Plurals

The general rule for making a noun plural is that if the word ends in s, x, z, ch or
sh, add an "es"

Bless = blesses

Box = boxes

Catch = catches

Dish = dishes

Buzz = buzzes

An exception to this rule is if the ch ending is pronounced with a "k" sound you
add "s" rather than "es"

stomach = stomachs

If the word ends in a consonant (all letters except a, e, i, o, u) plus "y," then change
the "y" to an "i" and add the letters "es"

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Baby = babies

Candy = candies

For all other non-irregular nouns, simply add an "s" to the end of the word

Cat = cats

Dog = dogs

Irregular Plurals

Certain words do not follow the above rules for regular plurals. There are some
common types of irregular plurals that occur, and some words simply have no
plural form at all.

While it is useful to memorize the common irregular plurals, for many words you
simply have to know and understand that it is an irregular plural as a result of
speaking and hearing English.

Non-Count Nouns

Non-count nouns, also called collective nouns, have no plural form because they
are assumed to be plural. Most abstract nouns are non-count nouns. Some
examples are:

Hair

Grass

Mud

Dress (when referring to a style of dress, not when referring to a clothing item that
hangs in your closet)

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If you are talking about multiple varieties or types of these irregular plurals, you
cannot make them plural by adding an "s" or "es" to the end. Instead, you need to
make them plural by adding a descriptive phrase. For example:

There are many different styles of hair

There are several varieties of grass

There are three different kinds of mud

The ancient people had a few types of styles of dress

Unchanging Nouns

Certain other nouns have the same plural form as singular form. A large number of
animals happen to follow this rule. For example:

Deer is "deer" whether singular or plural

Fish is "fish" whether singular or plural

Bison is "bison" whether singular or plural

Moose is "moose" whether singular or plural

Elk is "elk" whether singular or plural.

Other Irregular Plurals

In addition to non-count nouns and unchanging nouns, there are several different
types of irregular plurals which follow a pattern in the English language.

For most nouns that end in "f" or "fe," you drop the "f" or "fe" and add "ves"

Knife = knives

Wife = wives

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Half = halves

Loaf = loaves

For many words that end in "us," change the "us" to an "i" (especially if it comes
from a Latin word). There are exceptions to this rule and it is becoming more
acceptable to add "es" instead of changing to "i."

Cactus = cacti

Fungus = fungi

Syllabus = syllabi

For nouns that end in "o" you add either "s" or "es". (Generally, most nouns
ending in "o" just add "s" to make the plural, especially if there's a vowel before
the final "o")

Zoo = zoos

Studio = studios

Tomato = tomatoes

Potato = potatoes

Some words ending in "o" can be spelled either way

Banjo = banjos or banjoes

Flamingo = flamingos or flamingoes

For many words that end in "is," change the "is" to an "es"

hypothesis = hypotheses

oasis = oases

crisis = crises

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Nouns that end in "um" often become plural by changing "um" to "a"

bacterium = bacteria

medium = media

curriculum = curricula

Words that Change Form

Certain words do not add a letter to the end but instead, change the word itself.
These words simply need to be memorized. Some examples include:

Man to men

Foot to feet

Tooth to teeth

Goose to geese

The best way to learn and understand irregular plurals is to practice speaking the
English language, to read a great deal, to pay attention to words and phrases that
you see and hear and to assemble a list of words with irregular plurals so you can
begin to understand how to make each noun plural correctly.

===================================================================

Common and Proper Nouns 37

Students of English grammar classes are often confused by the difference between
common nouns and proper nouns. Simply put, a proper noun is capitalized while a
common noun is not.

The English language is unique in what it considers to be common and proper

nouns, and there are special rules in place to help you identify proper nouns.

154
Read on to learn more about the difference between common and proper noun,
how to use them correctly, and how to come up with your own examples.

Defining Common Nouns

A common noun is a generic noun that isn't capitalized. Here are some examples:

ball, tree, flower, moon, dog

Notice that these were all single. Here are a few plural examples of common
nouns:

balls, trees, flowers, moons, dogs

A common noun is only capitalized when at the beginning of a sentence. Most of

the time, these nouns end in "s" to indicate plurality.

Defining Proper Nouns

A proper noun functions in exactly the same way as a common noun. It is a

person, place, thing, or idea. However, these types of nouns noun are capitalized.
So, they're used in exactly the same way as common nouns, but they retain their
capitalization whether or not they come at the beginning of a sentence.

Proper nouns include the days of the week, the months of the year, towns, cities,
streets, states, countries, and brands.

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Names are all proper nouns, too! Notice how your first, middle, and last name are
all capitalized: they are proper nouns because they indicate a specific, particular
person - you!

Common and Proper Nouns

In each of the examples below, sentence "A" uses a common noun, and sentence
"B" replaces this common noun with a proper noun. See if you can tell the
difference:

A - Mary liked to read a book every night before she went to bed.

B - Mary liked to read Harry Potter every night before she went to bed.

A - My favorite thing to drink is soda.

B - My favorite thing to drink is Diet Coke.

A - In my country, you cannot marry more than one person at a time.

B - In the United States, you cannot marry more than one person at a time.

Tips for Understanding Proper Nouns

Whenever you see a capitalized letter, question whether or not it is a proper

noun. Make sure the capitalized word is, in fact, a noun: ask yourself, is it a
person, place, thing, or idea? This is important because there's another
classification of proper words. That is, proper adjectives.

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Below, the first example contains a proper noun and the second example contains
a proper adjective. Can you spot the difference between the two?

Asia is one of the seven continents of the world. (proper noun)

Many people like to eat Asian food. (proper adjective)

In the first example, "Asia" is a proper noun, the name of a specific place. In the
second example, "Asian" is an adjective describing the type of food.

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Common and Proper Noun Worksheets 38

Distinguishing between common and proper nouns can be confusing at first;
therefore, starting off with basic differences between the two parts of speech will
be helpful before you progress any further in your study of nouns. Using noun
worksheets will help you understand your preliminary lessons on nouns.

Worksheet for Noun Practice

Noun worksheets sometimes focus only on common nouns, with other worksheets
focusing only on proper nouns. However, for best study practice, try to find
worksheets that combine both parts of the noun family, including how to pluralize
nouns as appropriate. They each have important differences and working on them
together will help you spot the differences.

Common Noun Definition

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All nouns are either a person, place or thing. However, common nouns are more
general. They don't refer to any single, specific thing in particular, but rather they
are used in a more general sense.

Examples of common nouns include: Dog, city, car, amusement park, sister,
holiday, day and toothpaste.

Proper Noun Definition

Proper nouns refer to more specific people, places and things. Rather than
discussing a whole class of things, like "day" or "toothpaste," they talk about
something in particular. Also, proper nouns are generally always capitalized.

Examples of proper nouns include: Rover, New York City, Dodge Caravan, Disney
World, Julie, Christmas, Monday and Crest.

Noun Practice

Read the words listed below and decide if that word is a common noun or a
proper noun.

rabbit

fido

banana

school

tree

vacation

paris

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telephone

mother

book

Another great way to practice is to take a common noun and come up with a
proper noun example to go with it. If presented with "ocean" as a common noun,
you might choose "Pacific Ocean" as the proper noun. Do the same with this list of
common nouns.

city

man

state

car

boy

cat

flower

tree

teacher

school

Learning Common and Proper Nouns

Be patient when you are using common and proper noun worksheets. Learning
the difference can take awhile. Although they are different, and people see both
types on an almost daily basis, it still can be hard to differentiate because they are
both still nouns.

Think about writing a menu. Most people know that the word "food" is a common
noun and is not capitalized. However, individuals frequently become confused

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when they are talking about specific types of food, and determing whether those
words are common or proper nouns can be difficult.

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Compound Noun Worksheet 39

First, though, learners must understand what a compound noun is and how it
functions within the context of a sentence in English. Further complicating the
matter is the fact that not all compound nouns are made exclusively from nouns.
Prepositions and adjectives can also come into play.

Defining a Compound Noun

A compound noun consists of two words that are put together to create a single
noun. One of the words is usually a noun; however, the other word can be a noun,
an adjective, or a preposition. Combined, the meaning may or may not relate
directly back to the root noun.

Compound Noun Examples

Examples of compound nouns composed entirely of nouns include the following.

Toothpaste: a paste used in cleaning the teeth

Schoolhouse: a building used as a school

Breadbasket: a basket for serving bread or a slang term for the abdomen

Bedroom: a room in the house where one sleeps in a bed

Compound nouns can be made up of a noun and an adjective as is the case with
the word "blackboard." Underground, overboard, and above-ground are all
examples of compound nouns featuring a preposition and a noun.

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However, sometimes the compound noun will not have a noun within it at all.
Even so, it will still be considered a compound noun, because it took the
combination of two separate words to form this new word.

A great example of this is the word "output." As you know, "output" surely
classifies as a noun, defined as the thing which is produced by entering input. It is
formed by combining the words "out" (a preposition) and "put" (a verb). See how
compound nouns can be tricky sometimes?

Compound Noun Worksheets

To get in as much practice as you can, try your hand at some of these helpful
compound noun worksheets from around the web.

iSL Collective - This website contains 25 free ESL compound noun worksheets for
you to work on, including how to make compound words, exercises on compound
nouns, and even a worksheet that focuses on furnishings within a house.

ESL Printables - Here, educators share their ideas for teaching compound nouns to
ESL learners. One of the worksheets is a mix-and-match type exercise where
learners try to match the first half of a compound noun with the second half based
on a short clue.

Ezine Articles - Worksheets are important, but they have to have suitable lessons
to go with them. This discussion describes joined compound nouns like waterpark,
open compound nouns like post office, and hyphenated compound nouns like
mother-in-law.

Teaching Compound Nouns

Using a compound noun worksheet or two will certainly aid in the process of
teaching compound nouns. However, also remember that students have individual
needs and requirements. Therefore, these worksheets will have to be blended in
with other teaching techniques in order to ensure a comprehensive education.

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 Collective Noun Worksheet 40
A collective noun worksheet can significantly aid in the process of learning about
collective nouns, because it provides activities in which the learner can participate.
The hands-on experience of working with this class of nouns is much more
effective than simply reading through a block of text. You need to get into the
thick of things yourself!

However, in order to utilize collective noun worksheets, you must first understand
what exactly a collective noun is. So, let's start there.

Defining Collective Nouns

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups, usually meaning a group of
people. Collective nouns include:

army

audience

board

cabinet

class

committee

company

corporation

council

department

faculty

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family

firm

group

jury

majority

minority

navy

public

school

senate

society

team

troupe

As you can see, not all of these words will always be used as a collective noun. For
example, the word "school" can refer to the body of people at a school. However,
it can also refer to the actual building, and simply be a regular noun.

The other major thing that you'll notice about collective nouns is that while they
refer to a group of people, the noun itself appears to be singular without an "s" at
the end of it. A "team" consists of several players, for example.

Generally speaking, the verb following a collective noun used as the subject will
take on the singular form, like "Their team wins all the time" and not "Their team
win all the time."

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Collective Noun Worksheets

Listed below are three collective noun worksheets that are perfect for practicing
this area of grammar. Remember that practice makes perfect!

Basic worksheet - This worksheet requires that students underline the collective
noun in the sentence. There are a total of ten questions and they are mostly
geared toward a more introductory level.

Fill-in - Students have to fill in the appropriate collective noun where appropriate
in this downloadable PDF worksheet.

Animals - Also offered as a downloadable PDF document, this worksheet focuses

on animals instead of people. Animals are often referred to using collective nouns,
particularly when a person is talking about more than one of the animal. There are
common collective nouns that go with specific types of animals. For example, a
group of birds might be called a "flock." This worksheet teaches students about
the proper uses for different species as well as about the usage of collective
nouns.

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Concrete Noun 41
Concrete nouns are simply those nouns that can be experienced physically rather
than abstractly. As we're usually taught that nouns are people, places, and things,
most nouns are concrete nouns. Take a look around you and you'll see many
examples of concrete nouns.

If a noun is not concrete then it's an abstract noun. The two often work hand in
hand, with concrete nouns supporting abstract nouns. For example, "happiness" is
an abstract noun that can't be seen, but the "smile" that expresses the feeling can
be seen, so it is concrete.

General Types of Nouns

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Before we look at some examples of concrete nouns, let's review some of the
different types of nouns.

First, nouns can be divided into common and proper nouns:

Proper nouns are capitalized and refer to a specific, named person, place or thing.
For example: Jane, New York, The Bible.

Common nouns are not capitalized and refer to general people places and objects.
For example: woman, city, book.

Nouns can also be divided into countable and uncountable nouns:

Countable nouns function with or without a number in front of them. For

example: one car, two dogs, a million pieces.

Uncountable nouns are sometimes referred to as mass nouns because they have
mass but cannot be counted. For example: luggage, happiness, money.

Collective nouns are used for a group of objects that are a collection or unit.
Because there can be more than one unit, they may appear as singular or plural.
For example: one family, two families.

Examples of Concrete Nouns

You can tell if something is a concrete noun because you experience it through
one of your five senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch. If you cannot see,
hear, taste, touch, or smell the person or thing, it is not a concrete noun.

Concrete nouns are found in all categories of noun described above:

Common nouns

Proper nouns

Countable nouns

Uncountable nouns

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Collective nouns

Singular nouns

Plural nouns

To better understand concrete nouns, take a look at the examples below. We've
broken them down by the sense you use to experience each noun:

Sight:

dog (common)

Susan (proper)

suitcases (countable)

air (uncountable)

team (collective)

cat (singular)

women (plural)

Hearing:

whistling (common)

Twinkle Twinkle Little Star (proper)

sounds (countable)

music (uncountable)

choir (collective)

noise (singular)

chirps (plural)

Taste:

steak (common)

Reese's Pieces (proper)

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peas (countable)

medicine (uncountable)

entree (collective)

bile (singular)

cakes (plural)

Smell:

flower (common)

Heinz Ketchup (proper)

perfume (countable)

seaspray (uncountable)

herd (collective)

horse (singular)

aromas (plural)

Touch:

skin (common)

Merino wool (proper)

pennies (countable)

baggage (uncountable)

troupe (collective)

chair (singular)

puppies (plural)

Abstract Nouns

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Abstract nouns are the opposite of concrete nouns. These are nouns that name
things you cannot see, smell, taste, hear or touch. They refer to emotions, ideas,
concepts, beliefs, or your state of being. Examples of abstract nouns include:

love

bigotry

acceptance

democracy

maturity

anticipation

progress

A Solid Understanding

To decide whether a noun is concrete or abstract, ask yourself if you can see, hear,
taste, smell or touch it. If so, it is concrete. If not, it is abstract. Concrete and
abstract nouns are both "real," but one is a physical presence and the other is not.

Concrete nouns represent things that can be experienced through the five senses.
Abstract nouns refer to ideas and concepts that cannot be sensed on a physical
level. Understanding the difference between them will help you describe and
explain them appropriately in your writing.

Test your noun knowledge in the quiz below.

__________________________________________________________________

Quiz on Types of Nouns

One way to make sure you understand the difference between types of nouns is to
test your knowledge. Try our quick quiz below, or download the worksheet, to see
if you understand concrete nouns or need a bit more practice:

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Part A. Collective Nouns:

Directions: Underline the collective nouns in the following paragraph. Hint: There
are six.

My family went to the zoo on Monday. We saw a mob of people waiting to see a
pride of lions. At noon, a marching band appeared on Main Street. Lunch was
unpleasant because there was a swarm of flying insects around us. After that, we
saw a tribe of baboons and some crazy monkeys.

Part B. Countable and Uncountable Nouns:

Directions: Decide whether the underlined noun in the sentences is countable or

uncountable. Put a "C" for countable and a "U" for uncountable.

_____ The cake needs more sugar.

_____ I own 10 cars.

_____ Look at all those geese.

_____ I see a herd of bison.

_____ Did you make the team?

Part C. Concrete and Abstract Nouns:

Directions: Put a "C" for concrete and an "A" for abstract next to the noun.

1. _____ cobbler

2. _____ sadness

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3. _____ liberty

4. _____ butter

5. _____ intelligence

__________________________________________________________________

Answers:

Part A. Collective Nouns:

My family went to the zoo on Monday. We saw a mob of people waiting to see a
pride of lions. At noon, a marching band led a parade on the main street. Lunch
was unpleasant because there was a swarm of flying insects around us. After that,
we saw a tribe of baboons and some crazy monkeys.

Part B. Countable and Uncountable Nouns:

_U_

_C_

_C_

_U_

_U_

Part C. Concrete and Abstract Nouns:

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_C_

_A_

_A_

_C_

_A_

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Plural Noun Worksheet 42

Plural nouns refer to words that indicate more than one person, place, or things.
They are one of the more easy forms of grammatical devices to learn; however,
plural noun worksheets will help to enhance the study. Furthermore, instructors
can select from a large variety of worksheets in order to tailor their lesson plans to
the students' diverse learning interests.
Examples of Plural Nouns
Virtually any noun can have a plural form, unless of course, there is only one of the
item in question. For example, there is only one New York City, so while "New York
Cities" would be grammatically correct, no reason would ever exist to use that
phrase.
Examples of plural nouns include:
 cats
 books
 blankets
 people
 cities
 hamburgers
 french fries
 golf courses
 boxes
 meals
 mechanics
 teachers
 desks

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 computers
 students
 workshops
 foxes
 moose
 birds
 deer

Plural Noun Worksheet

Here are samples of plural noun worksheets which can be used in classrooms or
homeschool settings.
 Singular and Plural Nouns - Students need to find the nouns, and then
determine if they are singular or plural.
 More Practice - Like the first worksheet, students have to identify the nouns
and then determine if they are singular or plural.
 Irregulars - Since all nouns do not follow the same rules for becoming plural,
students must learn how to write the irregularnouns in plural form as well.
 Generator - This website helps to generate a worksheet that tailors to the
needs of plural noun learners.
 Elementary Level Plural Nouns Worksheet
 First Grade Plural Nouns
 Second Grade Plural Nouns
 Third Grade Plural Nouns
 Fourth Grade Plural Nouns
 Fifth Grade Plural Nouns
 Sixth Grade Plural Nouns
 Middle School Plural Nouns
 High School Plural Nouns
 Animals - Students write the plural names of animals on a worksheet.
 More Animals - This site includes more practice with writing the plural forms of
animals. More difficult ones such as "ox" are included.
 Birthday - Students write the plural of words directly related to birthdays and
birthday parties.
 Body-Related - Like the aforementioned worksheets, students have to write
the plural forms of different body parts.
 Plurals of Clothing
 Fall (Autumn) Plurals
 Flower Plurals
 Food Plurals

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 Plural People
 Plant Plurals
 School Plurals
 Sports Plurals
 Spring Plurals
 Summer Plurals
 Thanksgiving Plurals
 Winter Plurals
Having a wide range of worksheet options for plural nouns is helpful because
students could be given sheets based on their unique interests. For example, a
student who is interested in sports would benefit from a worksheet on sports
plurals. Through doing so, the student will be more engaged in the work, because
it is directly related to a subject in whichg the st
Possessive Noun Quiz
A possessive noun quiz is very useful for fourth and fifth graders. Below are a few
sample quizzes that you could make use of when teaching grammar lessons on
possessive nouns.
Quiz1
Complete each sentence by filling in the blanks with the possessive form of the
nouns in parentheses.
1. The ________ color (birds)
2. The ________ hues (lights)
3. The ________ painting (museum)
4. The ________ length (mattress)
5. The ________ effectiveness (delivery)
6. _______ Metropolitan museum (New York)
7. The _______ hot dogs (restaurant)
8. The _______ weight (television)
9. My ________ bed (dog)
10. My ________ car (Mom)
11. The _______ uniform (Officer)
12. The _______ bottle (baby)
13. The _______ toy (boy)
14. The _______ tire (car)
15. The _______ smell (food)
16. The _______ cord (telephone)
17. The _______ books (teacher)

