Chapter Five

5. Irrigation Water Measurement and Control Structures

5.1. The selection of structures

For discharge measuring and regulating structures, hydraulic performance is fundamental

to the selection although other criteria such as construction cost should also be
considered. Although the cost of construction and maintenance is an important criterion
in the selection of structures. The ease with which a discharge can be measured or
regulated is frequently more important since this will reduce the cost of operation.

Broadly speaking, there are three different types of structures, each with its own
particular function:
 Discharge measuring structures
 Discharge regulating structures
 Flow divider

5.1.1 Discharge Measuring Structures

The function of such a structure is to enable the flow rate through the channel in which it
is placed to be determined. If the structure is not required to fulfill any other function,
such as water-level control, it will have no movable parts. Discharge measurement
structures can be found in natural streams and drainage canals, and also in hydraulic
laboratories or in industries where flow rates need to be measured. All flumes and fixed
weirs are typical examples of discharge measurement structures.

5.1.2 Discharge Regulating Structures

These structures are frequently found in irrigation canals where, as well as having a
discharge measuring function. They also serve to regulate the flow and so distribute the
water over the irrigated area. Discharge regulating structures can be used when water is
drawn from a reservoir or when a canal is to be split up into two or more branches. A
discharge regulating structure is equipped with moveable parts. If the structure is a weir,
its crest will be moveable in a vertical direction; if an orifice (gate) is utilized, the area of
the opening will be variable. Almost all weirs and orifices can be used as discharge
regulating structures.

5.1.3 Flow Divider

It may happen that in an irrigated area we are only interested in the percentage
distribution of the incoming flow into two or more branch canals. This percentage
distribution can be achieved by constructing a group of weirs all having the same crest
level but with different control widths. If the percentage distribution has to vary with the
flow rate in the undivided canal, the crest level of the weirs may differ or the control
sections may have different shapes. Sometimes the required percentage distribution of
flow over two canals has to vary while the incoming flow remains constant. This problem
can be solved by using a moveable partition (or divisor) board which is adjusted and
locked in place above a fixed weir crest.

5.2. Discharge Measuring Methods in Open channels

This section reviews the methods commonly used for measuring the flow of water in
open channels. The principles and limitations of the different methods are examined in
order to help in choosing the method most suited for particular application.

5.3 .Flow measurement structures

5.3.1 Introduction

Water is one of the basic inputs for agriculture. It is a scarce resource that requites proper
management and efficient utilization. Water measurement enhances efficient and proper
utilization of the scarce resource, water in the system. Accurate measurement permits
more intelligent use of water in the system. Such a measurement reduces excessive waste
and allows the water to be distributed in the system field properly & efficiently and also
to be adequately distributed among users according to their needs and rights. Systematic
water measurement properly recorded, interpreted and used constitute the basic for
increasing water use efficiencies in irrigation system (conveyance, application etc) thus it
shall be of a prime importance in the operation of any water system.

5.3.2 Units of Measurement

Water is measured under two conditions - at rest and in motion. Water at Rest- that is in
reservoirs, ponds, soil, tanks, are measured in units of volume such as liter, cubic-meter,
hectare-centimeter, and hectare-meter. Measurement of water in motion that is flowing in
rivers, canals, pipe lines, field channels and channel structures is expressed in rate of flow
units such as liter/sec, liter/hr, cubic-meter/sec (cusec), etc.

5.3.3 Methods of Flow measurement

The choice of the method depends on the usage to be made of the information. Generally
speaking the methods can be classified under two main headings:
i) Continuous measurement methods
ii) Single measurements and calibration methods

i) Continuous Measurement Methods

These are observations which are made regularly at intervals of minutes, hours or days
for a long or unlimited period in order to establish the variation of discharge with time.

2
Stage discharge method: In a stable river channel with no variable backwater effects a
unique relation is established between water level or stage and discharge. Subsequently,
the water level is measured from which the discharge is deduced. This method is
frequently used in natural water courses. It depends on the assumption that there is a
unique relationship between discharge and water level (stage). The relationship is derived
by measuring discharge and the corresponding water level over a range of flows.
Subsequent measurements of water level establish the discharge. The measurement site
must be chosen with care. The channel must be stable, straight and unaffected by variable
backwater effects. If the hydraulic characteristics vary then repeating calibrations at
regular intervals become necessary.

Slope-stage method: In a stable river channel affected by variable backwater a relation is

established between water level, water surface slope and discharge. Measurements of
water level are made at two or more locations along the channel to deduce the slope and
hence the discharge.

The slope-stage method is a development of the stage-discharge method. If backwater

effects, due to a tributary downstream, are present at the site then the discharge is no
longer uniquely related to the water level (stage). The discharge becomes a function of
water level and water surface slope. Again the site must be chosen with care. The reach
must be stable and straight and the roughness of the channel must remain constant. Two
water level recorders are required. The site must be adequately calibrated (discharge
against level and slope) and any instability of the section makes recalibration a necessity.

Weirs: The relationship between the discharge over a weir and the water level at a known
distance upstream is established. The discharge is then derived from measurements of
water level only. At some stages of flow it may be necessary to measure water level at
two locations.
Weirs can be installed in open channels such that they provide a unique relationship
between upstream water level and discharge. This relationship depends on the
geometrical characteristics of the structure and hold over the range of flows where
tailwater levels are low. If the tailwater level rises above a certain level the weir becomes
drowned and discharge becomes a function of both upstream and downstream water
levels.

There are many types of weir in common use:

 Thin plate weirs: Best for clean water applications and small channels
 Long base weirs (Broad crested, rectangular profiles, etc.): can be used for clean
water applications and in natural channels with moderate sediment.
 Triangular profile weirs: can be used for clean water applications and in natural
channels. Will pass significant quantities of sediment without adverse effects.

3
Flumes: The relationship between the discharge and the water level, sometimes at two
points within the flume, is established. The discharge is then derived from measurements
of water level only.

Long-throated flumes can be used in clean and sediment laden waters and tends to be
costly for large scale installations. They have high modular limits. Short-throated flumes
are less accurate than long-throated flumes but cheaper.

