CHAPTER 1: Mechanical vibrations

Damped free vibrations

CHAPTER 2
BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES
The process of providing the second mass in order to counteract the effect of the centrifugal
force of the first mass, is called balancing of rotating masses.
The following cases are important from the subject point of view:
1. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane.
2. Balancing of a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in different planes.
3. Balancing of different masses rotating in the same plane.
4. Balancing of different masses rotating in different planes.
i. Balancing of a Single Rotating Mass by a Single Mass Rotating in the Same Plane
ii. Balancing of a Single Rotating Mass by Two Masses Rotating in Different Planes
iii. Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in the Same Plane
iv. Balancing of Several Masses Rotating in Different Planes
Balancing of Reciprocating masses

CONSIDER SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM:

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ACCELERATING FORCE:

Acceleration of the reciprocating mass of a slider-crank mechanism is given by,

a p = Accelerati on of piston
 cos 2 θ 
= r ω 2 cos θ + − − − − − − − − − (1)
 n 
l
Where n =
r

And, the force required to accelerate the mass ‘m’ is

 cos 2 θ 
Fi = m r ω2 cos θ +
 n 
cos 2 θ
= m r ω2 cos θ + m r ω2 − − − − − − − − − ( 2)
n

1
 2
The first term of the equation (2) , i.e. m r ω cos θ is called primary accelerating
2 cos 2 θ
force the second term m r ω is called the secondary accelerating force.
n
2
Maximum value of primary accelerating force is m r ω
m r ω2
And Maximum value of secondary accelerating force is
n
Generally, ‘n’ value is much greater than one; the secondary force is small compared to
primary force and can be safely neglected for slow speed engines.

In Fig (a), the inertia force due to primary accelerating force is shown.

2
In Fig (b), the forces acting on the engine frame due to inertia force are shown.

At ‘O’ the force exerted by the crankshaft on the main bearings has two components,
horizontal F21h v
and vertical F21 .

F21h is an horizontal force, which is an unbalanced shaking force.

F21v and F41v balance each other but form an unbalanced shaking couple.
The magnitude and direction of these unbalanced force and couple go on changing with
angle θ. The shaking force produces linear vibrations of the frame in horizontal direction,
whereas the shaking couple produces an oscillating vibration.
h
The shaking force F21 is the only unbalanced force which may hamper the smooth
running of the engine and effort is made to balance the same.
However it is not at all possible to balance it completely and only some modifications can
be carried out.

BALANCING OF THE SHAKING FORCE:

Shaking force is being balanced by adding a rotating counter mass at radius ‘r’ directly
opposite the crank. This provides only a partial balance. This counter mass is in addition
to the mass used to balance the rotating unbalance due to the mass at the crank pin. This
is shown in figure (c).

DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 3 VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE

The horizontal component of the centrifugal force due to the balancing mass is
m r ω2 cos θ and this is in the line of stroke. This component neutralizes the unbalanced
2
reciprocating force. But the rotating mass also has a component m r ω sin θ
perpendicular to the line of stroke which remains unbalanced. The unbalanced force is
zero at θ = 00 or 1800 and maximum at the middle of the stroke i.e. θ = 900. The
magnitude or the maximum value of the unbalanced force remains the same i.e. equal to
m r ω2 . Thus instead of sliding to and fro on its mounting, the mechanism tends to
jump up and down.
2
To minimize the effect of the unbalance force a compromise is, usually made, is of the
3
1 3
reciprocating mass is balanced or a value between to .
2 4
If ‘c’ is the fraction of the reciprocating mass, then

The primary force balanced by the mass = c mr ω2 cos θ

and

The primary force unbalanced by the mass = (1 − c) mr ω2 cos θ

Vertical component of centrifuga l force which remains unbalanced

= c m r ω 2 sin θ

In reciprocating engines, unbalance forces in the direction of the line of stroke are more
dangerous than the forces perpendicular to the line of stroke.

Resultant unbalanced force at any instant

= [(1 − c)mr ω2 cos θ] + [c mr ω2 sinθ]
2 2

1
The resultant unbalanced force is minimum when, c =
2
This method is just equivalent to as if a revolving mass at the crankpin is completely
balanced by providing a counter mass at the same radius diametrically opposite to the
crank. Thus if m P is the mass at the crankpin and ‘c’ is the fraction of the reciprocating
mass ‘m’ to be balanced , the mass at the crankpin may be considered as c m + m P
which is to be completely balanced.

4
Problem 1:
A single –cylinder reciprocating engine has a reciprocating mass of 60 kg. The crank
rotates at 60 rpm and the stroke is 320 mm. The mass of the revolving parts at 160 mm
radius is 40 kg. If two-thirds of the reciprocating parts and the whole of the revolving
parts are to be balanced, determine the, (i) balance mass required at a radius of 350 mm
and (ii) unbalanced force when the crank has turned 500 from the top-dead centre.

Solution:
Given : m = mass of the reciprocat ing parts = 60 kg
N = 60 rpm, L = length of the stroke = 320 mm
2
mP = 40 kg, c = , rc = 350 mm
3

(i) Balance mass required at a radius of 350 mm

2 πN 2 π x 60
ω= = = 2 π rad/s
We have, 60 60
L 320
r= = = 160 mm
2 2

Mass to be balanced at the crank pin = M

2
M = c m + mP = x 60 + 40 = 80 kg
3

Mr
mc rc = M r therefore mc =
and rc
80 x 160
i.e. mc = = 36. 57 kg
350

(ii) Unbalanced force when the crank has turned 500 from the top-dead centre.

Unbalanced force at θ = 50 0
= [(1 − c )mr ω 2
cos θ] + [c mr ω2 sinθ]
2 2

2 2
 2 2  2 2 
= 1 −  x 60 x 0.16 x (2π) cos 50 0  +  x 60 x 0.16 x(2π) sin50 0 
 3  3 
= 209.9 N

5
Problem 2:
The following data relate to a single cylinder reciprocating engine:
Mass of reciprocating parts = 40 kg
Mass of revolving parts = 30 kg at crank radius
Speed = 150 rpm, Stroke = 350 mm.
If 60 % of the reciprocating parts and all the revolving parts are to be balanced, determine
the,
(i) balance mass required at a radius of 320 mm and (ii) unbalanced force when the crank
has turned 450 from the top-dead centre.

Solution:

Given : m = mass of the reciprocat ing parts = 40 kg

mP = 30 kg , N = 150 rpm, L = length of the stroke = 350 mm
c = 60 % , rc = 320 mm

(i) Balance mass required at a radius of 350 mm

2 πN 2 π x 150
ω= = = 15.7 rad/s
We have, 60 60
L 350
r= = = 175 mm
2 2

Mass to be balanced at the crank pin = M

M = c m + mP = 0.60 x 40 + 30 = 54 kg

Mr
mc rc = M r therefore mc =
and rc
54 x 175
i.e. mc = = 29.53 kg
320

(ii) Unbalanced force when the crank has turned 450 from the top-dead centre.

Unbalanced force at θ = 45 0
= [(1 − c )mr ω 2
cos θ] + [c mr ω2 sin θ]
2 2

= [(1 − 0.60) x 40 x 0.175 x (15.7) cos 45 ] + [0.60 x 40 x 0.175 x(15.7) sin 45 ]

2 0
2 2 0
2

= 880.7 N

6
SECONDARY BALANCING:

2 cos 2θ
Secondary acceleration force is equal to m r ω − − − − − −(1)
n
Its frequency is twice that of the primary force and the magnitude 1 times the
n
magnitude of the primary force.
2 cos 2θ
The secondary force is also equal to m r ( 2ω) − − − − − −( 2)
4n

Consider, two cranks of an engine, one actual one and the other imaginary with the
following specifications.

Actual Imaginary
Angular velocity ω 2ω
r
Length of crank r
4n
Mass at the crank pin m m

Thus, when the actual crank has turned through an angle θ = ω t , the imaginary crank
would have turned an angle 2θ = 2 ω t

7
 2
m r (2ω )
Centrifugal force induced in the imaginary crank =
4n
2
m r (2ω )
Component of this force along the line of stroke is = cos 2θ
4n

r
Thus the effect of the secondary force is equivalent to an imaginary crank of length
4n
rotating at double the angular velocity, i.e. twice of the engine speed. The imaginary
crank coincides with the actual at inner top-dead centre. At other times, it makes an angle
with the line of stroke equal to twice that of the engine crank.
The secondary couple about a reference plane is given by the multiplication of the
secondary force with the distance ‘ l ’ of the plane from the reference plane.

COMPLETE BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING PARTS

Conditions to be fulfilled:
1. Primary forces must balance i.e., primary force polygon is enclosed.
2. Primary couples must balance i.e., primary couple polygon is enclosed.
3. Secondary forces must balance i.e., secondary force polygon is enclosed.
4. Secondary couples must balance i.e., secondary couple polygon is enclosed.
Usually, it is not possible to satisfy all the above conditions fully for multi-cylinder
engine. Mostly some unbalanced force or couple would exist in the reciprocating engines.

BALANCING OF INLINE ENGINES:

An in-line engine is one wherein all the cylinders are arranged in a single line, one behind
the other. Many of the passenger cars such as Maruti 800, Zen, Santro, Honda-city,
Honda CR-V, Toyota corolla are the examples having four cinder in-line engines.

In a reciprocating engine, the reciprocating mass is transferred to the crankpin; the axial
component of the resulting centrifugal force parallel to the axis of the cylinder is the
primary unbalanced force.

Consider a shaft consisting of three equal cranks asymmetrically spaced. The crankpins
carry equivalent of three unequal reciprocating masses, then

8
Primary force = ∑ m rω 2
cos θ − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)

Primary couple = ∑ m rω 2
l cos θ − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2)

2
(2ω)
Secondary force = ∑ mr
4n
cos 2θ − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)

2
(2ω)
And Secondary couple = ∑ mr
4n
l cos 2θ

ω2
= ∑mr n
l cos 2θ − − − − − − − − − − − − − (4)

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION:

2
To solve the above equations graphically, first draw the ∑ m r cos θ polygon ( ω is
common to all forces). Then the axial component of the resultant forces ( Fr cos θ )
2
multiplied by ω provides the primary unbalanced force on the system at that moment.
0 0
This unbalanced force is zero when θ = 90 and a maximum when θ = 0 .

9
If the force polygon encloses, the resultant as well as the axial component will always be
zero and the system will be in primary balance.
Then,

∑F Ph
= 0 and ∑F PV
=0

To find the secondary unbalance force, first find the positions of the imaginary secondary

cranks. Then transfer the reciprocating masses and multiply the same by
(2ω) 2

or
ω2
4n n
to get the secondary force.
In the same way primary and secondary couple ( m r l ) polygon can be drawn for
primary and secondary couples.

Case 1:
IN-LINE TWO-CYLINDER ENGINE

Two-cylinder engine, cranks are 1800 apart and have equal reciprocating masses.

10
Taking a plane through the centre line as the reference plane,

Primary force = m r ω2 [cos θ + cos (180 + θ)] = 0

l  l 
Primary couple = m r ω2  cos θ +  − cos (180 + θ) = m r ω2 l cos θ
2  2 

Maximum values are m r ω2 l at θ = 00 and 1800

m r ω2 2

Secondary force = [cos 2 θ + cos (360 + 2 θ)] = 2m r ω cos 2 θ

n n
2
Maximum values are 2m r ω when 2 θ = 0 , 180 , 360 and 540
0 0 0 0

n or θ = 0 0 , 90 0 ,180 0 and 270 0

11
 m r ω2  l  l 
Secondary couple =  cos 2θ +  − cos ( 360 + 2θ ) = 0
n 2  2 

ANALYTICAL METHOD OF FINDING PRIMARY FORCES AND COUPLES

• First the positions of the cranks have to be taken in terms of θ 0

• The maximum values of these forces and couples vary instant to instant and are
equal to the values as given by the equivalent rotating masses at the crank pin.