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18. The _______ smell (flower)
19. The ______ brightness (light)
Quiz 2
Write each group of words using a possessive noun.
1. The room of the girl ____________________________
2. The toy of the boy _____________________________
3. The house of my mom __________________________
4. The ball of the dog _____________________________
5. The purse of the lady ___________________________
6. The telephone of the man________________________
7. The car of the mailman _________________________
8. The milk of the cat __________________________
9. The cries of the dog ________________________
10. The cage of the monkey ________________________
Quiz 3
Circle all of the possessive nouns in the narrative below.
My dog's howl is very loud. Every time he howls it is an eerie sound. Sometimes he
jumps on my Mom's couch. Sometimes he will lay on my Dad's favorite chair.
When I took him for a walk he ate my neighbor's food, and everyone laughed
when he ate the girl's food. I did not know how to control him. When my Dad saw
him drinking the cat's water outside, he yelled for him to stop and get away from
there. My dog got scared and began to run very fast. He ran around the block and
across my friend's lawn. He leaped over the fence at Ms. Williams' house, he crept
through the alley behind Mr. Donald's house too. When I called out to him, he just
continued to run. Faster and faster until he came to a red car. It was Mrs. Jarrell's
car. She was kind enough to stop and get out of her car. She went over to my dog
and walked him back to me.
Quiz 4
Circle all of the possessive nouns in the narrative below.
We got cell phones today. My sister's cell phone is red. My brother's cell phone is
blue. My cell phone is different than my brother's and my sister's cell phone.
When I showed my cell phone to my friend, she was excited. My friend's cell
phone is slim and flips open. Much different than mine. When we are out at the
mall we love to look at other people's cellophanes. This one girl's cell phone was
pink with purple polka dots. This boy's cell phone was green with black and yellow
stripes. When we went to eat pizza, the waiter's cell phone was all black, but the

174
hostess's cell phone was navy blue. When my friend's mom picked her up outside
of the mall, she was talking on her cell phone. My friend's mom's cell phone is
yellow and green. My friend's older brother drove past as she was getting the car
with her mother. Her brother's cell phone was blue green and was chatting away.
When my friend drove away and my mom came to pick me up she showed me her
latest cell phone. My mom's old cell phone she had traded in for a sparkly green
and red cell phone with rhinestones. It was really pretty and bright. My mom's
new cell phone had many capacities. She could watch movies on it and even check
her email. I wish I had my mom's new cell phone. It looks even better than mine.
Plural Possessive Noun

A plural possessive noun represents more than one thing or person, place, or thing
and shows ownership. Let's look at how you make a noun plural and possessive
and the rules that apply to their uses.

Types of Nouns

Nouns are words that name people, places, things, and ideas. There are different
ways to categorize them, and many nouns will fit into several categories. For
example, "dog" is a common, countable, concrete noun. Continue on for
explanations of these and other kinds of nouns.

Proper noun: These nouns refer to a specific person, place, thing, or idea. They are
always capitalized. Examples include: General Patton, Statue of Liberty, Nile River,
or Avatar.

Common noun: This is your run-of-the-mill noun. Everyday things go in this group,
like: cat, moon, daisy, boys, forest, and power.

Countable noun: These are pretty easy to figure out. These are things that can be
counted, like books, trees, miles, girls, and buildings. A singular countable noun is
preceded by a determiner, like: a, an, the, one, our, my, which, or that. Plural
countable nouns can have a number in front of them and may have a quantifier,
like: some, every, few, many, or much.

Uncountable noun: These nouns are neither singular nor plural. They are used in
the singular tense and may have quantifiers, like: some, much, or any. Examples
are: water, luggage, money, sadness, coffee, and flour.

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Collective noun: This noun represents a group of things or people. Since they refer
to the whole group as a unit, they are used as a single noun. Of course, if there are
more than one unit, then you would use the plural. Some of these are: jury, family,
class, troupe, gaggle, herd, faculty, and society.

Concrete nouns: These are things that can be experienced through your senses.
They are physical and include: song, computer, senate, Maria, houses, salt, and
family.

Abstract nouns: These refer to things that cannot be seen, felt, tasted, smelled, or
heard. They are emotions, ideas, beliefs, ideologies, and character traits. Examples
include: trust, deceit, peace, sympathy, bigotry, strength, maturity, liberty,
silliness, and democracy.

Rules for Plural Possessive Nouns

The function of a noun in a sentence can be the subject or an object. They can
modify by being possessive or an appositive. They can also modify by acting like an
adverb or an adjective. For example, in "I went home" the noun "home" modifies
the verb "went", so it is acting like an adverb, telling "where." A "storm drain" has
the noun "storm" modifying the word "drain", so it acts like an adjective.

To make a noun plural, which means there is more than one of them, you normally
add an "s." Certain nouns than end with an s, x, ch, or sh need an "es" added.
Examples are:

witches, buses, kisses, boxes, bushes, or Joneses

There are special nouns that have irregular or mutated plurals. Some of these are:

child - children

woman - women

person - people

goose - geese

mouse - mice

deer - deer

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Finally, some words keep their Greek or Latin form when making a plural. A few of
these are:

nucleus - nuclei

syllabus - syllabi

cactus - cacti

thesis - theses

fungus - fungi

criterion - criteria

Here are the rules for making nouns possessive which shows ownership. These
include the rules for making a plural possessive noun.

To make a singular noun possessive, add an apostrophe and an "s." This applies to
plural nouns that do not end with an "s", like children - children's and men - men's.

When making plural possessive nouns, add only an apostrophe if the noun ends
with an "s", like buses' and countries'.

Hyphenated and compound nouns need an apostrophe and "s" added to the last
noun, like fathers-in-law's.

If two nouns are joined together, then add an apostrophe and "s" to only the last
one. Example: Jack and Jill's.

If you have two nouns together, but they have different ownership, each will need
an apostrophe and "s" added. This one rarely comes up, but here is an example:
Jan's and Tony's cars are yellow and blue.

Remember:The two key points to a plural possessive noun are that it represents
more than one and it shows ownership.

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 Possessive Noun Practice for Middle School 43
Teachers are often looking for possessive noun practice for middle school
students. It can be tricky to teach middle school students about possessive nouns
because they're often confused with plural nouns.

Apostrophes make a critical difference between plural and possessive nouns. Read
on for information about what possessive nouns are, links to possessive noun
practice for middle school students, and a few exercises for middle school
students to practice on their own.

Defining a Possessive Noun

A possessive noun shows possession of an object. These nouns are actually used
as adjectives because they describe what possesses the noun.

It's easy to pick out a possessive noun in a sentence: They're nouns followed by an
apostrophe and the letter "s."

Sometimes, if a noun already ends in an "s", it will just be followed by an

apostrophe, with no additional "s." For example, the Jones' house.

It's also okay to use an additional "s" after a noun that ends in "s" in order to turn
it into a possessive noun. Look at the following examples:

Jesus's followers are called Christians.

Jesus' followers are called Christians.

In truth, both versions are acceptable. However, you're more likely to see the
second option than the first. Often, which version you choose will depend on
personal choice. If you feel the word sounds awkward with the extra "s" after the
apostrophe, you can leave it off.

Here are a few more examples that contain possessive nouns:

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Susan's brother is a very nice man.

I like Lizzie's recipe for cupcakes - they are so tasty!

My sister's sneakers are really stinky.

Under the dim moonlight, I can see the tree's shadow on the ground.

Unlike your mom's lasagna, my vegan sister's lasagna contains no meat.

Now, can you tell what's wrong with the following nouns?

Andrews baseball hat is blue.

The suns rays are very warm.

This hamburgers bun is covered in sesame seeds.

These nouns are all supposed to be possessive nouns - but they're missing
apostrophes between the end of the noun and the "s." This makes them look like
plural nouns instead of possessive nouns.

Plural Nouns vs. Possessive Nouns

Let's try this again. See if you can spot what's wrong with these sentences
containing possessive nouns:

I like to eat chocolate's that have cherries in the middle.

Bagel's are very tasty with cream cheese on top.

I went to the movie's yesterday to see a thriller.

These are not possessive nouns. They're plural nouns. To correct the sentences, be
sure to take out the apostrophe between the noun and the "s."

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Possessive Noun Practice

The best way to have middle school students practice their possessive nouns is to
have them complete possessive noun worksheets. You can find a lot of these
worksheets online, or you can make your own. Be sure to drop in some plural
nouns with the possessive nouns to really test their knowledge.

Additional Resources

Possessive noun practice including worksheets and quizzes are very helpful for
middle school students, so try adding these games, worksheets, and quizzes into
the mix:

Soft Schools.com offers a quiz about possessive nouns.

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Possessive Nouns 44
Many people have trouble distinguishing between possessive nouns and plural
nouns. Simply put, possessive nouns demonstrate ownership, while plural nouns
indicate more than one person, place, or thing. Let's take a look at a couple
distinguishing features of possessive nouns.

Look for the Apostrophe

Possessive nouns typically include an apostrophe. For example:

Jennifer's imagination ran wild as she pictured the accident.

The kitten's favorite toy is a stuffed catnip mouse.

Think of the apostrophe as a hook or hand reaching out to take ownership of the
object. Without that little hook or hand grabbing onto the "s" or the next word,
the noun is simply pluralized.

Grammar Rules for Possessive Nouns

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There are five basic rules for possessive nouns.

Rule #1: Making singular nouns possessive

Add an apostrophe + "s" to most singular nouns and to plural nouns that don't end
in "s."

You'll use this rule the most, so be sure to pay attention to it. English has some
words that are plural but do not add an "s." Words like children, sheep, women,
and men. These irregular plural words are treated as if they were singular words
when making noun possessives.

If a singular noun ends in "s," you can either add an apostrophe + "s" or just an
apostrophe. Both are considered correct, and often which you choose depends on
how awkward the word sounds with an extra "s" on the end: "Mr. Roberts' house"
sounds better than "Mr. Roberts's house."

Examples:

Singular nouns: kitten's collar, Joe's car, James'/James's book

Plurals not ending in s: women's dresses, sheep's pasture, children's toys

Rule #2: Making plural nouns possessive

Add just an apostrophe to plural nouns that already end in "s."

You don't need to add an extra "s" to plural nouns that already end in "s." Simply
tuck the apostrophe onto the end to indicate that the plural noun is now a plural
possessive noun.

Examples:

The companies' workers went on strike together.

You need to clean out the horses' stalls.

The two countries' armies amassed on the border.

Rule #3: Making hyphenated nouns and compound nouns plural

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Compound words and hyphenated words can be tricky. Add the apostrophe + "s"
to the end of the compound words or to the last word in a hyphenated noun.

Examples:

My mother-in-law's recipe for meatloaf is my husband's favorite.

The United States Post Office's stamps are available in rolls or packets.

Rule #4: Indicating possession when two nouns are joined together

You may be writing about two people, places, or things that share possession of an
object. If two nouns share ownership, indicate the possession only once, and on
the second noun. Make sure to add the apostrophe + "s" to the second noun only.

Examples:

Jack and Jill's pail of water is prominently featured in the nursery rhyme.

Abbot and Costello's comedy skit "Who's on First" is a classic.

Rule #5: Indicating possession when two nouns are joined, and ownership is
separate

This is the trickiest rule of all, but you probably won't need to refer to it too often.
When two nouns indicate ownership, but the ownership is separate, each noun
gets the apostrophe + "s." The examples below may help you understand exactly
what this means.

Examples:

Lucy's and Ricky's dressing rooms were painted pink and blue. (Each has his or her
own dressing room, and they are different rooms).

President Obama's and Senator Clinton's educations are outstanding. (Each owns
his or her education, but they attained separate educations).

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 Predicate Noun 45
A predicate noun is also called a predicate nominative. A predicate noun has a
dual function in a sentence. Following is an explanation of the predicate noun and
some examples.

Predicate Noun - The Completer

A predicate noun is a single noun or a noun phrase that renames the subject of a
sentence and follows a form of the verb "to be" or another linking verb. Forms of
the verb "to be" include:

is, was, am, are, be, being, been, has been, may be, and were

Other verbs that may be linking verbs or action verbs include:

smell, taste, feel, sound, grow, seem, remain, become, continue, appear, turn, and
stay

Examples of sentences with the predicate nouns underlined are:

Mr. Smith is a doctor.

My son became a professional soccer player.

Mary Smith may be our next president.

J. K. Rowling is an excellent author.

Wind turbines are an alternative source of power.

Pavarotti was a great singer.

For the next twenty years, we remained friends.

A predicate noun is also called a completer, or complement, because it completes

the verb. The verb in this case is called an intransitive verb and must be followed
by a noun or noun phrase. This noun or noun phrase completes the meaning of

183
the sentence. Every sentence has a subject and a predicate, so the intransitive
verb and the predicate noun make up the predicate of the sentence.

Predicate Adjective - The Modifier

Since you now understand predicate nouns, you may be interested to learn a bit
about predicate adjectives. Adjectives modify nouns, which includes describing
them and giving more information about them, like their composition, their origin,
your opinion of them and their purpose.

A predicate adjective is very similar to a predicate noun in that it completes the

predicate and follows an intransitive verb. These are verbs like:

am, is, was, were, has been, are, smell, remain, seem, sound, stay, continue,
become, and grow

Instead of renaming the subject, it modifies it. Here are some sentences with the
predicate adjective underlined.

Antarctica is cold, barren and frozen.

My recipe is French.

The dancers were agile, energetic and beautiful.

During the storm, driving became difficult.

Her performance was phenomenal.

She was sad, alone and miserable.

We are under-paid.

Adjective Phrase

Noun Quiz

Subject Pronoun

More articles

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 Proper Noun 46
A proper noun is a common discussion in every grammar textbook. In fact, nouns
are more important than any other part of a sentence. Some nouns are written in
lowercase letters, such as common nouns.

However, some words are capitalized in English, not because they begin a
sentence, but because they are considered proper rather than common words.
When a noun needs to be capitalized, it's considered a proper noun. Keep reading
to learn more about proper nouns, how to identify them, and how to use them in
a sentence.

Defining a Proper Noun

A proper noun is usually understood as a noun that has an initial capital letter, no
matter where it sits in a sentence. In order to be a proper noun, like any other
noun, the word must be a person, place, thing, or idea. Whereas a common noun
names a general person, place or thing, a proper noun is more specific and unique,
so dog is a common noun, but Labrador is a proper noun.

Capitalization

Proper nouns are always capitalized. Typically, the first proper nouns students are
taught are the ones we use in everyday life to describe time. These include the
seven days of the week (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and so on) and the 12
months of the year (January, February, March, and so on).

Countries, states, and cities are also proper nouns. For example, one could write
that they live in Boston, Massachusetts, and that Massachusetts is in America. In
fact, the name of the street, such as Massachusetts Avenue, is also capitalized
because it is a specific place and, therefore, a proper noun.

While we're at it, the name of the person who lives at this address, say Joe Smith,
should also be capitalized, because it is a proper noun, too. Make sure that if you
add the title "Mr." in front of Joe Smith, it should be capitalized too! Names of

185
people, names of companies, and names of specific brands are all proper nouns
that are capitalized.

Common Noun Proper Noun

lake Lake Michigan

book Divergent

company Nike

painting Mona Lisa

car Ferrari

Tricky Capitalization Rules

Telling a proper noun from a common noun is pretty straightforward. Remember,

though, while all proper nouns are capitalized, not all capitalized words are proper
nouns. Following the rules for capitalization in English will help here.

Take a look at the following examples to see capitalized words that aren't proper
nouns. The explanations are in parentheses.

My Italian neighbor likes to cook homemade pasta.

("Italian" might be proper but, in this example, it's not a noun. It's a proper
adjective because it's modifying the word "neighbor.")

If you want to drink a Californian wine, go to a winery in Napa Valley.

(Although "Napa Valley" is a proper noun, "Californian" is not. Again, it's a proper
adjective because it's modifying the word "wine.")

Our waiter said, "The chef will come out to greet you personally," but he never
came.

("Our" is capitalized because it starts the sentence. "The" is capitalized because it

starts the quote within the sentence. If the quote wasn't a complete sentence it
wouldn't be capitalized.)

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Also, be sure to remember that while "I" is always capitalized, it's a pronoun not a
proper noun.

Proper Nouns Used in a Sentence

Here are some example sentences that feature proper nouns:

Mary went to the store today. (person's name)

She bought her favorite orange juice, Tropicana. (brand name)

It reminds her of home as this juice is bottled in Florida. (place)

Proper Grammar

Proper nouns are more specific versions of their counterpart, the common noun.
Common nouns are not capitalized (unless they come at the beginning of a
sentence) and refer to a general category of persons, places, or things. So if a
person, place, or thing has a specific name, it is a proper noun and must be
capitalized.

Some common nouns can be proper nouns if included in a name. For example,
"park" is a common noun. However, "Yellowstone National Park" is a proper noun
because it's a specific place.

This would be a good point to spend some time reviewing common nouns. And,
when you're ready see if you can ace this Noun Quiz!

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What is a Determiner? 47
What is a determiner? Simply put, in English, a determiner is a word that
introduces a noun. It always comes before a noun, not after, and it also comes
before any other adjectives used to describe the noun.

Determiners are required before a singular noun but are optional when it comes
to introducing plural nouns. For example, consider the placement and usage of the
common determiner the in the sentences below:

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The bunny went home.

I ate the chocolate cookie for dessert.

Metal cans are recyclable.

The metal cans are recyclable.

In every example, the determiner is placed before the noun or noun phrase,
regardless of whether the noun in the subject or predicate. In the first example, it
comes directly before the noun, but in the second example, it comes before the
adjective ("chocolate") that describes the noun ("cookie").

Note also that in the third example there is no determiner, as determiners are
optional for plural nouns and noun phrases. When you want to discuss the noun in
general (i.e., all metal cans), you don't need a determiner for plural nouns.
However, the fourth example shows that you may add a determiner to refer to
specific nouns (i.e., the metal cans right here).

There are four different types of determiners in English: articles, demonstratives,

quantifiers, and possessives.

Articles

Articles are among the most common of the determiners. There are three singular
articles: a, an, and the. Articles specify (or determine) which noun the speaker is
referring to. A and an are indefinite articles and are used when you are talking
about a general version of the noun. For example:

A dog is a good pet.

An ostrich would beat a chicken in a race.

In these examples, the sentence is talking about dogs or ostriches in general,

meaning any dog. When your meaning is general, use an indefinite article. Note

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that a is used before words that begin with consonants while an is used before
words beginning with vowels.

On the other hand, the is a definite article, meaning the speaker is referring to a
specific noun. For example:

We went to the best restaurant in town.

The dog is barking too loudly.