Existing facilities: This includes the use of structures not specifically constructed for the
measurement of flow but capable to being calibrated to do so.
 Channel constrictions: spillways, side weirs, sluice gates, culverts, flumes,
bridges, etc.
 Reservoirs: It is sometimes possible to assess discharges from changes in level
with time
 Channel capacity: Crude estimates of discharge can be made using channel flow
formulas and estimated roughness coefficient.

ii) Single Measurement Methods

These are observations which are made occasionally, or for a limited period of time, in
order to calibrate a length of river channel or structures, or to measure a discharge under
particular flow conditions.
Irrigation Water measurement methods can be broadly categorized in to four categories:

1. Volumetric method;
2. Velocity Area method;
3. Slope-area; and
4. Tracer method (dilution)

Volumetric Method of Water Measurement

A simple method of measuring small irrigation streams is to collect the flow in a

container of known volume for a measured period of time (figure 4.18) an ordinary
bucket or barrel is used as a container. The time required to fill the container is recorded
with a stop watch or the second's hand of wrist watch. The rate of flow is, then, measured
by the formula.

4
 Siphon Tube
Irrigation
Channel
Water Surface

Bucket

Figure 5.1 Field Installation for volumetric measurement of small streams

VolumeofCo ntainer (lit )

Discharge Rate (let/sec) 
Time Re quiredtoFi ll (sec)

Velocity-Area Method

The rate of flow passing a point in s pike or open channel is determined by multi playing
the cross-sectional area of the flow section at right angles to the direction of the flow by
the arrange flow velocity of water, and expressed as:
Disch arg e(Q)  Area( A) *Velocity (V )
Q  AV
In which:
Q  Discharge rate, m3 /sec;
A  Area of X - section of channel or pipe, m2 ; and
V  Velocity of flow, m/sec.
The cross sectional area is determined by direct measurements. The velocity is generally
measured with a current meter. Approximate values of flow may also be obtained by the
float method.

1. Float Method- The float method of making a rough estimate of the flow in a
channel consists of the rate of measurement of a floating body. A long-necked
bottle partly filled with water or a block of wood may be used as the float

5
 material. Some in-land experiences tell that an orange is also a good float material
to be used for such purposes. A straight section of the channel about 30m long
(some 10m to 15m long reach can also be used in the case of our streams) with
fairly uniform x-section is selected. Several measurements of depth and width are
made with in the trial section to arrive at an average cross-sectional area. A string
is stretched across each end of the section at right angles to the direction of flow.
A float is placed in the channel, a short distance upstream from the trial section.
The time the float needs to pass from the upper to the lower section is recorded.
Several trials are made to get the average time of travel.

To determine the velocity of water at the surface of the channel, the length of trial
section is divided by the average time taken by the float to cross it. Since the
velocity of the float on the surface of the water will be greater than the average
velocity of the stream, it is necessary to correct the measurement by a constant
factor which is usually assumed to range from 0.70 to 0.85. To obtain the rate of
flow, this average velocity (measured velocity x constant) is multiplied by
average cross -sectional area of the stream.

2. Current Meter-Method- The velocity of water in a stream or river may be

measured directly with a current meter and discharge is estimated by multiplying
the mean velocity of water by the area of cross-section of the stream. The current
meter is a small instrument containing a revolving wheel or vane that is turned by
the velocity of water. It may be suspended by a cable for measurement in deep
streams or attached to a rod in shallow streams. The member of revolution of the
wheel in a given time interval is obtained and the corresponding velocity is
recorded from a calibration table or graph of the instrument.
Current meter measurement in canals and streams are generally made at metering
bridges, at cable ways, or at other structure giving convenient access to the
stream. The channel at the measuring section should be straight with a fairly
regular cross section. Structures with piers in the channel area avoided when
possible.

6
 When the mean velocity of a stream is determined with a current matter, the cross
section of flow is divided in to a number of sub-area and separate measurements
are made for each sub-area. The width of sub areas may vary from 1m to 6m,
depending on the size of the stream and the precision desired. It has been found
that the average of readings taken at 0.20 and 0.80 of the depth below the flow
surface is an accurate estimate of the mean velocity in a vertical place.

3. Water Maters- Water mater utilize a multi-blade propeller made of metal, plastic
or rubber, rotating in a vertical plane and geared to a totalizer in such a manner
that a numerical counter can totalize the flow in any desired volumetric units.
Water meters are available for a range of sizes suiting the pipe sizes commonly
used on the farm. These are two basic requirements for accurate operation of the
water meter:
a) The pipe must flow full at all times; and
b) The rate of flow must exceed the minimum for the rated range.

Slope-area method: measurements of the slope of the water surface and the channel
cross-section over a fairly straight reach of a channel provide data from which the
discharge can be calculated assuming a roughness for the channel boundaries. A suitable
roughness coefficient is estimated for the channels and discharge is computed using
standard channel flow equations. The manning equation is commonly used for natural
water courses whereas the Colebboke-White equations provide a more accurate
representation of flow in regular man-made channels.

There are many difficulties with this method and it can be only regarded as approximate.
It is, however, simple and quick to utilize. The difficulties include:

 The estimation of roughness values

 The precise measurement of water surface slope
 Variations in cross-section and alignment of natural channels

Dilution gauging: Continuous injection method. A tracer is added at a steady rate to the
flow which is sampled periodically at a point downstream where through mixing has
occurred. The discharge is calculated from the dilution of the tracer.

The dilution method is used in open channels where a limited number of measurements
are required and other methods would be impracticable or too costly. It is particularly

7
suitable for the measurement of medium to high discharges in remote areas. The basic
principle of dilution gauging is to inject a solution of tracer at some point along a channel
and to sample the flow further downstream where turbulence has mixed the tracer
uniformly in the cross-section. The change in concentration between the solution injected
and the water at the sampling station is a measure of the discharge. Types of tracers in
common use include chemical, fluorescent and radio-active materials.

5.4 Measurement of Water level

The measurement of water level is common to many discharge measurement techniques.

Instruments available for this purpose include:

 Staff gauge
 Point or hook gauges
 Manometers
 Float operated gauges

5.5 Auxiliary Equipment for Measuring and Regulating Structures

Most structures built for the purpose of measuring or regulating discharges consist of a
converging section with acceleration subcritical flow, a control section with a transition
to supercritical flow, and a downstream transition where the flow velocity is reduced to
an acceptable value.