If a particular position of the crank shaft is considered, the above expressions may not
give the maximum values.
For example, the maximum value of primary couple is m r ω2 l and this value is
obtained at crank positions 00 and 1800. However, if the crank positions are assumed
at 900 and 2700, the values obtained will be zero.

• If any particular position of the crank shaft is considered, then both X and Y
components of the force and couple can be taken to find the maximum values.

For example, if the crank positions considered as 1200 and 3000, the primary couple
can be obtained as

l
X − component = m r ω 2  cos 120 0  l 
+  −  cos (180 0
+ 120 0
) 
2  2 
1
= − mrω2 l
2

l  l 
Y − component = mr ω 2  sin120 0 +  −  sin (180 0 + 120 0 ) 
2  2 
3
= m r ω2 l
2

2
 3 
2
 1 2 
Therefore, Primary couple =  − mr ω l  +  mr ω2 l 
 2   2 
2
= mr ω l

Case 2:
IN-LINE FOUR-CYLINDER FOUR-STROKE ENGINE

12
This engine has tow outer as well as inner cranks (throws) in line. The inner throws are at
1800 to the outer throws. Thus the angular positions for the cranks are θ 0 for the first,
180 0 + θ 0 for the second, 180 0 + θ 0 for the third and θ 0 for the fourth.

DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 13 VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE

FINDING PRIMARY FORCES, PRIMARY COUPLES, SECONDARY FORCES
AND SECONDARY COUPLES:

Choose a plane passing through the middle bearing about which the arrangement is
symmetrical as the reference plane.

Primary force = m r ω 2 [cos θ + cos (180 0 + θ) + cos (180 0 + θ) + cos θ]

=0

 3l l 0 
 2 cos θ + 2 cos (180 + θ) 
Primary couple = m r ω2  
+  − l cos (180 0 + θ) +  − 3l cos θ
  2  
 2
 
=0

m r ω2 cos 2 θ + cos ( 360 0 + 2 θ) 

Secondary force =  0 
n + cos ( 360 + 2 θ) + cos 2 θ
4m r ω2
= cos 2 θ
n

m r ω2
Maximum value =
n
at 2θ = 0 0 ,18 0 0 , 360 0 and 54 0 0 or
θ = 0 0 , 9 0 0 ,180 0 and 27 0 0

 3l l 
 cos 2θ + cos (360 0 + 2θ )
2 
m rω 2 2
Secondary couple =  =0
n   l  3l 
+ − cos (360 + 2θ ) +  − cos 2θ
  2 
0

 2 

Thus the engine is not balanced in secondary forces.

14
Problem 1:

A four-cylinder oil engine is in complete primary balance. The arrangement of the

reciprocating masses in different planes is as shown in figure. The stroke of each piston is
2 r mm. Determine the reciprocating mass of the cylinder 2 and the relative crank
position.

Solution:

Given :
m1 = 380 kg, m2 = ? , m3 = 590 kg, m4 = 480 kg
L 2r
crank length = = =r
2 2

Cent. Distance
Couple/ ω2
Mass (m) Radius (r) Force/ω2 from Ref
Plane (mrl)
kg m (m r ) plane ‘2’
kg m2
kg m m
1 380 r 380 r -1.3 -494 r
2(RP) m2 r m2 r 0 0
3 590 r 590 r 2.8 1652 r
4 480 r 480 r 4.1 1968 r

15
Analytical Method:

0
Choose plane 2 as the reference plane and θ 3 = 0 .
.
Step 1:
Resolve the couples into their horizontal and vertical components and take their sums.

Sum of the horizontal components gives

− 494 r cos θ1 + 1652 r cos 0 0 + 1968 r cos θ 4 = 0

i .e., + 494 cos θ1 = 1652 + 1968 cos θ 4 − − − − − − − − − (1)

Sum of the vertical components gives

− 494 r sin θ1 + 1652 r sin 0 0 + 1968 r sin θ 4 = 0

i .e., 494 sin θ1 = 1968 sin θ 4 − − − − − − − − − ( 2)

Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get

2 2 2
(494 ) = (1652 + 1968 cos θ 4 ) + (1968 sin θ 4 )
i.e.,
2 2 2 2
(494 ) = (1652 ) + 2 x 1652 x 1968 cos θ 4 + (1968 cos θ 4 ) + (1968 sin θ 4 )
On solving we get,
cos θ 4 = − 0.978 and θ 4 = 167.9 0 or 192.10

Choosing one value, say θ4 =167.90

Dividing (2) by (1), we get

1968 sin(167.9 0 ) + 412.53

tan θ1 = 0
= = − 1.515
1652 + 1968 cos (167.9 ) − 272.28
i.e., θ1 = 123.4 0

Step 2:

Resolve the forces into their horizontal and vertical components and take their sums.

Sum of the horizontal components gives

380 r cos (123.4 0 ) + m 2 r cos θ 2 + 590 r cos 0 0 + 480 r cos (167.9 0 ) = 0

or m 2 cos θ 2 = 88.5 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
16
Sum of the vertical components gives

380 r sin (123.4 0 ) + m 2 r sin θ 2 + 590 r sin 0 0 + 480 r sin (167.9 0 ) = 0

or m 2 sin θ 2 = − 417.9 − − − − − − − − − − − − − ( 4)

Squaring and adding (3) and (4), we get

m 2 = 427.1 kg Ans

− 417.9
Dividing (4) by (3), we get tan θ2 = = − 4.72
88.5
or θ 2 = 282 0 Ans

Graphical Method:

Step 1: Draw the couple diagram taking a suitable scale as shown.

17
This diagram provides the relative direction of the masses m1 , m 3 and m 4 .

Step 2: Now, draw the force polygon taking a suitable scale as shown.

This gives the direction and magnitude of mass m2.

The results are:

θ 4 =1680 , θ1 =1230 , θ 2 = 282 0

m 2 r = 427 r or m 2 = 427 kg Ans

18
Problem 2:

Each crank of a four- cylinder vertical engine is 225 mm. The reciprocating masses of the
first, second and fourth cranks are 100 kg, 120 kg and 100 kg and the planes of rotation
are 600 mm, 300 mm and 300 mm from the plane of rotation of the third crank.
Determine the mass of the reciprocating parts of the third cylinder and the relative
angular positions of the cranks if the engine is in complete primary balance.

Solution:
Given :
r = 225 mm
m1 = 100 kg, m2 = 120 kg and m4 = 100 kg

Cent. Distance
Couple/ ω2
Mass (m) Radius (r) Force/ω2 from Ref
Plane (mrl)
kg m (m r ) plane ‘2’
kg m2
kg m m
1 100 0.225 22.5 -0.600 -13.5
2 120 0.225 27.0 -0.300 -8.1
3(RP) m3 0.225 0.225 m3 0 0
4 100 0.225 22.5 0.300 6.75

19
Analytical Method:

0
Choose plane 3 as the reference plane and θ1 = 0 .
Step 1:
Resolve the couples into their horizontal and vertical components and take their sums.
Sum of the horizontal components gives

−13.5 cos 0 0 − 8.1 cos θ 2 + 6.75 cos θ 4 = 0

i .e., − 8.1 cos θ 2 = − 6.75 cos θ 4 +13.5
i .e., 8.1 cos θ 2 = 6.75 cos θ 4 −13.5 − − − − − − − − − (1)

Sum of the vertical components gives

−13.5 sin 0 0 − 8.1 sin θ 2 + 6.75 sin θ 4 = 0

i .e., 8.1 sin θ 2 = 6.75 sin θ 4 − − − − − − − − − ( 2)

Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get

(8.1)2 = (6.75 cos θ4 −13.5)2 + (6.75 sin θ4 )2

65.61 = 45.563cos2θ4 −182.25 cos θ4 +182.25 + 45.563 sin2θ4
= 45.563(cos2θ4 + sin2θ4 ) − 182.25 cos θ4 +182.25
= 45.563 -182.25 cos θ4 +182.25

i.e., 182.25 cos θ4 = 45.563 +182.25 - 65.61 =162.203

Therefore, cos θ4 = 162.203 and θ4 = 27.13 0 Ans

182.25

Dividing (2) by (1), we get

6.75 sin (27.13 0 ) 3.078

tan θ2 = 0
= = − 1.515
6.75 cos (27.13 ) - 13.5 − 7.493

i.e., θ2 = - 22.33 0 + 180 0 = 157.67 0

Step 2:
Resolve the forces into their horizontal and vertical components and take their sums.

Sum of the horizontal components gives

20
22.5 cos ( 0 0 ) + 27 cos (157.67 0 ) + 0.225 m3 cos θ 3 + 22.5 cos (27.13 0 ) = 0
i.e., 22.5 − 24.975 + 0.225 m3 cos θ 3 + 20.02 = 0
i.e., 0.225 m3 cos θ 3 = − 17.545 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)

And sum of the vertical components gives

22.5 sin( 0 0 ) + 27 sin (157.67 0 ) + 0.225 m3 sin θ 3 + 22.5 sin(27.13 0 ) = 0

i.e., 10.258 + 0.225 m3 sin θ 3 + 10.26 = 0
i.e., 0.225 m3 sin θ 3 = − -20.518 − − − − − − − − − − − − − (4)

Squaring and adding (3) and (4), we get

(0.225 )2 m23 = ( −17.545)2 + ( − 20.518)2

2 2
 − 17.545   − 20.518 
i.e., m3 =   + 
 0.225   0.225 
= 119.98 kg ≈ 120 kg Ans

− 20.518
Dividing (4) by (3), we get tan θ 3 =
- 17.545
or θ 3 = 229.5 0 Ans

21
Problem 3:

The cranks of a four cylinder marine oil engine are at angular intervals of 900. The engine
speed is 70 rpm and the reciprocating mass per cylinder is 800 kg. The inner cranks are 1
m apart and are symmetrically arranged between outer cranks which are 2.6 m apart.
Each crank is 400 mm long.
Determine the firing order of the cylinders for the best balance of reciprocating masses
and also the magnitude of the unbalanced primary couple for that arrangement.

Analytical Solution:

Given :
2 πN
m = 800 kg, N = 70 rpm , r = 0.4 m, ω = = 7.33 rad / s
60
m r ω 2 = 800 x 0.4 x (7.33) 2 = 17195

Note:

There are four cranks. They can be used in six different arrangements as shown. It
can be observed that in all the cases, primary forces are always balanced. Primary
couples in each case will be as under.

Taking 1 as the reference plane,

22
C p1 = m r ω 2 (− l ) + (l
3
2
2 − l 4 ) = 17195
2
(− 1.8) + (0.8 − 2.6)
2 2

= 43761 N m
C p 6 = C p1 = 43761 N m only , sin ce l 2 and l 4 are int erchanged

C p 2 = m r ω2 (− l ) + (l
4
2
2 − l 3 ) = 17195
2
(− 2.6) + (0.8 −1.8)
2 2

= 47905 N m
C p 5 = C p 2 = 47905 N m only , sin ce l 2 and l 3 are int erchanged

C p 3 = m r ω2 (− l ) + (l
2
2
4 − l 3 ) = 17195
2
(− 0.8) + (2.6 −1.8)
2 2

= 19448 N m
C p 4 = C p 3 = 19448 N m only , sin ce l 4 and l 3 are int erchanged

Thus the best arrangement is of 3rd and 4th. The firing orders are 1423 and 1324
respectively.
Unbalanced couple = 19448 N m.