Here the speaker is referring to a particular dog and a particular restaurant. It's
not a general category, but only one animal or place that's important. When your
meaning is specific, use a definite article.

Demonstratives

Demonstrative pronouns are also used as determiners in English. There are four of
them: this, that, these and those. Demonstratives are used in a situation in which
the speaker can point to the item they mean, making them even more specific
than a definite article. For example:

Do you want this piece of chicken?

I don't want to go to that movie.

These black raspberries are sour.

He wanted those boys to go away.

This and these refer to items nearby; that and those refer to items far away. Note
also that this and that are singular while these and those are plural.

Quantifiers

Quantifiers are determiners that indicate how much or how little of the noun is
being discussed. They include words such as all, few and many. For example:

189
He took all the books.

She liked all desserts equally.

Few children like lima beans, so the cafeteria stopped serving them.

Many kittens are taught to hunt by their mothers.

Note that all can be used with other determiners to specify which particular items
are meant (i.e. all the books in this pile). In this case, the quantifier always comes
before the article or demonstrative. It's also possible to use all alone to refer to
items generally, as in the second example.

Possessives

When referring to a noun that belongs to someone or something, you can use
possessive pronouns to show ownership. Possessive pronouns include my, your,
his, her, its, our, and their. For example:

Where is your car?

The dog growled and showed its teeth.

My best friend is a cat.

Which one is his house?

Honesty is her best quality.

The tree shed its leaves.

It's our secret recipe.

As always, the determiner comes before the noun and any modifying adjectives. In
English, you can use the same possessive whether the noun it references is
singular or plural.

Using Determiners Correctly

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How should you choose which determiner to use? For native English speakers,
determining which determiner to use is second nature, since determiners are so
often used in front of nouns.

For people learning English as a second language, it's helpful to remember a few
rules:

Determiners always come first in the noun phrase.

Determiners are required with singular nouns.

To speak about a singular noun generally, use an indefinite article (a or an).

To speak about a plural noun generally, do not use a determiner.

To speak about a singular noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative

pronoun, possessive pronoun or quantifier.

To speak about a plural noun specifically, use a definite article, demonstrative

pronoun, possessive pronoun or quantifier.

Once you learn the dictionary definition of each determiner as you study English
vocabulary, it becomes easy to select the determiner that best expresses your
meaning, whether you want to show ownership, quantity or relative location.

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What Is a Noun? 48
The definition of a noun used to be so simple. You may even remember your
elementary school teachers telling you a noun was a person, place or thing. Then it
got a little more complicated when "idea" was added to the list.

Then it got even more confusing when you asked about "coffee" in "coffee table."
Is it a noun or an adjective? What about when you add an apostrophe and "s" to it
to show possession? Is it still a noun, or does it then become an adjective? And
round and round you go. It may seem exhausting but fear not. Here are all the
answers to the eternal "what is a noun?" debate.

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Defining a Noun

There are a lot of definitions for "noun," from the simple list to the complex
linguistic explanation, but the best way to explain what it is to discuss what a noun
does. Remember when you read that verbs do verb-y things? Well, here are the
noun-y things that nouns do:

They come with articles. If it follows "a," "an" or "the" fairly closely, it's probably a
noun. If there's an adjective in there, it'll be between the article and the noun, so
you'll have to ask yourself, "Is this something I can feel, see, smell, taste or touch?
Or does it describe something I can feel, see, smell, taste or touch?" If it's the
former, it's a noun. If it's the latter, it's probably an adjective.

Nouns are described by adjectives. If something is described as being blue, old,

shiny, hot, or wonderful (all adjectives), it's probably a noun.

Nouns act as subjects. Generally, the subject of a sentence is the thing that comes
right before the verb. When you say, "The dingo ate my baby," the subject is "the
dingo." It comes right before the verb (ate). Subjects are a little tricky because
they can consist of just one word or a long phrase that contains several nouns.
Gerunds and infinitive verbs can also act as the subjects of a sentence, but in that
role, they are serving as nouns. Why? Because nouns act as subjects.

They act as objects and complements. Complements follow state-of-being verbs

like "be," "seem" and "become." Objects follow other verbs as well as
prepositions. In the sentence, "Amy is a teacher," the complement is "a teacher."
In the sentence, "Billy hit a teacher," the object is "a teacher." In the sentence, "I
am sitting near a teacher," the prepositional object is "a teacher." In all cases,
"teacher" is a noun.

They are names. All names of all things (people, cities, towns, counties, states,
countries, buildings, monuments, rivers, mountains, lakes, oceans, streams,
natural disasters, books, plays, magazines, articles, songs, works of art, etc.) are
nouns.

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Not all nouns do all of these things all of the time, and not all the words that do
these things are nouns, but by and large, if it looks like a noun and acts like a noun,
it's probably a noun.

Noun Gender

In English, most nouns are not inherently male or female like they are in many
other languages. However, there are a few nouns that indicate
masculinity/femininity:

actor/actress

waiter/waitress

prince/princess

king/queen

boy/girl

man/woman

gentleman/lady

uncle/aunt

father/mother

grandfather/grandmother

brother/sister

son/daughter

nephew/niece

Plural Nouns

Most English nouns can be made plural simply by adding an "s" to them, but there
are a few exceptions.

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Nouns whose singular forms end in s, z, x, ch or sh need to add -es to become
plural (boss/bosses, box/boxes, watch/watches, bush/bushes).

Certain nouns that end in o also need -es to become plural (potato/potatoes,
hero/heroes, volcano/volcanoes).

For nouns that end in f or fe, change the f to a v and add -es (knife/knives,
wolf/wolves).

If a singular noun ends in a single consonant followed by y, change the y to i, and

add -es (lady/ladies, spy/spies).

Common vs. Proper Nouns

Common nouns are simply things that exist in mass quantities whereas proper
nouns are names of specific things. For example, "building" is a common noun.
There are millions of them in the world. They're common. However, the Empire
State Building is the name of one specific building. There's only one, and that's its
name. It's a proper noun.

Common nouns are not capitalized (unless they begin a sentence, of course), but
proper nouns are always capitalized.

Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted and therefore made plural. You
can have just one eye, but more likely, you have two eyes. One eye, two eyes - you
can count them.

Uncountable (or non-countable) nouns are those that we do not generally

pluralize. Most liquids, powders and grains fall into this category. Even though
there are many corn flakes in your bowl, you say you eat cereal for breakfast, not
cereals. And you put sugar on it, not sugars.

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We sometimes pluralize non-countable nouns when we are referring to the
container or form in which they come. You order two coffees (one for you, one for
your friend), but what you really mean is two cups of coffee. You're counting the
cups, not the liquid.

Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns are those that can be perceived with the five senses. If you can
see, taste, smell, touch and/or hear it, it's a concrete noun. If it's a concept or idea
(love, peace, hate, justice) that cannot be perceived physically, it's an abstract
noun.

Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns can function in the same way as possessive adjectives and
pronouns, but possessive nouns are simply nouns that show possession. They're
still nouns, but they function as adjectives or pronouns depending on how you use
them.

Test Your Noun Knowledge

Nouns are inarguably one of the most important elements of the English language.
The function as subjects; they show possession; they pluralize singular words; they
act as common and proper words. And the list goes on. With such prominence, it's
wise to master your noun knowledge.

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 10 Kinds of Nouns with Definition and Examples 49
1. Proper Nouns.

Proper Nouns are used to refer to specific person, place or thing.

A proper noun always starts with a capital letter. These nouns also refer to the
names of the days of week and months, and also various names of organization,
institution, religious, etc. Which are proper and specific.

Shailesh

India

Mumbai

2. Common Nouns

Proper nouns refer to general, unspecific person, place or thing.

Boys

Girls

Students

3. Compound Nouns

A compound noun is a noun which contains two or more words which join
together to make a single noun is called compound noun.

A compound noun can be written together, Such as “ Football” can be hyphenated

such as “ six-pack, Mother-in-law” or separate words such as “ Post office”.

Classroom

Paper-clip

Police station

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4. Collective Nouns

A Collective noun is a noun which refers to a group of people or group of

something in a specific manner or unit.

Family

Audience

People

Note: Collective nouns can be either singular or plural, consider the examples
below.

Our team is playing the final on Friday.

Our class graduates two years ago.

5. Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which can be touched, smelled, seen, felt or tasted.

Concrete nouns can be countable or uncountable, common noun, proper noun or

collective nouns can be concrete noun.

Plate

Chair

Water

6. Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are the names of things that you can perceive or recognize with
your five senses.

Freedom

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Love

Happiness

7. Material Nouns

Material nouns refer to material or substance out of which things are made.

Gold

Silver

Iron

8. Pronoun

Personal pronouns are types of nouns that take the place of nouns which are
referring to people, places or things are called pronouns.

He

She

It

They

9. Countable nouns

Countable nouns are the nouns which can be counted. These nouns can be used in
both the singular and plural forms, when used as plural forms they can be
counted.

Friends

Chairs

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She had a pet dog. –Dog is also a countable noun as its plural is dogs.

10. Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are the nouns which cannot be counted and have only singular
form.

These nouns are exact opposite of countable nouns.

Water

Rice

Sugar

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Singular and Plural Nouns 50

Initially we talked about noun and become to know about kinds of nouns. In this
article we will elaborate singular and plural nouns. How can we change singular
nouns into plural nouns? Indeed in speaking it’s easy to formulate a singular noun
into plural but in written form there are certain rules to change singular nouns
into plural. If you don’t know about kinds of nouns we recommend you to study
about by clicking here. Then you can easily comprehend singular and plural nouns.

Countable nouns:

Singular and plural nouns can be countable nouns, the nouns which can be
counted. These nouns can be used in both the singular and plural forms, when
used as plural forms they can be counted.

Singular and Plural Nouns:

A singular noun names one person, place, thing, or idea, while a plural nouns
names more than one person, place, thing or idea.

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How to Change Singular noun into plural?

In order to change a singular noun into plural form in English, you mostly add “s”
but a lot of things don’t follow this rule, there are a few rules to remember when it
comes to turning a singular noun into a plural noun.

1. Most of singular nouns need “s” at the end to become plural.

Cup = cups

Cat = cats

Dog = dogs

2. When a singular noun ends in ‘s, ss, sh, ch, x, or z’ add ‘es’ to make it plural.

Bus = buses

Glass = glasses

Bush = bushes

watch = watches

Box = boxes

Buzz = buzzes

3. If a singular noun ends in vowel + y add ‘s’ to make it plural.

Boy = boys

Toy = toys

4. If a singular noun ends in consonant + y drop ‘y’ and add ‘ies’ to make it plural.

Sky = skies

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Baby = babies

5. Singular nouns ending in ‘o’ take ‘es’ but some singular nouns get ‘os’ to make
them plural, study the examples below:

‘Es’

Echo = echoes

Hero = heroes

Potato = potatoes

Tomato = tomatoes

Veto = vetoes

‘s’

Auto = autos

Kangaroo = kangaroos

Kilo = kilos

Photo = photos

Piano = pianos

Studio = studios

Tattoo = tattoos

Video = videos

Zoo = zoos

Some singular nouns ending in ‘o’ get either ‘s’ or ‘es’ for their plural forms.

(Buffalo, cargo, halo, mosquito, motto, no, tornado, volcano and zero).

201
6. Singular nouns ending in ‘f or fe’ change ‘f or fe’ to ‘v’ and add ‘-es’ for their
plural forms.

Wife = wives

Knife = knives

Life = lives

Self = selves

Leaf = leaves

7. Singular nouns ending in ‘-on’ become ‘-a’ in their plural forms.

Criterion = criteria

Phenomenon = phenomena

8. Singular nouns ending in ‘is’ become ‘es’ in their plural forms.

Axis = axes

Basis = bases

Crisis = crises

Emphasis = emphases

9. There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms, study the examples
below.

Fish = fishes/ fish

Sheep = sheep

Barracks = barracks

Foot = feet

Tooth = teeth

Goose = goose/ gooses

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Child = children

Man = men

Woman = women

Person = persons/ people

Mouse = mouses

10. Some nouns never take ‘s’ for their plural forms but are always considered to
be singular.

Luggage, baggage, furniture, information.

11. There are nouns appear to be plural but take a singular verb.

News, economics, mathematics, statistics and gymnastics.

My mathematics is better than yours.

Pronunciation of Final -S

The ending ‘s’ is pronounced /s/ after a voiceless sound, it is pronounced /z/ after
a voiced sound and is pronounced /iz/ after a sibilant sound:

Voiceless: caps /ps/ — cat /ts/ — book /ks/

Voiced: crabs /bz/ — words /dz/ — gloves /vz/,

Sibilant: buses /iz /– bridges /iz / — wishes /shiz /.

The /s/ sound

If the last consonant of the singular noun is voiceless, then the ‘S’ is pronounced as
/s/. Be careful not to create an extra syllable. Remember these nouns end in
“P/t/k/f/th” sounds.

Cup = cups

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Student = students

Drink = drinks

Graph = graphs

Month = months

The /iz/ sound

Singular nouns ending in ‘sh-ch -ss and x’ we add ‘es’ for their plural it is
pronounced as ‘iz’.

Dish = dishes /iz/

Church = churches /iz/

Class = classes /iz/

Box = boxes

The /z/ sound

If the last letter of the singular noun ends in a voiced consonant (or sound), then
the ‘S’ is pronounced like a /z/.

Card = cards /dz/

Bag = bags /gz/

Fan = fans /nz/

Boy = boys /yz/

Cloth = clothes /thz/

Sea = seas //eaz/

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 Different Types of Nouns 51
Common Noun

Nonspecific people, places, things or ideas

Example: Table, book, window, friends etc…

Proper Noun

Specific people, places, things…

Example: John, Anna, London, Pacific Ocean etc…

Abstract Noun

Something that you can not perceive with your five senses

Example: Freedom, love, courage etc…

Concrete Noun

Something that you can perceive with your five senses

Example: Apple, dog, house flower etc…

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Countable Noun

Can be counted

Example: Pen/pens, orange/oranges, bike, house etc…

Uncountable Noun

Uncountable Noun: Cannot be counted

Example: Bread, money, milk, food, water, snow, rice etc…

Compound Noun

Made up of two or more smaller words

Example: Sister-in-law, schoolboy, fruit juice, textbook etc…

Collective Noun

Refer to a group of things as one whole

Example: Bunch, audience, flock, group, family etc…

Singular Noun

Refer to one person, place things, or idea

206
Example: Cat, dog, ship, monkey, hero etc…

Plural Noun

Refer to more than one person, place things, or idea

Example: Dogs, cats, ships, babies etc..

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https://englishstudyonline.org/types-of-nouns/
Noun Combinations 52
Noun + Noun Collocations (A)

List of noun and noun combinations that start with A.

Abuse of power

It all had to do with an abuse of power and politics.

Account executive

She became an account executive and writer at a government agency.

Accounting firm

Many of the big accounting firms declined to comment for this article.

Accounting system

207
Options are only part of an accounting system in deep trouble.

Action movie

I love watching action movies.

Advertising agency

An advertising agency buys advertising time in 100 markets for an advertiser.

Air gun

Visitors can try their hands at shotguns, pistols, rifles and air guns.

Air raid

There was no immediate word on casualties from the air raid.

Altar boy

The boys were either altar boys or students at the parish’s school.

Antitrust case

In the antitrust case, Windows 98 was a central character.

Antitrust law

The judge has yet to assess whether the firm breached antitrust laws.

208
Arms buildup

The arms buildup will continue, reminding Taiwan of the heavy cost of
independence.

Assault rifle

Soldiers with assault rifles were patrolling the main streets of town.

Auction house

The auction house is even getting dealers to help find them buyers.

Auto maker

Sales at some other large auto makers fell or were flat.

Auto manufacturer

They plan to ask auto manufacturers what they can do better.

Noun and Noun Collocations (B)

List of noun and noun combinations that start with B.

Bank draft

He tries quietly to get the bank draft from her.

Bank rate

The bank rate is pegged to the upper end of that range.

209
Bars of soap

I’d like to buy two bars of soap please.

Beauty industry

Basim was exposed to the beauty industry through his family.

Beauty parlor

They have been to the beauty parlor and had their hair done.

Beauty salon

These shower caps are used in beauty salons all over the world.

Beauty shop

I often go to the beauty shop on the weekend.

Bed-and-breakfast

Do you know any nice bed – and – breakfasts in the area.

Bench warrant

A bench warrant was issued for his arrest when he did not appear.

Bid price

210
Currently, only the best aggregate bid price and ask price are listed.

Birth certificate

He falsified his birth certificate to get a passport.

Block grant

He called for block grants of federal funds to local school districts.

Board game

We often play board games together.

Body armor

Roberts was left with the standard body armor, which offers less protection.

Body double

It started this process of her being my body double on some deep level.

Booby trap

Engineers are inspecting the find with caution in case of booby traps.

Boot camp

In boot camp they tear them down to build them back up.

Border security

211
One of our principles is border security.

Brand name

The product with the better-known brand name will always sell better.

Brokerage firm

The market is made by a small army of brokerage firms.

Budget cut

Tien has suffered budget cuts throughout his six-year tenure.

Budget deficit

You cannot cut a budget deficit simply by raising taxes.

Building code

Some building codes allow the discharge pipe to terminate in the garage.

Building permit

If a bird feeder is a structure, it requires a building permit.

Bull market

There was another reason for the bull market for the networks.

212
Bully pulpit

He would like to put the bully back in the bully pulpit.

Business activity

Let us not rely too much on loans to support business activities.

Business enterprise

This is typically done to solve some business enterprise requirement.

Business organization

He will work with Australian and Iraqi companies and with business organizations.

Business sector

All our political and business sectors have been called upon to change.

Noun + Noun Collocations (C)

List of noun and noun combinations that start with C.

Cable car

It rained the whole time; we were sideswiped by a cable car.

Call center

Adam had a job at a call center during his college years.

213
Call option

Investors buy call options when they expect the underlying stock to rise.

Capital gain

The new tax law also includes a capital gains tax cut.

Car manufacturer

A foreign car manufacturer is expected to be among the sponsors.

Car park (U.K.)

I’m looking for a car park.

Case law

You just have to make up case law as you go along.

Case study

It turned out to be a case study in how to win.

Cash cow

The company now owns the ABC television network, a cash cow.

Catchment area

214
It allows us to study how dry the catchment areas can get.

Cattle drive

A real live cattle drive is making its way right down Main Street in Pleasanton.

Cause celebre

It was a cause celebre in liberal political and social circles.

Ceasefire agreement

The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am.

Charge card

They are accepted at all locations that accept the issuing charge cards.

Cheese cake

She really loves cheese cake.

Child care

Child care centers don’t necessarily hire the most qualified teachers.

Class action

We do not have a contract for fees for this class action.

Combat mission

215
They broke the rules and flew their 100th combat mission together over Vietnam.

Combat zone

For all, it is their first duty in a potential combat zone.

Comfort zone

We cannot afford to have anyone operating in a comfort zone.

Comfort food

The claim of comfort food is simply that it hits the spot.

Commodity brokerage

He also established a grain and commodity brokerage in 1980.

Communications technology

He was responding to the impact on architecture of modern communications

technology.

Computer business

Personal computer businesses could have a slightly harder time of it.

Conviction politician

I admire the fact that she is a conviction politician.

216
Core values

Education has been a core value since the dawn of the nation.

Corporate finance

It was not an important corporate finance tool until the late 1980s.