Upstream of the structure an approach channel, which influences the velocity distribution
of the approaching flow. Downstream of the structure is a tailwater channel, which is of
fundamental importance in the design of the structure because of the range of tailwater
levels that will result from varying discharges.

The difference in elevation between the crest of the control section and the piezometric
head in the approach channel is known as the upstream head over the crest of the
structure and denoted by h1. If the structure is located in a channel where the discharge is
determined upstream, h1 corresponds with the discharge and the structure serves as a
measuring device only. If the structure is located in a canal bifurcation h 1 can be altered
by moving the weir crest so that the structure can be used both as a measuring and as a
regulating device. The upstream head over the crest can be determined by reading the
water surface elevation in the approach channel on a staff gauge whose gauge datum
elevation coincides with the crest of the structure. Determining the gauge datum elevation
is generally known as zero-setting and this should be repeated at regular intervals to
avoid serious errors in the measurement of h1 .

5.5.1 Head Measurement Station

The head measurement station should be located sufficiently far u/s of the structure to
avoid the area of surface drawdown, yet it should be close enough for the energy loss
between the head measurement station and the structure be negligible. This means that it
will be located at a distance equal to between two and four times h 1max from the structure.

8
The water level u/s of the structure is measured using a vertical gauge. A hook, point, or
staff gauge can be used where incidental measurements are required, or a float-operated
recording gauge where a continuous record is needed. Regardless of the type of gauge
used, it should be located to one side of the approach channel so that it will not interfere
with the flow pattern over the structure.

5.5.2 The Approach Channel

All structures for measuring and regulating discharge require an approach channel with a
flow free from disturbance and with a regular velocity distribution. This can be obtained
by having a straight section free of projections at the sides and on the bottom. The
channel should have reasonably uniform cross-sections and be straight for a length equal
to approximately 10 times its average width, provided that the breadth of the control
section is equal to or greater than half the width of the approach channel. If the breadth of
the control section is less than this, the length of the approach channel should be at least
20 times the breadth of the control section.

If supercritical flow occurs u/s of the structure, a hydraulic jump should be introduced to
ensure a regular velocity distribution at the head measurement station. The jump should
be located at a distance of not less than 30 times h1 from the structure.

5.5.3 Tailwater Level

The difference between the water level immediately below the d/s transition (tailwater
level) and the elevation of the crest of the structure is known as the d/s head over the crest
and is denoted by h2 . Tailwater level, and thus the submergence ratio h2 /h1 , is affected by
the hydraulic properties of the tailwater channel and by occurrence of transition in that
channel. The measuring structure should be so designed that modular flow is maintained
under all operation conditions. If there is only a limited head loss available, both the
elevation of the crest in relation to the d/s energy level and the length and shape of the d/s
transition should be selected in such a way that modular flow is ensured.

5.5.4 Staff Gauge

Where no detailed information on the discharge is needed or in stream channels where
the flow fluctuation is gradual, periodic readings on a calibrated staff gauge may provide
adequate data. A staff gauge should also be provided if the head is registered by a float-
operated recorder as it will enable comparison of the outside water level with the head in
the float well. Support for the staff gauge should not interfere with the flow pattern in the
structure, and should be independent of the stilling well. Most permanent gauges are
plates of enameled steel, cast aluminum bolted or screwed in sections to a timber or steel
hole. The gauge should be placed in such a manner that the water level can be read from
the canal bank.

5.5.4 Stilling Well

The primary purpose of s stilling well is to facilitate the accurate registration of a
piezometric or water level in open channels where the water surface is disturbed by
surges or wave action. The stilling well should be vertical and of sufficient height and

9
depth to cover the entire range of expected water levels. In canals the minimum margin
should be equal to the canal freeboard.

5.5.5 Maximum Stage Gauge

If records are kept to gain information on maximum flow and no continuously operating
recorder is installed, a flood gauge may be used to protect and retain a high-water mark
for subsequent observations.

5.5.6 Recording Gauge

Automatic water stage recorders are instruments that produce graphical, digital or
punched paper tape records of water surface elevation in relation to time. The use of such
a recorder has the following advantages over an ordinary attendant-read gauge:

i) In rivers with daily fluctuations, continuous records provide the most

accurate means of determining daily averages
ii) The entire hydrograph is recorded with the maximum and minimum stages
as a function of time
iii) Observations can be made at remote places where observers are not
available or in locations that are not accessible under all weather
conditions.

5.6 Types of Gauging Structures

In farm irrigation practices, the most commonly used devices for measuring water/flows
include; wairs, par-shall flumes, and orifices. In these devices the rate of flow is
measured directly by making a reading on a scale which is a part of the instrument and
computing the discharge rate from standard formulas. The discharge rate can also be
obtained from standard tables or calibration curves prepared specially for the
instrument/device.

Weirs - Weirs are used to measure the flow in an irrigation channel or the discharge of a
canal outlet at the source. A weir is a notch of regular form through which the irrigation
stream is made to flow. In its simplest form a weir consist of a weir wall of concrete,
timber or metal with a sheet metal weir plate fixed to it. Weirs may be built as stationary
structures or they may be made portable.

The weir notch may be

- Rectangular – named as Rectangular weir
- Trapezoidal – named as Cipoletti weir

10
 - Triangular – named as V-notch weirs
Weirs can also be classified as broad crested and sharp crested weirs.

It is effective to use weirs at high gradient canals where there is a drop in elevation of the
channel bed. This will make the flow through the weir to fall freely to the d/s reach of the
canal.

Weirs may be categorized into two general categories (i) sharp crested; and (ii) broad
crested weirs. In this edition the most commonly used type, the rectangular broad crested
weir is discussed. The other classes/types are given as a reading assignment.
Weirs can also be categorized as:
 weirs with end contraction, and
 weirs without end contraction
End contractions are produced when the crest length, or width of the notch is less than the
channel width. On suppressed weirs/weirs without end contractions/ the weir crest
extends across the full width of the canal and no contractions are produced.