Graphical solution:

23
Case 3:
SIX – CYLINDER, FOUR –STROKE ENGINE

Crank positions for different cylinders for the firing order 142635 for clockwise rotation
of the crankshaft are, for

First θ1 = 0
0
Second θ 2 = 240
0 And
0 0 m1 = m2 = m3 = m4 = m5 = m6
Third θ 3 =120 Fourth θ 4 =120
r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 = r5 = r6
0 0
Fifth θ 5 = 240 Sixth θ 6 = 0

Since all the force and couple polygons close, it is inherently balanced engine for primary
and secondary forces and couples.

24
Problem 1:

Each crank and the connecting rod of a six-cylinder four-stroke in-line engine are 60 mm
and 240 mm respectively. The pitch distances between the cylinder centre lines are 80
mm, 80 mm, 100 mm, 80 mm and 80 mm respectively. The reciprocating mass of each
cylinder is 1.4 kg. The engine speed is 1000 rpm. Determine the out-of-balance primary
and secondary forces and couples on the engine if the firing order be 142635. Take a
plane midway between the cylinders 3 and 4 as the reference plane.

Solution:

Given :
r = 60 mm , l = connecting rod length = 240 mm ,
m = reciprocat ing mass of each cylinder =1.4 kg ,
N = 1000 rpm
2 πN 2 π x 1000
We have, ω = = = 104. 72 rad /s
60 60

25
 Cent. Distance
Couple/ ω2
Radius (r) Force/ω2 from Ref
Plane Mass (m) kg (mrl)
m (m r ) plane ‘2’
kg m2
kg m m
1 1.4 0.06 0.084 0.21 0.01764
2 1.4 0.06 0.084 0.13 0.01092
3 1.4 0.06 0.084 0.05 0.0042
4 1.4 0.06 0.084 -0.05 -0.0042
5 1.4 0.06 0.084 -0.13 -0.01092
6 1.4 0.06 0.084 -0.21 -0.01764

Graphical Method:

Step 1:
Draw the primary force and primary couple polygons taking some convenient scales.
Note: For drawing these polygons take primary cranks position as the reference

NO UNBALANCED
PRIMARY FORCE

NO UNBALANCED
PRIMARY COUPLE

26
Step 2:
Draw the secondary force and secondary couple polygons taking some convenient scales.
Note: For drawing these polygons take secondary cranks position as the reference

NO UNBALANCED
SECONDARY FORCE

NO UNBALANCED
SECONDARY COUPLE
Problem 2:

The firing order of a six –cylinder vertical four-stroke in-line engine is 142635. The
piston stroke is 80 mm and length of each connecting rod is 180 mm. The pitch distances
between the cylinder centre lines are 80 mm, 80 mm, 120 mm, 80 mm and 80 mm
respectively. The reciprocating mass per cylinder is 1.2 kg and the engine speed is 2400
rpm. Determine the out-of-balance primary and secondary forces and couples on the
engine taking a plane midway between the cylinders 3 and 4 as the reference plane.

Solution:
Given :
L 80
r= = = 40 mm , l = connecting rod length = 180 mm ,
2 2
m = reciprocat ing mass of each cylinder = 1.2 kg ,
N = 2400 rpm
2 π N 2 π x 2400
We have, ω = = = 251.33 rad /s
60 60

27
 Cent. Distance
Couple/ ω2
Radius (r) Force/ω2 from Ref
Plane Mass (m) kg (mrl)
m (m r ) plane ‘2’
kg m2
kg m m
1 1.2 0.04 0.048 0.22 0.01056
2 1.2 0.04 0.048 0.14 0.00672
3 1.2 0.04 0.048 0.06 0.00288
4 1.2 0.04 0.048 -0.06 -0.00288
5 1.2 0.04 0.048 -0.14 -0.00672
6 1.2 0.04 0.048 -0.22 -0.01056

Graphical Method:

Step 1:
Draw the primary force and primary couple polygons taking some convenient scales.
Note: For drawing these polygons take primary cranks position as the reference

Note: No primary unbalanced force or couple

28
Step 2:
Draw the secondary force and secondary couple polygons taking some convenient scales.
Note: For drawing these polygons take secondary cranks position as the reference

Note: No secondary unbalanced force or couple

29
Problem 3:

The stroke of each piston of a six-cylinder two-stroke inline engine is 320 mm and
the connecting rod is 800 mm long. The cylinder centre lines are spread at 500 mm.
The cranks are at 600 apart and the firing order is 145236. The reciprocating mass
per cylinder is 100 kg and the rotating parts are 50 kg per crank. Determine the out
of balance forces and couples about the mid plane if the engine rotates at 200 rpm.

Primary cranks position

Relative positions of Cranks in degrees

Firing
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 θ6
order
142635 0 240 120 120 240 0
145236 0 180 240 60 120 300

Secondary cranks position

Relative positions of Cranks in degrees

Firing
θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 θ6
order
142635 0 120 240 240 120 0
145236 0 0 120 120 240 240

Calculation of primary forces and couples:

Total mass at the crank pin = 100 kg + 50 kg = 150 kg

Cent. Distance
Couple/ ω2
Mass (m) Radius (r) Force/ω2 from Ref
Plane (mrl)
kg m (m r ) plane
kg m2
kg m m
1 150 0.16 24 1.25 30
2 150 0.16 24 0.75 18
3 150 0.16 24 0.25 6
4 150 0.16 24 -0.25 -6
5 150 0.16 24 -0.75 -18
6 150 0.16 24 -1.25 -30

30
31
Calculation of secondary forces and couples:

Since rotating mass does not affect the secondary forces as they are only due to
second harmonics of the piston acceleration, the total mass at the crank is taken as
100 kg.

Cent. Distance
Couple/ ω2
Mass (m) Radius (r) Force/ω2 from Ref
Plane (mrl)
kg m (m r ) plane
kg m2
kg m m
1 100 0.16 16 1.25 20
2 100 0.16 16 0.75 12
3 100 0.16 16 0.25 4
4 100 0.16 16 -0.25 -4
5 100 0.16 16 -0.75 -12
6 100 0.16 16 -1.25 -20

32
 BALANCING OF V – ENGINE

Two Cylinder V-engine:

A common crank OA is operated by two connecting rods. The centre lines of the two –
cylinders are inclined at an angle α to the X-axis.
Let θ be the angle moved by the crank from the X-axis.

Determination of Primary force:

2
Primary force of 1 along line of stroke OB1 = m r ω cos ( θ − α ) − − − − − −(1)

2
Primary force of 1 along X - axis = m r ω cos ( θ − α ) cos α − − − ( 2)

2
Primary force of 2 along line of stroke OB2 = m r ω cos ( θ + α ) − − − − − (3)

2
Primary force of 2 along X-axis = m r ω cos ( θ + α ) cos α − − − ( 4)

Total primary force along X - axis

= mr ω2 cos α [cos ( θ − α) + cos ( θ + α)]
= mr ω2 cos α [cos θ cos α + sin θ sin α + cos θ cos α − sin θ sin α]
= mr ω2 cos α x 2 cos θ cos α
= 2 mr ω2 cos 2 α cos θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(5)

33
Similarly,

Total primary force along Z - axis

= mr ω 2 [cos ( θ − α ) sin α - cos ( θ + α )sin α]
= mr ω 2 sin α [(cos θ cos α + sin θ sin α) − ( cos θ cos α − sin θ sin α]
= mr ω 2 sin α x 2 sin θ sin α
= 2 m r ω 2 sin2 α sin θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(6)

Resultant Primary force

= (2 mr ω 2
cos 2 α cos θ) + ( 2 mr ω 2 sin2 α sin θ)
2 2

= 2 mr ω 2 (cos 2
α cos θ) + (sin2 α sin θ) − − − − − (7)
2 2

and this resultant primary force will be at angle β with the X – axis, given by,

sin2 α sin θ
tanβ = − − − − − −(8)
cos 2 α cos θ

0
If 2α = 90 , the resultant force will be equal to

2 2
2 mr ω 2 (cos 2
45 0 cos θ) + (sin2 45 0 sin θ)
= mr ω 2 − − − − − (9)

and sin2 45 0 sin θ

tan β = = tan θ − − − − − −(10)
cos 2 45 0 cos θ

i.e., β = θ or it acts along the crank and therefore, can be completely balanced by a
mass at a suitable radius diametrically opposite to the crank, such that,

mr rr = mr - - - - - (11)

For a given value of α, the resultant force is maximum (Primary force), when

(cos 2
α cos θ) + (sin2 α sin θ)
2 2
is maximum
or
(cos 4
α cos 2 θ + sin 4 α sin2 θ ) is maximum

34
Or

d
(cos 4 α cos 2 θ + sin4 α sin2 θ ) = 0
dθ
i.e., - cos 4 α x 2 cos θ sin θ + sin 4 α x 2 sin θ cos θ = 0

i.e., - cos 4 α x sin 2 θ + sin 4 α x sin 2 θ = 0

i.e., sin 2 θ [sin 4 α - cos 4 α ] = 0

As α is not zero, therefore for a given value of α , the resultant primary force is
maximum when θ = 0 0 .

Determination of Secondary force:

Secondary force of 1 along line of stroke OB1 is equal to

m r ω2
cos 2 ( θ − α ) − − − − − −(1)
n

m r ω2
Secondary force of 1 along X - axis = cos 2 ( θ − α ) cos α − − − ( 2)
n
Secondary force of 2 along line of stroke OB2 =

m r ω2
cos 2 ( θ + α ) − − − − − (3)
n

m r ω2
Primary force of 2 along X-axis = cos 2 ( θ + α ) cos α − − − ( 4)
n
Therefore,

Total secondary force along X - axis

mr ω2
= cos α [cos 2 ( θ − α ) + cos 2 ( θ + α )]
n
mr ω2
= cos α [(cos 2 θ cos 2 α + sin 2 θ sin 2 α ) + (cos 2 θ cos 2 α − sin 2 θ sin 2 α]
n
2 mr ω2
= cos α cos 2 θ cos 2 α − − − − − − − − − − − −(5)
n

35
Similarly,

Total secondary force along Z - axis

2 mr ω2
= sin α sin2 θ sin2 α − − − − − − − − − (6)
n

Resultant Secondary force

2 mr ω 2 2 2
= (cos α cos 2 θ cos 2 α) + (sin α sin2 θ sin2 α) − − − − − (7)
n

And sin α sin 2 θ sin 2 α

tan β ' = − − − − − −(8)
cos α cos 2 θ cos 2 α

If 2 α = 90 0 or α = 45 0 ,

2
2 m r ω2  sin 2 θ  m r ω2
Secondary force =   = 2 sin 2 θ − − − −(9)
n  2  n

And tan β ' = ∞ and β ' = 90 0 − − − − − −(10) i.e., the force acts along Z-
axis and is a harmonic force and special methods are needed to balance it.

Problem 1:

The cylinders of a twin V-engine are set at 600 angle with both pistons connected to a
single crank through their respective connecting rods. Each connecting rod is 600 mm
long and the crank radius is 120 mm. The total rotating mass is equivalent to 2 kg at the
crank radius and the reciprocating mass is 1.2 kg per piston. A balance mass is also fitted
opposite to the crank equivalent to 2.2 kg at a radius of 150 mm. Determine the
maximum and minimum values of the primary and secondary forces due to inertia of the
reciprocating and the rotating masses if the engine speed is 800 mm.

