General

Biology 2
12
Quarter 3
Module 9
Theories of Evolution

109
Introductory Message

For the facilitator:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 of Grade 12 Module 9 on Theories of Evolution!

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators from
Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its Officer-In-Charge Schools Division
Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A. Agustin in partnership with the Local
Government of Pasig through its mayor, Honorable Vico Sotto.
The writers utilized the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum using the Most
Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) while overcoming their personal, social,
and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning material hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Further, this also aims to help learners
acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs namely: Communication,
Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking and Character while taking into
consideration their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of
the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage
their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners
as they do the tasks included in the module.

110
For the learner:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module 9 on Theories of Evolution!

The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to
depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner
is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and
skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning material while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

Expectation - These are what you will be able to know after

completing the lessons in the module

Pre-test - This will measure your prior knowledge and the

concepts to be mastered throughout the lesson.

Recap - This section will measure what learnings and skills

that you understand from the previous lesson.

Lesson- This section will discuss the topic for this module.

Activities - This is a set of activities you will perform.

Wrap Up- This section summarizes the concepts and

applications of the lessons.
Valuing-this part will check the integration of values in the
learning competency.

Post-test - This will measure how much you have learned from
the entire module. Ito po ang parts ng module

111
 EXPECTATION
In the previous lesson, you have learned the different evolutionary thoughts
that contributed to the development of theories. At the end of this module, you should
be able to:

1. discuss Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection; and,

2. explain the Modern Synthesis as the unified theory of evolution.

PRETEST

Directions: Read the statements/questions comprehensively and choose the letter of

the best answer. Write the answer on the separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of these theories of evolution was proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck?
A. Theory of Natural Selection
B. Theory of the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
C. Speciation Theory
D. Epigenetic Inheritance Theory
2. In a scientific context, what does the term 'survival of the fittest' mean?
A. The organisms which are best adapted to their environment will survive
the longest.
B. The organisms which are best adapted to their environment will survive
the longest and have a greater number of offspring who are likely to
inherit their advantageous traits.
C. The organisms which can procreate the earliest have the best chance of
survival.
D. Good-looking organisms live longer than ugly organisms.
3. Which of the following statements is TRUE about mutations?
A. They can produce new alleles and existing genes.
B. They can be inherited if they are in somatic cells.
C. They are never as simple as an error in a single codon in a DNA
molecule.
D. A and B.
4. Charles Darwin was best known in the 19th century for ___.
A. Creating the idea of evolution.
B. Creating the idea of uniformitarianism
C. Making the idea of evolution acceptable for scientists and the educated
general public
D. All of the above.

112
5. Mutation, natural selection, gene flow, and genetic drift are the four key parts
of ___.
A. The extended evolutionary synthesis
B. The modern synthesis
C. The theory of natural selection
D. Essentialism

RECAP
Activity 9.1. Essay.

Direction: Explain how giraffe’s neck gets longer and longer using the theories of
Darwin and Lamarck.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

113
 LESSON

CHARLES DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION

BY NATURAL SELECTION

Darwin proposed that species can change

over time, that new species come from pre-
existing species, and that all species share a
common ancestor. In this model, each species has
its own unique set of heritable (genetic)
differences from the common ancestor, which
have accumulated gradually over very long time
periods. Repeated branching events, in which new
species split off from a common ancestor, produce
a multi-level "tree" that links all living organisms.
Figure 1. Darwin’s Tree of Life. Photo by
Darwin referred to this process, in which groups .
Wikimedia
of organisms change in their heritable traits over
generations, as “descent with modification." Today, we call it evolution. Importantly,
Darwin didn't just propose that organisms evolved. Instead, Darwin also proposed a
mechanism for evolution: natural selection. This mechanism was elegant and logical,
and it explained how populations could evolve (undergo descent with modification)
in such a way that they became better suited to their environments over time.
Darwin's concept of natural selection was based on several key observations: traits
are often heritable, more offspring are produced than can survive, offspring vary in
their heritable traits. Natural selection needs some starting material, and that
starting material is heritable variation. For natural selection to act on a feature, there
must already be variation (differences among individuals) for that feature. Also, the
differences have to be heritable, determined by the organisms' genes.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck is best known for his Theory of Inheritance of

Acquired Characteristics. Lamarckism is based on following postulates: new
needs. Every living organism is found in some
kind of environment. The changes in the
environmental factors like light, temperature,
medium, food, air etc. or migration of animal
lead to the origin of new needs in the living
organisms, especially animals. To fulfill these
new needs, the living organisms have to exert
special efforts like the changes in habits or
behavior. Use and disuse of organs. The new
habits involve the greater use of certain organs
Figure 2. Elephant showing use and
disuse. Wikimedia.
to meet new needs, and the disuse or lesser use

114
of certain other organs which are of no use in new conditions. This use and disuse
of organs greatly affect the form, structure and functioning of the organs. Continuous
and extra use of organs make them more efficient while the continued disuse of some
other organs lead to their degeneration and ultimate disappearance. Inheritance of
acquired characters. If an organism changes during life in order to adapt to its
environment, those changes are passed on to its offspring. Speciation. Lamarck
believed that in every generation, new characters are acquired and transmitted to
next generation, so that new characters accumulate generation after generation.
After a number of generations, a new species is formed. The evidences in favor of
Lamarckism are snakes where development of present-day limbless snakes with long
slender body from the limbed ancestors due to continued disuse of limbs and
stretching of their body to suit their creeping mode of locomotion and fossorial mode
of living out of fear of larger and more powerful mammals. It is an example of disuse
and degeneration of certain organs. Flightless birds: Development of flightless birds
like ostrich from flying ancestors due to continued disuse of wings as these were
found in well protected areas with plenty of food.