When the water surface downstream from the weir wall is far enough below the crest so
that air has access around the nape, the flow is said to be free, otherwise it is submerged.
The discharge through a weir notch is proportional to the head on the crest, and is
affected by the condition of the crest, the contraction, the velocity of the approaching
stream and the elevation of the water surface downstream from the weir. The general
formula for calculating discharge through a weir is expressed as:
Q  CLH m
in which
Q = discharge
C = a discharge coefficient dependent on the nature of the weir, crest and
approach conditions
L = Length of crest
H = Head on the crest
m = an exponent depending up on the weir opening

11
The value of C and m are determined by carefully conducted calibration tests.

The main categories of structures are:

a) Thin plate devices. Usually made from a metal plate set vertically in the channel.
These are also called sharp-crested weirs.
b) Long-base weirs. Usually made from concrete, although there are many examples
of masonry weirs. Precast concrete blocks or metal inserts are sometimes used for
the crest, in preference to entirely in-situ construction. They are also called broad-
crested weirs.
Long-base weirs are distinguished from thin-plate weirs by the length of the structure
in the direction of flow (length is used for a dimension in the direction of flow and
“width” or “breadth” is a dimension across the flow). The main available cross-
sections are: rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, V-notch, and half round or U-
shaped.

c) Flumes: are usually made of concrete but they may be of metal, resin-bounded
glass fiber, timber, plywood depending on their locations and the performance
required.

5.6.1 Long-Base Weir or Broad-Crested Weir

Classified under the term ”broad-crested weirs” are those overflow structures over which
the streamlines run parallel to each other at least for a short distance, so that a hydrostatic
pr3essure distribution may be assumed at the control section. To obtain this condition, the
length in the direction of flow of the weir crest (L) is restricted to the total u/s energy
head over the crest (H1).

i) Rectangular (Horizontal), Round Nose Broad-Crested Weir

It is an overflow structure with horizontal crest above which the deviation from
hydrostatic pressure distribution because of centripetal acceleration may be neglected. i.e.
stream lines are straight and parallel. The weir comprises a truly level and horizontal
crest between vertical abutments. The u/s corner is rounded in such a manner that flow
separation does not occur.

The weir structure should be rigid and watertight and be at right angles to the direction of
flow. The minimum radius of the u/s rounded nose (r) is 0.11H 1max, although for the
economic design of field structures a value of r = 0.2H1max is recommended. The head
measurement section should be located a distance of between two and three times H 1max
u/s of the weir.
To obtain straight and parallel streamlines:

H1/L > 0.08 otherwise energy losses above the weir cannot be neglected (undulations on
the crest)

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H1/L  0.5 so that only slight streamlines curvature occurs above the crest and hydrostatic
pressure distribution may be assumed.

If the measuring structure is so designed that there are no significant energy losses in the
zone of acceleration u/s of the control section the discharge can be calculated as:

2 2
Q = Cd H1b gH1
3 3

Where, Cd = the discharge coefficient which depend on the shape and type of the
measuring structure.
Naturally in a field installation if is not possible to measure the energy head H 1 directly
and it is therefore common practice to relate the discharge to the u/s water level over the
crest in the following way:

2 2 u
Q = CdCv h1b gh1 Cv = (H1/h1)
3 3
u – the exponent of h1 in head
discharge equation
Where Cv is a correction coefficient for neglecting the velocity head in the approach
channel (v12/2g)

Figure 5.2 Flow over a rounded-nose broad-crested weir with rectangular control section

ii) Rectangular, Square-Edged Broad-Crested Weir

From a construction point of view, its simple geometry makes it a rather simple
measuring device. Its disadvantages are very variable coefficient of discharge and

13
possible damage to the u/s corner with subsequent effects on the calibration
characteristics of the structure. It has a truly flat and horizontal crest, both the u/s and d/s
weir faces should be smooth vertical planes. The head measurement station should be
located at a distance between two and three times H 1max u/s from the weir face.

The flow over the weir is given by the following discharge equation:
2 2
Q = CdCv h1b gh1
3 3

Figure 5.3 Illustration of Terminologies

iii) Triangular Broad-crested Weir

On natural streams where it is necessary to measure a wide range of discharges, a

triangular control has several advantages. Firstly it provides a large breadth at high flows
so that the backwater effect in not excessive. Secondly, at low flows the breadth is
reduced so that sensitivity of the weir remains acceptable. These advantages, combined
with the fact that a triangular control section has a critical depth equal to 0.8 H1 so that
the weir can take a high submergence before its capacity is affected, makes this weir type
an interesting flow measuring device. The u/s head over the weir crest should be
measured in the rectangular approach channel at a distance of between two and three
times H1max u/s from the weir face. There are two types of triangular broad-crested
weirs:

1) „Less-Than-Full‟ (H1  1.25Hb) If the minimum weir width is unrestricted (i.e. if the
available weir width is such that in combination with a selected weir notch angle , the
water level in the control section does not reach the intersection of side slopes), the weir
type is referred to as „less tan full‟. For this type of weir, one head-discharge equation
applies for the entire operating range from H 1min to H1max. The h-Q relationship is:

16 2.5 2 
Q = CdCv h
25 1 5
g tan
2

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2) „Over-Full-Width‟ (H1  1.25Hb). If the weir is installed in a channel with restricted
width, the water level at the control section may sometimes rise above the top of the side
slopes. The h-Q equation of a truncated triangular control section applies:

2 2
g Bc  h1  0.5H b 
1.5
Q = CdCv
3 3

5.6.2 Thin-plate Weirs (Sharp-Crested Weirs)

Narrow horizontal top surface; u/s edge must be inclined to a 90 0 angle and not rounded
length in the direction of flow is equal to or less than 2 mm. Performance dependent upon
the full development of the contraction below the nappe.

Thin plate weirs are restricted (with reasonable accuracy) to

a) Clean water, not carrying debris that damage crest or sediment settling u/s.

b) Where adequate fall is available to ensure free discharge over the whole range to be
gauged.

In general sharp crested weirs will be used where highly accurate discharge
measurements are required such as laboratories, water supply system, during test wells,
gauging effluent of clean water, waste water with dissolved pollutants and of course in
irrigation technique.

a) Full-width (suppressed) Weir

It occupies the complete width of a vertical sided channel, B/b = 1. Different formula
have been suggested of which the following are major ones:

* SWISS formula

Q = CaCbCc bg h3/2

Where CaCbCc approximates Cd

2
0.001  h1 
Ca = 0.580 Cb = 1+ Cc = 1+ 0.5  
h1  0.0016  1
h  p1 

The formula applies within the limits

0.025 m<h1<0.8 m;b>0.3 m; h1/p1<1.0.