Cottage industry

The mother was also drafted into this cottage industry as piano accompanist.

Credit bureau

We had to be able to pass an audit by credit bureaus.

Credit union

Her credit union does not levy a maintenance fee on her account.

Custody battle

I didn’t want to go through the custody battle.

Noun Noun Collocations (D)

List of noun and noun combinations that start with D.

Date rape

Vince has been convinced ever since that it was date rape.

217
Day shift

She worked the day shift, returning home late in the afternoon.

Death camp

We must ensure that the quartering areas do not become death camps.

Death tax

Benefit gets duty, salary duty, property tax, death tax.

Death wish

In the end, he appeared to suffer from a death wish.

Debit card

Banks get paid by retailers each time a debit card is used.

Defense contractor

We are being ripped off on what we pay defense contractors.

Defense lawyer

Defense lawyers said they would push for it to be closed.

Departure time

218
Do you know your exact departure time?

Desk job

Young people have gone away to college and taken desk jobs.

Desktop publishing

The more technology you throw at desktop publishing, the better the results.

Detention basin

Lefty Gomez Field in Fairfax is a potential site for use as an emergency flood
detention basin.

Detention centre

He was transferred to an immigration detention centre in May 2008.

Discount rate

The discount rate stands at a record low 0 .5 percent.

Discount store

You can usually find economical versions at grocery and discount stores.

Drainage basin

The total area is approximately and its drainage basin is over.

Driving licence

219
My driving licence expires in March.

Duct tape

“I’m pretty handy with a sewing machine, but duct tape sticks to itself and to
other stuff,” she said.

Noun Noun Collocations (E)

List of noun and noun combinations that start with E.

Election fraud

The opposition charged election fraud, but the government denied it.

Electronics industry

Taylor declined to speculate whether the illness could hurt the electronics
industry.

Energy security

He portrayed both as key to energy security.

Enterprise zone

We have only their failed policies and an enterprise zone in Inverclyde.

Entertainment industry

The program was a mix of entertainment industry and celebrity news.

220
Estate agent

After a public school education he became a real estate agent.

Estate tax

I think they will do substantial estate tax relief this year.

Expert witness

Evans acted as an expert witness for the defence in the case.

Noun Noun Combinations (F)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with F.

Factory farming

In factory farming, the breeder hens do not stay with the chicks.

Finance company

Consumer finance companies benefited from their lean staffs and fat profit
margins.

Flexibility instrument

The amounts for the emergency aid reserve and the flexibility instrument will be
increased.

Flight deck

221
The detonation of the bomb blew a hole in the flight deck.

Foot soldier

She always focused on ordinary foot soldiers and civilians, ignoring the generals.

Freedom fighter

I try to contribute my part because I am a freedom fighter.

Fringe benefit

He decreased the hours of work and increased salaries and fringe benefits.

Futures contract

Most futures contracts are closed out before their delivery or expiration date.

Noun Noun Combinations (G)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with G.

Gender equality

No country in the world has achieved gender equality, even though we have big
initiatives and laws passed.

Gold mine

The first new major gold mine in the Northern Territory in the past 10 years will
begin production within the next week.

Government agency

222
The commission is the government agency that would police cable services.

Government office

The boulders have already been removed and sent to government offices.

Government security

Government security forces were responsible for extrajudicial killings, custodial

deaths, disappearances, rape, and torture.

Ground attack

The ground attack lasted about half an hour according to one source.

Group dynamics

The small group dynamic offers life-giving relationships for young people, he said.

Group therapy

That’s one reason I had such a hard time with group therapy.

Growth industry

Forensic science is a growth industry.

Gunboat diplomacy

Both countries were practicing gunboat diplomacy on a grand scale.

Noun Noun Combinations (H)

223
List of noun + noun collocations that start with H.

Hand grenade

It was unclear if the device was a hand grenade or bomb.

Head teacher

We interviewed the head teacher of the local school.

Health club

I work out five days a week in a health club.

Hen weekend

Pippa loves skiing, so it was her first choice for a hen weekend.

Highway system

The interstate highway system paved the way for the restlessness and relocation.

History department

He transferred from engineering to the history department.

Hit list

The company drew up a hit list of shops it expects to close.

Hit man

224
Did you see that show about the hit man on TV last night?

Noun and Noun Combinations (I)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with I.

Identity crisis

My father experienced an identity crisis in middle age.

Index fund

The cheapest and easiest alternative is an index fund.

Insurance broker

He set up in business as an insurance broker.

Interest group

They get the bulk of their money from the special interest groups.

Noun Noun Combinations (J, K)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with J, K.

Jail cell

The lack of jail cells is a problem across the state.

Jury system

225
We have faith in the jury system and must respect its verdict.

Kitchen cabinet

I have plastic covered kitchen cabinets with a wood finish.

Knowledge base

They never go to a hospital, but they have a knowledge base.

Noun Noun Combinations (L)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with L.

Labor camp

He spent a total of 38 years in prison and labor camps.

Law officer

The two groups exchanged heated words, but law officers prevented any fights.

Lead time

There are lead times of nine months on some of our components.

Learning disability

She has a learning disability and is in a special education program.

Liberation theology

226
It has been a small but influential publisher of liberation theology works.

Lie detector

He also offered to take a lie detector test, but was refused.

Line item

Maybe you should consider a line item to the university budget.

Liquor license

They are jacking up the liquor license all in one sum.

Noun Noun Combinations (M, N)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with M, N.

Mail fraud

He is charged with four counts of bribery, mail fraud and conspiracy.

Management consulting

After graduation, Lee worked for the management consulting firm McKinsey &
Company.

Market economy

We are moving to a market economy because we have no choice.

Market gardening

227
Farming and market gardening continue to thrive in the area.

Money order

Payment can be made by either by credit card or money order.

Motor vehicle

This road is closed to motor vehicles.

Music department

The music department would get two big practice rooms and a classroom.

Muzzle loader

He had five muzzle loaders marked and loaded.

News organization

It was not immediately clear who will run the new organization.

News show

The creators of the new show make that format sound quaint.

Noun Noun Combinations (O)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with O.

Office block

228
Hotels and office blocks which once advertised waterfront views now face
concrete.

Office hours

Our telephone lines are open during normal office hours.

Office job

I like to work outdoors, but my brother prefers an office job.

Old-growth forest

We’re talking about the antiquities of old-growth forest.

Opinion poll

Public opinion polls consistently show majority support for continued British rule.

Opposition party

Opposition party and union leaders were more bitter in their reaction.

Order book

Their total order books remain below normal for that time of year.

Noun Noun Combinations (P)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with P.

Package holiday

229
The company was the first to offer package holidays to tourists.

Panic attack

There may also be panic attacks and a history of attempted suicide.

Parking ticket

I came back to find a parking ticket on the windscreen.

Peer group

She was rejected by her peer group.

Personality disorder

These two personality disorders are analogous in their erratic and aggressive
behavior.

Personnel carrier

It says that only four damaged armored personnel carriers can be returned.

Pipe bomb

I just kept hearing all the gunshots and the pipe bombs.

Pork barrel

Client politics and pork barrel politics are associated with constituency work.

Position paper

230
Cummins prepared a position paper at that meeting laying out his arguments.

Post office

I work in the reservation post office.

Power politics

The last month has been a portrait in the new power politics.

Pressure group

They were up against a powerful pressure group.

Price competition

The result has been intense price competition that has hastened a shakeout.

Probation officer

He worked as a senior probation officer and was born in 1942.

Production cost

A simple production that could easily sell to cover the production cost.

Production line

The company has added production lines at its mills and joint ventures.

231
Profit margin

The decline is like manna from heaven for corporate profit margins.

Property right

The initial assignment of property rights determines who builds the fence.

Noun Noun Combinations (Q, R)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with Q, R.

Quality of life

He had a quality of life that no one could have wanted.

Rental income

It too counts on rental income for most of its earnings.

Report card

His father signed his report card.

Return address

The letter arrived in a white envelope with no return address.

Return flight

It was on his return flight that things began to get awkward.

232
Road rage

Climbing out of the cockpit, he was the picture of road rage.

Road safety

Road safety is taught to young children to avoid road accidents.

Room for improvement

We can see there is a whole lot of room for improvement.

Root cause

It is the root cause of divisions and conflict in our country.

Root crop

The main food crops are corn, yams, cassava and other root crops.

Noun Noun Combinations (S)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with S.

Savings bond

Savings bonds can also be used to help defer college education costs.

School day

The school day is divided into seven periods.

233
Search warrant

This mail cannot be opened by postal inspectors without a search warrant.

Security blanket

I want Benjamin to grow up with his own grandparent security blanket.

Security forces

Members of the security forces never aimed their actions against citizens.

Sense of direction

They have a good sense of direction to enable them to return.

Service charge

A four per cent service charge will be levied on all loans.

Service industry

The food service industry was meant to run on minimum wage.

Shock therapy

He was a supporter of electric shock therapy and taught its use.

Shorthand typist

234
His college offered to train him as a piano tuner, a lathe operator or a Braille
shorthand typist.

Shoulder strap

It is worn with a shoulder strap and sits on the hip.

Single entry

His new visa is for single entry and valid only for one week.

Small-town girl

Only in Manhattan can a small-town girl from Montana meet a guy from New
Zealand.

Soup kitchen

Some were lucky enough to catch a meal at a soup kitchen.

Speed limit

They said he was exceeding the speed limit on the curve.

Sports car

My friend really loves sports car.

Stag night

We couldn’t organise a stag night in a brewery!

235
Study hall

They held a study hall in the room with the biggest window.

Stun gun

He was shocked with a stun gun as many as 21 times.

Suicide bombing

They gave him two vests for suicide bombing, officials said.

Summit meeting

I have two suggestions for the summit meeting organizers.

Surround sound

Surround sound has been around in movie theaters and at homes for decades.

Noun Noun Combinations (T)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with T.

Tax break

The vehicle for this tax break is the charitable remainder trust.

Tax shelter

The tax shelter benefits result in a tax incidence disadvantaging the poor.

236
Term paper

I hardly think we have a term paper on our hands.

Testing ground

The defense budget could become a testing ground for that new power.

Trade route

I want to look at free agency but also the trade route.

Trading floor

An existing floor will also be converted to become a trading floor.

Transfer agent

I understand that transfer agents are employed to handle shareholder records.

Trial court

They were brought to the trial court because of their criminal actions.

Trial lawyer

The trial lawyers have political muscle to back up their motivations.

Noun Noun Combinations (V, W)

List of noun + noun collocations that start with V, W.

237
Voting booth

We have got to get people out to the voting booth.

Voting machine

She returned in a few minutes with a portable electronic voting machine.

Voting rights

He delegated his voting rights to his secretary.

War crime

They were supposed to be removed and tried for war crimes.

War game

The war games are conducted with live ammunition and heavy military machines.

Water cannon

Police massed in the city and turned water cannons on the crowd.

Word salad

I can see few if any useful edits, but several page blankings and insertions of word
salad.

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238
 NOUNS: What is a Noun? Useful Rules,
List & Examples 53
What Is A Noun?

What is a noun? Noun is described as words that refer to a person, place, thing,
event, substance, quality, quantity, etc.

Noun is a part of speech typically denoting a person, place, thing, animal or idea.

There are many different types of nouns in English, each designed to serve a
different purpose in an English sentence.

Concrete Nouns

What is a Concrete Noun?

Concrete nouns are people, places, or things that we can experience with our five
senses. Concrete nouns can be divided into common nouns and proper nouns.

List of Nouns – Concrete Noun Examples

Armchair

Aunt

Ball

Bermudas

Beans

Balloon

239
Bear

Blouse

Bed

Baby

Book

Blender

Bucket

Bakery

Bow

Bridge

Boat

Car

Cow

Cap

Cooker

Cheeks

Crest

Chest

Chair

Candy

Cabinet

Cat

Coffee

240
Charlie

Dog

Deer

Donkey

Desk

Desktop

Dentist

Drum

Dresser

Designer

Detective

Frog

Fan

Freezer

Fish

Film

Foot

Flag

Guest

Hamburger

Jewelry

===================================================================

241
 Abstract Nouns 54
What are Abstract Nouns?

Abstract nouns refer to abstract objects which you cannot see, hear, touch, smell,
or taste (ideas or concepts).

List of Nouns – Abstract Noun Examples

Awareness

Awe

Beauty

Belief

Childhood

Clarity

Cleverness

Confusion

Contentment

Courage

Crime

Growth

Happiness

Hate

Hatred

Inflation

Insanity

Intelligence

242
Joy

Justice

Kindness

Laughter

Law

Liberty

Love

Luck

Luxury

Maturity

Need

Opinion

Opportunity

Pain

Principle

Reality

Relaxation

Sanity

Satisfaction

Self-control

Speed

Strenght

Strictness

243
Tiredness

Tolerance

Trend

Union

Unreality

Victory

Wariness

Warmth

Wealth

==================================================================

Countable and Uncountable Nouns 55

Countable and Uncountable nouns vary from language to language. In some
languages, there are no countable nouns. In addition, some nouns that are
uncountable in English may be countable in other languages.

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are individual objects, people, places, etc. which can be counted.

Countable Noun Examples

Apple

School

Student

Picture

House

244
Tree

Box

Book

Customer

Friend

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable Nouns Definition

Uncountable Nouns are substances, concepts, materials, information… that we

cannot divide into separate elements. They can’t be counted.

List of Nouns – Uncountable Nouns List

Access

Adulthood

Alcohol

Business

Blood

Botany

Bacon

Chaos

Clothing

Confidence

Compassion

Calm

245
Cotton

Childhood

Coffee

Danger

Data

Dancing

Distribution

Dirt

Duty

Education

Economics

Equipment

Fame

Freedom

Glass

Grass

Golf

Hair

Hardware

Hydrogen

Hatred

Hunger

Honey

246
Importance

Intelligence

Industry

Jealousy

Jam

Jewelery

Innocence

Iron

Linguistics

Light

Loneliness

Music

Meat

Nurture

Psychology

Collective Nouns

What are Collective Nouns?

Collective nouns are names for a collection or a number of people or things.

Words like group, herd, and array are collective noun examples.

Collective Noun Examples

Herd

Pack

Flock

247
Swarm

Shoal

Group

Crowd

Gang

Mob

Staff

Crew

Choir

Orchestra

Panel

Board

Troupe

Bunch

Pile

Heap

Set

Stack

Series

Shower

Fall

=================================================================

248
 Compound Nouns 56
Compound Nouns Definition

Compound nouns are words for people, animals, places, things, or ideas, made up
of two or more words. Most compound nouns are made with nouns that have
been modified by adjectives or other nouns.

List of Nouns – Compound Noun Examples

Airline

Airport

Aircraft

Armchair

Boyfriend

Battlefield

Briefcase

Butterfly

Countdown

Comeback

Background

Cupboard

Chopstick

Classmate

Daredevil

Daydream

Dragonfly

249
Everybody

Everything

Fireworks

Football

Footprint

Greenhouse

Hallway

Handcuff

Haircut

Homework

Horsefly

Houseboat

Inside

Moonlight

Myself

Notebook

Overdue

Pancake

Partnership

Photocopy

Raincoat

Rattlesnake

Ringworm

250
Skyscraper

Sandcastle

Snowboard

Sunshine

Teardrop

Teacup

Teapot

Thunderstorm

Timetable

Yourself

==================================================================

Possessive Nouns 57
Possessive Nouns Definition

Possessive nouns are nouns that show ownership or possession. Normally these
words would be a singular or plural noun, but in the possessive form they are used
as adjectives to modify another a noun or pronoun.

Possessive Noun Examples

Cat’s toy

Charles’s car

Chris’s exam

Children’s clothes

Men’s shoes

Babies’ shoes

251
Lemons’ acidity

Owls’ eyes

Sister’s room

Jim’s pen

My mom’s bag

==================================================================

Regular Plural Nouns 58

Forming Regular Plural Nouns

How to form regular plural nouns in English.

Most singular nouns are made plural by adding -s to the end of the singular form.

When a noun ends in a sibilant sound – /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ – the plural is
formed by adding -es, or -s if the singular already ends in -e.

The plural form of some nouns that end in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ is made by changing the
ending to -V(es).

When a noun ends in “o” preceded by a consonant, the plural in many cases is
spelled by adding -es.

Nouns that end in ‘o’ preceded by a vowel are made plural by adding -s.

When the ‘y’ follows a consonant, changing ‘y’ to ‘i’ and adding -es.

When the ‘y’ follows a vowel, the plural is formed by retaining the ‘y’ and adding -
s.

Regular Plural Noun Examples

car – cars

bag – bags

252
table – tables

house – houses

dog – dogs

kiss – kisses

dish – dishes

witch – witches

judge – judges

half – halves

hoof – hooves

calf – calves

elf – elves

shelf – shelves

leaf – leaves

loaf – loaves

thief – thieves

wolf – wolves

life – lives

knife – knives

scarf – scarves

wife – wives

cuff – cuffs

knockoff – knockoffs

chef – chefs

253
belief – beliefs

roof – roofs

chief – chiefs

potato – potatoes

tomato – tomatoes

hero – heroes

echo – echoes

veto – vetoes

domino – dominoes

mosquito – mosquitoes

volcano – volcanoes

piano – pianos

photo – photos

halo – halos

soprano – sopranos

radio – radios

stereo – stereos

video – videos

country – countries

family – families

cherry – cherries

lady – ladies

puppy – puppies

254
party – parties

holiday – holidays

Irregular Plural Nouns

Irregular Plural Nouns Definition

Irregular plural nouns are nouns that do not become plural by adding -s or -es, as
most nouns in the English language do. For example, the plural form of man is
men, not mans. The plural form of woman is women, not womans.

Irregular Plural Noun Examples

Aircraft – aircraft

Barracks – barracks

Deer – deer

Gallows – gallows

Moose – moose

Salmon – salmon

Hovercraft – hovercraft

Spacecraft – spacecraft

Series – series

Species – species

Means – means

Offspring – offspring

Deer – deer

Fish – fish

Sheep – sheep

255
Offspring – offspring

Trout – trout

Swine – swine

Person – people

Ox – oxen

Man – men

Woman – women

Caveman – cavemen

Policeman – policemen

Child – children

Tooth – teeth

Foot – feet

Goose – geese

Mouse – mice

Louse – lice

Penny – pence

Index – indices /indexes

Matrix – matrices

Vertex – vertices

Appendix – appendices

Alumnus – alumni

Corpus – corpora

Census – censuses

256
Focus – foci

Genus – genera

Prospectus – prospectuses

Radius – radii

Campus – campuses

Succubus – succubi

===================================================================

Gender of Nouns in English 59

Learn the Gender of Nouns and List of Masculine and Feminine Words in English:

Masculine – Feminine

Sir – Madam

Uncle – Aunt

Nephew – Niece

Wizard – Witch

Hart – Roe

Drake – Duck

Lion – Lioness

Priest – Priestess

Prophet – Prophetess

Patron – Patroness

Host – Hostess

Viscount – Viscountess

257
Shepherd – Shepherdess

Steward – Stewardess

Heir – Heiress

Baron – Baroness

Peer – Peeress

Abbot – Abbess

Emperor – Empress

Traitor – Traitress

Actor – Actress

Benefactor – Benefactress

Hunter – Huntress

Tempter – Temptress

Master – Mistress

Tiger – Tigress

Duke – Duchess

Enchanter – Enchantress

Songster – Songstress

Hero – Heroine

Sultan – Sultana

Czar – Czarina

Signor – Signora

Manservant – Maidservant

He-goat – She-goat

258
Cock-sparrow – Hen-sparrow

Bull-calf – Cow-calf

Grandfather – Grandmother

Landlord – Landlady

Milkman – Milkmaid

Peacock – Peahen

Giant – Giantess

Count – Countess

==================================================================

Collective Nouns: Useful List &

Examples in English 60

What is a Collective Noun?

