Physical quantities and units:

 Physical quantity: A quantity which can be measured

 Base quantity: A quantity which cannot be split further into simpler
quantities
 Derived quantity: A quantity which is formed due to algebraic
manipulation (÷ , ×) of two or more base quantities
 Find the value of k where ( I =current ,n=charge desnity , v=speed and q=charge )
I =nAq v k
o I =nAq v k
k
A=(m¿¿−3)( m2) ( As ) ( m s−1) ¿
k k
( A / A)=(m¿¿−3+2) ( s ) ( m s−1 ) ¿ (m s−1)=( m s−1 )
=> k =1
 Significant figures rules:
o All non-zero numbers are significant
o Zeros between two non-zero numbers are significant
o Trailing zeroes to the right of decimal are significant (23.0 | 3sf)
o Leading zeros in decimal are not significant (e.g. 0.0042 | 2sf)
o Leading zeros are not significant (e.g. 00042 | 2sf)
o Trailing zeros are not significant (e.g. 4200 | 2sf)
o In indices form the part excluding exponent is significant ( 2.4∗10 N|3 sf ¿
o Every instrument has a precision and slight uncertainty:
 Precision; is smallest possible division on reading
 Uncertainty : is half of precision
 1 mm=1 0−3 m∧1 m m2= ( 10−3 ) =10−6 m
2

 Precision is how close the measured values to each other

 Accuracy means how close measured value is to the true value

 Systematic errors: are one sided because in the absence of other types of
error repeated measurement give results that differ from the true or expected
value (either always higher or lower than true value). It affects accuracy. This
error cannot be reduced until and unless the machine replaced or fixed
 Random Errors; are two sided because in the absence of other types of
error, repeated measurement give results that fluctuate above and
below the true or expected value. It affects precision of measurement.
This error can be reduced by taking average
 There are three types of mathematical errors
o Absolute errors (+,−¿) : ± 0.2
 Uncertainties are always added
o Fractional errors (× ,÷ ) : uncertainty /value
 Uncertainty should be converted to 1sf. And then finally
answer should be rounded to same d.p as of uncertainty. You
might need to add additional zeros in some questions
o Percentage error : fraction error∗100
o Coefficients are ignored when calculating uncertainty
o Let a=2.0 ± 0.2 , b=3.0 ± 0.3 , c=5 ± 0.1
 e=b−a => e=3.0−2.0=1.0
∆ e=∆ a+ ∆ b => ∆ e=0.2+ 0.3=0.5 e=1 ± 0.5
 a2√ e 4 (c ¿ ¿ 2 b2 )
 c= => e= ¿
%c=
0.1
∗100=2 %
2b a4
5
( 4) ( 5 )2 ( 3 )2
e= => e=56.25 0.3 %e
( 2 )4 %b= ∗100=10 %
3
= 2 [ ( %c )+ (%b ) +2(%a)]
%e=2 [ 2+10+2(10) ] =64 % 0.2
%a= ∗100=10 %
56.25∗64 2
∆ e=e∗%e=¿ ∆ e= =36 ≈ 40 e=60 ± 40
100

 Vectors are represented by arrow and cross (in page) at back. Length (l ) of
arrow represent magnitude. Arrow (head) show the direction
 Resolution of vectorθ
perp base
o sin θ= , cos θ=
hypt hypt