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* Rehbock Formula

Q = CaCbCc bg h3/2

3/ 2
 0.00125  h1
Ca = 0.568 Cb = 1   Cc = ( 1  0.138 )
 h1  p1

The formula applies within the limits

0.03 m< h1<0.75 m; b>0.3 m; p1>0.3 m; h1 /p1<1.0

* Kindswater formula

3  h 
2  0.602  0.075 1 b  0.001 g h1  0.001 metric units only
3/ 2
Q=
2  p1 

The formula applies within the limits

h1>0.03 m; b>0.2 m; p1>0.10m; h1/p1<2.0

b) Side Contraction Weir

A weir which has an approach channel whose bed and walls are sufficiently remote from
the weir crest and sides for the channel boundaries to have no significant influence on the
contraction of the nappe.

* Kindswater Formula

 h 
Q = 0.554 1  0.00035 1 b  0.0025 g h1  0.001 (metric units only)
3/ 2

 p1 

The formula applies within the limits

b/B<0.2; b>0.15 m;h1 /p1<2; h1>0.03 m;p1>0.10 m.

* SWISS Formula

 b 
2

 0.00626  0 .00519   
 B    1  0.5 b   h1 b g h 3 / 2
2 4
 b
Q = 0.544 1  0.064       
 B h1  0.0016    B   h1  p1 
1

  
 

16
The formula applies within the limits

b/B>0.3;h1/p1<;p1>0.30 m;0.025B/b<h1<0.8 m

c) V-Notch Weir (Thomson Weir)

Kinds of V-notch weirs (900, 1/2900,1/4900)

The line which bisects the angle of the notch should be vertical and at some distance from
both sides of channel. It is one on the most precise discharge measuring devices suitable
for a wide range of flow. The following flow regimes are encountered with v-notch
weirs:

 „Partially contracted weir‟: i.e a weir the contractions of which along the sides on
the v-notch are not fully developed due to the proximity of the walls and/or bed of
the approach channel.
 „Fully contracted weir‟: i.e. a weir which has an approach channel whose bed and
sides are sufficiently remote from the edges of the V-notch to allow for a
sufficiently great approach velocity component parallel to the weir face so that the
contraction is fully developed.

Fully contracted weir may be placed in non-rectangular approach channel provided that
cross-sectional area of selected approach channel is not less of the rectangular channel
that would be sufficient for the chosen V-notch.

The basic head-discharge equation for a V-notch weir is

Q = Ce 8 2 g 1 / 2 tan  he 5 / 2
15 2

Ce = coefficient of discharge

0.0006
he = h1 + k h kh = (m)
sin / 2

kh shows combined effects of fluid properties: surface tension, viscosity which play a role
in contractions.

5.6.3 Flumes

A critical depth flume is essentially a geometrically specified constriction built in an open

channel where sufficient fall is available for critical flow to occur in the throat of the
flume. Flumes are „in-line‟ structures, i.e. their centerline coincides with the centerline of
the undivided channel in which the flow is to be measured. The flume cannot be used in
structures like turnouts, controls and other regulating devices. Constriction is obtained by
narrowing and narrowing + bottom elevation (hump in the invert).

17
Upstream subcritical flow by severe channel constriction then critical flow condition in
the throat of the flume which is unique stage-discharge relationship independent of the
conditions downstream. This is a principle on which the critical depth flume is based.
There is no more connection between upstream and downstream hydraulic conditions.

Advantage of critical flume over long crested weir is for application where
material(sediment or debris) is being transported along the channel by flow: no danger
for deposit upstream (sediments) or damage from floating.

In our case (SSI development in Ethiopia) for instance, it is advisable to use these
structures as flow measuring devices in the main canal system. The most commonly used
flume structures include;
 Long-throated flume;
 Short throated flume(Par shall flumes)

Long-Throated Flumes

Contraction produces small curvatures in water surface and streamlines in the throat are
parallel with the invert of the flume. These flumes are usually rectangular, trapezoidal,
triangular, U-shaped cross section. Stage-discharge relationship deduced analytically.

Short-Throated flume (parshal flumes)

Parshall Flumes: - These are calibrated devices for the measurement of water in open
channel systems. Its geometric description consists of (figure 5.4):
 A converging section with a level floor as an inlet
 A throat section with a downward sloping floor as critical/control section; and
 A diverging section with an upward slopping floor as its outlet section.

18
Figure 5.4 Parshall Flume Dimensions

Curvature of water surface is large no more streamlines parallel to bottom in the throat.
Not possible to threat analytically stage-discharge. So we need laboratory or field
calibrations.

19
Due to its geometric arrangement the control section of these flumes is not situated
(unlike the long throated flume for instance) in the throat but near the end of the level
crest in the converging section. The modular limit of Parshall flumes is lower than the
long throated flumes, the very reason these structures can be operated under non-modular
flow conditions with losing no appreciable accuracies in discharge measurements. This is
one of the peculiar advantage of these flumes especially when used in canals with mild
slope, such as the contour canals (main canals in our SSI systems).

It is a self clearing device. Sand or salt in the flowing water does not affect its operation
or accuracy. Par shall flumes allow reasonably accurate measurements even when
partially submerged. The velocity of the approaching stream has very little influence on
its operation. The size of the flume is determined by the width of its throat. Size ranging
from 7.5cm to several meters in throat width has been calibrated and formulas and tables
developed. On the basis of throat width Parshall flumes are categorized in three groups
(USBR, 1971):

 “Very Small”, throat width from 1inche to 3inches;

 “Small Flumes”, throat width from 6inch to 8ft; and
 “Large Flumes”, throat width 10ft up to 50ft.

Stilling wells can be used to measure the water surface elevations in the flume if
turbulence exists in the flow system otherwise plastic scales fixed to the inside of the
flume will be sufficient to measure the head. The zero of the scales should be set at the
same level as the floor level of the conversing section. There is no need to have a pond
above the flume as the velocity of approach has little effect on the accuracy of
measurements.