Hugo de Vries (1848—1935), a Dutch botanist, one

of the independent rediscoveries of Mendelism, put
forward his views regarding the formation of new species
in 1901. According to him, new species are not formed by
continuous variations but by sudden appearance of
variations, which he named as mutations. Hugo de Vries
stated that mutations are heritable and persist in
successive generations. He conducted his experiments on
Oenothera Lamarckian, (Evening Primrose) and found
Figure 3. Hugo De Vries. several aberrant types. When O. Lamarckian was self-
Wikimedia pollinated and its seeds were allowed to grow, majority of
F1 plants were similar to the parents, but a few were different plants. The different
plants were also self-pollinated and when their seeds were sown, the majority of the
plants were similar to the parents while a few were still more different plants and
this continued generation after generation. These plants
appeared to be new species, Hugo de Vries suggested from his
experiments that new types of inherited characteristics may
appear suddenly without any previous indication of their
presence in the race. The theory states that evolution is a
jerky process where new varieties and species are formed by
mutations (discontinuous variations) that function as raw
material of evolution. Features of mutation theories are
mutations or discontinuous variations are the raw material
of evolution; mutations appear all of a sudden, they become
Figure 4. Oenothera
operational immediately; unlike Darwin’s continuous Lamarckian. Wikimedia
variations or fluctuations, mutations do not revolve around
the mean or normal character of the species; the same type of mutations can appear
in a number of individuals of a species; all mutations are inheritable; mutations

115
appear in all conceivable directions; useful mutations are selected by nature; and
accumulation of variations produce new species.

NEO-DARWINIAN THEORY OR MODERN SYNTHESIS

The Modern Synthetic populations of Evolution describes the merging of the

Darwinian evolution with the Mendelian genetics, resulting in a unified theory of the
evolution. This theory is also referred to as the Neo-Darwinian theory. Synthetic
theory of Evolution was introduced to us by few legendary evolutionary biologists
naming T. Dobzhansky, J.B.S. Haldane, R.A. Fisher, Sewall Wright, G.L. Stebbins,
Ernst Mayr in the years 1930 and 1940. It showed a number of changes as to how
the evolution and the process of evolution are conceived. The theory gave a new
definition about the evolution as “the changes occurring in the allele frequencies
within the populations, ” which emphasizes on the genetics of evolution. It explains
the concepts which occur when the allele frequency of the population changes.
According to this theory, when the changes are great enough, there is a formation of
new species. A species is a group of individuals who are capable of interbreeding and
producing a fertile offspring.

In the 1860’s, an Austrian monk named Gregor

Mendel introduced a new theory of inheritance based on
his experimental work with pea plants. Prior to Mendel,
most people believed inheritance was due to a blending of
parental ‘essences’, much like how mixing blue and yellow
paint will produce a green color. Mendel instead believed
that heredity is the result of discrete units of inheritance,
and every single unit (or gene) was independent in its
actions in an individual’s genome. According to this
Mendelian concept, inheritance of a trait depends on the Figure 5. Punnet square.
passing-on of these units. For any given trait, an Wikimedia
individual inherits one gene from each parent so that the
individual has a pairing of two genes. We now understand the alternate forms of
these units as ‘alleles’. If the two alleles that form the pair for a trait are identical,
then the individual is said to be homozygous and if the two genes are different, then
the individual is heterozygous for the trait. Based on his pea plant studies, Mendel
proposed that traits are always controlled by single genes. However, modern studies
have revealed that most traits in humans are controlled by multiple genes as well as
environmental influences and do not necessarily exhibit a simple Mendelian pattern
of inheritance.

Population genetics is intimately bound up with the study of evolution and

natural selection, and is often regarded as the theoretical cornerstone of modern
Darwinism. This is because natural selection is one of the most important factors
that can affect a population's genetic composition. Natural selection occurs when
some variants in a population out-reproduce other variants as a result of being better
adapted to the environment, or ‘fitter’. Presuming the fitness differences are at least
partly due to genetic differences, this will cause the population's genetic makeup to

116
be altered over time. By studying formal models of
gene frequency change, population geneticists
therefore hope to shed light on the evolutionary
process, and to permit the consequences of
different evolutionary hypotheses to be explored in
a quantitatively precise way. Population
geneticists usually define ‘evolution’ as any change Figure 6. Migration genetics. Wikimedia.
in a population's genetic composition over time.
The four factors that can bring about such a change are: natural selection, mutation,
random genetic drift, and migration into or out of the population.

The early part of the twentieth century saw evolutionary theory embattled by
disagreements over Darwin's emphasis on natural selection. The then-newly
rediscovered work of Gregor Mendel in the nineteenth century was an uncomfortable
fit with evolution, as many scientists saw it. They weren't at all certain that natural
populations contained enough genetic variation for natural selection to create new
species. So they entertained other explanations, including inheritance of acquired
characteristics, "directed" variation toward a goal,
or sudden large mutations that resulted in
new species. In the field of paleontology, the
scientist who did most to resolve these questions
was George Gaylord Simpson (1902-1984), who
was on the staff of the American Museum of
Natural History for 30 years. At a time when other
paleontologists were convinced that
the fossil record could best be explained by
directed variation, Simpson disagreed. He said
that fossil patterns needed no mystical or goal-
oriented processes to explain them. For example,
where others saw the modern horse as having
Figure 7. Mammal fossil. Wikimedia.
arisen in a single advance toward the specialized
form, Simpson saw the path as that of an irregular tree that had many side-branches
leading off to extinction. Simpson argued that the evolution of mammals, as seen in
their fossilized remains, fit perfectly well with the new mechanisms of population
genetics being studied at the time. He used the then-new mathematical methods to
clarify how evolution occurred in "gene pools" in populations, not in individual
members of the population.

117
 ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 9.2: Essay.

Directions: Read the situation and identify the points of Darwin’s natural selection.