Solution:

Given :
m = reciprocat ing mass of each piston = 1.2 kg
M = equivalent rotating mass = 2 kg
m C = balancing mass = 2.2 kg, rC = 150 mm
l = connecting rod length = 600 mm
r = crank radius = 120 mm
N = 800 rpm
2 π N 2 π x 800 l 600
We have, ω = = = 83.78 rad /s and n = = =5
60 60 r 120

DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 36 VIJAYAVITHAL BONGALE

Primary Force:

Total primary force along X - axis = 2 m r ω 2 cos 2 α cos θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)

Centrifuga l force due to rotating mass along X − axis

= M r ω 2 cos θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)

Centrifuga l force due to balancing mass along X − axis

= − m C rC ω 2 cos θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(3)

Therefore total unbalance force along X –axis = (1) + (2) + (3)

That is
Total Unbalance force along X axis
= 2 mr ω2 cos 2 α cos θ + Mr ω2 cos θ − mC rC ω2 cos θ
= ω2 cos θ [2 mr cos 2 α + Mr - mC rC ]
= (83.78 ) cos θ [2x1.2x0.12xcos 30 0 + 2x0.12 − 2.2x0.15]
2 2

= (83.78 ) cos θ[0.216 + 0.24 - 0.33] = 884.41 cos θ N - - - - - - - (4)

2

Total primary force along Z - axis = 2 m r ω 2 sin 2 α sin θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(5)

37
Centrifuga l force due to rotating mass along Z − axis
= M r ω 2 sin θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(6)

Centrifuga l force due to balancing mass along Z − axis

= − m C rC ω 2 sin θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(7)

Therefore total unbalance force along Z –axis = (5) + (6) + (7)

That is

Total Unbalance force along Z - axis

= 2 mr ω2 sin2 α sin θ + Mr ω2 sin θ − mC rC ω2 sin θ
= ω2 sin θ [2 mr sin2 α + Mr - mC rC ]
= (83.78 ) sin θ [2x1.2x0.12 xsin2 30 0 + 2x0.12 − 2.2x0.15]
2

= (83.78 ) sin θ[0.072 + 0.24 - 0.33] = - 126.34 sin θ N - - - - - - - (8)

2

Resultant Primary force

2 2
= (884.41 cos θ) + ( - 126.34 sin θ)
= 782181.05 cos 2 θ + 15961.8 sin2 θ
= 766219.25 cos 2 θ + 15961.8 − − − − − (9)

0 0
This is maximum, when θ = 0 and minimum, when θ = 90

Maximum Primary force, i.e., when θ = 0 0

= 766219.25 + 15961.8 = 884.41 N − − − − − (10)

And Minimum Primary force, i.e., when θ = 90 0

= 766219.25 cos 2 90 0 + 15961.8 = 126.34 N − − − − − (11)

Secondary force:

The rotating masses do not affect the secondary forces as they are only due to second
harmonics of the piston acceleration.

38
Resultant Secondary force
2 mr ω2 2 2
= (cos α cos 2 θ cos 2 α) + (sin α sin 2 θ sin 2 α)
n

=
2 x1.2 x0.12x(83. 78)2 (cos 30 cos 2 θ cos 60 )
2 2 2

5 + (sin 30 sin 2 θ sin 60 )

0 0 2

= 404.3 [0.1875 ( cos 2θθ + 0.1875 ( sin2θθ ] − − − − − (12)

2 2

0 0
This is maximum, when θ = 0 and minimum, when θ =180

Maximum secondary force, i.e., when θ = 0 0

= 404.3 [0.1875 ( cos 0 0 )2 + 0.1875 ( sin 0 0 )2 ] − = 175.07 N − − − − − (13)

And Minimum secondary force, i.e., when θ = 180 0

= 404.3 [0.1875 ( cos 180 0 )2 + 0.1875 ( sin18 0 0 )2 ] = 175.07 N − − − − − (14)

BALANCING OF W, V-8 AND V-12 – ENGINES

BALANCING OF W ENGINE

In this engine three connecting rods are operated by a common crank.

Total primary force along X - axis

= m r ω 2 cos θ( 2 cos 2 α + 1 ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)

Total primary force along Z - axis will be same a s in the V − twin engine,
(since the primary force of 3 along Z − axis is zero)
= 2 m r ω 2 sin2 α sin θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)

Resultant Primary force

= mr ω 2 [cos θ(2cos 2 2 2
]
α + 1) + (2sin2 αsin θ) − − − − − (3)

and this resultant primary force will be at angle β with the X – axis, given by,

39
 2sin2 α sin θ
tan β = − − − − − −(4)
cos θ(2cos 2 α + 1)

0
If α = 60 ,
Resultant Primary force
and
3
= m r ω 2 − − − − − (5)
2

tan β = = tan θ − − − − − −(6)

i.e., β = θ or it acts along the crank and therefore, can be completely balanced by a
mass at a suitable radius diametrically opposite to the crank, such that,
mr rr = mr - - - - - (7)

Total secondary force along X - axis

2m r ω 2 
= cos 2θ cos α cos 2 α + 1 − − − − − − − − − − − −(8)
 n 

Total secondary force along Z –direction will be same as in the V-twin engine.

Resultant secondary force

mr ω 2
=
n
[cos 2θ (2cos α cos 2α + 1) 2 2
]
+ (2sin α sin 2α sin2θ) − − − − − (9)

2sin α sin 2 θ sin 2 α

tan β ' = − − − − − −(10)
cos 2 θ(2cos α cos 2 α + 1)

0
If α = 60 ,

Secondary force along X - axis

mr ω2
= cos 2θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(11)
2n

Secondary force along Z - axis

3m r ω 2
= sin 2θ − − − − − − − − − − − −(12)
2n

It is not possible to balance these forces simultaneously

40
V-8 ENGINE

It consists of two banks of four cylinders each. The two banks are inclined to each other
in the shape of V. The analysis will depend on the arrangement of cylinders in each bank.

V-12 ENGINE

It consists of two banks of six cylinders each. The two banks are inclined to each other in
the shape of V. The analysis will depend on the arrangement of cylinders in each bank.

If the cranks of the six cylinders on one bank are arranged like the completely balanced
six cylinder, four stroke engine then, there is no unbalanced force or couple and thus the
engine is completely balanced.

BALANCING OF RADIAL ENGINES:

It is a multicylinder engine in which all the connecting rods are connected to a common
crank.

41
Direct and reverse crank method of analysis:

In this all the forces exists in the same plane and hence no couple exist.

2
In a reciprocating engine the primary force is given by, m r ω cos θ which acts along
the line of stroke.

In direct and reverse crank method of analysis, a force identical to this force is generated
by two masses as follows.

1. A mass m/2, placed at the crank pin A and rotating at an angular velocity ω in the
counter clockwise direction.
2. A mass m/2, placed at the crank pin of an imaginary crank OA’ at the same angular
position as the real crank but in the opposite direction of the line of stroke. It is assumed
to rotate at an angular velocity ω in the clockwise direction (opposite).
3. While rotating, the two masses coincide only on the cylinder centre line.

The components of the centrifugal forces due to rotating masses along the line of stroke
are,

m 2
Due to mass at A = r ω cos θ
2

m 2
Due to mass at A ' = r ω cos θ
2
2
Thus, total force along the line of stroke = m r ω cos θ which is equal to the primary
force.
At any instant, the components of the centrifugal forces of these masses normal to the
line of stroke will be equal and opposite.
The crank rotating in the direction of engine rotation is known as the direct crank and
the imaginary crank rotating in the opposite direction is known as the reverse crank.

Now,

Secondary accelerating force is

cos 2 θ cos 2 θ
m r ω2 = m r ( 2ω) 2
n 4n
r
=m ( 2ω) 2 cos 2 θ
4n

42
This force can also be generated by two masses in a similar way as follows.

r
1. A mass m/2, placed at the end of direct secondary crank of length at an angle 2θ
4n
and rotating at an angular velocity 2ω in the counter clockwise direction.

r
2. A mass m/2, placed at the end of reverse secondary crank of length at an angle -2θ
4n
and rotating at an angular velocity 2ω in the clockwise direction.

The components of the centrifugal forces due to rotating masses along the line of stroke
are,

m r mrω2
Due to mass at C = (2 ω)2 cos 2θ = cos 2θ
2 4n 2n

m r mrω2
Due to mass at C' = (2 ω)2 cos 2θ = cos 2θ
2 4n 2n

Thus, total force along the line of stroke =

m r 2 mrω 2
2x (2 ω) cos 2θ = cos 2θ which is equal to the secondary force.
2 4n n

43
 Gyroscope
Gyroscope is a spatial mechanism as shown in Figure 1 and generally employed for the control of
angular motion of a body.
(P
rec
ess Z s) AA – Pin joint between rotor and inner gimbal.
ion
ax C Rotor n axi
i
is)
Y (Sp Rotor is rotating about YY axis.
A BB – Pin joint between inner gimbal and
B
outer gimbal.
Inner gimbal
B (can rotate
CC – Pin joint between outer gimbal and fixed
A
X about YY frame.
& XX axis)
C
Fixed Outer gimbal
Frame (can rotate
about XX &
ZZ axis)

Figure 1. Gyroscope

If we attempt to move some of its parts, it does not only resist this motion but even evades it. This
resistance to change in the direction of rotational axis is called the gyroscopic effect.

Applications of gyroscopes are:

(1) For directional control e.g.
(i) gyro compass : for air planes & ships.
(ii) inertial guidance control system: for missiles & space travel.

(2) Gyroscopic effects are encountered in the bearings of

(i). an automobile when it makes a turn and
(ii) a jet engine shaft as the airplane changes direction.

(3) For high speed rotors precession (see Figure 2) becomes more and more predominant and
should be accounted in the design process.

p p

(a) Cantilever (b) Simply supported

Figure 2. Precessional motion of the disc
Gyroscopic Couple:
It can be easily studied using the principle of angular momentum. Angular velocity is a vector
quantity. Change in magnitude and direction of angular velocity results in angular acceleration: Let in

Figure 3, OA and OB are in x-z plane, ∆θ is the angular displacement of OA and OC is the angular
displacement vector. Similarly angular velocity, angular acceleration and angular momentum are also
vector quantity.

X
C ,
B
O A

Figure 3. Angular displacement vector

Linear momentum: It is defined as

Linear momentum = mass × velocity = mv (1)

The direction and sense of the linear momentum are same as linear velocity.

m v

Figure 4. A particle in motion (Linear momentum)

Angular momentum: It is defined as the moment of linear momentum.

( )
Angular momentum = H = (mv )r = mr 2 ω = Iω (2)

where I is the mass of inertia about it’s axis of rotation and ω is the angular velocity.

m v= r
Mass is con-
v
centraded at
k=r radius of
k gyration
axis of rotation
(a) A point mass in rotation (b) A flywheel in roatation
Figure 5. Angular momentum

93
 Direction of angular momentum will be same as angular velocity.

H = mvk = mω kk = mk 2ω = I ω where I = mk 2 (3)

The gyroscopic couple is given as C = Iω p ω s , where ω p ω s is the acceleration components. The

direction of torque vector will be along the spin vector on rotating spin vector by 900 in the direction
of precession vector (as shown in Figure 6).

(spin vector)
s

0
90

p C
(torque vector)
(precession vector)

Figure 6. Gyroscopic Torque

To cause precession of a spinning body, an external torque must be applied to the body (rotor) in a
plane normal to the plane in which the spin axis is precessing. Our objective is to determine the
required external torque to produce precession motion as specified or vice versa.

Gyroscopic action on aeroplane structure: Let C be the couple on the rotor by the plane or external
couple the – C will be the reaction of the plane on the rotor.