5.7 Water Level and Velocity Control structures

The water level and velocity control structures described in this chapter comprise a group
of engineering works installed in open channel irrigation networks designed to regulate
the water level in a channel, to control the quantity of water passing through it, to
dissipate energy and enable water to be delivered accurately and safely to the fields

20
without causing erosion. Such structures include checks or cross-regulators, drops (of
falls) and chutes. For example, a check or cross regulator will raise the upstream water
levels in a canal above its natural flow level during periods of low discharge sufficiently
to feed an offtake canal. A check will also help to temporarily absorb fluctuations of
water supply in various section of the canal system, or to control velocities and prevent
breaches in the tail reaches. Drops (or falls) and chutes narrow the difference in slope of
the land and that required for the canal. Generally, a drop or a fall will be used to obtain a
reduction in slope over a short distance. When the distance is greater and the slope more
gentle, but still steep enough for the water to flow at too high a velocity, control may be
achieved by employing chutes.

5.7.1 Checks or Cross Regulators

Checks or cross regulators may be fixed overflow weirs with no movable controlling
device, or they may be provided with radial gates, slide gates, stoplogs, checkboards
(flashboards), or combinations of these, or include a device to maintain a given upstream
water level. These structures may be fixed or portable (the former should have provisions
for overflow) and they may be used in both lined and unlined canals, ditches or water
courses. Where check gates are fitted, these may be hand or hydraulically operated (such
as the automatic Neyrpic gates) or equipped with automatic and time controlled release
devices. Wherever possible, and in the interest of economy, a permanent check should be
combined with a drop or fail, or a division box, or a measuring device located above or
below an intake.

A check may be designed to function as an overflow weir, as an orifice or as a

combination of both. When a constant upstream water level is desired an over flow type
check is normally used. The flow over such a check may be calculated from the equation.

2 3/ 2 3/ 2
Q= Bt  2 g H crt  = CBt  H crt 
3

Where Q = discharge in m3 per second

C = 2/3 2 g = Discharge coefficient (m1/2/sec)

B(t) = Overflow crest length (m)

H(crt) = head or water depth above the crest, measured upstream from the
check (m)

5.7.2 Drops (or Falls) and Chutes

21
 i) General

The function of these structures is to convey water from a higher to lower elevation and
to dissipate excess energy resulting from excessive slope of the land in the canal route. A
canal aligned along a slopping terrain (route) would ordinarily be set up enough to cause
severe erosion in earth canals and even in hard surface lined canals such as abrasions.
The water must therefore be conveyed with structures designed to safely dissipate the
excess energy.

Generally such a control structure is called a drop or a fall when the lowering of the water
level is accomplished over a short distance. When water is conveyed over long distances
at slopes which are still steep enough to maintain high velocities (shooting flow) the
structure generally used is a chute. Chutes may also be used on sloping land where a
single drop or a series of drops (i.e. cascades) would be more expensive or otherwise un-
desirable.

The decision as to whether to use a chute or a series of drops should be based upon a
hydraulic and economic study of the two alternatives. From a hydraulic point of view
according to the experience of USDI (United States Department of the Interior) drops
should not be so closely spaced as to possibly preclude uniform flow between out let and
inlet of consecutive structures particularly where checks or control notches are not used
at the inlets. The danger is that sufficient tail water depth may not exist to produce
hydraulic jumps in the pools and thus shooting flow may develop through the series of
drops and possibly damage the canal. Also with drops too closely spaces one steep slope,
problem of excavation and back fill may make such constructional advisable. According
to the experience of USDI the minimum spacing required b/n the outlet and inlet cut-off
of drops is about 60 must. The economic study should compare casts of a series of drops
and chute taking in to account advantages and disadvantages present to the specific
conditions. Since the maintenance casts of a series of drops is usually considerably more
that for a chute accomplishing the same function, it is sometimes economically justifiable
to spend considerably more for a chute than for a series of drops.

22
Chutes / inclined drops/ are more site specific and are not very common structures as
compare to drop structure in the development of small scale irrigation canals. Therefore,
in this paper vertical drops will be threaded and the use of chutes / inclined drops will be
left to the designers to be used according to the condition of that particular site which is
under consideration.

ii) Vertical Drop Structures

The following are the reasons for selection of these structures:

i. Easy for construction

ii. This structure is well adopted as an energy dissipater install scale irrigation
canals in the previous small scale irrigation development department (I.D.D).
so that adaptation will be more simpler.
iii. Canal size and command level conditions will frequently require to use drop
of small heights ( < 1m.) in which vertical drop structures are meant for.

These structures are commonly used to achieve small changes in level in canals.
Maximum drop heights are normally 1m in unlined canals. In its simplest form the
vertical drop achieves energy loss both through impact of the falling jet on the structure
and through the subsequent hydraulic jump which occurs immediately down stream, if
sufficient tail water depth is provided.

An upstream raised weir crest can be provided as a control so that draw down of flow
depth upstream of the structure is minimized. These may be required in order to maintain
command to off takes upstream or to prevent scour upstream resulting from the flow
accelerating into the drop structure. Also it is helpful to reduce the approach velocity in
case the structure is combined with discharge measuring structures. If the critical depth at
entrance of the drop is maintained to be tow- third of the flow depth in the upstream canal
section, then the raw down will be minimal and localized. This can be done by either
narrowing to maintain a total energy level at the crest equal to the total energy upstream

23
of the crest (neglecting channel friction). The concentration of flows in a narrow section
will require a longer basin downstream of the drop to contain the turbulent flow region
and this must be balanced against the cost of wider but shorter basin, possibly with a
raised crest.

Figure 5.5 Typical Vertical Drop Structure Commonly used in SSI Development Works
(Ethiopia)

Drops, or falls, and chutes are control structures required at suitable intervals in canals or
channels which must have a more gentle slope than that of the adjacent land, so as to
reduce the water level downstream, and reduce the velocity of flow. They also provide
for the safe dissipation of surplus energy. Generally such a control structure is called a
drop, or a fall, when the lowering of the water level is accomplished over a short

24
distance. When the water is conveyed over long distances at slopes which art still steep
enough to maintain high velocities (shooting flow), the structure generally used is a
chute. Chutes may also be used on sloping land where a single drop, or a series of drops
(i.e. cascades), would be more expensive or otherwise undesirable.