What is a collective noun? A collective noun refers to a group of people, animals

or a collection of things taken as a whole.

Collective nouns examples:

What is a group of girls called? A bevy of girls, a giggle of girls

What is a group of boys called? A blush of boys, a rascal of boys

What is a group of cats called? A glaring of cats, a cluster of cats, a clutter of cats

What is a group of ferrets called? A business ferrets, a cast of ferrets

What is a group of giraffes called? A journey of giraffes, a herd of giraffes, a tower

of giraffes

259
Learn collective nouns list for people, animals and things with examples illustrated
with pictures.

Collective Nouns List

Common Group Names

Group Name “Herd”

Collective noun examples:

A herd of antelope

A herd of boar

A herd of buffaloes

A herd of caribou

A herd of cattle

A herd of chamois

A herd of chinchillas

A herd of cows

A herd of cranes

A herd of deer

A herd of donkeys

A herd of elephants

260
A herd of elk

A herd of fairies

A herd of giraffes

A herd of gnus

A herd of goats

A herd of horses

A herd of llamas

A herd of moose

A herd of oxen

A herd of pigs

A herd of ponies

A herd of sea horses

A herd of seals

A herd of swans

A herd of swine

A herd of walruses

A herd of whales

A herd of wolves

A herd of wrens

A herd of yaks

A herd of zebras

Group Name “Pack”

Collective nouns list:

261
A pack of bears (polar bears)

A pack of coyotes

A pack of dogs

A pack of grouse

A pack of gulls

A pack of hounds

A pack of mongooses

A pack of mules

A pack of rats

A pack of sharks

A pack of stoats

A pack of weasels

A pack of wolves

Group Name “Flock”

Collective nouns list:

A flock of birds

A flock of bustards

A flock of camels

A flock of chickens

A flock of ducks

A flock of geese

262
A flock of goats

A flock of parrots

A flock of pigeons

A flock of seagulls

A flock of sheep

A flock of swifts

A flock of tourists

A flock of turkeys

Group Name “Swarm”

Collective nouns list:

A swarm of ants

A swarm of bees

A swarm of butterflies

A swarm of eels

A swarm of flies

A swarm of gnats

A swarm of insects

A swarm of rats

Group Name “Shoal”

Collective noun examples:

A shoal of bass

263
A shoal of fish

A shoal of herrings

A shoal of pilchards

A shoal of salmon

Group Name “Group”

Collective nouns list:

A group of guinea pigs

A group of islands

A group of people

A group of dancers

A group of engineers

Group Name “Crowd”

Collective noun examples:

A crowd of onlookers

A crowd of people

Group Name “Gang”

Collective nouns list:

A gang of hoodlums

A gang of laborers

A gang of slaves

264
A gang of thieves

A gang of criminals

A gang of crooks

A gang of hoodlums

A gang of prisoners

Group Name “Mob”

Collective nouns list:

A mob of emus

A mob of kangaroos

A mob of meerkats

A mob of thieves

A mob of sheep

A mob of kangaroos

A mob of rioters

Group Name “Staff”

Group names examples:

A staff of employees

A staff of servants

Group Name “Crew”

Group names examples:

265
A crew of sailors

Group Name “Choir”

Group names examples:

A choir of angels

Group Name “Orchestra”

Group names examples:

An orchestra of musicians

Group Name “Panel”

Group names examples:

A panel of experts

Group Name “Board”

Group names examples:

A board of directors

A board of trustees

A board of chess players

Group Name “Troupe”

Collective nouns list:

A troupe of monkeys

266
A troupe of shrimp

A troupe of dancers

A troupe of minstrels

A troupe of performers

Group Name “Bunch”

Group names examples:

A bunch of seals

A bunch of pigeons

Group Name “Pile”

Group names examples:

A pile of books

Group Name “Heap”

Group names examples:

A heap of trash

Group Name “Set”

Group names examples:

A set of bowls

A set of utensils

Group Name “Stack”

267
Group names examples:

A stack of books

Group Name “Series”

Group names examples:

A series of events

A series of photos

Group Name “Shower”

Group names examples:

A shower of bastards

Group Name “Fall”

Group names examples:

A fall of lambs

A fall of woodcock

List of Collective Nouns | Image

Common collective nouns list for people, animals and things in English in one
table.

Common Collective Nouns

List of Collective Nouns for Animals, People and Things

268
Collective Nouns List for People
In English, collective nouns for people are names for a number or a collection of
people.

List of collective nouns for people in English.

A circle of friends

A class of pupils

A horde of savages

A host of angels

A house of senators

A joint of osteopaths

A lie/An equivocation of politicians

A line of kings/rulers

A melody of harpists

A mess/An execution of officers

A meter of percussionists

A mob of rioters

A morbidity of majors

A mug/A reflection of narcissists

A multiply/An unhappiness of husbands

A mutter of mothers-in-law

A wisdom of grandparents

A number/A set of mathematicians

269
A pack of Brownies

A pack of thieves

A pan of reviewers

A panel of experts

A party of friends

A patrol of policemen

A peck of Frenchmen

A picket of strikers

A pint of Irishmen

A pity/A gang of prisoners

A plush/A rascal of boys

A pomposity of professors

A posse of police

A posse of sheriffs

A pound of Englishmen

A promise of barmen

A prudence of vicars

A quiz of teachers

A rage of maidens

A rash of dermatologists

A regiment of soldiers

A rookery/A school of clerks

A rout of schoolboys

270
A sample of salesmen

A school of clerks

A scolding of seamstresses

A scoop/A slant of journalists

A sentence of judges

A series of radiologists

A set/A subtlety of designers

A set/A swish of hairdressers

A shower of bastards

A shower of meteorologists

A shrivel of critics

A shuffle of bureaucrats

A side of dancers

A simplicity of subalterns

A poverty of pipers

A slate of candidates

A slither of gossip columnists

A slouch of models

A sneer of butlers

A sprig of vegetarians

A squad of beaters

A squad of soldiers

A squat of daubers

271
A squeal of nieces

A staff of employees

A staff of servants

A staff of teachers

A stalk of foresters

A subtlety of sergeants at law

A superfluity of nuns

A tabernacle of bakers

A talent of gamblers

A tantrum of decorators

A team of athletes

A team of players

A thought of barons

A tribe of Indians

A tribe of natives

A trip of hippies

A troop of boy scouts

A troupe of acrobats

A troupe of artistes

A troupe of dancers

A troupe of performers

A wandering of tinkers

A wheeze of joggers

272
A worship of writers

An absence/An order of waiters

An alley/A pratfall of clowns

A brace/A wince of dentists

An amalgamation of metallurgists

An amble of walkers

An ambush of widows

An army of soldiers

A roll of drummers

An attitude/A grunt of teenagers

An audience of listeners

An eloquence of lawyers

An embarrassment /A persistence of parents

An entrance of actresses

An expectation of heirs

An expectation of midwives

An obscurity/A rhyme of poets

An illusion of magicians

An impatience of wives

An imposition of in-laws

An obeisance of servants

An observance of hermits

An obstruction of dons

273
…

Learn more with 200+ Useful Collective Nouns for People

Collective Nouns List for Animals

In English, a collective noun for animals refers to a collection or a group of animals

taken as a whole.

List of collective nouns for animals in English.

List of Collective Nouns for Birds

A cloud of seafowls

A colony/A flock/A raft of auks

A colony of avocets

A colony of gulls

A colony of ibises

A colony/A parcel/A rookery of penguins

A covey/A brace/A brood/A flight/A pack of grouse

A covey/A bevy/A clutch/A warren of partridges

A covey of ptarmigans

A crowd of redwings

A descent of woodpeckers

A desert/A deceit of lapwings

A fall/A covey/A flight/A plump of woodcocks

A flight of birds

274
A flight/A gulp of cormorants

A flight of goshawks

A flight/A flock/A kit/A passel of pigeons

A flight/A gulp of swallows

A fling of dunlins

A fling of sandpipers

A flock of birds

A flock of bustards

A flock of swifts

A flock of turkeys

A flush of ducks

A head/A herd of curlews

A herd/A flock of wrens

A hill of ruffs

A host/A quarrel/A tribe/A ubiquity of sparrows

A murder/A hover/A muster/A parcel of crows

A chattering/A cloud/A congregation/A clutter of starlings

A muse of capons

A muster/An ostentation/A pride of peacocks

A mustering/A flight/A phalanx of storks

A mutation of thrushes

A bouquet/A head/A warren of pheasants

A parcel of linnets

275
A parliament/A stare of owls

A pitying of turtledoves

A plump of moorhens

A plump/A bunch/A knob/A raft of waterfowls

A pod/A scoop of pelicans

A prattle of parrots

A pride/A flock of ostriches

A rafter of turkeys

A run of poultry

A sedge/A siege of bitterns

A sedge/A herd/A sedge/A siege of cranes

A sedge/A flight/A hedge/A rookery/A siege of herons

A flush/Apuddling of mallards

A spring/A bunch/A coil/A knob/A raft of teals

A squabble of seagulls

A stand of flamingos

A trip of dotterels

A trip/A bunch/A knob/A lute/A skein of wildfowls

A wake of buzzards

A walk/A wisp of snipes

List of Collective Nouns for Mammals

A glaring/A cluster/A clutter of cats

276
A cluster/A herd/A tribe of antelopes

A coalition of cheetahs

A cohort/A herd/A zeal of zebras

A colony/A family/A lodge of beavers

A colony of chinchillas

A colony/A horde/A mischief/A swarm of rats

A colony of voles

A congress/A flange/A troop of baboons

A coterie/A town of prairie dogs

A couple of impalas

A cowardice of curs

A crash/A herd/A stubbornness of rhinoceroses

A destruction of (wild) cats

A destruction of wildcats

A drift/A trip of (tame) swine

A dray/A colony of squirrels

A drift/A drove/A parcel of hogs

A drove of bullocks

A drove/A drift/A flock/A herd of pigs

A drove/A herd of swine

A fall of lambs

A family/A bevy/A raft/A romp of otters

A farrow/A litter of piglets

277
A field/A string of racehorses

A gang/A herb/An obstinacy of buffalos

A gang/A herd of elks

A grind of bottle-nosed whales

A group of guinea pigs

A herd/A gang of bisons

A herd/A leash of bucks

A herd of caribous

A herd/A drift/A drove/A mob of cattle

A herd of chamois

A herd/A drove of donkeys

A herd of elands

A herd/A parade of elephants

A herd/An implausibility of gnus

A herd of hartebeests

A herd of harts

A herd of ibexes

A herd of llamas

A herd of moose

A herd of wildebeests

A herd of yaks

A horde of gerbils

A horde of hamsters

278
A huddle/A herd/An ugly of walruses

A husk of jackrabbits

A journey/A group/A herd/A tower of giraffes

A kindle/A litter of kittens

A kindle of leverets

A labor/A company/A movement of moles

A leap of leopards

A leash of greyhounds

A litter of cubs

A litter of pups

A mischief/A horde/A nest/A trip of mice

A mob/A troop of kangaroos

A mob of wombats

A nursery/A gaze of raccoons

A pace/A drove/A coffle/A herd of asses

A pack/A band/A rout of coyotes

A pack/A kennel of dogs

A pack/A trip of stoats

A pack/A herd/A rout of wolves

A parcel of hinds

A pod/A flock/A school/A team of dolphins

A prickle of porcupines

A pride/A flock/A sault/A troop of lions

279
A rake/A rack/A rag of colts

A richness of martens

A school/A herd/A pod of porpoises

A shrewdness/A troop of apes

A skulk/An earth/A lead/A leash/A troop of foxes

A sloth of bears

A sneak/A gang/A pack of weasels

A sounder of (wild) boars

A sounder of (wild) pigs

Collective Nouns for Animals

List of Collective Nouns for Sea Animals

A glide of flying fish

A glint/A troubling of goldfish

A grind of blackfish

A herd of seahorses

A pack of perch

A party of rainbow fish

A quantity of smelts

A school of butterfly fish

A school of cod

A shiver/A school/A shoal of sharks

A shoal/A catch/A draught/A fray/A haul/A run/A school of fish

280
A shoal of mackerel

A shoal/A steam/A stream/A swarm of minnows

A shoal/A school of pilchards

A shoal of roach

A shoal of shads

A shoal/A spread of sticklebacks

A squad of squid

A swarm of dragonet fish

A swarm of eels

A troop of dogfish

A troupe of shrimp

List of Collective Nouns for Insects

A colony/An army/A bike/A swarm of ants

A swarm/A bike/A cast/A cluster/A drift/A game/A hive/A stand/A rabble/A grist
of bees

A bike of (wild) bees

A flight/A rabble/A swarm of butterflies

An army of caterpillars

An intrusion of cockroaches

A swarm/A cloud/A business/A grist/A hatch of flies

A cloud/A cluster/A swarm of grasshoppers

A bike/A nest/A swarm of hornets

A flight/A horde/A plague/A rabble/A swarm of insects

281
A flock/A colony/An infestation of lice

A plague/A cloud/A swarm of locusts

A scourge/A swarm of mosquitoes

A clutter/A cluster of spiders

Collective Nouns List for Things

List of collective nouns for things in English.

A piece of jewellery

A pile of money

A drop of rain

A ray of sunshine

A pinch of salt

A bar of soap

A tube of toothpaste

A ball of wool

A bar of soap

A battery of tests

A bolt of lightning

A bunch of books

A bunch of keys

A bunch of keys

A chest of drawers

282
A clump of reeds

A deck of cards

A fleet of ships

A fleet of vehicles

A flight of stairs

A gallon of gasoline

A group of friends

A group of islands

A grove of trees

A hedge of bushes

A library of books

A pack of cards

A pair of shoes

A piece of furniture

A piece of paper

A quiver of arrows

A ream of paper

A roll of film/cloth

A series of events

A set of books

A set of tools

A shelf of books

A stack of chairs

283
A suite of furniture

A suite of rooms

List of Collective Nouns for Things | Image

Collective Nouns for Things

Collective Nouns List for Food and Drinks

List of collective nouns for food and drinks in English.

A bar/A square of chocolate

A batch of cakes

A bottle of milk

A bowl of rice

A box of cereal

A can of soda

A carton of milk

A cup of tea

A glass of water

A jar of honey

A jug of water

A kilo of meat

A kilo of sugar

A loaf of bread

284
A packet of tea

A piece of cheese

A piece of chocolate

A pile of cookies

A slice of bread

A slice of pizza

A tub of margarine

===================================================================

Possessive Nouns: Useful Rules & Examples 61

What Is A Possessive Noun?

What is a possessive noun? A possessive noun is a noun that names who or what
owns or has possession of something.

In most cases, for singular nouns to show that possession, we add an apostrophe +
s. For plural nouns we simply add an apostrophe except for those few plural nouns
that do not end in s.

Possessive Nouns Examples:

The car’s front seat

285
Bartkowski’s book

Babies’ shoes

Lemons’ acidity

Owls’ eyes

Forming Possessive Nouns | Rules

When creating the possessive form of nouns, there are 5 simple rules as follows:

Rule 1: Making singular nouns possessive

If a singular noun, add ‘s.

Example:

The girl’s hands were chapped by the cold.

The cat’s toy was missing.

Even if the singular noun is a proper noun (i.e. a name), add ‘s.

Example:

286
Richard’s attempts to solve the problem were rewarded.

If names ending in s, you can either add an apostrophe + s, or just an apostrophe.

The first option is more common. When pronouncing a possessive name, we add
the sound /z/ to the end of the name.

Charles’s car (or Charles’ car)

Chambers’s house (or Chambers’ house)

Chris’s exam (or Chris’ exam)

Rule 2: Making plural nouns possessive

If a noun is plural in form and ends in an s, add an apostrophe only.

Example:

The tables’ legs were all wobbly and needed repair.

Cherries’ stones can break your teeth if you are not careful.

People are prepared to pay high prices for designers’ clothes.

287
If a plural noun does not end in s, add ‘s.

Example:

The children’s clothes were brand new.

The prices of men’s shoes run from ￡30 to ￡90.

Rule 3: Indicating possession when two nouns are joined together

If there is joint possession, use the correct possessive for only the possessive
closest to the noun.

Example:

Clinton and Gore’s campaign was successful.

I didn’t come to Mr. and Mrs. Smith’s wedding.

Carol and Susan’ s car is out of gasoline.

Rule 4: Indicating possession when two nouns are joined, and ownership is
separate

If there is a separate possession of the same noun, use the correct possessive form
for each word.

Example:

288
Susan’s and Beth’s books are full of useful information.

The car’s and the bicycle’s owners could speak French perfectly.

Rule 5: Making hyphenated or compound nouns possessive

With hyphenated or compound nouns, use the correct possessive form for the
word closest to the noun. Avoid possessives with compound plurals.

Example:

My daughter-in-law’s gift is a diamond necklace.

The English teacher’s method is very effective.

Your neighborhood letter carrier’s job is more difficult than you imagine.

===================================================================

Countable and Uncountable Nouns:

Useful Rules & Examples 62
What are Countable Nouns? | Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are individual objects, people, places, etc. which can be counted.
(We use a/an or a number in front of countable nouns).

Examples:

an apple

289
a school

1 picture, 2 pictures, 3 pictures

2 men, 4 men, 8 men

A countable noun can be both singular or plural. (Normally, we add -s/-es to make
a countable noun plural.)

Examples:

apple – apples

tree – trees

box – boxes

Use the singular form of the verb with a singular countable noun.

Examples:

There is a book on the table.

That student is excellent!

290
Use the plural form of the verb with a countable noun in the plural.

Examples:

There are some students in the classroom.

Those houses are very big, aren’t they?

We can use some and any with countable nouns.

Examples:

Some people pretend to despise the things they cannot have.

Please put up your hand if you have any questions.

We only use many and few with plural countable nouns.

Examples:

Many students now see university as a stepping stone to a good job.

The country has relatively few cinemas.

We can use a lot of and no with plural countable nouns.

291
Examples:

There is no friend as faithful as a good book.

The store has a lot of regular customers.

What are Uncountable Nouns? | Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are materials, concepts, information, etc. which are not
individual objects and can not be counted.

Examples:

information

water

understanding

wood

cheese

292
Uncountable nouns are always singular. Use the singular form of the verb with
uncountable nouns.

Examples:

There is some water in that pitcher.

That is the equipment we use for the project.

Normally we do not use a/an with uncountable nouns; instead we use expressions
such as a glass of water (a water), a piece of music (a music).

Uncountable nouns can appear without any determiner.

Example:

Can you hear music?

We can use some/any/much/little with uncountable nouns.

Examples:

I’ll put the kettle on and make us some tea.

Don’t dally along the way! We haven’t got much time.

We only use much and little with uncountable nouns.

Examples:

293
He doesn’t usually drink much coffee.

There is little information about the weather.