C (active couple }External couple should

on the rotor) be acting on rotor from
the bearing support

p 900
R
- C (reactive couple
s
on the plane)

The action of the

p plane will be such
that it will try to
fall the nose

Figure 7. Motion of an aeroplane Figure 8. Gyroscopic couple on the aeroplane

94
Exercise: The rotor of a turbojet engine has a mass 200 kg and a radius of gyration 25 cm. The engine
rotates at a speed of 10,000 rpm in the clockwise direction if viewed from the front of the aeroplane.
The plane while flying at 1000 km/hr. turns with a radius of 2 km to the right. Compute the
gyroscopic moment the rotor exerts on the plane structure. Also, determine whether the nose of the
plane tends to rise or fall when the plane turns.
(Note: Here due to reaction couple of gyroscopic effect aeroplane will pitch about transverse axis
which in turn give rise to a gyroscopic couple which will try to rotate the aeroplane in opposite to the
dH dω
direction of rotation. The rate of change of angular momentum =I = Iα . By Newton’s
dt dt
dH
Law: = T = Torque to produce the angular acceleration, hence T = Iα ).
dt

• A rotor mounted on two bearings: A rotor is spinning with constant angular velocity ω s , the

angular momentum is given by H = Iω s . Let S-P-G are rectangular coordinate system (see

Figure 9).

-F
S B2
H
=I d
s
s
F C Center of mass &
H O center of rotation
External
force from D H' F
bearing
C
p
B1
P
C
F.d=C
s -F
G

p
C

Figure 9. A rotor mounted on two bearings

95
OS is the spin axis, OP is the precession axis, OG is the gyroscopic torque axis and F is the action
force on the shaft so that (–F) is the reaction force on bearings. Let the shaft (or spin axis) presses
through an angle ∆θ about P axis. Angular momentum will change from H to H ′ , i.e.

H ′ = H + ∆H

where ∆H is the change in angular momentum (due to change in direction of H). From ∆OCD

CD = (OC )(∆θ ) or ∆H = H (∆θ ) or ∆H = Iω s ∆θ

dH
Rate of change of angular momentum, = lim Iω s ∆θ / ∆t = Iω sω p where ω p is the uniform
dt ∆t →0
angular velocity of precession, hence

C = Iω sω p (5)

where C is the gyroscopic couple. The gyroscopic couple will have same sense and direction as

∆H i.e. OC . From right hand screw rule we will get the direction of torque i.e. clockwise about axis
OG when seen from above. This is active couple acting on the disc. Whenever an axis of rotation or
spin axis changes its direction a gyroscopic couple will act about the third axis. A reactive gyroscopic
couple will be experienced by bearings through the shaft.

Alternative deviation of gyroscopic couple

Y
p z
s Y
Plan view(top view) s
y
2 sy p
O P P
sy z P P
p = 0
r r z
2 sy p
Z
s
Z sz X
2 sy p X
p O
P'
sy O
2 sy p
P'
P' s s
o
90
Y C Y

X p
P
Z Z
p 2 sy p
X
Figure 10. Gyroscopic couple on a rotating disc.

96
 ( )
Let XX id the spin axis (ω s ) and YY is the precession axis ω p . Particle P has coordinates (r ,θ )

and mass of dm. The velocity ω s r ⊥ OP. Velocity component in: ZZ direction = ω s r sin θ = ω s y

and in the YY direction = ω s r cos θ = ω s z . Particle P is having motion along the z axis (or || to z-

axis). Simultaneously, it is rotating about axis Y-Y. So a Corriolis component of acceleration =

2ω s yω p acts ⊥ to plane of paper and outwards as shown in the side view (Figure 10). Similarly for

particle P ′, the Corriolis acceleration component will be 2ω s yω p and it acts ⊥ to plane of paper and

inwards as shown in the side view (Figure 10). The accelerating forces arising out of these Corriolis
acceleration components, produce a couple C about ZZ-axis.

Force due to acceleration of the particle P = dm 2ω s yω p

Moment about ZZ-axis = dm 2ωs y 2ω p , hence total moment about ZZ-axis

C = ∫ 2ωsω p y 2 dm = 2ωsω p I zz = 2ωsω p (1/ 2 ) I

where I zz = ∫ y 2 dm = (1/ 2 ) I , where I is the polar moment of inertia (for thin disc).C acts along the

ZZ-axis towards right. Moment about YY-axis = dm 2ω s zyω p , hence

Total moment about YY-axis = ∫ 2ω s ω p zydm = 2ω s ω p I zy where I zy = ∫ zydm = 0

Also there is no Corriolis component of acceleration when we analyze the motion of particle in y-
direction since ω zz = 0 . If disc is not symmetric then I zy ≠ 0 , so we will get C zz & C yy both.

z= 0 P

s z
s

p
C (active couple on
the disc)
Same as the
direction of
change of angular
momentum of disc

Figure11. Free body diagram of the disc

97
 F -F

F (reaction
forces on the
shaft from -C (reaction on (reaction forces
bearings) the shaft) from the shaft ends
to the foundation -F
or frame.)

Thin rod rotating about its centroidal axis

In Figure 12, we have XX as the axis of spin and YY as the axis of precession. Due to Corriolis
component of acceleration the force at point P, of the mass dm is given as

(
dF = dm 2ω pω s r sin θ ) (1)

which is ⊥ to plane of the paper as shown in side view (Figure 12). Moment of this force about BB
axis

(
dC BB = dFr = dm 2ω p ω s r 2 sin θ ) (2)

B p
P A dF
P
r

z x x
s
C BB dF'

A
B

Figure 12. Thin rod rotating about its centroid axis.

Total moment of all particle above and below the BB axis is given as

CBB = ∫ ( 2ω pωs ) r 2 dm = 2ω pωs sin θ ∫ r 2 dm = 2ω pωs sin θ I BB (3)

∫
where I BB = r 2 dm (4)

From parallel axis theorem, we have: I = I BB + I AA . Since I AA ≈ 0 for thin rod, we have

98
 I = I BB + I AA ≈ I BB (5)

Equation (5) reduces to

CBB = 2 I ωsω p sin θ (6)

which is ⊥ BB, as shown in Figure 12 and can be obtained by right hand rule. Taking component of
couple CBB about yy and zz axis:

T zz = 2 Iω s ω p sin 2 θ = Iω s ω p (1 − cos 2θ ) (7)

and
T yy = 2 Iω s ω p sin θ cos θ = Iω sω p sin 2θ (8)

There are two gyroscopic couples respectively about zz-axis and yy-axis. This comes because of
asymmetric body of revolution. I BB ≠ I AA . Tzz and T yy are varying with θ , i.e. Tzz varies from 0 to

2 Iω s ω p and T yy varies from − Iω s ω p to Iω s ω p . The above analysis is applicable to two bladed

propeller or airscrew (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Two bladed propeller Figure 14. Three bladed propeller

The above analysis can be extended to a multi-bladed airscrew. Let n be the number of blades
( n ≥ 3 ), α = 2π / n is equally spaced angle between two blades.

C zz = Iω s ω p and C yy = 0

where I = nI1 , I1 is the mass moment of inertia of each blade about an axis BB. Let the moment of

inertia of each blade about axis BB (i.e. ⊥ to blade) be equal to I BB which in turn is equal to I1 ,

( I1 = I BB + I AA ≈ I BB ) . Total moment of inertia of the airscrew about the axis of rotation is: I = nI1 .
Let us consider one of the blades, which is inclined to an angle θ with zz-axis.

99
 Y

Z Z

Figure15. One of the blade position

Total moment about zz-axis

Cz1 = 2ωsω p ∫ y 2 dm = 2ωsω p I1 sin 2 θ = I1ωsω p (1 − cos 2θ ) (9)

Location of other blades is given by phase angle (n − 1)α . Summing up the moments due to all n
blades, we have

Tzz = I1ω s ω p [1 − cos 2θ ] + I1ω s ω p [1 − cos 2(θ + α )]

+ I1ω sω p [1 − cos 2(θ + 2α )] + ... + I1ω sω p [1 − cos 2{θ + (n − 1)α }]

= I1ω sω p [n − {cos 2θ + cos 2(θ + α ) + cos 2(θ + 2α ) + ... + cos 2{θ + (n − 1)α }}]

which can be simplified as

Tzz = I1ω sω p [n − cos 2{θ + (n − 1)α / 2}sin nα / sin α ]

Since α = 2π / n

For n > 2 , sin α ≠ 0
check for 2π / 3, 2π / 4...

sin α = 0
nα = 2π

For all values of n > 2 , Tzz = nI1ω s ω p or I zz = Iω s ω p (10)

sin nα / sin α becomes sin 2π / (sin 2π / n ) , hence for

n = 1, sin 2π / sin 2π = 1
n = 2, sin 2π / sin π = 0 / 0 → 0
n = 3, sin 2π / ( sin 2π / n = 0 / finite → 0 )

n = 4, etc. →0

100
Hence,
Tzz = I1ω s ω p (1 − cos 2θ ) for n = 2, sin α = 0 , sin nα = 0

Moment about YY-axis for a blade, which makes angle θ with ZZ-axis is:

Tyy = I1ωsω p sin 2θ

Total moment about YY for n blades is (phase angle (n − 1)α )

 { }
Tyy = I1ωsω p sin 2θ + sin 2 (θ + α ) + ... + sin 2 (θ + ( n − 1) α ) 

(11)
Tyy = 0 for n > 2

The sine series will be zero for all values n > 2. So with equations (10) and (11), we can conclude
that for multi bladed screw with number of blades 3 and above is equivalent to a plane disc with polar
mass moment of inertia I = nI about axis of rotation.

Gyroscopic Stabilization
Gyroscopes can be used for the stabilization of ships, aeroplanes etc. The motion can be termed as
follows: Steering or yawing about vertical axis, pitching about transverse axis, and rotating about
longitudinal axis. Generally rolling is more as compared to pitching or yawing. So gyroscope can be
applied to reduce rolling. The basic purpose of gyroscope is to reduce the amplitude of the oscillations
of the ship in a sea.

Port
Transverse
axis

Steering
or
Stern Yawing
(Rear end) Rolling Bow (Free end)

Longitudinal
axis
Star board
Pitching

Figure 16. Ship-motions

Basic principle of stabilization of gyroscope:

The gyroscope shall be made to precess in such a way that the reaction couple exerted by the rotor
(i.e. – C) shall oppose any disturbing couple (i.e. CW external couple or applied couple to rotor)

101
which may act on the frame (of gyroscope), because of the waves of seas. If at every instant the
reaction couple of the gyroscope (i.e. – C) and the applied or disturbing couple (CW) are equal, then
complete stabilization will be obtained. Due to change in slope of the wave and due to the buoyancy
effect the ship will experience a couple. Generally waves are periodic (or sinusoidal). So ship will
experience sinusoidal external couple in rolling. In order to maintain the ship stable, an equal and
opposite reaction couple must be applied by the gyroscope.

Horizontal plane Vertical longitudianal

plane

Transverse plane

Figure 17. A ship in a rough sea

In rolling, external couple is in transverse plane. So reaction couple from gyroscope should also act in
same plane. (i.e. along longitudinal axis). So choice is there to choose spin axis either in the vertical
or in transverse direction and accordingly for precession axis). This depends upon practical constraint.
Precession is given to gyroscope manually (just like steering wheel). And it has to be given
continuously. (or by variable speed motor with reversing direction capability). In Figure 18, we have
CW is the external couple applied by wave, oa I s the angular momentum, CW is the ⊥ to plane
of paper inward, and ∆H is the Horizontal towards left. So precession should be such that it should
produce a reaction couple, − C , (i.e. same as magnitude and opposite to the direction or sense of the

external couple, C) or gyroscope should experience an applied couple equal to, C (= CW ) , such that

reaction couple, − C , will counterbalance external couple, C. The external couple from wave will be

in the same plane (i.e. C vector will be ⊥ to the plane of paper). But reaction couple, − C , will

change its direction (i.e. from ⊥ to the plane of paper as it precess due to ω p ). So only component of

reaction couple, − C , will be available to counteract external couple, C, of wave. Also slope of the

wave θ is also changing continuously. So CW component will be maximum for maximum slope &

zero when slope is zero.