In the case of main canals, branch canals or sub-branch canals, which do not directly
irrigate any area, the site of a drop is determined in consideration of the cost of canal
construction; including balancing cut and fill and the cost of the structure itself. In the
case of distributing canals, the falls are located so as to serve the commanded area
without having to build the canal banks too high. The possibility of combining a drop
with an intake, cross regulator, measuring device, bridge or some other canal structure
must be given due consideration, as such combinations often result in economy and better
regulation. Drops are usually provided with a low crest wall, hump or check gate
upstream to prevent shooting flow in the upstream approach section. Drops are
subdivided into three categories: vertical drops, inclined drops and piped drops. Chutes
are regarded as being in the same category as inclined drops.

The choice between vertical and inclined drops is governed mainly by the difference in
water level to be controlled by the structure, in other words, the energy to be dissipated,
However, local conditions, traditional practices, etc, do not allow for generalization of the
criteria for this choice on a world-wide scale The necessary drop in level and dissipation
of energy can be achieved either by one or only a few large drops or by several more
small drops over the same distance. The choice again is much dependent on material and
labour available and the total cost of construction.

The inclined drop offers the alternative of dissipating energy through a standing wave
(hydraulic jump) whereas the shock of the overfall jet of the vertical drop is dissipated.
Where the fall required is considerable the whole structure of the inclined drop requires
less material and labour input than the wall and dissipator basin structure of the vertical
drop.

Drops can be used to measure the quantity of water flowing over them. For example, a
vertical drop may be equipped with a calibrated weir section; and inclined drops may be
designed so as to include a calibrated flume section.

Pipe drops are often found useful and economical where a drop can be sited so as to
traverse a road or other crossing of an irrigation canal.

Drops in farm channels are basically of the same type and function as those in
distribution canals, the only difference being that the drops in farm channels are smaller
and simpler in construction and equipment. They are more often provided with a check
gate, which may be a simple slide tae or a wooden shutter. Both vertical drops and pipe
drops may be employed, although vertical drops are the most commonly used.

Design Methodologies: - Five methods are treated here and some sort of comparison
specific to the concept and/or scope of small scale irrigation development works is made.

25
 i. USBR long basin method
ii. US-ARS alternative basins Method
iii. US-ARS and ILRI alternative basins Method combined.
iv. Purdue Trajectory Method combined with US-ARS alternative basin method
v. FAO method

USBR Method: - The geometry of a vertical drop structure has been established by
model testing and the persistent equations are described by the function of the drop
number which is defined as

3
q2 h 
D OR D   c 
Z 
3
gZ
Where:-
q = Flow per unit width of drop crest
Z  DropHeight  d / sSillheigh t  u / sSillHeigh t
g = Acceleration due to gravity
hc = Critical flow depth at the control section.
The functions are expressed as
Ld = 4.3 AD0277
Dp = ZD0.22
D1 = 0.54 ZD0.425
d 2 = 1.66 ZD0.27
Li = 6.9 (d 2– d 1)
Where:- Ld = Drop length
dp = Depth of the pool below the nape
d1 = Initial depth at the jump (depth at the toe of the nape on the beginning
of the hydraulic jump.)
d 2 = Sequent depth of d 1 (trail water depth sequent to d 1)
Li = Jump length
The downstream sill height, S d/s is calculated to ensure that the jump is contained within
is
the horizontal basin apron. Where the downstream depth dtw less than the acquired

26
sequent depth d 2 then S  d 2  d tw . If d tw already equals or exceeds d 2 a nominal sill

height should normally be provided, say 0.10m to 0.15m.

A guide value of S = d tw /6 is suggested in some texts and this can be used as an initial
starting point in determining the geometry of the structure. The resulting basin
determined from the above method is very long.

US-ARS alternative basins Method: - An alternative drop structure with baffle blocks
in the region of the jump has been developed by the US Agricultural Research Service.
This design allows a significant shorting of the overall basin but turbulence may be
expected downstream. The Fraud number of the pre-jump jet (F 1 Corresponding to d 1)
must not exceed 4.50 for these type of basins.
The functions used are
Basin length = L a + 1.7Hc
Where Hc – The specific energy at the control point
= 1.5h c
The term 1. 7Hc is equivalent to the jump length, Lj, where the reduction comes from the
loss of energy through the impact of the baffle blocks.
Impact block height = 0.5 Hc
End of sill height = 0.5 Hc
End of sill h eight = 0.25 Hc
Block width range = (0.20 – 0.4) Hc

The spacing should be arranged in such a way that the floor blocks should occupy
between 40 and 55% of the stilling basin width. Similarly no floor block should be placed
closer to the side wall than 3/8 d1

US-ARS and ILRI alternative basins Methods combined: - An alternative jump length
(Ld) can be compacted from ILRI publication 20 as given in figure 4.12 (directly taken
from ILRI Publication No-20), where a plot of Ld/Z against F1 is presented. The tabular

27
form of the curve both for Ld/Z against F1 and Ld/d2 against F1 is provided in table 4.3
below. The jump length is computed using the US-ARS alternative basin method.

Table 5.1 Dimensionless plot of straight drop geometry (ILRI Publicn No-20 )

F1 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7

d2/Z 2.65 1.75 1.4 1.1 0.85 0.73 0.64 0.56 0.5 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.35

Lp/Z 7.5 4.9 3.5 2.8 2.3 1.95 1.7 1.5 1.35 1.25 1.1 1 0.9

7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10

033 0.31 0.29 0.275 0.3 0.25
0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.66 0.63

Figure 5.6 Dimensionless plot of straight drop geometry (Bos, 1984)

28
Purdue Trajectory Method combined with US-ARS alternative basin method: - this can
also be used to design drop structures (details of the principle are presented in section
4.0)

FAO Method :- Based on a SOGETTHA design of 1970, the FAO together with
[ICIDI] has proposed a rectangular weir drops which has the following limitations,
Channel bed width 0.20 -1.00m
Flow depth 0.10 – 0.70m
Max drop height 1.00m
Dimensions of the basin are defined interims of discharge, Q , drop height H dr, upstream
bed width, b1, upstream flow depth, h-1 and downstream flow depth, h-2.
The formula used in this methodology are expressed as:
QH dr
Volume of basin V  , where Q in l/Sec and V is in m3
150
Length of basin L = 1.5 H dr (m)