There are 2 types of worms: worms that eat at night (nocturnal) and worms
that eat during the day (diurnal). The birds eat during the day and seem to be eating
ONLY the diurnal worms. The nocturnal worms are in their burrows during this time.
Each spring when the worms reproduce, they have about 500 babies but only 100 of
these 500 ever become old enough to reproduce.

A. Describe variations in populations. ____________________________________________

B. Describe how offspring inherit surviving parent’s traits. ________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
C. Describe how more offspring are produced than survive. _______________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
D. Describe how some variations are favorable. ___________________________________
E. How will this population change over time? ____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 9.3: Complete the statement.

This diagram demonstrates the process of _____________________. It

demonstrates that changes in the variation of a population can change the traits of
a population. Before the introduction of the predator, each color occurred in equal
numbers in the population. After the introduction of the predator the __ ____________
variation is most common. This is because they were able to survive and
______________________ at a greater rate.

118
ACTIVITY 9.4: Compare and contrast

Directions: Using the Venn Diagram, give similarities and difference of two theories.

Lamarckism Mutation

WRAP–UP

Activity 9.5: Complete the table.

Name of Theory Proponent Explanation

Charles Darwin

Theory of Inheritance of
Acquired
Characteristics

Hugo de Vries

119
 VALUING

“Mutation is random; natural selection is the very

opposite of random.” - Richard Dawkins
Activity 9.6. Essay

Directions: In a minimum of 5 sentences, explain the quote above.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

POST TEST
Direction: Read each question carefully and choose the correct answer from the
choices below.

1. Which of the following best explains how an individual's evolutionary fitness

is measured?
A. By its fighting abilities C. By the ease of its survival
B. By its hunting strategies D. By its abilities to reproduce
2. Horses that have been bred by humans in captivity have more variation of
coat colors than wild horses. What process most likely led to the greater coat
color variation in domestic horses?
A. Natural selection C. Artificial selection
B. Inbreeding D. Cloning
3. Which of the following is true regarding Darwin's theory of evolution?
A. Organisms develop favorable adaptations based on a need.
B. Acquired traits are always passed on to offspring.
C. Individuals pass on adaptations to their offspring, due to natural selection.
D. Pure chance determines which species evolve.
4. Which of the following is NOT part of Darwin’s theory of natural selection?
A. Suitable variations in a population tend to be passed on while unsuitable
variations in a population are not.
B. Individuals with variations suitable to their environment have shorter
lifespans and produce fewer offspring.
C. Variations in a population exist and those variations are inherited
D. Living things tend to produce more offspring than can survive.
5. Individuals in a population that have a variation which gives them an
advantage in their environment are more likely to ___.
A. Survive and reproduce C. die and not reproduce
B. Move to a different environment D. change their characteristics to fit
the environment

120
 KEY TO CORRECTION
5. A
4. B
3. C
2. C
1. D
POSTTEST

B 5.
C 4. 3. Reproduce
D 3. 2. Gray mouse
B 2. 1. Natural Selection
B 1.
PRETEST Activity 9.3

R E F E R E N CE S
n/a, OpenStax. Cell Cycle with Checkpoints. May 18, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia
Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_With_Cyclins_and_Checkpoints.jpg.

n/a, Zephyris. Schematic Presentation of the Cell Cycle. January 25, 2020.
Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_2.svg.

CNX OpenStax. Biology. May 27, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons.

Wikimedia Commons. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Figure_10_03_01.jpg.

Reece, Jane B., Lisa A. Urry, Michael L Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V.
Minorsky, and Robert B. Jackson. “The Cell.” Essay. In Campbell Biology, 9th ed.,
228–45. Boston, CA: Benjamin Cummings / Pearson, 2011.

Visconti, Roberta, Rosa Della Monica, and Domenico Grieco. “Cell Cycle Checkpoint
in Cancer: a Therapeutically Targetable Double-Edged Sword.” Journal of
Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research 35, no. 1 (September 27, 2016):
153–53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13046-016-0433-9.

Zifan, Ali. A Diagram of Mitosis Stages. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Creative

Commons Attributions, June 26, 2016. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Mitosis_Stages.svg.

121
General
Biology 2
12
Quarter 3
Module 10
Evidences of Evolution

122
Introductory Message

For the facilitator:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 of Grade 12 Module 10 on Evidences of Evolution!

This module was collaboratively designed, developed and reviewed by educators from
Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its Officer-In-Charge Schools Division
Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A. Agustin in partnership with the Local
Government of Pasig through its mayor, Honorable Vico Sotto.
The writers utilized the standards set by the K to 12 Curriculum using the Most
Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) while overcoming their personal, social,
and economic constraints in schooling.

This learning material hopes to engage the learners into guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Further, this also aims to help learners
acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs namely: Communication,
Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking and Character while taking into
consideration their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the body of
the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this module.
You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to manage
their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the learners
as they do the tasks included in the module.

123
For the learner:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Module 10 on Evidences of Evolution!

The hand is one of the most symbolized part of the human body. It is often used to
depict skill, action and purpose. Through our hands we may learn, create and
accomplish. Hence, the hand in this learning resource signifies that you as a learner
is capable and empowered to successfully achieve the relevant competencies and
skills at your own pace and time. Your academic success lies in your own hands!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for
guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to
process the contents of the learning material while being an active learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

Expectation - These are what you will be able to know after

completing the lessons in the module

Pre-test - This will measure your prior knowledge and the

concepts to be mastered throughout the lesson.

Recap - This section will measure what learnings and skills

that you understand from the previous lesson.

Lesson- This section will discuss the topic for this module.

Activities - This is a set of activities you will perform.

Wrap Up- This section summarizes the concepts and

applications of the lessons.
Valuing-this part will check the integration of values in the
learning competency.

Post-test - This will measure how much you have learned from
the entire module.