102
 C
s 900 0
p
p 90
s
p
o CW
Tr
Trcos CW b a
p H

b
H
a o s

Figure 18(a). Spin is axis along the longitudinal Figure 18(b). Spin axis is along the vertical
direction (Due to pitching no change of spin axis. direction (Due to pitch change in spin axis. So
So no gyroscopic action will be there. Yawning gyroscopic action will be there).
motion is rare. So this orientation is preferred).

C -C CW

Active Reactive Applied

gyroscopic couple couple by
couple wave
Figure 19. Gyroscopic couple direction is ship

If T sin φ = CW is disturbing couple applied by the wave, where φ is the slope of the wave (see

Figure 17). So, for φ = 0 , CW = 0 and for φ = maximum, CW = T sin φ max . Tr = −C is the

gyroscopic reaction couple that is applied by the gyroscope on the ship for an inclination of the plane
of rotation by θ to the horizontal, then

Tr cos θ = T sin φ or Iω s ω p cos θ = T sin φ

103
When, φ = φ max , then θ = 0 and when φ = 0 , then, θ → 900 (impractical) end of quarter period

(t / 4) of the wave. Therefore, we can reduce the amplitude of rolling if not fully prevent it. Reference
: The Automatic Stabilization of Ships, By T.W. Chalmers.

Stability of a four-wheel drive vehicle moving on a curved path

Left turn

W1, I I , W2
1 1

Beacuse rotors
are fixed to the
W3, I I , W4 frame of the
1 1
vehicle body
x
p
p - C (reaction on
Fc
vehicle body)
C G -C
s 0
h 90
W/4 W/4 C (action on rotors
i.e. wheel & engine)

Figure 20.

Reaction at wheels:
(i) Due to weight, mg / 4 where m is the mass of the wheel

(ii) Due to centrifugal force Fc = mv 2 / R , where v is the velocity of vehicle, R is the radius

of the curved path, and m is the mass of vehicle. On taking moment balance on the transverse
plane of the vehicle, we have Fc h = Ux where U is the reaction at the inner and outer wheels

(having two wheels at each of the inner and outer sides) due to the centrifugal force. Hence, on
each wheel the reaction force due to centrifugal force will be U / 2 = Fc h / x . Now total reaction

= W / 4 − U / 2 at inner wheel and at outer wheel = W / 4 + U / 2

104
(iii) Gyroscopic action due to four wheels: Tw = 4 I wωsω p , where I w is the moment of inertia of

each wheel and ω p = V / R . The torque due to the engine, Te = I eω eω p . Total torque is given by

Tg = Tω ± Te , where + sign when ω e and ω s are having same sense and – sign when ω e and

ω s are having opposite sense. We have Vx = Tg which gives V = Tg / x , where V is the

reaction at the inner and outer wheels due to the gyroscopic couple.

Total reaction at each of inner wheel

Tinner = W / 4 − U / 2 − V / 2

and outer wheel

Touter = W / 4 + U / 2 + V / 2

At high speed or in the sharp turn, Tinner may become zero, so for the stability of the vehicle,

Tinner > 0 or W / 4 > (U + V ) / 2

Example 1: A trolley can with a total mass of 2700 kg runs on rail 1 m apart with a speed of 30-km/
hr. The track is curved with a radius of 40 m towards the rigid of the driver. The car has four wheels
each of diameter 70 cm and the total moment of inertia of each pair of wheels and the axle is 15 kg-
m2. The car is driven by a motor running in the direction opposite to that of the wheels at a speed five
times the speed of rotation of the wheels .The motor and the gear pinion have a moment of inertia 10
kg m2. The rails are at the same level and the height of the center of gravity of the car is 1 m above the
rail level. Determine the vertical force exerted by each wheel on the rails.

Solution: V

Figure 21 Trolley in a curved path

105
 V
mt = 2700 kg; d = 1 m; d w = 0.7 m; h = 1 m; V = 30 km / hv = 8.33 m / s; ω p = = 0.2083 rad/s.
R

ωw
V
ωw′

Figure 22 A wheel of the trolley

I12
V = ωw′ r ; ωw ≠ ωw′ ; V = πdωw

For wheels: πd w ωw = V ; ωw = 3.79 rad/s.

For engine: ωE = 5ωw = 18095 rad/s = 3.79 rad/s.

Gyroscopic couple: C = ( I ω ωw − I E ωE )ω p = [2 × 15 × 3.79 − 10 × 18.95] × 0.2083 = −15.79 Nm.

So the effect of net gyroscopic couple will to that outer wheel reactions will decrease (since direction
of net gyroscopic couple is in the direction of CE′ ) and increase the reactions at inner wheels. Let due
to gyroscopic effect the reaction at inner wheel is 2G. On taking moment about an axis passing
through outer wheel we get.

2Gi × distance betwen traks = C or 2Gi × 1 + (-15.79) = 0

or Gi = 7.895 N So Gi = 7.895 N and G0 = -7.895 N

mg
Due to weight: Force on each wheel w = = 6621.75 N
4

Due to centrifugal force: Taking moment about the outer track, we have

mv 2
FC × 1 + (2 FCi ) × 1 = 0; ∴ ×1 + (2 FCi ) × 1 = 0
12

or FCi = -2343.75 N and FC0 = +2343.75 N

Vertical reactions at each of the outer wheel = 6621.75 − 7.895 + 2343.75 = 8997.6 N

On each of the inner wheel: = 6621.75 + 7.895 − 2343.75 = 4285.9 N .

Example 2: The wheels of a motorcycle have a moment on inertia 68 kg m2 and engine parts a
moment of inertia of 3.4 kgm2. The axis of rotation of the engine crankshaft is parallel to that of the
road wheels. If the gear ratio is 5 to 1, the diameter of the road wheels is 65 cm and the motor cycle

106
rounds a curve of 30.5 m radius at 60 km/hour, find the magnitude and direction of the gyroscopic
couple.
Solution:

I wheel = 68 kgm 2 ; I Engine = 3.4 kgm 2 ; n = Gear ratio = 5 :1; Dwheel = 65 cm, R = 30.5 m

Velocity = 60 km/hr = 16.67 m/sec

16.67 16.67
ωmotorcycle = = 0.5464 rad / sec and ωwheel = = 51.28 rad / sec.
30.5 0.65 2

Cwheel axle = 68 × 51.28 × 0.5464 = 1905.31 kgm 2 / sec 2 and Cengine = 3.4 × 256.41 × 0.5464 = 476.34 kgm 2 / sec 2

Note: C = 1425.52 kgm 2

C (Reactive) C engine (active)

ωp ωp

ωwheel ωengine
C (active)

−Cengine (Re active)

Relative couple direction is on the fame of the frame of the motorcycle either from wheel axle or from
engine seat.

Exercise Problems:
1. The rotor o a Jet airplane engine is supported by two bearings as shown in Figure1. The rotor
assembly including compressor, turbine, and shaft is 6672 N in weight and has a radius of gyration of
229 mm. Determine the maximum bearing force as the airplane undergoes a pullout on a 1830 m
radius curve at constant airplane speed of 966 km/h and an engine rotor speed of 10,000 rpm. Include
the effect of centrifugal force due to the pullout as well as the gyroscopic effect.
 Governors
GOVERNORS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The function of flywheel is to minimise fluctuations of speed within the cycle but it
cannot minimise fluctuations due to load variation. This means flywheel does not
exercise any control over mean speed of the engine. To minimise fluctuations in the mean
speed which may occur due to load variation, governor is used. The governor has no
influence over cyclic speed fluctuations but it controls the mean speed over a long period
during which load on the engine may vary.

When there is change in load, variation in speed also takes place then governor operates
a regulatory control and adjusts the fuel supply to maintain the mean speed nearly
constant. Therefore, the governor automatically regulates through linkages, the energy
supply to the engine as demanded by variation of load so that the engine speed is
maintained nearly constant.

Figure 5.1 shows an illustrative sketch of a governor along with linkages which regulates
the supply to the engine. The governor shaft is rotated by the engine. If load on the
engine increases the engine speed tends to reduce, as a result of which governor balls
move inwards. This causes sleeve to move downwards and this movement is transmitted
to the valve through linkages to increase the opening and, thereby, to increase the supply.

On the other hand, reduction in the load increases engine speed. As a result of which the
governor balls try to fly outwards. This causes an upward movement of the sleeve and it
reduces the supply. Thus, the energy input (fuel supply in IC engines, steam in steam
turbines, water in hydraulic turbines) is adjusted to the new load on the engine. Thus the
governor senses the change in speed and then regulates the supply. Due to this type of
action it is simple example of a mechanical feedback control system which senses the
output and regulates input accordingly.
 FC FC

mg

Supply pipe
mg

Bell Crank
Lener

Engine
Pulley
Figure 5.1 : Governor and Linkages

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 classify governors,
 analyse different type of governors,
 know characteristics of governors,
 know stability of spring controlled governors, and
 compare different type of governors.

5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNORS

The broad classification of governor can be made depending on their operation.
(a) Centrifugal governors
(b) Inertia and flywheel governors
(c) Pickering governors.
Centrifugal Governors
In these governors, the change in centrifugal forces of the rotating masses due to
change in the speed of the engine is utilised for movement of the governor sleeve.
One of this type of governors is shown in Figure 5.1. These governors are
commonly used because of simplicity in operation.
Inertia and Flywheel Governors
In these governors, the inertia forces caused by the angular acceleration of the
engine shaft or flywheel by change in speed are utilised for the movement of the
balls. The movement of the balls is due to the rate of change of speed in stead of
change in speed itself as in case of centrifugal governors. Thus, these governors
are more sensitive than centrifugal governors.
Pickering Governors
This type of governor is used for driving a gramophone. As compared to the
centrifugal governors, the sleeve movement is very small. It controls the speed by
dissipating the excess kinetic energy. It is very simple in construction and can be
used for a small machine.
5.2.1 Types of Centrifugal Governors Governors

Depending on the construction these governors are of two types :

(a) Gravity controlled centrifugal governors, and
(b) Spring controlled centrifugal governors.
Gravity Controlled Centrifugal Governors
In this type of governors there is gravity force due to weight on the sleeve or
weight of sleeve itself which controls movement of the sleeve. These governors
are comparatively larger in size.
Spring Controlled Centrifugal Governors
In these governors, a helical spring or several springs are utilised to control the
movement of sleeve or balls. These governors are comparatively smaller in size.
Q1
(a) Compare flywheel with governor.
(b) Which type of control the governor system is?
(c) Compare centrifugal governors with inertia governors.

5.3 GRAVITY CONTROLLED CENTRIFUGAL

GOVERNORS
There are three commonly used gravity controlled centrifugal governors :
(a) Watt governor
(b) Porter governor
(c) Proell governor
Watt governor does not carry dead weight at the sleeve. Porter governor and proell
governor have heavy dead weight at the sleeve. In porter governor balls are placed at the
junction of upper and lower arms. In case of proell governor the balls are placed at the
extension of lower arms. The sensitiveness of watt governor is poor at high speed and
this limits its field of application. Porter governor is more sensitive than watt governor.
The proell governor is most sensitive out of these three.
5.3.1 Watt Governor
This governor was used by James Watt in his steam engine. The spindle is driven by the
output shaft of the prime mover. The balls are mounted at the junction of the two arms.
The upper arms are connected to the spindle and lower arms are connected to the sleeve
as shown in Figure 5.2(a).