We can use a lot of and no with uncountable nouns.

Examples:

I have a lot of free time today.

It’s hard sailing when there is no wind.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns Images

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable and Uncountable Nouns: Useful Rules & Examples

Countable and Uncountable Nouns | Grammar Rules and Examples

Nouns that Can Be Countable or Uncountable

Some nouns can be used as both countable or uncountable, usually with a

difference in meaning.

Examples:

294
Fire

fire = element (Most animals are afraid of fire.)

fire = a burning pile (Firemen put out fires.)

Memory

memory = the ability to remember (I have a very good visual memory.)

memory = specific memories of past events (He’s trying to block out memories of
the accident.)

==================================================================

Uncountable Nouns: List of 450 Useful

Uncountable Nouns 63

What is an Uncountable Noun?

Countable nouns are common nouns that can take a plural, can combine with
numerals or counting quantifiers, and can take an indefinite article such as a or an.
Examples of count nouns are book, orange, cat, animal, man…

The outside of an orange is bitter, but the inside is sweet.

A cat was basking on the window sill.

Uncountable Nouns are substances, concepts, materials, information… that we

cannot divide into separate elements. They can’t be counted.

For example, we cannot count “water“. We can count “a glass of water” or “a

bottle of water” or “1 litre of water“, but we cannot count “water” itself.

I immerse my clothes in the water.

Could I have a glass of water, please?

295
Uncountable Nouns List A – Z

Below you can find a list of the most common non-count nouns in English. Some
nouns are both countable and uncountable. They have been put in bold.

Uncountable Nouns List: A – D

Advice

Aggression

Assistance

Attention

Accommodation

Advertising

Air

Athletics

Access

Adulthood

Alcohol

Applause

Agriculture

Atmosphere

Anger

Art

296
Absence

Aid

Arithmetic

Age

Beauty

Beef

Bravery

Business

Blood

Botany

Bacon

Baggage

Ballet

Butter

Biology

Beer

Bread

Behaviour

Cake

297
Cash

Chaos

Clothing

Confidence

Compassion

Calm

Corruption

Courage

Comprehension

Cheese

Currency

Carbon

Cardboard

Chalk

Chess

Coal

Commerce

Confusion

Cookery

Countryside

Crockery

Cutlery

Chocolate

298
Content

Cotton

Childhood

Coffee

Danger

Data

Dancing

Democracy

Damage

Darkness

Determination

Delight

Depression

Driving

Dignity

Dessert

Design

Dust

Distribution

Dirt

Duty

299
Uncountable Nouns List: E – H

Education

Economics

Equipment

Earth

Expense

Energy

Electricity

Enthusiasm

Environment

Enjoyment

Energy

Envy

Evil

Engineering

Entertainment

Evolution

Existence

Ethics

Evidence

Employment

300
Experience

Failure

Fire

Fiction

Fashion

Forgiveness

Faith

Flour

Flu

Fear

Fun

Fame

Freedom

Food

Finance

Fruit

Fuel

Friendship

Furniture

Flesh

301
Gasoline

Genetics

Garbage

Growth

Grief

Grammar

Garlic

Gossip

Gold

Gymnastics

Glass

Grass

Golf

Gratitude

Ground

Guilt

Harm

Hair

Hardware

Hydrogen

302
Help

Happiness

Health

Hate

Hope

Hospitality

Homework

Heat

Hatred

Hunger

Honey

Humour

Honesty

Height

Housework

History

Uncountable Nouns List: I – O

Ice

Imagination

Information

Independence

303
Infrastructure

Ice cream

Importance

Intelligence

Industry

Irony

Injustice

Innocence

Iron

Insurance

Inflation

Judo

Jealousy

Jam

Jewelery

Joy

Juice

Justice

Kindness

304
Knowledge

Karate

Laughter

Labour

Lava

Livestock

Luggage

Lightning

Land

Leather

Linguistics

Light

Loneliness

Lack

Litter

Luck

Love

Leisure

Logic

Literature

305
Machinery

Mail

Mankind

Marriage

Money

Magic

Marble

Mercy

Music

Meat

Management

Mathematics

Moonlight

Methane

Milk

Metal

Mayonnaise

Mud

Mist

Motivation

Motherhood

Measles

306
N

Nature

Nitrogen

Nutrition

Noise

News

Nonsense

Nurture

Obedience

Obesity

Oxygen

Oil

Uncountable Nouns List: P – Z

Paper

Passion

Poetry

Parking

Pressure

307
Perfume

Physics

Psychology

Peel

Pepper

Patience

Permission

Peace

Philosophy

Plastic

Progress

Production

Pollution

Pleasure

Pork

Petrol

Pronunciation

Pride

Policy

Purity

Poverty

Punctuation

Power

308
Produce

Protection

Publicity

Pasta

Pay

Pain

Painting

Quartz

Quality

Quantity

Reliability

Rum

Recreation

Reality

Rubbish

Revenge

Racism

Rice

Relief

309
Respect

Rain

Relaxation

Research

Religion

Salt

Safety

Salad

Scaffolding

Soil

Satisfaction

Sand

Satire

Security

Sorrow

Seafood

Speed

Scenery

Sewing

Strength

Space

310
Software

Seaside

Stream

Stupidity

Shopping

Stress

Shame

Spite

Steam

Silence

Sunshine

Sleep

Status

Success

Soup

Snow

Smoking

Silver

Symmetry

Spaghetti

Spelling

Soap

Sport

311
Stuff

Sugar

Smoke

Tea

Tolerance

Thirst

Technology

Trousers

Tennis

Trade

Timber

Turbulence

Toothpaste

Time

Traffic

Travel

Toast

Thunder

Transportation

Trust

Trouble

312
Temperature

Understanding

Usage

Underwear

Unemployment

Unity

Violence

Veal

Validity

Vitality

Vinegar

Vision

Vegetation

Vegetarianism

Vengeance

Warmth

Weight

313
Whiskey

Weather

Wildlife

Water

Welfare

Wine

Wisdom

Wood

Wealth

Wheat

Wool

Width

Work

Yoga

Youth

Yeast

Zoology

Zinc

===================================================================

314
 Countable and Uncountable Food:
Helpful List & Examples 64
Countable and Uncountable Food

List of Countable and Uncountable Food

Countable Food

Burger

Sandwich

Hot dog

Cherry

Apple

Grape

Orange

Olive

Watermelon

Carrot

Tomato

Pea

Salad

Vegetable

Pancake

Sausage

Egg

315
Potato

Cookie

Fries

Candy

Uncountable Food

Bread

Fruit

Juice

Meat

Rice

Cereal

Milk

Coffee

Tea

Flour

Salt

Soup

Sugar

Butter

Cheese

Honey

Water

316
Chocolate

Jam

Seafood

Mustard

===================================================================

List of Countable Food with Examples

Burger

Do you want some ketchup with your burger?

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 2

Sandwich

We went for a sandwich lunch at the local bar.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 3

Hot dog

He bought a hot dog and had it covered with all the fixings.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 4

Cherry

Each cake had a cherry on top.

317
Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 5

Apple

The apple never falls far from the tree.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 6

Grape

He put a grape into his mouth and swallowed it whole.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 7

Orange

He cut the orange into quarters.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 8

Olive

Have you eaten a kind of fruit called olive?

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 9

Watermelon

The woman cut up the watermelon and shared it out among the four children.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 10

Carrot

We used a carrot for the snowman’s nose.

318
Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 11

Tomato

Tomato soup is my cup of tea.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 12

Pea

I felt like a pea on a drum.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 13

Salad

The salad was decorated with segments of orange.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 14

Vegetable

Vegetable prices fluctuate according to the season.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 15

Pancake

Do you want a sweet pancake or a savoury one?

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 16

Sausage

319
She sliced off a piece of sausage.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 17

Egg

He poached an egg for breakfast.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 18

Potato

Potato chips are served for the children.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 19

Cookie

The baby chewed the cookie up and swallowed it.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 20

Fries

I’d like a steak and fries with chocolate mousse to follow.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 21

Candy

She ran to the candy store to get some sweets.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 22

320
Uncountable Food List with Examples

Bread

All bread is not baked in one oven.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 23

Fruit

The fruit does not fall far from the tree.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 24

Juice

He filled a jug with juice.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 25

Meat

She cut the meat into small pieces.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 26

Rice

We brought home two bags of rice.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 27

Cereal

I have hot cereal every day for breakfast.

321
Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 28

Milk

If you sell the cow, you sell her milk too.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 29

Coffee

I’d like a cup of coffee, please.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 30

Tea

There’s some fresh tea in the pot.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 31

Flour

All is flour that comes to his mill.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 32

Salt

Business is the salt of life.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 33

Soup

322
Of soup and love, the first is the best.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 34

Sugar

She sprinkled the strawberries with sugar.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 35

Butter

Butter to butter is no relish.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 36

Cheese

Would you like a slice/piece of cheese with your bread?

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 37

Honey

In the morning, I like to put honey on my toast.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 38

Water

Do you have any water?

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 39

323
Chocolate

Tom shared his chocolate bar with his friend.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 40

Jam

She made jam from the apples.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 41

Seafood

This wine goes particularly well with seafood.

Countable and Uncountable Food: Helpful List & Examples 42

Mustard

I like mustard with a bit of bite.

==================================================================

Quantifiers with Countable and Uncountable

Nouns 65

What is a Quantifier?

Quantifier definition: A quantifier is a word or number that shows an amount or

number.

Examples: one, each, every, a little, much…

324
Example sentences:

I have a few friends.

I have a little money.

The quantifier a few is used before friends, which is a countable noun. A little is
used before money, an uncountable noun.

Quantifiers are adjectives and adjective phrases that go before nouns. They give
information about how much or how many of an item you are talking about. Some
quantifiers, like a few, few, many go only before countable nouns. Others, like a
little, little, much go only before uncountable nouns. And a few quantifiers can go
before countable or uncountable nouns.

How to Use Quantifiers?

Quantifiers Used with Countable Nouns (One, Each, Every)

One, each and every are examples of countable noun quantifiers.

Examples:

One movie that I enjoy is “The name of the King.”

Each child had to give a short speech to the rest of the class.

325
There are two boys. Each is smiling.

Every glass in my recent order was chipped.

The manager wants to speak to every employee in his office.

They enjoyed every minute of their holidays.

With plural count nouns, just add of the between the quantifier and the noun it
describes.

One of the boys tripped over and crashed into a tree.

Each of the cars has air conditioning.

Every one of the students is intelligent.

If you have more than two countable items, you can use several, a few, many and
a number of.

Examples:

Several villages have been isolated by the heavy snowfall.

I saw a few prisoners run away from the prison.

All she wanted was a few moments on her own.

Many students now see university as a stepping stone to a good job.

We don’t have many things to do today.

How many siblings do you have?

A number of the computers are imported.

How to Use Quantifiers with Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Quantifiers Used with Uncountable Nouns (A Little, Much and A Great Deal of)

326
A little, much and a great deal of are examples of uncountable noun quantifiers.

Examples:

Swirl a little oil around the frying pan.

She saves a little money every month.

She’s got so much energy she never seems to tire.

She didn’t have much homework last night.

A motorcar costs a great deal of money.

Quantifiers Used with both Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some, most, plenty of, all and any are examples of quantifier that can go with both
countable and uncountable nouns

Examples:

There is some bread apart from the milk. (uncountable noun)

We’ve got some oranges. (countable noun)

Paul has strong opinions on most subjects. (countable noun)

Don’t worry. We have plenty of time. (uncountable noun)

Send me an e-mail when you have any news. (uncountable noun)

===================================================================

327
 Articles with Countable and
Uncountable Nouns 66

You need to categorize the noun as count or noncount to choose the correct
article.

Countable nouns are individual objects, people, places, etc. which can be counted.
‘

Examples: an apple, a school, 1 picture, 2 pictures, 3 pictures, 2 men, 4 men, 8

men.

Uncountable nouns are materials, concepts, information, etc. which are not
individual objects and can not be counted.

Examples: information, water, understanding, wood, cheese.

Table of Contents

Articles with Uncountable Nouns

Articles with Countable Nouns

Articles: Rules, List & Examples

Articles with Uncountable Nouns

Learn how and when to use Articles with Uncountable Nouns.

328
1. We do not say a/an with an uncountable noun.

For example:

water (NOT a water)

weather (NOT a weather)

music (NOT a music)

2. A number can not be put in front of an uncountable noun.

For example:

a piece of news (NOT 1 news)

two bottle of water (NOT 2 water)

a grain of rice (NOT 1 rice)

3. An uncountable noun is used with no article if we mean that thing in general.

For example:

He put sugar in his tea and stirred it.

He taught music at a school in Edinburgh.

4. The is used with an uncountable noun when we are talking about a particular
thing.

For example:

329
I immerse my clothes in the water.

She dissolved the sugar in the tea.

Did you like the music they played at the dance?

Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns | Image.

A vs. AN How to Use THE No Article Articles with Countable & Uncountable Nouns

Articles with Countable Nouns

Learn how and when to use Articles with Countable Nouns.

1. We put a number in front of a countable noun.

For example:

two cats

three pens

five students

2. We put both a/an and the in front of a countable noun.

a book

an apple

the lions

330
3. A plural countable noun is used with no article if we mean all or any of that
thing.

For example:

She’s always out with her friends.

He likes cats but dislikes dogs.

I like books about sport.

4. We usually use a/an with a countable noun the first time we say or write that
noun.

For example:

John has a dog and a cat. The dog is called Rover, and the cat is called Fluffy.

5. We use the with countable nouns when the second and subsequent times we
use the noun or when the listener already knows.

For example:

I like the book you bought last night.

I found the puppy whimpering next to the front door.

Please open the window!

I think I’ve broken the washing machine.

===================================================================

331
 Concrete Nouns: Useful List of
400+ Concrete Nouns 67

Concrete Nouns! Learn concrete noun definition (nouns that you can see, hear,
smell, taste and touch) and useful list of 400+ concrete nouns in English with ESL
printable worksheets.

Table of Contents

What Is a Concrete Noun?

Concrete Nouns List (A-Z)

Concrete Nouns Examples

List of Concrete Nouns in English | Picture 1

Examples of Concrete Nouns in English | Picture 2

Concrete Nouns List | Picture 3

Concrete Nouns List in English | Picture 4

NOUNS: Useful Grammar Rules, List & Examples

What Is a Concrete Noun?

What Is a Concrete Noun? Concrete nouns are people, places, or things that we
can experience with our five senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing, or smell).

For examples, in the sentence “She put the book on the table.“, the noun book is a
concrete noun. You can touch it, see it, and maybe even smell it. In the sentence

332
“This music always makes me sad.“, music can’t be touched but you can hear the
music. Therefore, It’s a concrete noun.

Concrete nouns can be divided into common nouns and proper nouns.

Common noun is a noun that’s not the name of any particular person, place, or
thing.

Proper noun (proper name) is a noun that refers to a specific person, place, or
thing (London, San Francisco, Mary, Titanic).

Concrete Nouns List (A-Z)

Apple

Air

Conditioner

Airport

Ambulance

Aircraft

Apartment

Arrow

Antlers

Apro

Alligator

Architect

333
Ankle

Armchair

Aunt

Ball

Bermudas

Beans

Balloon

Bear

Blouse

Bed

Bow

Bread

Black

Board

Bones

Bill

Bitterness

Boxers

Belt

Brain

Buffalo

Bird

Baby

334
Book

Back

Butter

Bulb

Buckles

Bat

Bank

Bag

Bra

Boots

Blazer

Bikini

Bookcase

Bookstore

Bus stop

Brass

Brother

Boy

Blender

Bucket

Bakery

Bow

Bridge

335
Boat

Car

Cow

Cap

Cooker

Cheeks

Cheese

Credenza

Carpet

Crow

Crest

Chest

Chair

Candy

Cabinet

Cat

Coffee

Children

Cookware

Chaise longue

Chicken

Casino

Cabin

336
Castle

Church

Cafe

Cinema

Choker

Cravat

Cane

Costume

Cardigan

Chocolate

Crib

Couch

Cello

Cashier

Composer

Cave

Country

Computer

Canoe

Clock

Charlie (U.K)

Dog

Deer

337
Donkey

Desk

Desktop

Dress

Dolphin

Doctor

Dentist

Drum

Dresser

Designer

Detective

Daughter

Egg

Elephant

Earrings

Ears

Eyes

Estate

Finger

Fox

Frock

Frog

Fan

338
Freezer

Fish

Film

Foot

Flag

Factory

Father

Farm

Forest

Flower

Fruit

Fork

Grapes

Goat

Gown

Garlic

Ginger

Giraffe

Gauva

Grains

Gas station

Garage

Gloves

339
Glasses

Gift

Galaxy

Guitar

Grandmother

Grandfather

Governor

Girl

Guest

Hamburger

Hand

Head

Hair

Heart

House

Horse

Hen

Horn

Hat

Hammer

Hostel

Hospital

Hotel

340
Heels

Herbs

Host

Jacket

Jersey

Jewelry

Jaw

Jumper

Judge

Juicer

Keyboard

Kid

Kangaroo

Koala

Knife

Lemon

Lion

Leggings

Leg

Laptop

Library

Lamb

London

341
Lips

Lung

Lighter

Luggage

Lamp

Lawyer

Mouse

Monkey

Mouth

Mango

Mobile

Milk

Music

Mirror

Musician

Mother

Man

Model

Mall

Museum

Market

Moonlight

Medicine

342
Microscope

Newspaper

Nose

Notebook

Neck

Noodles

Nurse

Necklace

Noise

Ocean

Ostrich

Oil

Orange

Onion

Oven

Owl

Paper

Panda

Pants

Palm

Pasta

Pumpkin

Pharmacist

343
Potato

Parfume

Panther

Pad

Pencil

Pipe

Police

Pen

Pharmacy

Petrol station

Police station

Parrot

Plane

Pigeon

Phone

Peacock

Pencil

Pig

Pouch

Pagoda

Pyramid

Purse

Pancake

344
Popcorn

Piano

Physician

Photographer

Professor

Painter

Park

Plant

Parfume

Radio

Razor

Ribs

Rainbow

Ring

Rabbit

Rice

Refrigerator

Remote

Restaurant

Road

Surgeon

Scale

Shampoo

345
Sink

Salt

Shark

Sandals

Shoulder

Spoon

Soap

Sand

Sheep

Sari

Stomach

Stairs

Soup

Shoes

Scissors

Sparrow

Shirt

Suitcase

Stove

Stairs

Snowman

Shower

Swan

346
Suit

Sweater

Smoke

Skirt

Sofa

Socks

Stadium

Skyscraper

School

Sunglasses

Sandals

Slippers

Shorts

Sandwich

Strawberry

Spaghetti

Shrimp

Saxophone

Sister

Son

Singer

Senator

Street

347
Supermarket

Swimming pool

Star

Sky

Sun

Spoon

Ship

Smile

Table

Turkey

Tie

Toes

Truck

Train

Taxi

Tiger

Trousers

Tongue

Television

Teacher

Turtle

Tablet

Train station

348
Toothpaste

Tail

Theater

Trench coat

Tea

Tomato

Teen

Tunnel

Temple

Town

Toothbrush

Tree

Toy

Tissue

Telephone

Underwear

Uncle

Umbrella

Vest

Voice

Veterinarian

Villa

Violin

349
Village

Vehicle

Vase

Wallet

Wolf

Waist

Wrist

Water melon

Whale

Water

Wings

Whisker

Watch

Woman

Washing machine

Wheelchair

Waiter

Wound

Xylophone

Zebra

Zoo

===================================================================

350
 Abstract Nouns: 160+ Common Abstract Nouns
from A-Z 68

Abstract Noun Examples! Learn useful list of 160+ Common Abstract Nouns in
English with picture.