124
 EXPECTATION
In the previous lesson, you have learned about the different theories about
evolution, one of which is Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection
that led to the Modern Synthesis as the unified theory of evolution. At the end of this
module, you should be able to:

1. illustrate the evidences of evolution; and

2. explain how the fossil record has aided in the development of the theory of
evolution.

PRETEST

Directions: Read the statements/questions comprehensively and choose the letter of

the best answer. Write the answer on the separate sheet of paper.
1. What best describes the hind leg bones seen in the whale?
A. Homologous structures to the wings of butterflies
B. Vestigial structures that had a function in an ancestor
C. Analogous structures to the fins of living fish
D. Fossil structures from an extinct ancestor
2. How do fossils support evolution?
A. The fossil record provides evidence that organisms have changed over
time.
B. Individual species disappear and reappear in the fossil record over time.
C. Organisms in the fossil record are identical to living organisms.
D. The fossil record provides evidence that all organisms developed at the
same time.
3. Structures with the same parts have different functions; suggests that organisms
share a common ancestry?
A. Vestigial structures.
B. Adaptive radiation.
C. Homologous structures.
D. Fossil.
4. If an organism has a vestigial structure, that structure likely once had a function
in a(n) ___.
A. Close relative.
B. Unrelated organism.
C. Early ancestor.
D. Embryological stage.

125
5. A characteristic that can be passed from parent to offspring through genes is
called a _________.
A. Resistance
B. Genetic change
C. Selective breeding
D. Trait

RECAP
Activity 10.1. Essay.

Direction: Explain how giraffe’s neck gets longer and longer using the theories of
modern synthesis.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

126
 LESSON

EVIDENCE FROM FOSSILS

Fossils are the remains

of plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and single-celled
living things that have been replaced by rock material
or impressions of organisms preserved in rock.
Paleontologists use fossil remains to understand
different aspects of extinct and living organisms.
Individual fossils may contain information about an Figure 1. Ammonite fossil. Photo
.
organism’s life and environment. Much like the rings by Wikimedia
of a tree, for example, each ring on the surface of
an oyster shell denotes one year of its life. Studying oyster fossils can help
paleontologists discover how long the oyster lived, and in what conditions. If
the climate was favorable for the oyster, the oyster probably grew more quickly and
the rings would be thicker. If the oyster struggled for survival, the rings would be
thinner. Thinner rings would indicate an environment not favorable to organisms
like the oyster—too warm or too cold for the oyster, for example, or lacking nutrients
necessary for them to grow. Some fossils show how an organism lived. Amber, for
instance, is hardened, fossilized tree resin. At times, the sticky resin has dripped
down a tree trunk, trapping air bubbles, as well as small insects and some organisms
as large as frogs and lizards. Paleontologists study amber, called “fossil resin,” to
observe these complete specimens. Amber can preserve tissue as delicate as
dragonfly wings. Some ants were trapped in amber while eating leaves, allowing
scientists to know exactly what they ate, and how they ate it. Even the air bubbles
trapped in amber are valuable to paleontologists. By analyzing the chemistry of the
air, scientists can tell if there was a volcanic eruption or other atmospheric
changes nearby.

The behavior of organisms can also be deduced from fossil evidence.

Paleontologists suggest that hadrosaurs, duck-billed dinosaurs, lived in large herds,
for instance. They made this hypothesis after observing evidence of social behavior,
including a single site with approximately 10,000 skeletons. Fossils can also provide
evidence of the evolutionary history of organisms. Paleontologists infer that
whales evolved from land-dwelling animals, for instance. Fossils of extinct animals
closely related to whales have front limbs like paddles, similar to front legs. They
even have tiny back limbs. Although the front limbs of these fossil animals are in
some ways similar to legs, in other ways they also show strong similarities to the fins
of modern whales.

127
 EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION FROM STRUCTURES

If two or more species share a unique physical feature, such as a complex

bone structure or a body plan, they may all have inherited this feature from a
common ancestor. Physical features shared due
to evolutionary history (a common ancestor) are
said to be homologous. To give one classic
example, the forelimbs of whales, humans,
birds, and dogs look pretty different on the
outside. That's because they're adapted to
function in different environments. However, if
you look at the bone structure of the forelimbs,
you'll find that the pattern of bones is very
similar across species. It's unlikely that such
Figure 2. Bones in the forelimbs of
vertebrates. Wikimedia.
similar structures would have evolved
independently in each species, and more likely
that the basic layout of bones was already present in a common ancestor of whales,
humans, dogs, and birds. Some homologous structures can be seen only in embryos.
For instance, all vertebrate embryos (including humans) have gill slits and a tail
during early development. The developmental patterns of these species become more
different later on (which is why your embryonic tail is now your tailbone, and your
gill slits have turned into your jaw and inner ear. Homologous embryonic structures
reflect that the developmental programs of vertebrates are variations on a similar
plan that existed in their last common ancestor.

Not all physical features that look alike are marks of common ancestry.
Instead, some physical similarities are analogous: they evolved independently in
different organisms because the organisms lived
in similar environments or experienced similar
selective pressures. This process is
called convergent evolution. For example, two
distantly related species that live in the Arctic, the
arctic fox and the ptarmigan (a bird), both
undergo seasonal changes of color from dark to
snowy white. This shared feature doesn’t reflect
common ancestry – i.e., it's unlikely that the last
common ancestor of the fox and ptarmigan
Figure 3. Analogous similarity between changed color with the seasons. Instead, this
butterfly and bat wings. Wikimedia. feature was favored separately in both species due
to similar selective pressures. That is, the
genetically determined ability to switch to light coloration in winter helped both foxes
and ptarmigans survive and reproduce in a place with snowy winters and sharp-eyed
predators.