Ball Ball


Sleeve
h

 FC
mg

(a) (b)
Figure 5.2 : Watt Governor
We ignore mass of the sleeve, upper and lower arms for simplicity of analysis. We can
ignore the friction also. The ball is subjected to the three forces which are centrifugal
force (Fc), weight (mg) and tension by upper arm (T). Taking moment about point O
(intersection of arm and spindle axis), we get
FC h  mg r  0

Since, FC  mr 2

 mr 2 h  mg r  0

g
or 2  . . . (5.1)
h
2 N

60
g  3600 894.56
 h  . . . (5.2)
4 N 2 2
N2
where ‘N’ is in rpm.
Figure 5.3 shows a graph between height ‘h’ and speed ‘N’ in rpm. At high speed the
change in height h is very small which indicates that the sensitiveness of the governor is
very poor at high speeds because of flatness of the curve at higher speeds.

0.8

0.6

h
0.6

0.4

0.2

300 400 500 600 700

Figure 5.3 : Graph between Height and Speed

Q2
Why watt governor is very rarely used? Give reasons.

5.3.2 Porter Governor

A schematic diagram of the porter governor is shown in Figure 5.4(a). There are two sets
of arms. The top arms OA and OB connect balls to the hinge O. The hinge may be on the
spindle or slightly away. The lower arms support dead weight and connect balls also. All
of them rotate with the spindle. We can consider one-half of governor for equilibrium.
Let w be the weight of the ball, Governors

T1 and T2 be tension in upper and lower arms, respectively,

Fc be the centrifugal force,
r be the radius of rotation of the ball from axis, and
I is the instantaneous centre of the lower arm.
Taking moment of all forces acting on the ball about I and neglecting friction at the
sleeve, we get
W
FC  AD  w  ID  IC  0
2
w ID W  ID  DC 
or FC    
AD 2  AD 
W
or FC  w tan   (tan   tan )
2
w 2
FC   r
g

w 2 
 W  
tan   
  r  w tan  1  1  
g 
 2w  tan   

g  W 
or 2  tan  1  (1  K )  . . . (5.3)
r  2w 
tan 
where K
tan 

r
tan  
h
g  W 
 2  1  (1  K )  . . . (5.4)
h  2w 
O
O Arms
T1
Spindle 

h
Ball T1

A r
A B FC
A
 T2

Links Central
Load (w) w T2 
C
Sleeve
I
D
W
2 C
(a) (b)
Figure 5.4 : Porter Governor

If friction at the sleeve is f, the force at the sleeve should be replaced by W + f for rising
and by (W – f) for falling speed as friction apposes the motion of sleeve. Therefore, if the
friction at the sleeve is to be considered, W should be replaced by (W  f). The
expression in Eq. (5.4) becomes
 g  (W  f ) 
2  1  (1  K )  . . . (5.5)
h  2 w 
Q3
In which respect Porter governor is better than Watt governor?

5.4 SPRING CONTROLLED CENTRIFUGAL

GOVERNORS
In these governors springs are used to counteract the centrifugal force. They can be
designed to operate at high speeds. They are comparatively smaller in size. Their speed
range can be changed by changing the initial setting of the spring. They can work with
inclined axis of rotation also. These governors may be very suitable for IC engines, etc.
The most commonly used spring controlled centrifugal governors are :
(a) Hartnell governor
(b) Wilson-Hartnell governor
(c) Hartung governor
5.4.1 Hartnell Governor
The Hartnell governor is shown in Figure 5.5. The two bell crank levers have been
provided which can have rotating motion about fulcrums O and O. One end of each bell
crank lever carries a ball and a roller at the end of other arm. The rollers make contact
with the sleeve. The frame is connected to the spindle. A helical spring is mounted
around the spindle between frame and sleeve. With the rotation of the spindle, all these
parts rotate.
With the increase of speed, the radius of rotation of the balls increases and the rollers lift
the sleeve against the spring force. With the decrease in speed, the sleeve moves
downwards. The movement of the sleeve are transferred to the throttle of the engine
through linkages.

Frame

Spring

Ball Ball
Collar
A
Bell crank
a
Lever

c O’
O
b
Fulcrum Roller

Sleeve
Spindle

Figure 5.5 : Hartnell Governor

Let r1 = Minimum radius of rotation of ball centre from spindle axis, in m, Governors

r2 = Maximum radius of rotation of ball centre from spindle axis, in m,

S1 = Spring force exerted on sleeve at minimum radius, in N,
S2 = Spring force exerted on sleeve at maximum radius, in N,
m = Mass of each ball, in kg,
M = Mass of sleeve, in kg,
N1 = Minimum speed of governor at minimum radius, in rpm,
N2 = Maximum speed of governor at maximum radius, in rpm,
1 and 2 = Corresponding minimum and maximum angular velocities, in r/s,

(FC)1 = Centrifugal force corresponding to minimum speed  m  12  r1 ,

(FC)2 = Centrifugal force corresponding to maximum speed  m  22  r2 ,

s = Stiffness of spring or the force required to compress the spring by one m,
r = Distance of fulcrum O from the governor axis or radius of rotation,
a = Length of ball arm of bell-crank lever, i.e. distance OA, and
b = Length of sleeve arm of bell-crank lever, i.e. distance OC.
Considering the position of the ball at radius ‘r1’, as shown in Figure 5.6(a) and taking
moments of all the forces about O
( Mg  S1 )
M 0  ( FC )1 a cos 1  mg a sin 1  b cos 1  0
2
( Mg  S1 ) b
or ( FC )1  mg tan 1    . . . (5.9)
2 a

r1 r2

A2
A’1 A1
A’2
(FC)1 (FC)2
mg mg

a
r
(Mg + S2)
2
2 C2
1
C’1 x2
O O’ 2
1 x1 (Mg + S1) C’2
b
2
Reaction C1
at fulcrum
(a) (b)
Figure 5.6

Considering the position of the ball at radius ‘r2’ as shown in Figure 5.6(b) and taking
the moments of all the forces about O
( Mg  S2 )
M 0  ( FC )2 a cos 2  mg a sin 2  b cos 2
2

( Mg  S2 ) b
or ( FC )2     mg tan 2 . . . (5.10)
2 a
If 1 and 2 are very small and mass of the ball is negligible as compared to the spring
force, the terms mg tan 1 and mg tan 2 may be ignored.
( Mg  S1 )  b 
( FC )1    . . . (5.11)
2 a
( Mg  S2 ) b
and ( FC )2    . . . (5.12)
2 a
( S2  S1 )  b 
 ( FC )2  ( FC )1   
2 a
Total lift  ( x1  x2 ) (b 1  b 2 )
 b (1  2 )

 (r  r1 ) (r2  r )  b
b    (r2  r1 )
 a a  a
b
S2  S1  Total lift  s  (r2  r1 ) s
a
2
 b  (r  r )
 ( FC )2  ( FC )1    2 1 s
a 2
2
 a  ( FC )2  ( FC )1
or stiffness of spring ‘s’  2   . . . (5.13)
b (r2  r1 )
For ball radius ‘r’

 a   ( F )  ( FC )1 
2 2
 a  F  ( FC )1
s2  C 2   C 2 
b r  r1  b   (r2  r1 ) 
(r  r1 )
 FC  ( FC )1  {( FC )2  ( FC )1} . . . (5.14)
(r2  r1 )

SAQ 4
For IC engines, which type of governor you will prefer whether dead weight type
or spring controlled type? Give reasons.

5.5 GOVERNOR EFFORT AND POWER

Governor effort and power can be used to compare the effectiveness of different type of
governors.
Governor Effort
It is defined as the mean force exerted on the sleeve during a given change in
speed.
When governor speed is constant the net force at the sleeve is zero. When
governor speed increases, there will be a net force on the sleeve to move it
upwards and sleeve starts moving to the new equilibrium position where net force
becomes zero.
Governor Power Governors

It is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a given change in speed. Therefore,
Power of governor = Governor effort  Displacement of sleeve
5.5.1 Determination of Governor Effort and Power
The effort and power of a Porter governor has been determined. The same principle can
be used for any other type of governor also.
O O


h h1

mg
w


(a) (b)
Figure 5.7

Figure 5.7 shows the two positions of a Porter governor.

Let N = Equilibrium speed corresponding to configuration shown in Figure 5.7(a),
W = Weight of sleeve in N,
h = Height of governor corresponding to speed N, and
c = A factor which when multiplied to equilibrium speed, gives the increase
in speed.
 Increased speed = Equilibrium speed + Increase of speed,
= N + c . N = (1 + c) N, and . . . (5.15)
h1 = Height of governor corresponding to increased speed (1 + c ) N.
The equilibrium position of the governor for the increased speed is shown in
Figure 5.7(b). In order to prevent the sleeve from rising when the increase of speed takes
place, a downward force will have to be exerted on the sleeve.
Let W1 = New weight of sleeve so that the rising of sleeve is prevented when the speed is
(1 + c) N. This means that W1 is the weight of sleeve when height of governor
is h.
 Downward force to be applied when the rising of sleeve is to be prevented when
speed increases from N to (1 + c) N = W1 – W.
When speed is N rpm and let the angles  and  are equal so that K = 1, the height h is
given by equation
wW  g
h  . . . (5.16)
 w   2 N  2
 
 60 
If the speed increases to (1 + c) N and height remains the same by increasing the load on
sleeve
 w  W1  g
h  . . . (5.17)
 w   2 (1  c) N 2
 
 60  145
Equating the two values of h given by above equations, we get
{( w  W1 )}
wW 
(1  c)2

(w  W ) (1  c)2  w  W1

W1  (w  W ) (1  c)2  w

(W1  W )  (w  W ) (1  c)2  (w  W )

 (w  W ) {(1  c)2  1}

2c (w  W ) If c is very small . . . (5.18)

But W1 – W is the downward force which must be applied in order to prevent the sleeve
from rising when the increase of speed takes place. This is also the force exerted by the
governor on the sleeve when the speed changes from N to (1 + c) N. As the sleeve rises
to the new equilibrium position as shown in Figure 5.7(b), this force gradually
diminishes to zero. The mean force P exerted on the sleeve during the change of speed
from N to (1 + c) N is therefore given by
W1  W
P c (w  W ) . . . (5.19)
2
This is the governor effort.
If weight on the sleeve is not increased

wW  g
h1    . . . (5.20)
 w   2 (1  c) N 2
 
 60 
h  h1  2 x

h
 (1  c)2
h1

h
  1  (1  c)2  1 2c
h1

h  h1
or  2c
h1

2x
or  2c
h1

or x  c h1

 Governor power  Px  c2 h1 (w  W ) . . . . (5.21)

5.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNORS

Different governors can be compared on the basis of following characteristics :
Stability
A governor is said to be stable when there is one radius of rotation of the balls for
each speed which is within the speed range of the governor.
Sensitiveness Governors

The sensitiveness can be defined under the two situations :

(a) When the governor is considered as a single entity.
(b) When the governor is fitted in the prime mover and it is treated as
part of prime mover.
(a) A governor is said to be sensitive when there is larger displacement of the
sleeve due to a fractional change in speed. Smaller the change in speed of
the governor for a given displacement of the sleeve, the governor will be
more sensitive.
N
 Sensitiveness  . . . (5.22)
N1  N 2
(b) The smaller the change in speed from no load to the full load, the more
sensitive the governor will be. According to this definition, the
sensitiveness of the governor shall be determined by the ratio of speed range
to the mean speed. The smaller the ratio more sensitive the governor will be
N 2  N1 2( N 2  N1 )
 Sensitiveness   . . . (5.23)
N ( N 2  N1 )
where N2 – N1 = Speed range from no load to full load.
Isochronism
A governor is said to be isochronous if equilibrium speed is constant for all the
radii of rotation in the working range. Therefore, for an isochronous governor the
speed range is zero and this type of governor shall maintain constant speed.
Hunting
Whenever there is change in speed due to the change in load on the engine, the
sleeve moves towards the new position but because of inertia if overshoots the
desired position. Sleeve then moves back but again overshoots the desired position
due to inertia. This results in setting up of oscillations in engine speed. If the
frequency of fluctuations in engine speed coincides with the natural frequency of
oscillations of the governor, this results in increase of amplitude of oscillations
due to resonance. The governor, then, tends to intensity the speed variation instead
of controlling it. This phenomenon is known as hunting of the governor. Higher
the sensitiveness of the governor, the problem of hunting becomes more acute.