What is an abstract noun? In English, Abstract nouns refer to abstract objects

which you cannot see, hear, touch, smell, or taste (ideas or concepts)

Table of Contents

Abstract Nouns List in English (A-Z)

Abstract Noun Examples

Abstract Nouns List | Image

NOUNS: Useful Grammar Rules, List & Examples

Abstract Nouns Video

Abstract Nouns List in English (A-Z)

Abstract Nouns List in English (A-Z)

Ability

Adoration

Advantage

Adventure

Amazement

Anger

Annoyance

351
Anxiety

Appetite

Apprehension

Artisty

Awareness

Awe

Beauty

Belief

Bravery

Brilliance

Brutality

Calm

Care

Chaos

Charity

Childhood

Clarity

Cleverness

Coldness

Comfort

Communication

Compassion

Confidence

352
Confusion

Contentment

Courage

Crime

Curiosity

Customer service

Death

Deceit

Dedication

Defeat

Delay

Delight

Despair

Determination

Dexterity

Dictatorship

Disappointment

Disbelief

Dishonesty

Disquiet

Disregard

Disturbance

Divorce

353
Dream

Education

Ego

Elegance

Envy

Evil

Failure

Faith

Fascination

Fear

Fiction

Fragility

Freedom

Friendship

Gain

Generation

Generosity

Goal

Goodness

Gossip

Growth

Happiness

Hate

354
Hatred

Hope

Horror

Hurt

Idea

Infancy

Infatuation

Inflation

Insanity

Intelligence

Irritation

Joy

Justice

Kindness

Laughter

Law

Liberty

Lie

Life

Loneliness

Loss

Love

Luck

355
Luxury

Maturity

Mercy

Movement

Music

Nap

Need

Opinion

Opportunity

Pain

Patience

Peace

Peculiarity

Perseverance

Pleasure

Poverty

Power

Pride

Principle

Reality

Relaxation

Relief

Religion

356
Restoration

Riches

Right

Rumour

Sacrifice

Sanity

Satisfaction

Self-control

Sensitivity

Service

Shock

Silliness

Skill

Sleep

Sorrow

Speed

Strenght

Strictness

Success

Surprise

Talent

Thrill

Timing

357
Tiredness

Tolerance

Trend

Trust

Uncertainty

Unemployment

Union

Unreality

Victory

Wariness

Warmth

Weakness

Wealth

Weariness

Wisdom

Wit

Worry

Abstract Noun Examples

An employer should appraise the ability of his employees.

He felt he would burst with anger and shame.

I opened the packet just to satisfy my curiosity.

358
Her dedication to her work was admirable.

He listened in disbelief to this extraordinary story.

He is admired for the elegance of his writing.

Our friendship has steadily strengthened over the years.

The economic growth dipped to a low point last year.

May Christmas and the New Year be filled with happiness for you.

He has no hope of passing the examination.

Inflation is considered to be undesirable because of its adverse effects on income

distribution.

We must face tomorrow, whatever it may hold, with determination, joy, and
bravery.

Without respect, love cannot go far.

In my humble opinion, he will win the election.

I take it as a pleasure to attend your lecture.

He smiled in satisfaction when he won the race.

The onrush of tears took me by surprise.

The trend at the moment is towards a more natural and less made-up look.

Unemployment is likely to go on rising this year.

Wisdom in the mind is better than money in the hand.

He has exhibited symptoms of anxiety and overwhelming worry.

===================================================================

359
 Regular Plural Nouns 69

Singular and Plural Nouns Grammargeek May 2, 2018 English Grammar No

Comments

Singular and Plural Nouns! Learn how to form regular plural nouns in English with
useful grammar rules and example sentences.

Singular and Plural Nouns

General Rules | Regular Plural Nouns

Most singular nouns are made plural by adding -s to the end of the singular form.

Singular and Plural Nouns Examples:

car – cars

bag – bags

table – tables

house – houses

dog – dogs

360
Nouns Ending in a Sibilant Sound | Regular Plural Nouns

When a noun ends in a sibilant sound – /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ – the plural is
formed by adding -es, or -s if the singular already ends in -e.

Singular and Plural Nouns Examples:

kiss – kisses – /ˈkɪsɨz/

dish – dishes – /ˈdɪʃɨz/

witch – witches – /ˈwɪtʃɨz/

judge – judges – /ˈdʒʌdʒɨz/

Nouns Ending in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ | Regular Plural Nouns

The plural form of some nouns that end in ‘f’ or ‘fe’ is made by changing the
ending to -V(es).

Singular and Plural Nouns Examples:

half – halves

hoof – hooves

361
calf – calves

elf – elves

shelf – shelves

leaf – leaves

loaf – loaves

thief – thieves

wolf – wolves

life – lives

knife – knives

scarf – scarves

wife – wives

362
Exceptions:

cuff – cuffs

knockoff – knockoffs

chef – chefs

belief – beliefs

roof – roofs

chief – chiefs

Nouns Ending in -o | Regular Plural Nouns

When a noun ends in “o” preceded by a consonant, the plural in many cases is
spelled by adding -es.

Singular and Plural Nouns Examples:

potato – potatoes

tomato – tomatoes

363
hero – heroes

echo – echoes

veto – vetoes

domino – dominoes

mosquito – mosquitoes

volcano – volcanoes

Exceptions:

piano – pianos

photo – photos

halo – halos

soprano – sopranos

Nouns that end in ‘o’ preceded by a vowel are made plural by adding -s.

364
Examples:

radio – radios

stereo – stereos

video – videos

Nouns Ending in -y | Regular Plural Nouns

When the ‘y’ follows a consonant, changing ‘y’ to ‘i’ and adding -es.

Examples:

city – cities

candy – candies

country – countries

family – families

cherry – cherries

365
lady – ladies

puppy – puppies

party – parties

When the ‘y’ follows a vowel, the plural is formed by retaining the ‘y’ and adding -
s.

Singular and Plural Nouns Examples:

day – days

holiday – holidays

ray – rays

boy – boys

toy – toys

key – keys

donkey – donkeys

=================================================================

366
 Irregular Plural Nouns 70

: Useful Rules, List & Examples

Irregular Plural Nouns | No Change in the Plural

Some nouns have identical singular and plural. Many of these are the names of
animals.

Irregular Plural Nouns List:

Aircraft – aircraft

Barracks – barracks

Deer – deer

Gallows – gallows

Moose – moose

Salmon – salmon

Hovercraft – hovercraft

Spacecraft – spacecraft

Series – series

Species – species

Means – means

Offspring – offspring

Deer – deer

Fish – fish

367
Sheep – sheep

Offspring – offspring

Trout – trout

Swine – swine

Irregular Plural Nouns | Changing the Spelling of the Singular Noun

The plural is sometimes formed by simply changing the vowel sound of the
singular (these are sometimes called mutated plurals):

Irregular Plural Nouns List:

Person – people

Ox – oxen

Man – men

Woman – women

Caveman – cavemen

Policeman – policemen

Child – children

Tooth – teeth

Foot – feet

Goose – geese

368
Mouse – mice

Louse – lice

Penny – pence

Note: There are many compounds of man and woman that form their plurals in
the same way: postmen, policewomen, etc.

Irregular Nouns – Image 1

Irregular Plural Nouns

Irregular Plural Nouns from Latin and Greek

Final a becomes -ae (also -æ), or just adds -s

Alumna – alumnae

Formula – formulae/formulas

Final ex or ix becomes -ices

Index – indices /indexes

Matrix – matrices

Vertex – vertices

Appendix – appendices

Final is becomes es

Axis – axes

Genesis – geneses

Nemesis – nemeses

Crisis – crises

Testis – testes

369
Final um becomes -a, or just adds -s

Irregular Plural Nouns List:

Addendum – addenda

Corrigendum – corrigenda

Datum – data

Forum – fora/forums

Medium – media/ mediums

Memorandum – memoranda/memorandums

Millennium – millennia

Ovum – ova

Spectrum – spectra

Final us becomes -i or -era or -ora or just adds -es

Irregular Plural Nouns List:

Alumnus – alumni

Corpus – corpora

Census – censuses

Focus – foci

Genus – genera

Prospectus – prospectuses

Radius – radii

Campus – campuses

370
Succubus – succubi

Stylus – styli

Syllabus – syllabi/syllabuses

Viscus – viscera

Virus – viruses/virii

Cactus – cactuses/cacti

Fungus – fungi

Hippopotamus – hippopotamuses/hippopotami

Octopus – octopuses

Terminus – termini/terminuses

Uterus – uteri/uteruses

Final us remains unchanged in the plural

Meatus – meatus/meatuses

Status – status/statuses

Final on becomes -a

Automaton – automata

Criterion – criteria

Phenomenon – phenomena

Polyhedron – polyhedra

Final as in one case changes to -antes

Atlas – Atlantes (statues of the Titan); but Atlas – atlases (map collections)

Final ma in nouns of Greek origin can become -mata

Final ma in nouns of Greek origin can become -mata, although -s is usually also
acceptable, and in many cases more common.

371
Stigma – stigmata/stigmas

Stoma – stomata/stomas

Schema – schemata/schemas

Dogma – dogmata/dogmas

Lemma – lemmata/lemmas

Anathema – anathemata/anathemas

Irregular Plural Nouns from Other Languages

Some nouns of French origin add an -x:

Beau – beaux/beaus

Bureau – bureaux/bureaus

Tableau – tableaux/tableaus

Nouns of Slavic origin add -a or -i according to native rules, or just -s:

Kniazhestvo – kniazhestva/kniazhestvos

Kobzar – kobzari/kobzars

Oblast – oblasti/oblasts

Nouns of Hebrew origin add -im or -ot (generally m/f) according to native rules, or
just -s:

Cherub – cherubim/cherubs

372
Seraph – seraphim/seraphs

Matzah – matzot/matzahs

Kibbutz – kibbutzim/kibbutzes

Many nouns of Japanese origin have no plural form and do not change:

Benshi – benshi

Otaku – otaku

Samurai – samurai

Nouns from languages other than the above generally form plurals as if they were
native English words:

Canoe – canoes

Igloo – igloos

Kangaroo – kangaroos

Kayak – kayaks

Kindergarten – kindergartens

Pizza – pizzas

Sauna – saunas

Ninja – ninjas

===================================================================

373
 Gender of Nouns 71
: Useful Masculine and Feminine List

Gender of Nouns: Useful Masculine and Feminine List 1Gender of Nouns: Useful
Masculine and Feminine List

List of Genders of Nouns! Learn the Gender of Nouns and useful list of Masculine
and Feminine words in English with picture and video.

Gender – a grammatical category of the noun, which reflects the biological

category of sex of the noun referent. The three genders of nouns in English are:
masculine (i.e. man), feminine (i.e. woman), neuter (i.e. person).

Table of Contents

Gender of Nouns

Masculine and Feminine Words List in English

Gender of Nouns | Pictures

Genders List Video: Gender of Nouns

NOUNS: Useful Grammar Rules, List & Examples

Gender of Nouns

Some nouns that indicate people, may have different forms to describe masculine
or feminine usage.

Masculine and Feminine Examples:

374
Man − Woman

Son – Daughter

Father − Mother

Husband – Wife

Some male and female animals also have different forms to indicate masculine or
feminine usage

Masculine and Feminine Examples:

A cock – A hen

A bull – A cow

A drake – A duck

Masculine and Feminine Words List in English

Masculine – Feminine

Father – Mother

Son – Daughter

Brother – Sister

Man – Woman

Cock – Hen

375
Bull – Cow

Drone – Bee

Gander – Goose

Stag – Hind

Gentleman – Lady

Count – Countess

Husband – Wife

Lord – Lady

King – Queen

Monk – Nun

Sir – Madam

Uncle – Aunt

Nephew – Niece

Wizard – Witch

Hart – Roe

Drake – Duck

Lion – Lioness

Priest – Priestess

Prophet – Prophetess

Patron – Patroness

Host – Hostess

Viscount – Viscountess

Shepherd – Shepherdess

376
Steward – Stewardess

Heir – Heiress

Baron – Baroness

Peer – Peeress

Abbot – Abbess

Emperor – Empress

Traitor – Traitress

Actor – Actress

Benefactor – Benefactress

Hunter – Huntress

Tempter – Temptress

Master – Mistress

Tiger – Tigress

Duke – Duchess

Enchanter – Enchantress

Songster – Songstress

Hero – Heroine

Sultan – Sultana

Czar – Czarina

Signor – Signora

Manservant – Maidservant

He-goat – She-goat

Cock-sparrow – Hen-sparrow

377
Bull-calf – Cow-calf

Grandfather – Grandmother

Landlord – Landlady

Milkman – Milkmaid

Peacock – Peahen

Giant – Giantess

Count – Countess

===================================================================

What are nouns? 72

MAY 31, 2010 - pdf

A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing. There are different
kinds of nouns. Read the following sentence:

Solomon was a wise king.

Here the noun Solomon refers to a particular king, but the noun king may refer to
any other king as well. Here Solomon is a proper noun and king is a common noun.

Similarly, Alice is a proper noun and girl is a common noun.

France is a proper noun and country is a common noun.

A proper noun is the name of a particular person or thing. A common noun is a

name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind.

378
Note that proper nouns always begin with a capital letter. Common nouns include
what are called collective nouns and abstract nouns.

Collective nouns

A collective noun is the name of a collection of persons or things taken together

and spoken of as one whole.

Examples are: jury, committe, class, family, team, folk, fleet, nation etc.

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action or state which we can only think
of. Examples are: kindness, goodness, honesty, bravery, ignorance, stupidity,
wisdom, laughter etc.

Note that the names of arts and sciences are also considered abstract nouns.

Abstract nouns are formed from adjectives, verbs or common nouns. For example,
the abstract noun kindness is formed from the adjective kind whereas the abstract
noun obedience is formed from the verb obey.

Countable and uncountable nouns

Nouns are also classified as countable and uncountable. Countable nouns are the
names of objects that we can count. Examples are: book, pen, apple, doctor,
sister, boy etc. Uncountable nouns are the names of things which we cannot
count. Examples are: rice, gold, wheat, honesty, beauty, oil etc.

379
Note that countable nouns have plural forms and can be used with the indefinite
article a/an. Uncountable nouns do not have plural forms and cannot be used with
the indefinite articles.

===================================================================

The Noun: Case 73

JUNE 26, 2010 - pdf

Read the following sentence:

John broke the window.

The boy killed the spider.

In sentence 1, the noun John is the subject. It is the answer to the question ‘Who
broke the window? ‘The group of words ‘broke the window’ is the predicate. The
predicate contains the verb broke.

What did John break? – the window. Window is the object which John broke. The
noun window is therefore called the object.

In sentence 2, the noun boy is the subject. It is the answer to the question ‘Who
killed the spider’. The noun spider is the object. It is the answer to the question
‘Whom/what did the boy kill?’

When a noun or pronoun is used as the subject of the verb it is said to be in the
nominative case. When a noun or pronoun is used as the object of the verb, it is
said to be in the nominative or accusative case.

Note that to find the nominative, put who? or what? before the verb.

380
To find the accusative, put whom? or what? before the verb and its subject.

A noun or pronoun which comes after a preposition is also said to be in the

objective case.

The cat is on the roof.

Here the noun roof is in the accusative, governed by the preposition on.

Examine the following sentences.

John killed the spider.

The spider was killed by John.

You will have noticed that nouns in English have the same form for the nominative
and the accusative. The nominative generally comes before the verb and the
accusative generally comes after the verb.

Now read the following sentence:

This is John’s car.

John’s car means the car belonging to John

Here the form of the noun John is changed to John’s to show ownership or
possession. The noun John’s is therefore said to be in the possessive or genitive
case.

==================================================================

381
 Formation of plural nouns 74
JULY 16, 2010 - pdf

The plural noun is generally formed by adding -s to the singular.

Cow (singular), cows (plural)

Boy, boys

Girl, girls

Book, books

Tree, trees

Dog, dogs

Pen, pens

Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch or -x form the plural by adding -es to the singular.

Class (singular), classes (plural)

Brush, brushes

Kiss, kisses

Match, matches

Dish, dishes

Most nouns ending in -o also form their plural by adding -es to the singular.

382
Mango (singular), mangoes (plural)

Hero, heroes

Potato, potatoes

Volcano, volcanoes

Note that a few nouns ending in -o merely add -s.

Dynamo (singular), dynamos (plural)

Piano, pianos

Photo, photos

Logo, logos

Kilo, kilos

Nouns ending in a consonant + y form their plural by changing -y into -i and adding
-es.

Baby (singular), babies (plural)

Lady, ladies

City, cities

Story, stories

The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -f or -fe into v
and adding -es.

383
Thief (singular), thieves (plural)

Wife, wives

Leaf, leaves

Half, halves

Self, selves

Calf, calves

Loaf, loaves

Knife, knives

Elf, elves

Wolf, wolves

Shelf, shelves

Most other nouns ending in -f or -fe add -s.

Chief (singular), chiefs

Gulf, gulfs

Safe, safes

Proof, proofs

A few nouns form their plural by making some changes to inside vowels.

Foot (singular), feet (plural)

Man, men

384
Woman, women

Tooth, teeth

Mouse, mice

Goose, geese

===================================================================

Formation of plurals 75
JULY 17, 2010 - pdf

Some nouns have identical singular and plural forms. Examples are: swine, sheep,
deer, cod, salmon, aircraft, spacecraft, series, species etc.

The following nouns are always used in the singular form after numerals: pair,
dozen, score, gross, hundred and thousand

I bought three dozen mangoes. (NOT I bought three dozens mangoes.)

The music player cost me two hundred dollars.

He weighs above nine stone.

Note that the plural of fish is fish or fishes. In modern English, fishes is used to talk
about different kinds of fish.

Some nouns are used only in the plural. Examples are: bellows, scissors, tongs,
spectacles, trousers, drawers, jeans, breeches, tights, shorts etc.

A number of nouns ending in -s are in fact singular. Examples are: mathematics,

physics, electronics, news, measles, mumps, rickets, billiards, innings etc.

385
Mathematics is his favorite subject.

No news is good news.

West Indies won by an innings and three runs.

Measles is highly contagious.

A few collective nouns, though singular in form, are always used as plurals.
Examples are: cattle, poultry, people, gentry etc.

These poultry are mine. (NOT This poultry is mine. )

Vermin destroy property and spread disease.

Who are these people?

The following nouns are always used in the singular. Examples are: luggage, news,
advice, information, news, furniture, scenery etc.

Kashmir is known for its scenery. (NOT Kashmir is known for its sceneries.)

We have received no information. (NOT …no informations)

We need to buy some furniture. (NOT …some furnitures.)

===================================================================

Noun: gender 76
JULY 18, 2010 - pdf

Living beings are of either the male or the female sex. Now compare the following
pairs of words.