128
 A "vestigial structure" or "vestigial organ" is an anatomical feature or behavior
that no longer seems to have a purpose in the current form of an organism of the
given species. Often, these vestigial structures were organs that performed some
important functions in the organism at one point in the
past. However, as the population changed due to natural
selection, those structures became less and less
necessary until they were rendered pretty much useless.
They are believed to be leftovers, only vestiges of the past.
That said, some structures that were once thought of as
vestigial are now thought as useful, such as the whale
Figure 4. Vestigial hindlegs in
pelvis or the human appendix. As with many things in
boa constrictor. Wikimedia science, the case isn't closed. As more knowledge is
discovered, the information we know is revised and
refined. The animal kingdom is ripe with vestigial
structures in their skeletons and bodies. Snakes
descended from lizards, with their legs growing smaller
and smaller until all that was left is a small bump (leg
bones buried in muscle) at the back of some of the
largest snakes, such as pythons and boa constrictors.
Blind fish and salamanders who live in caves still have
eye structures. One explanation, in the case of the fish,
Figure 5. Tailbone of humans.
is that mutations in the genes that increase taste buds Wikimedia
degrade the eyes. The coccyx or
the tailbone: Obviously, humans no longer have visible external tails, because the
current version of humans do not need tails to live in trees as earlier human
ancestors did.

An embryo is an unborn (or unhatched) animal or human young in its

earliest phases. The study of one type of evidence of evolution is called
embryology, the study of embryos. Embryos of many different kinds of animals:
mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, etc. look very similar and it is often difficult to
tell them apart. Many traits of one type of animal appear in t he embryo of
another type of animal. For example, fish embryos and human embryos both
have gill slits. In fish they develop into gills, but in humans they disappear
before birth. This shows that the animals are similar and that they develop
similarly, implying that they are related, have common ancestors and that they
started out the same, gradually evolving different traits, but that the basic plan
for a creature's beginning remains the same.

Like structural homologies, similarities between biological molecules can

reflect shared evolutionary ancestry. At the most basic level, all living organisms
share the same genetic material, the same or highly similar genetic codes, and the
same process of gene expression. These shared features suggest that all living things
are descended from a common ancestor, and that this ancestor had DNA as its

129
genetic material, used the genetic code, and expressed its
genes by transcription and translation. Present-day organisms
all share these features because they were "inherited" from the
ancestor. Although they're great for establishing the common
origins of life, features like having DNA or carrying out
transcription and translation are not so useful for figuring
out how related particular organisms are. If we want to
determine which organisms in a group are most closely
Figure 6. DNA gel
related, we need to use different types of molecular features,
comparing of fours
such as the nucleotide sequences of genes. species. Wikimedia

Biogeography is the study of geographical distribution of fossils and living

organisms. Organisms usually arise in areas where similar forms already exist.
Similar organisms may also be found in different
locations which could mean that the two places
were previously connected. For example, broad
groupings of organisms that had already evolved
before the breakup of the
supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million
years ago) tend to be distributed worldwide. In
contrast, broad groupings that evolved after the
breakup tend to appear uniquely in smaller
Figure 7. Supercontinent Pangea. Wikimedia regions of Earth. Environment cannot always
account for either similarity or dissimilarity.
Closely related species can evolve different traits under different environmental
pressures. Likewise, very distantly related species can evolve similar traits if they
have similar environmental pressures.

130
 ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 10.2: Essay.

Directions: For each animal, indicate what type of movement each limb is responsible
for.
Animal Primary function:
Using tools, picking up and holding
Human
objects

Whale

Cat

Bat

Bird

Crocodile

Activity 10.3. Essay.

Directions. Below are some vestigial structures found in humans.

Structure Possible function

Wisdom tooth

Appendix

Muscles for moving the ears

Body hair

Tail bone

131
ACTIVITY 10.4: Compare and contrast

Directions: Using the Venn Diagram, give the similarities and difference between the
two structures.

Homologous Analogous

WRAP–UP

Activity 10.5.

As you flip through the newspaper, you notice that the front-page article is
about evolution. You are curious, since you are becoming an expert on evolution, so
you read it. These are the first 4 sentences of the article…

There is no way that evolution happened. It is something that

scientists made up. There is no proof that evolution ever happened. How can
we know what happened millions of years ago?

After reading the whole article, you feel that it is your duty as a science scholar
to write a letter to the editor of this newspaper to provide facts about evolution to the
public. Write your letter in the space below.

1. Begin the letter: Dear Editor,

2. Write 1 paragraph (at least 6 sentences) about how scientists know that
evolution happened, or that life has changed over time. In your paragraph,
use, UNDERLINE, and explain the following terms: - evolution, comparative
anatomy, homologous structures, DNA, & fossil
3. At the end, sign your name.

132
 VALUING

“The evidence for evolution pours in, not only from geology,
paleontology, biogeography and anatomy, but of course from
molecular biology and every other branch of the life
sciences.” – Daniel Dennett

Activity 10.6. Essay

Directions: In a minimum of 5 sentences, explain the quote above.

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

POST TEST
Direction: Read each question carefully and choose the correct answer from the
choices below.

1. Scientists compare organisms' DNA to support the theory that all species
share a common ___?
A. Separation C. Ancestor
B. Population D. Environment
2. Some organisms that share a common ancestor have features that have
different functions, but similar structures. These are known as ___?
A. Vestigial structures C. Analogous structures
B. Homologous structures D. Fossil structures
3. Two organisms that are closely related would have ___?
A. Very similar DNA sequence. C. Exactly the same DNA sequences
B. No proteins in common. D. Completely different DNA sequence
4. Scientists think that dolphins and whales may have evolved from a common
ancestor. What evidence supports this hypothesis?
A. They swim the same way. C. They eat the same food.
B. They live in the same area of the ocean. D. They have similar anatomy
5. If scientist were to find 4 fossils that appear to be of the same ancestor, what
can be concluded?
A. number of each fossil are similar
B. fossils were found in the same rock layer
C. members of the group living today live together
D. fossils have similar characteristics

133
 KEY TO CORRECTION
5. D
4. D
3. A
2. B
1. C
POSTTEST

D 5.
C 4.
D 3.
A 2.
B 1.
PRETEST

R E F E R E N CE S
n/a, OpenStax. Cell Cycle with Checkpoints. May 18, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia
Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_With_Cyclins_and_Checkpoints.jpg.

n/a, Zephyris. Schematic Presentation of the Cell Cycle. January 25, 2020.
Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Cell_Cycle_2.svg.