5.7 CONTROLLING FORCE AND STABILITY OF

SPRING CONTROLLED GOVERNORS
The resultant external force which controls the movement of the ball and acts along the
radial line towards the axis is called controlling force. This force acts at the centre of the
ball. It is equal and acts opposite to the direction of centrifugal force.
The controlling force ‘F’ = m 2 r.
2
F  2 N 
Or m 
r  60 
F
For controlling force diagram in which ‘F’ is plotted against radius ‘r’, represents
r
slope of the curve.
F
i.e.  tan   N 2 . . . (5.24)
r
Therefore, for a stable governor slope in controlling force diagram should increase with
the increase in speed.
Stability of Spring-controlled Governors
Figure 5.8 shows the controlling force curves for stable, isochronous and unstable
spring controlled governors. The controlling force curve is approximately straight
line for spring controlled governors. As controlling force curve represents the
variation of controlling force ‘F’ with radius of rotation ‘r’, hence, straight line
equation can be,
F  ar  b; F  ar or F  ar  b . . . (5.25)

where a and b are constants. In the above equation b may be +ve, or –ve or zero.

Controlling Force Unstable F = ar + b

C
Isochronous F = ar
E

Stable F = ar – b

O
D Radius of Rotation

Figure 5.8 : Stability of Spring Controlled Governors

These three cases are as follows :
F
(a) We know that for a stable governor, the ratio must increase as r
r
increases. Hence the controlling force curve DE for a stable governor
must intersect the controlling force axis (i.e. y-axis) below the origin,
when produced. Then the equation of the curve will be of the form
F b
F  a . r  b or a . . . (5.26)
r r
F
As r increases increase and thereby tan  increases. Therefore,
r
this equation represents stable governor.
(b) If b in the above equation is zero then the controlling force curve OC
F
will pass through the origin. The ratio will be constant for all
r
radius of rotation and hence the governor will become isochronous.
Hence for isochronous, the equation will be
F
F  ar or  a  constant . . . (5.27)
r
(c) If b is positive, then controlling force curve AB will intersect the
controlling force axis (i.e. y-axis) above the origin. The equation of
the curve will be
F b
F  ar  b or a . . . (5.28)
r r
F
As r increases, speed increases, or tan  reduces. Hence this
r
equation cannot represent stable governor but unstable governor.
 Governors
5.8 INSENSITIVENESS IN THE GOVERNORS
The friction force at the sleeve gives rise to the insensitiveness in the governor. At any
given radius there will be two different speeds one being when sleeve moves up and
other when sleeve moves down. Figure 5.9 shows the controlling force diagram for such
a governor.

N’

Speed Increasing
N
Controlling Force

Speed Scale
N”
c

Speed Decreasing
D
A
O
Radius of Rotation

Figure 5.9 : Insensitiveness in the Governors

The corresponding three values of speeds for the same radius OA are :
(a) The speed N when there is no friction.
(b) The speed N when speed is increasing or sleeve is on the verge of moving
up, and
(c) The speed N when speed is decreasing or sleeve on the verge of moving
down.
This means that, when radius is OA, the speed of rotation may vary between the limits
N and N, without causing any displacement of the governor sleeve. The governor is
said to be insensitive over this range of speed. Therefore,

 N   N  
 Coefficient of insensitiveness    . . . (5.29)
 N 
Example 5.1
The arms of a Porter governor are 25 cm long and pivoted on the governor axis.
The mass of each ball is 5 kg and mass on central load of the sleeve is 30 kg. The
radius of rotation of balls is 15 cm when the sleeve begins to rise and reaches a
value of 20 cm for the maximum speed. Determine speed range.
Solution
Given data : Ball weight ‘w’ = 5 g N
Central load ‘W’ = 30 g N
Arm length ‘l’ = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Minimum radius ‘r1’ = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Maximum radius ‘r2’ = 20 cm = 0.2 m

Height ' h1 '  l 2  r12  0.252  0.152  0.2 m

For k = 1.
 l h

Fc
r

W
l
w
2
Figure 5.10 : Figure for Example 5.1

Substituting values in Eq. (5.4)

g  W 
12  1  (1  1) 
0.2  2w 
9.81  30 g 
 1  
0.2  5g 

1  18.5297 r/s or N1  176.9 rpm

Height h2  0.252  0.22  0.15 m

9.81  30 g 
 22  1  
0.15  5g 

 2  29.396 r/s or N2  204.32 rpm

Speed range = N2 – N1 = 204.32 – 176.9 = 27.42 rpm.
Example 5.2
In a Hartnell governor the radius of rotation is 7 cm when speed is 500 rpm. At
this speed, ball arm is normal and sleeve is at mid position. The sleeve movement
is 2 cm with  5% of change in speed. The mass of sleeve is 6 kg and friction is
equivalent to 25 N at the sleeve. The mass of the ball is 2 kg. If ball arm and
sleeve arms are equal, find,
(a) Spring rate,
(b) Initial compression in the spring, and
(c) Governor effort and power for 1% change in the speed if there is no
friction.
Solution
Sleeve mass ‘M’ = 6 kg
Friction force ‘f’ = 25 N
Ball mass ‘m’ = 2 kg
ab
Minimum radius r1 = 7 cm – 1 = 6 cm
Maximum radius r2 = 7 cm + 1 = 8 cm
2  500
  52.36 r/s
60
Maximum speed = 10.05  = 1.05  52.36 = 54.98 r/s
Minimum speed = 0.95  = 0.95  52.36 = 49.74 r/s
Neglecting the effect of obliquity of arms.
 Governors
6 cm

FC
,

 8 cm
mg Mg + S2
O Fc
2 2

1
F
1 cm
mg 
2 1 cm
Mg + S1 
2 O 2

(a) (b)
Figure 5.11 : Figure for Example 5.2

At Minimum Radius
 Mg  S1  f 
FC1  a  b   or 2FC1  Mg  S1  f
 2 

Fc1  m 12 r1

 2  (49.74)2  0.06  2  6 g  S1  25

593.78  58.86  S1  25
Or S1  559.92 N
At Maximum Radius
2FC2  Mg  S2  f

Fc 2  m 22 r2

 2  (54.98)2  0.08  2  6 g  S2  25
Or S2  883.44 N
S2  S1
 Stiffness ‘s’ 
x
883.44  559.92

0.02
Or s  16175.81 N/m

559.92
Initial compression  S1 
16175.81
= 0.035 m or 3.5 cm
Governor Effort and Power
Mg  S2  f
FC 
2
Increased speed = 1.01  = 1.01  52.36 = 52.88 r/s
At r = 0.07; 2  2  (52.36)2  0.07 = 6 g + S
At increased speed, 2  2 (52.88)2  0.07 = 6 g + 2 P + S
where P is governor effort.
  2P  2  2  0.07 {(52.88)2  (52.36)2}
Or P = 7.66 N
Let the spring force corresponding to speed 52.88 r/s be S.
 2  2  (52.88)2  0.07  6g  S 

 (S   S )  2  2  0.07  {(52.88)2  (52.36)2 }

= 15.32 N
15.32
Sleeve lift for 1% change 
s
15.32
  9.47  10 4 m
16175.81
 Governor power  7.66  9.47  10 4

 7.25  10 3 Nm
Example 5.3
The controlling force diagram of a spring controlled governor is a straight line.
The weight of each governor ball is 40 N. The extreme radii of rotation of balls
are 10 cm and 17.5 cm. The corresponding controlling forces at these radii are
205 N and 400 N. Determine :
(a) the extreme equilibrium speeds of the governor, and
(b) the equilibrium speed and the coefficient of insensitivenss at a radius
of 15 cm. The friction of the mechanism is equivalent of 2.5 N at each
ball.
Solution
Weight of each ball ‘w’ = 40 N
r1 = 10 cm and r2 = 17.5 cm
FC1  205 N and FC2  400 N

Let FC  ar  b
when r1  10 cm  0.1 m and FC1  205 N
205 = b + 0.1 a
when r2  17.5 cm  0.175 m and FC2  400 N
400 = b + 0.175 a
 195  0.075 a  a  2600
 b  205  0.1  2600   55
 FC   55  2600 r
2
40  2 N1 
FC  205;  0.1  205 N
g  60 
(a) For

Or N1  214.1 rpm
For FC = 400; r = 0.175 m
2
40  2 N 2 
  0.175  400
g  60 
Or N2  226.1 rpm
 (b) FC = k N2 Governors

At radius r = 15 cm
FC  fb  k N 2

FC  fb  k N 2

( FC  fb )  ( FC  fb )  k ( N 2  N 2 )
Or 2 fb  k ( N   N ) ( N   N )
 2k ( N   N ) N
2 fb 2k ( N   N ) N 2 ( N   N )
 
FC k N2 N

( N   N ) 1 2 fb f
 Coefficient of insensitiveness     b
N 2 FC FC
At r = 0.15 m
FC   55  2600  0.15  335 N
2.5
 Coefficient of insensitiveness   7.46  10 3 Or 0.746%.
335

5.9 SUMMARY
The governors are control mechanisms and they work on the principle of feedback
control. Their basic function is to control the speed within limits when the load on the
prime mover changes. They have no control over the change is speed within the cycle.
The speed control within the cycle is done by the flywheel.
The governors are classified in three main categories that is centrifugal governors,
inertial governor and pickering governor. The use of the two later governors is very
limited and in most of the cases centrifugal governors are used. The centrifugal
governors are classified into two main categories, gravity controlled type and spring
loaded type.
The gravity controlled type of governors are larger in size and require more space as
compared to the spring controlled governors. This type of governors are two, i.e. Porter
governor and Proell governor. The spring controlled governors are : Hartnel governor,
Wilson-Hartnell governor and Hartung governor.
For comparing different type of governors, effort and power is used. They determine
whether a particular type of governor is suitable for a given situation or not. To
categorise a governor the characteristics can be used. It can be determined whether a
governor is stable or isochronous or it is prone to hunting. The friction at the sleeve
gives rise to the insensitiveness in the governor. At any particular radius, there shall be
two speeds due to the friction. Therefore, it is most desirable that the friction should be
as low as possible.
The stability of a spring controlled governor can be determined by drawing controlling
force diagram which should have intercept on the negative side of Y-axis.

5.10 KEY WORDS

Watt Governor : It is a type of governor which does not have load
on the sleeve.
Porter Governor : This is a type of governor which has dead weight
at the sleeve and balls are mounted at the hinge.
Hartnell Governor : It is a spring controlled governor in which balls
are mounted on the bell crank lever and sleeve is
loaded by spring force.
Governor Effort : It is the mean force exerted on the sleeve during a
given change of speed.
Governor Power : It is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a
given change in speed.
Hunting of Governor : It can occur in governor when the fluctuations in
engine speed coincides the natural frequency of
oscillations of the governor. In that case governor
intensifies the speed variation instead of
controlling it.
Controlling Force : It is the resultant external force which controls the
movement of the ball and acts along the radial line
towards the axis.