386
Boy, girl

Man, woman

Husband, wife

Lion, lioness

Here the first word of each pair is the name of a male animal. The second word of
each pair is the name of a female animal. A noun that denotes a male animal is
said to be of the masculine gender. A noun that denotes a female animal is said to
be of the feminine gender.

A noun that denotes either a male or a female is said to be of the common gender.
Examples are: parent, child, friend, servant, thief, enemy, cousin, student, baby,
teacher, writer etc.

A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female is said to be of the
neuter gender. Examples are: book, pen, room, house, tree etc.

It is thus seen that in modern English, the gender of a noun is entirely a matter of
sex or the absence of it. It has nothing to do with the form of a noun, which
determines its gender in many other languages.

Note that inanimate objects are often personified, that is, spoken of as if they
were living beings. We then regard them as males or females.

The masculine gender is often applied to lifeless objects known for strength or
violence. Examples are: sun, summer, winter, time, death etc.

387
The feminine gender is often applied to lifeless objects known for beauty or
gracefulness. Examples are: moon, earth, spring, autumn, nature, liberty, justice,
peace, mercy, hope etc.

==================================================================

Formation of the possessive case 77

Singular nouns form their possessive case by adding ‘s to the singular.

The boy’s dog

My father’s office

Only the apostrophe (‘) without s is added if the noun contains too many hissing
sounds.

For goodness’ sake

For conscience’ sake

For Jesus’ sake

Moses’ laws

Plural nouns ending in -s form their possessive case by adding only an apostrophe.

Boys’ school

Girls’ hostel

Plural nouns that do not end in -s, form the possessive case by adding ‘s.

Children’s books

388
Women’s club

Uses of the possessive case

The possessive case is now used chiefly with the names of living things.

The lion’s mane

The minister’s bodyguards

The King’s palace

The possessive case is not normally used with the names of lifeless things; instead,
we use a structure with of

The leg of the table (NOT The table’s leg)

The cover of the book (NOT The book’s cover)

The roof of the house (NOT The house’s roof)

Exceptions

The possessive case is often used with the names of personified objects.

Nature’s laws

Fortune’s favourites

At duty’s call

At wit’s end

The possessive case is also used with nouns denoting time, space and weight.

389
In a year’s time

A day’s work

At a stone’s throw

A pound’s weight

The possessive of a proper noun denoting a trade, profession or relationship can

often be used to denote a building or place of business.

She has gone to the baker’s. (= baker’s shop)

Tonight we are dining at Smith’s (= Smith’s house)

==================================================================

Ways of forming the feminine gender 78

FEBRUARY 14, 2011 - pdf

There are three ways of forming the feminine gender.

1) By using an entirely different word.

Bachelor (masculine) / spinster or maid (feminine)

Boy / girl

Man / woman

Husband / wife

Father / mother

Brother / sister

Son / daughter

390
Horse / mare

Monk / nun

Buck / doe

King / queen

Cock / hen

Dog / bitch

Drake / duck

Earl / countess

Gander / geese

Gentleman / lady

Nephew / niece

Uncle / aunt

2) By adding a syllable (-ess, -ine, -trixetc) to the masculine gender

Author (masculine) / authoress (feminine)

Baron / baroness

Count / countess

Giant / giantess

Heir / heiress

Host / hostess

Lion / lioness

Mayor / mayoress

Poet / poetess

391
Priest / priestess

In the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending.

Actor (masculine) / actress (feminine)

Enchanter / enchantress

Duke / duchess

Emperor / empress

Prince / princess

Tiger / tigress

Waiter / waitress

Master / mistress

Sorcerer / sorceress

3) By placing a word before or after

Grandfather / grandmother

Manservant / maidservant

Landlord / landlady

Peacock / peahen

Salesman / saleswoman

Washerman / washerwoman

Notes

A mayor can be a man or a woman. In British English, a mayoress is the wife of a

male mayor.

392
Some words ending in -ess are no longer used. Examples are: authoress and
poetess. Author and poet are now used for both men and women. The words
steward and stewardess are being replaced by other terms like flight attendant.
Note that a flight attendant can be a man or a woman.

===================================================================

Countable nouns 79
AUGUST 21, 2011 - pdf

Countable nouns are the names of objects, people and places that can be counted.
Examples are: flower, boy, apple, book, tree, room, house, window etc.

Countable nouns have singular and plural forms and can be used with indefinite
articles (a / an) and numbers. Generally, a singular countable noun always takes an
article or another determiner with it.

I saw a boy in the store. (BUT NOT I saw boy in store.)

The child was playing with his toy. (BUT NOT Child was playing with toy.)

A plural noun can be used with or without an article.

Children were playing in the park. (This style is preferred when you don’t expect
the listener to know which children you are talking about.)

OR The children were playing in the park. (This style is preferred when you are
talking about children who have already been mentioned.)

Uncountable nouns refer to objects or ideas that cannot be counted. Examples

are: rice, sand, milk, honey, honesty, integrity etc.

393
Uncountable nouns cannot be used with numbers. It is also not possible to use the
articles a / an with uncountable nouns.

Uncountable nouns are always singular and should be used with a singular verb.

Honesty is the best policy. (NOT Honesty are the best policy.)

Rice is the staple food of Indians. (NOT Rice are the staple food of Indians.)

Note that some nouns which are countable in one language can be uncountable in
another language. For example, the word grapes is a plural countable noun in
English. However, it is uncountable in many other languages.

=================================================================

Nouns that exist only in the singular or

plural form 80
APRIL 23, 2012 - pdf

In English, there are several nouns that exist only in the plural form. Except for a
few, they all end in –s.

Examples are:

Amends (to make ‘amends’ for causing some loss)

Annals (pages of books of history)

Archives

394
Arms (weapons)

Arrears

Ashes (of a dead cremated body)

Auspices (patronage)

Bowels

Brains (intellect)

Contents

Customs (duty)

Earnings

Entrails

Fireworks

Funds (money)

Goods

Guts (bowels, courage)

Letters (in the expression ‘a man of letters’)

Looks (e.g. She has got attractive looks)

Manners (in the expression ‘good manners’)

Odds (in the expression ‘heavy odds’)

Outskirts

Pains (e.g. to take pains)

Premises (building)

Riches (wealth)

Stairs (e.g. a flight of stairs)

395
Surroundings (environment)

Thanks

Troops

Tropics

Valuables

Wages

Proceeds

Tidings

Nuptials

Alms

Drawers

The following are unmarked plurals which do not end in –s. Examples are: cattle
and plural.

Some words ending in –s do not change in the plural. Examples are:

Barracks

Crossroads

Headquarters

Means

Series

Species

Works (= factory)

Swiss

396
Special cases

Some singular uncountable nouns end in –s. They have no plural forms. Examples
are: news, billiards, draughts, measles etc.

Measles is highly contagious.

Most words ending in –ics are also usually singular uncountables and have no
plurals. Examples are: mathematics, physics, athletics, politics.

Politics is a dirty game.

Mathematics isn’t the easiest of all subjects.

Other nouns which do not change in the plural are craft, sheep, fish and deer.

===================================================================

Plural uncountable nouns 81

MAY 4, 2013 - pdf

Most uncountable nouns are singular in number. Therefore, we use the singular
form of the verb with them.

Don’t hurry – there is plenty of time. (NOT There are plenty of time.)

Practice makes the man perfect. (NOT Practice make the man perfect.)

Uncountable nouns are often treated as countables if we are talking about

different kinds of material, liquid etc.

397
Most washing powders are not very kind to your hands.

Although powder is an uncountable noun, here we are talking about different

kinds of the material.

Abstract nouns are usually uncountable. Some abstract nouns can have both
countable and uncountable uses. When used with a general meaning, these nouns
are usually uncountable. When used with a particular meaning, these nouns are
usually countable.

We had a nice time when we went to the beach yesterday. (countable)

I couldn’t finish the report because I didn’t get enough time. (uncountable)

Plural uncountables

Some uncountable nouns are plural. They have no singular forms with the same
meaning, and cannot be used with numbers. Common examples are: groceries,
arms, remains, goods, customs, clothes, thanks, regards, police etc.

The police are searching for a white man in his twenties.

Have you bought the groceries? (NOT Have you bought the grocery?)

Many thanks for your help.

Other plural uncountable nouns include trousers, jeans, pyjamas, pants, scissors,
spectacles etc.

==================================================================

398
 Common mistakes in the use of
uncountable nouns 82
JUNE 28, 2014 - pdf

Read the following sentences.

The sceneries here are not good.

The scenery here is not good.

Which of the two sentences is the correct one?

The word scenery is uncountable in English. It may be countable in some other

languages. However, in English, we can’t say sceneries or a scenery.

As you know, uncountable nouns do not have plural forms and they cannot be
used with numbers or the article a/an. And hence the sentence ‘The sceneries
here are not good’, isn’t correct.

More examples are given below.

Incorrect: They have got lots of furnitures.

Correct: They have got lots of furniture.

Incorrect: We have received no informations about the accident.

Correct: We have received no information about the accident.

Incorrect: I heard these news in the morning.

399
Correct: I heard this news in the morning.

Incorrect: He asked me to pack my luggages.

Correct: He asked me to pack my luggage.

The nouns information, furniture, news, luggage etc., are uncountable.

Incorrect: Please excuse the troubles.

Correct: Please excuse me for the trouble.

The word trouble is mainly used as an uncountable noun. It doesn’t usually have a
plural form.

Also the word excuse should be followed by an indirect object.

However, the plural form troubles can be used to refer to all the problems that a
person has. In this case, it is usually preceded by a possessive.

All of us have our troubles and we must find ways to deal with them.

Incorrect: He provided the blinds with food.

Correct: He provided the blind with food.

The expressions ‘the blind’, ‘the deaf’, ‘the unemployed’, ‘the dead’, ‘the poor’
etc., are plural. ‘The blind’ means all blind people. We can’t say ‘the blinds’ or ‘the
deafs’.

=================================================================

400
 Rules regarding the formation of plurals 83
JULY 1, 2014 - pdf

In English, we form the plurals of nouns by adding –s to the singular. Examples are
given below.

Boy -> boys

Girl -> girls

Book -> books

There are several exceptions to this rule. Nouns ending in –s, -sh, -ch and –x, form
their plurals by adding –es to the singular.

Examples are:

Box -> boxes

Class -> classes

Branch -> branches

Brush -> brushes

401
Watch -> watches

Most nouns ending in –o, generally form their plurals by adding –es.

Examples are:

Mango -> mangoes

Hero -> heroes

Potato -> potatoes

Volcano -> volcanoes

Some singular nouns ending in –o, form their plurals by simply adding –s.

Examples are:

Piano -> pianos

Photo -> photos

402
Stereo -> stereos

Dynamo -> dynamos

Nouns ending in a consonant + -y, form their plurals by changing that –y into –i
and adding –es.

Baby -> babies

Lady -> ladies

City -> cities

Story -> stories

Most nouns ending in –f or –fe form their plurals by changing –f or –fe into v and
adding –es.

Leaf -> leaves

Life -> lives

Thief -> thieves

403
Knife -> knives

There are several exceptions to this rule and the following nouns form their plurals
by simply adding –s.

Examples

Roof -> roofs

Proof -> proofs

Dwarf -> dwarfs

Belief -> beliefs

A few nouns form their plurals irregularly. Examples are given below.

Man -> men

Woman -> women

Tooth -> teeth

Mouse -> mice

404
Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike. Examples are: swine, sheep,
deer

The nouns dozen, score, pair, hundred and thousand do not have a plural form
when they are used after a number.

The car cost me five thousand dollars. (NOT … five thousands dollars)

==================================================================

Abstract nouns 84
AUGUST 23, 2014 - pdf

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action or state. Abstract nouns refer to
ideas that we cannot see or touch.

Examples are given below.

Quality – goodness, kindness, beauty, intelligence, generosity, cleverness,

obedience, honesty, brightness, wisdom, bravery, courage, hardness, softness

Action – laughter, theft, movement, judgment

State – childhood, boyhood, manhood, youth, slavery, sickness, poverty, death,

sleep

405
The names of the arts and science are also abstract nouns. Examples are: physics,
chemistry, grammar, music

Abstract nouns can be formed from adjectives, verbs and common nouns.

From adjectives

Kindness from kind

Bravery from brave

Illness from ill

Honesty from honest

From verbs

Obedience from obey

Growth from grow

Pleasure from please

From common nouns

406
Childhood from child

Slavery from slave

Exercise

Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives.

1. Long ————————–

2. Strong ————————–

3. Wide ————————–

4. Young ————————–

5. Humble ————————–

6. Decent ————————–

7. Cruel ————————–

407
8. Bitter ————————–

9. Prudent ————————–

10. Dark ————————–

11. Wise ————————–

12. Good ————————–

13. Vacant ————————–

14. Sweet ————————–

15. Human ————————–

16. Free ————————–

17. Proud ————————–

18. Brave ————————–

19. Novel ————————–

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20. Poor ————————–

21. Just ————————–

22. Vain ————————–

23. Sane ————————–

24. Ignorant ————————–

Answers

1. Long -> length

2. Strong -> strength

3. Wide -> width

4. Young -> youth

5. Humble -> humility

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6. Decent -> decency

7. Cruel -> cruelty

8. Bitter -> bitterness

9. Prudent -> prudence

10. Dark -> darkness

11. Wise -> wisdom

12. Good -> goodness

13. Vacant -> vacancy

14. Sweet -> sweetness

15. Human -> humanity

16. Free -> freedom

17. Proud -> pride

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18. Brave -> bravery

19. Novel -> novelty

20. Poor -> poverty

21. Just -> justice

22. Vain -> vanity

23. Sane -> sanity

24. Ignorant -> ignorance

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Noun phrases exercise 85

SEPTEMBER 23, 2014 - pdf

A noun phrase is a group of words that serves the same purpose as a noun. A noun
phrase can be the subject or object of a verb. It can also be the object of a
preposition.

Identify the noun clauses in the following sentences.

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1. I hope to win the first prize.

2. I tried to solve the puzzle.

3. Did you enjoy reading this book?

4. The boy wants to go home.

5. Horses prefer living in dark stables.

6. The accused refused to answer the question.

7. The boy denied stealing the money.

8. To write such rubbish is disgraceful.

9. I dislike having to punish my kids.

10. I will hate to do such a thing.

Answers

1. Noun phrase: to win the first prize; it acts as the object of the verb hope

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2. Noun phrase: to solve the puzzle; it acts as the object of the verb tried

3. Noun phrase: reading this book; it acts as the object of the verb enjoy

4. Noun phrase: to go home; it acts as the object of the verb wants

5. Noun phrase: living in dark stables; it acts as the object of the verb prefer

6. Noun phrase: to answer the question; it acts as the object of the verb refused

7. Noun phrase: stealing the money; it acts as the object of the verb denied

8. Noun phrase: to write such rubbish; it acts as the subject of the verb is.

9. Noun phrase: having to punish my kids; it acts as the object of the verb dislike.

10. Noun phrase: to do such a thing; it acts as the object of the verb hate.

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Common mistakes in the use of nouns 86

In this lesson, we will take a look at some common mistakes in the use of nouns.

Incorrect: There is no place on this bus.

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Correct: There is no room on this bus.

Incorrect: I am learning a new poetry.

Correct: I am learning a new poem.

Poetry means poems collectively.

Incorrect: He is leaving his service.

Correct: He is leaving his job.

Incorrect: All of my relations are poor.

Correct: All of my relatives are poor.

Incorrect: The clock has struck five hours.

Correct: The clock has struck five.

Incorrect: The boarding is full.

Correct: The boarding house is full.

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Incorrect: I saw two females in the store.

Correct: I saw two women in the store.

Incorrect: He enquired about your state of health.

Correct: He enquired about the state of your health.

Incorrect: My English is very weak.

Correct: I am very weak in English.

Incorrect: The weather of Chennai does not suit me.

Correct: The climate of Chennai does not suit me.

Incorrect: Why are you standing in the center of the street?

Correct: Why are you standing in the middle of the street?

Incorrect: I visit them once in a week.

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Correct: I visit them once a week.

Incorrect: Her hairs are grey.

Correct: Her hair is grey.

Incorrect: I bought two dozens pencils.

Correct: I bought two dozen pencils.

Incorrect: He took insult at this.

Correct: He took offence at this.

Incorrect: He put your sign here.

Correct: He put your signature here.

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Singular and Plural Exercise 87

Most nouns form their plurals by adding -s to the singular. However, there are
some nouns that have only a plural form or a singular form. Plural nouns should be
followed by a plural verb and singular nouns should be followed by a singular verb.

Fill in the blanks.

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1. I think they teach ..................... . mathematics in schools.

too much

too many

2. Politics ..................... . a complicated business.

is

are

3. ………………….. suffering from a disease called BSE.

Many cattle are

Much cattle is

4. The police ..................... the thief.

have arrested

has arrested

5. Where ……………….. my glasses?

are

is

6. The organization is trying to raise ……………… to support its projects.

fund

funds

7. A number of people ..................... tried to find the treasure.

has

have

8. A group of us …………….. going to hold a party tomorrow.

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is

are

9. Half of her students ……………… understand a word she says.

doesn't

don't

Either could be used here

10. Ten miles ………………. a long way to walk.

is

are

Either could be used here

11. One of my friends …………….. going to Mexico.

is

are

12. Nobody ……………….. him except his best friends.

like

likes

Either could be used here

Answers

1. I think they teach too much mathematics in schools.

2. Politics is a complicated business.

3. Many cattle are suffering from a disease called BSE.

4. The police have arrested the thief.

5. Where are my glasses?

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6. The organization is trying to raise funds to support its projects.

7. A number of people have tried to find the treasure.

8. A group of us are going to hold a party tomorrow.

9. Half of her students don’t understand a word she says.

10. Ten miles is a long way to walk.

11. One of my friends is going to Mexico.

12. Nobody likes him except his best friends.

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Singular and Plural Nouns 88

Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike. Some have no singular forms;
likewise, some nouns have no plural forms. Test your understanding of singular
and plural nouns with this grammar exercise.

Fill in the blanks.

1. He weighs nine ……………………….

stone

stones

Either could be used here

2. That car cost me five ……………………… dollars.

thousand

thousands

3. I bought three ……………………… oranges.

dozen

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dozens

4. India won by …………………………. and three runs.

innings

an inning

an innings

5. His ………………………… small but he has no debt.

mean is

means is

means are

6. ……………………….. not only destroy our property but also carry disease.

Vermin

Vermins

7. The ………………………….. needs repairs.

house roof

house's roof

roof of the house

8. He has no ……………………….. for his parents.

Please select 2 correct answers

respect

respects

9. Both countries have withdrawn their ………………………..

force

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forces

10. Why are you always putting on ……………………….?

air

airs

11. We must all stand up for the common ……………………

Please select 2 correct answers

good

goods

12. He wouldn’t listen to my ………………………

advice

advices

advise

Answers

1. He weighs nine stone.

2. That car cost me five thousand dollars.

3. I bought three dozen oranges.

4. India won by an innings and three runs.

5. His means are small but he has no debt.

6. Vermin not only destroy our property but also carry disease.

7. The roof of the house needs repairs.

8. He has no respect for his parents.

9. Both countries have withdrawn their forces.

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10. Why are you always putting on airs?

11. We must all stand up for the common good.

12. He wouldn’t listen to my advice.

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https://www.englishgrammar.org/

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