CNX OpenStax. Biology. May 27, 2016. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons.

Wikimedia Commons. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Figure_10_03_01.jpg.

Reece, Jane B., Lisa A. Urry, Michael L Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V.
Minorsky, and Robert B. Jackson. “The Cell.” Essay. In Campbell Biology, 9th ed.,
228–45. Boston, CA: Benjamin Cummings / Pearson, 2011.

Visconti, Roberta, Rosa Della Monica, and Domenico Grieco. “Cell Cycle Checkpoint
in Cancer: a Therapeutically Targetable Double-Edged Sword.” Journal of
Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research 35, no. 1 (September 27, 2016):
153–53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13046-016-0433-9.

Zifan, Ali. A Diagram of Mitosis Stages. Photograph. Wikimedia Commons. Creative

Commons Attributions, June 26, 2016. Wikimedia Commons.
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki.File:Mitosis_Stages.svg.

134
 General
Biology 2
12
Quarter 3
Self-Learning Module 12
Evolutionary Relationships Among Organisms

135
Introductory Message
For the Facilitator:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module 12 on Evolutionary

Relationships Among Organisms!

This Self-Learning Module was collaboratively designed, developed and

reviewed by educators from the Schools Division Office of Pasig City headed by its
Officer-in-Charge Schools Division Superintendent, Ma. Evalou Concepcion A.
Agustin, in partnership with the City Government of Pasig through its mayor,
Honorable Victor Ma. Regis N. Sotto. The writers utilized the standards set by the K
to 12 Curriculum using the Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC) in
developing this instructional resource.

This learning material hopes to engage the learners in guided and independent
learning activities at their own pace and time. Further, this also aims to help learners
acquire the needed 21st century skills especially the 5 Cs, namely: Communication,
Collaboration, Creativity, Critical Thinking, and Character while taking into
consideration their needs and circumstances.

In addition to the material in the main text, you will also see this box in the
body of the module:

Notes to the Teacher

This contains helpful tips or strategies that
will help you in guiding the learners.

As a facilitator you are expected to orient the learners on how to use this
module. You also need to keep track of the learners' progress while allowing them to
manage their own learning. Moreover, you are expected to encourage and assist the
learners as they do the tasks included in the module.

136
 For the Learner:

Welcome to the General Biology 2 Self-Learning Module 12 on Evolutionary

Relationships Among Organisms!

This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You
will be enabled to process the contents of the learning material while being an active
learner.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

Expectations - This points to the set of knowledge and skills

that you will learn after completing the module.

Pretest - This measures your prior knowledge about the lesson

at hand.

Recap - This part of the module provides a review of concepts

and skills that you already know about a previous lesson.

Lesson - This section discusses the topic in the module.

Activities - This is a set of activities that you need to perform.

Wrap-Up - This section summarizes the concepts and

application of the lesson.

Valuing - This part integrates a desirable moral value in the

lesson.

Posttest - This measures how much you have learned from the
entire module.

137
 EXPECTATIONS

This module focuses on the discussion pertaining to the Evolutionary

Relationships Among Organisms based on the concrete Evidence/s of Evolution.
After completing this module, learners are expected to:
1. Deduce evolutionary relationships among living organisms using the
evidence of evolution.
2. Identify essential parameters which are used to determine and analyze
evolutionary relationships.
3. Distinguish between homologous structures and analogous structures.
4. Utilize the essential parameters in describing common evolutionary
relationships in a certain animal species.
5. Appreciate the unique and common features and characteristics of various
organisms.

PRETEST

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the answer on a separate sheet of paper
or you can write it on your notebook.
_____1. Which of the following statements regarding analogies is correct?
A. Analogies occur only as errors.
B. Analogies are relatively similar with homologous traits.
C. Analogies are derived by response/s to similar environmental constraints.
D. Analogies are a form of genetic mutation.

_____2. These structures can be observed in various organisms that indicate their
relation to a common ancestor by virtue of their resemblance.
A. Vestigial structures
B. Homologous structures
C. Analogous structures
D. Parsimonious structures

_____3. What is true for species that are a member of the same clade?
A. Species share the same basic characteristics.
B. Species evolved from a shared ancestor.
C. Species are all on the same tree.
D. Species have identical phylogenies.

_____4. Which of the following statements correctly describes gene conservation?

A. Conserved genes can be observed only in higher forms of animals such as
primates
B. Conserved genes are the ultimate products of adaptations, mutations and
natural selection.
C. Genes are conserved from an organism when they are not transmitted
from one generation to succeeding generations.
D. Genes are said to be conserved when they are maintained by organisms
that are not closely related.

138
_____5. This refers to the hypothetical relationship between groups of organisms
especially in reference to lines of descent.
A. cladistics
B. systematics
C. phylogeny
D. evolutionary biology

RECAP

Identify the evidence of evolution described in each statement. Choose your answers
in the box and write the correct answers on the blank.

A. Fossil Records D. Physiology and Biochemistry

B. Biogeography E. Embryology

C. Homology F. Natural Selection

_____1. Staphylococcus aureus became resistant to common penicillin after its long
period of exposure to the drug.
_____2. Scientists found out that beak shapes of birds depend on their habitat and
the type of food they eat.

_____3. The bones of a horse’s front leg, bat’s wing, and human arm have structural
similarities.

_____4. Scientists were able to compare the gene responsible for the human muscle
protein to that of monkeys, chickens and crocodiles.
_____5. Developmental biologists were able to describe the similarities in the early
stages of development in fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals.