Cross-section area of basin A = L (h-1 + Sd/s)

Width of basin Bbas = V/A
Crest width of entry BC = Bbas– 0.10
Depth of basin Sd/s = 0.10 to 0.30
Height of crest over upstream head level
= H0 –Hc (where Ho is specific energy upstream of the control
section and Hc is specific energy at the control point.)
It should be noted that the length of the upstream and downstream trapezoidal lined
sections should be taken as equal to height of the drop. The wall thickness for all cases is
taken as 0.4m. However, this dimension is optional but it is not advisable to make it
below 0.30m due to construction problems.
On sample design is considered and the dimensions are computed using all
methodologies to compare the basin dimensions with the help of the table provided.

iii) Farm Drop Structures

29
Due to canal / field canals or tertiary canals / dimensions and command level
requirements farm drops though they are basically of the same type with similar function,
are smaller and their construction are simpler. Among those structures the head wall drop
with riprap basin is commonly used and according to the experience of FAO this
structure is noted to be one of the economical and effective structures being tested (FAO
irrigation and drainage paper 26/2).

Head Wall Drop with Riprap Basin (figure 5.7): - The structure is provided a head
wall mostly made of masonry and a gravel basin as energy dissipater. The structures
should be used
 For O < 50 1/sec and
 For drop height < 30 cm
 For critical flow velocity at the overflow section not
exceeding 1m/sec, that is for a flow per meter width of
801/see or less.
 Riprap (large gravel) basin length = 3 to 4 times the drop in bed levels
 Width off riprap  1.5 to 2 times crest width
 Head wall width (if masonry is used) should not be less than 30 cm.
 The thickness of the riprap in the basin should not be less 0.20m.
 Riprap size should to resist a velocity of 1.50m/sec minimum
 The standard drawing is provided in fig 5.7 below

30
Figure 5.7 Farm Drop Structure (Head Wall Drop Structure)

iii) Inclined drop and piped drops

These structures are not used commonly in SSI development systems. Inclined drops are
used for falls exceeding 1.0m and piped drops are used in small streams (Q<50l/s). In our
SSI systems piped drops can be used in steeply sloping land where irrigation system
design is made based on soil and water conservation principles.

31
5.8 Flow Dividing Structures (Divisors)

The problem to divide flow is one of oldest in irrigation technique as existed cooperative
stock water companies in which the individual water users have rights to proportional
parts of the supply of water furnished by their canal system. Each part is a defined
proportion of the total flow and is known in such a way not as measure in absolute sense.

To divide doesn‟t mean to measure and when we need the measurement reliable we must
associate a measurement device to the devisors. Vertical and horizontal velocity
distribution across the flow doesn‟t permit to divide the cross section in part proportional
to the width as the walls induce velocity reduction. In other words the proportion is only
roughly accepted. It follows that

a) Accurate proportions: needed control section of measurement device

b) No accurate proportions: only splitting wall.

The following categories exist

 Flow divided by thin plated splitting wall

 Mainly division or diversion boxes which have the additional function of
alternating the flow between different offtake channels using slide gates or flash
boards.
 Thin plate divisor
 Streams of exact constant proportion

Fixed proportional divisions: Permanent splitting of the flow in 2 (or more) parts take
place in control section where supercritical flow splitting and rejoining. Split by 2 is more
accurate and reliable.

Adjustable splitter: Consist of a hinged gate made of sheet metal which can be moved
across the flow section of parent channel and fixed in any desired position by screw bar.
Always needed a structure to assure supercritical regime followed, in each splitted
current, by hydraulic jump.

Proportional distributors. The flow is not divided into fraction by thin plates but is
diverted from the parent (main) channel into the offtakes by means of individual
openings grouped to form a single structure.Each opening: flume or weir dimensioned so
as to pass a given fraction of total flow.

Division or diversion boxes: The structure consist of a box with vertical walls in which
are provided controllable openings.

Construction: insitu or prefabricated concrete

Opening: thin plate

32
Calibration of openings: in field to correlate gate position to discharge.

6.7 Intake Structures (Head Regulators)

The purpose of these structures is to admit and regulate water from main (parent) channel
to minor channels. Sometimes they serve as meter for the discharge. For a given
discharge and water level in the main channel can be constant or fluctuating at the intake
under different operational conditions.

E.g. Periodic low discharge in main channel impose to build a cross-regulator in the main
channel to raise the water level sufficiently to feed the offtake. Main channel water can
be either silt-free or charged.

Main channel constant water supply- Free from silt

Used structure like ”critical depth flume” as the u/s level remains constant. Consist of
approach u/s walls to the throat wall rectangular cross-section. These structures are
automatically in action and need no manual control.

Main channel constant water supply-Silt selective intake

Developed by Sharma at Punjab Irrigation Department in 1936 to reduce percentage of

silt entering the offtake channel. Assumption: silt concentration in lower layers is greater
than that in the upper ones and if lower layers were allowed to escape without interfering
with silt distribution, the remaining water would have less silt per unit volume than the
water u/s of the intake.

Structure: the approach chamber (silt selection), the regulator (water discharge or gate),
the flume (measurement).

6.8 Outlets or Farm Turnouts

Outlet is a structure at the head of a water course (farm irrigation canal) which connects it
with a supply canal. Design of farm outlets depends on:

1. Quantity of water to be delivered

2. Source and nature of water (silt free or silt charged)
3. Methods of water delivery
 Continuous uninterrupted flow
 Rotational: water moved from one area to another as block each user
receives fixed amount of water at defined intervals of time
 Demand: water delivered at farm outlets in quantity and time requested
4. Methods of assessing water charges

 Rate of flow: meter the rate and maintain records

 Volume of water delivered: volumetric measuring device

33
  Outlet equipped with accurate measurement devices

5. Operation of the canal system (water rationed out)

From outlet a) Draw water available (proportion of total discharge)

b) Run in rotation (check structure in supply canal to feed it)

Outlets may be divided broadly in 3 classes

1. Modules (constant head orifice, baffle module)

2. Semi-modules (flume)
3. Non-modular outlets (all devices under variable charge. Discharge depends on 2
levels: u/s and d/s)

34