_____6. Scientists observed and analyzed structures preserved in a rock or rock layer
through relative and absolute dating.

139
 LESSON

Through anatomy, physiology, genetics, molecular evidence, evolutionary

relationships can demonstrate common ancestry for populations and organisms.
There are six (6) useful and significant parameters used in this lecture to define
interconnections between species that are also based on the fundamental evidence
of evolution.

1. Homologous Structures and Traits

Organisms that share similar physical features and genetic sequences tend to
be more closely related than those that do not. Homologous structures are organs
or skeletal components of animals that indicate their relation to a common ancestor
by virtue of their resemblance. Most of the time, these systems do not need to look
exactly identical, or have the same function. Homologous traits share an
evolutionary path that led to the development of the observed trait from an organism.

In figure 1, the bones in the flippers of dolphins, wings of bats, the foreleg of
a horse and cat, and the arm of humans are homologous structures. As you observe
these structures are not simply a single bone, but rather a grouping of several bones
arranged in a similar way in each organism even though the elements of the structure
may have changed shape and size.

Figure 1. Homologous Structures of Selected Mammals

Image Source: https://www.dreamstime.com/homologous-structure-vector-illustration-biological-species-example-

scheme-structures-labeled-structural-diagram-bone-titles-image168174606

2. Analogous Structures and Traits

When animals from different groups with different ancestors live in the same
environment, similar structures that have a certain purpose may often be created.
This is because their respective ecosystems have a common way of life. However, as
they have different ancestors and belong to different classes, despite their similar
functions, these structures appear to be very anatomically different.

140
These similarities in structures as the result of organisms’ gradual adaptation to the
environment are called analogous structure.

Some organisms may be very closely related, even though a minor genetic
change caused a major morphological difference to make them look quite different.

Figure 2. The skulls of

chimpanzees (a) and
humans (b) are almost
genetically similar with an
impressive degree of
similarity at 99%. With this
high percentage of similarity
still, chimpanzees and
humans show significant
anatomical differences,
including the degree to which
the jaw protrudes in the
adult and the relative lengths
of our arms and legs.
Image Source: http://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/ditatopic/34926

Unrelated species, however, can be distantly related but look very much alike,
generally because both have developed common adaptations to similar
environmental conditions. The streamlined body forms, the shapes of fins and
appendages, and the shape of tails in mammalian fish and whales are an example of
this.

Image Source: https://opened.cuny.edu/courseware/lesson/705/student/?task=2

Figure 3 shows a bird wing and a bat wing are similar in shape to the wing of
a honey bee and serve the same purpose (flight). The wings of birds and bats are
homologous structures. Nevertheless, the honey bee wing has a distinct structure
and embryonic roots (it is made of a chitinous exoskeleton, not a

141
boney endoskeleton). An analogy is demonstrated by the bee and bird or bat wing
styles, identical structures that do not share an evolutionary history.

Figure 4 shows
examples of Analogous
structures present in
sharks, penguins and
dolphins with their
streamline appendages

Image Source: Analogous and Homologous Traits - CLADISTICS (weebly.com)

Table 1. Difference between Analogous and Homologous Traits

Analogous Vs. Homologous Traits

ANALOGOUS HOMOLOGOUS
Different in anatomical features Comparable in anatomy
Similar functions Different functions
Develop in distinct/unconnected Develop in associated/related animals
animals
Not inherited from a common ancestor Inherited from a common ancestor
Developmental pattern is dissimilar Developmental pattern is similar
Dissimilar in structure and origin Similar in structure and origin

Source: CLADISTICS - Home (weebly.com)

3. Molecular Comparisons – DNA sequencing

The field of molecular systematics, which describes the use of molecular level
data, including DNA sequencing, has flourished with the advancement of DNA
technology. Not only does modern molecular character research validate several
earlier classifications, but it also exposes previously made mistakes. Molecular
characteristics can include variations in a protein's amino-acid sequence, differences
in a gene's individual nucleotide sequence, or differences in gene arrangements.

Mutations can accumulate inside any given section of DNA over the course of
millions of years. To show the degree of evolutionary divergence, the number of
variations between comparable base sequences may be used. As mutations can occur
more readily in these sequences, non-coding sequences of DNA provide the best
means of comparison.

4. Gene Conservation

142
 Genes are DNA sequences which codify polypeptides (which constitute
proteins). With the sequencing of a number of genomes of species, it has been
found that many organisms still maintain specific genes in common that are not
closely related. These genes are said to be conserved and usually serve a critical
role in regulating organismal development. Based on studies, scientists consider
the number of conserved genes that can be used to show evolutionary relationships
between organisms.

These are some examples of ultra-conserved genes:

1. Regulatory genes (e.g. coding for protein-based hormones)

2. Genes encoding for tRNA (needed for translation to occur)
3. Genes involved in ATP production (e.g. coding for the cytochrome proteins in the
electron transport chain)

Figure 5 shows the

percentage of conserved genes
among some of the
representative animals.

Image Source: http://www.vce.bioninja.com.au/aos-4-change-over-

time/evolution/evolutionary-relationships.html

5. Mitochondrial Evolution

In tracing evolutionary relationships within species, scientists probe the

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which is structurally identical to nuclear DNA. However,
mitochondrial DNA differs significantly in terms of the following factors:

1. Descent via maternal line – Inherited from the mother only,

mitochondrial DNA provides a much clearer genetic lineage
2. Lack of recombination - Because mitochondrial DNA is transferred
directly from the mother, no recombination takes place, preserving the
maternal sequence's reliability.
3. Higher mutation rate - Non-conserved sequences tend to mutate at a
faster rate due to the production of reactive oxygen species in the
mitochondrion.
4. High copy number - Larger amounts of mitochondrial DNA can be
gathered for sampling due to multiple availability of mitochondria in every
cell.

Mitochondrial DNA sequencing is suitable for comparing organisms within a

species or those that have diverged within a relatively short period of time (~20
million years) due to these variations.

6. Genome Phylogeny

143
 Phylogeny defines a species' evolutionary growth. A branching diagram called
a phylogeny tree will portray this evolutionary divergence (or cladogram). These
diagrams can be used to differentiate between biological taxa or even groups of taxa,
and trace the evolutionary history of a given species.
Phylogeny tree branching may be based on structural features, protein
similarities or, more generally, comparisons of genomes. Species with fewer branch
points between them are more closely connected to each other.

ACTIVITIES

Activity 1 Mind Workout

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly. Write your answers on a

separate sheet of paper or on your biology lecture notebook.

1. Dolphins and fishes have relatively comparable body shapes. Is it more likely that
this feature is a homologous or analogous trait? Explain your answer.

2. Why is it so important for scientists, before building phylogenetic trees, to

differentiate between homologous and analogous features?

3. Explain the significance of mitochondrial DNA sequencing in tracing evolutionary

relationship of organisms belonging to the same species.

Activity 2 Fly High into The Sky!

Directions: Examine the picture below. The photo shows the wings of bat, bird,
Pteradactyl, and moth. After examining the various wings of sample organisms,
answer the following questions related to the photo below:

144
 Image Source: Homologous Analogous Vestigial Activity GP13.pdf (tamdistrict.org)
Guide Questions

1. Identify the wings of the abovementioned organisms. Write your answers in the
box (box 1 to 4)
2. Identify the forelimb structures above as to whether they are structures that are
homologous or analogous. Explain your answer.
3. What pattern of evolution is most likely to have caused these limbs to develop in
this manner? Justify your answer.
4. Color code the bones that are similar in each animal using color pencil or crayons.
5. Identify the number of fingers and/or toes of each of the animals.
6. Enumerate the similarities and differences in each part of the forelimb
7. Why would these wing structures have evolved differently?

Activity 3
Your Face Looks Familiar!

Directions: Examine the chart carefully. The chart below resembles to that of a
phylogenetic tree. The chart shows various facial features of the unknown animals.
After your deep scrutiny, you are tasked to answer the guide questions on the
following section of this activity.

Image Source: Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)

GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. Which species on the chart (A, B, C, D, E, F) is the common ancestor? Justify

your

145
answer__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Did the round nose of Species E and Species F come from the common ancestor?
___________________________________________________________________

3. Is the round nose of Species E and Species F a homologous structure?

___________________________________________________________________

4. Did the square nose of Species D and Species G come from the common
ancestor? ____________________________________________________________________
5. Is the square nose of Species D and Species G a homologous structure?
____________________________________________________________________

6. Are the cat ears of Species D and Species F homologous structures?

____________________________________________________________________

7. Are the smiles of Species E and Species G homologous structures?

_____________________________________________________________________

Source:Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)

WRAP-UP

Scientists make use of several parameters in order to determine and analyze

evolutionary relationships that exist among living organisms. These parameters are
also derived from the concrete pieces of evidence of evolution. To summarize the
valuable ideas in this module, make a conceptual table that can simply and clearly
present the importance of these parameters in identifying the underpinning
evolutionary relationships among organisms. Complete the following table below.

Parameters Mechanisms Best Example

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

146
 VALUING

All organisms are uniquely created and equally important in our ecosystem.
Each individual organism has its own significant role in the environment thus
maintaining equilibrium in our earth’s biosphere. Evolutionary relationships among
organisms – including human beings simply show that we are purposively connected
with one another – as conceivably proven by science and categorically explained by
various religious beliefs.

POSTTEST

Identify the parameters of evolutionary relationships being described in each

statement. Choose your answers in the box and write the correct answers on the
blank.

A. Genome Phylogeny D. Homologous Structures/Traits

B. Mitochondrial DNA E. Gene Conservation

C. Molecular Comparisons F. Analogous Structures/Traits

_____1. Variations in a protein's amino-acid sequence, differences in a gene's

individual nucleotide sequence, or differences in gene arrangements.
_____2. The use of diagrams to differentiate between biological taxa and trace the
evolutionary history of a given species.
_____3. Identical structures that do not share an evolutionary history such as
structures demonstrated by the bee and bird or bat wing styles.

_____4. The prevalence of genes in numerous organisms such as the gene for
encoding cytochrome proteins during ATP production.

_____5. The structure of bones in the flippers of dolphins, wings of bats, the foreleg
of a horse and cat, and the arm of humans.

147
_____6. Suitable for comparing organisms within a species or those that have
diverged within a relatively short period of time.

KEY TO CORRECTION

6. B 6. A
5. D 5. E 5. C
4. E 4. D 4. D
3. F 3. C 3. B
2. A 2. B 2. B
1. C 1. F 1. C
Post Test Recap Pretest

References

Reference Books

Javier, Mark Archei O. (2017) General Biology 2. Makati City: DIWA Learning
Systems, Inc.
Rea, Maria Angelica D. and Nikki Heherson A. Dagamac (2017) General Biology 2.
Quezon City: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Electronic References

https://www.dreamstime.com/homologous-structure-vector-illustration-biological-species-example-scheme-
structures-labeled-structural-diagram-bone-titles-image168174606

http://www.opentextbooks.org.hk/ditatopic/34926

https://opened.cuny.edu/courseware/lesson/705/student/?task=2

Analogous and Homologous Traits - CLADISTICS (weebly.com)

CLADISTICS - Home (weebly.com)

http://www.vce.bioninja.com.au/aos-4-change-over-time/evolution/evolutionary-relationships.html

Homologous Analogous Vestigial Activity GP13.pdf (tamdistrict.org)

Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)

Part-2-Homology-Assignment_-HomologousandAnalogousStructuresWorksheet.pdf (claibornecountyschools.com)

148