sin θ component is cos θ component is

always opposite to θ on the other side

 Move clockwise or anti-clockwise inside the triangle

of forces to form equation

 When 2 quantities are proportional, its gradient of graph remain constant

and y - intercept is 0
 If written e.g. charge density or anything with density without reference to
mass, its unit will be : m−3
a b c
 c 2=a2+ b2−2 ( a ) ( b ) cos C = , =
sin A sin B sin C
 λ=Time base setting∗Speed of light∗1 wave (as boxes /cm∈c . r . o)
 In calculation of physical quantities make sure that calculated data’s
significant figures should not exceed raw data’s significant figures
(L2−L1 )
 To find uncertainty in equation like this L1
. First find absolute
uncertainty in ( L2−L1) then in ( L1 ). Finally find their fractional uncertainties
and add them up
 Kinematics
 Distance: The length covered between two points (scalar quantity)
 Displacement: The shortest distance between starting and end point (vector quantity)
 Speed : Distance travelled per unit time (scalar quantity)
 Velocity : Displacement per unit time (vector quantity)
 Equations of motions
o v=u+at , v 2=2 as+u2
1 1
o s=ut+ a t 2 , s=vt− a t 2
2 2
(u+v )t
o s=
2
 When trying to find area under graph or gradient use y=mx+c
o E.g.
You have to use y=mx+c
after looking at graph

 If a curve is made on graph,

o to find its area make different shapes like trapezium and triangle to fill up
most of the curves area then find those shapes area and then add them up,
o Or you can make small identical boxes all over the curve and then find area
for one box and multiply it by total number of boxes
o To find the gradient at point x , draw tangent at the value of x and find
gradient of that tangent

 Projectile motion
H: Max height
R: Range

o S distance U initial velocity V final velocity A acceleration T time [SUVAT]

o Time remains same for horizontal and vertical component
o v y decreases till top at H ( v y =0) and then starts to increase again
o v H remain constant for trajectory
 v H =u H +a H t (velocity remains constant so a=0)
v H =v cos θ

o t = time for object to gain max height

 o T = 2t, time for full trajectory
o R=(u2 sin 2θ)/ g => Rmax =( u2 sin 2 ( 45 o ) )/g=u2 / g
 When solving questions always make sure to see if there is initial velocity
 To find the displacement from the initial position in
bungee jump graphs subtract the 3rd triangle area from 2nd
 For 2 slopes at same angle from ground, the acceleration of
object M sliding down will be same on both slopes
 If in constants of momentum the ball or a particle is thrown
in an electric field or gravitational field, law of conservation of momentum
would not apply since it’s not isolated system it has gravitational field or
electric field
 Dynamics
 Forces
o 1st Law : An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays
in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon
by an unbalanced force
 Inertai∝ Mass , Inertai ∝ Velocity
 Momentum : Product of mass and velocity
o p=mv=ft (kgm s−1∨Ns )
 2nd law of motion: Force is the rate of change of momentum
p t−¿ p mv−mu m(v−u)
o Force= ∆ p = i
= = =ma ¿
t t t t
P/Ns

p t−¿ p
o F= i
=Ft =p t−¿ p =¿ Ns= p ¿
t i t−¿ pi¿ ¿

T < t 1 and T > t 2 : No change in momentum

so force = 0

t 1 < T < t 2 : Change in momentum is

constant (m is constant) so Force is constant

t
t

v
a p
F
t
t

¿ Extra∗¿

( m2−m1 ) g F= pA v 2
a=
m1 +m2
p = density
( 2 m1 m2) g a = area
T=
m 1 +m 2
v= velocity
If m1 ≫¿ m2
F = force
 a=g
 T = negligible
 Newton’s 3rd law:  For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
o Forces must be equal and opposite ( F 1=−F2 )
o Forces must act on each other for same time (t 1=t 2)
o Forces must be of the same type
 A book at rest on a table is under gravitational pull but according to 1st law there
should be another force to balance the position of rest which is normal contact
force R. These two forces act on the book so it cannot be related to third law. Third
law can be used between the force of gravity by earth and (its reaction) book
pulling the earth to itself

 Law of conservation of momentum : For an isolated system (no external forces

act) the total momentum before collision must be equal to the total momentum
after collision P ET Ek
Collision type
o m1 u 1+ m2 u2=m1 v 1+ m2 v 2
Elastic collision ✓ ✓ ✓
 For elastic collision between two particles Inelastic collision ✓ ✓ ✖
o u1−u 2=v 2 −v 1
m 1−m 2 2 m2
o v1 = ( ) (
m 1 +m 2
u 1+ )u
m 1+ m2 2
m2−m 1 2 m1
o v 2= (
m 2 +m 1 ) (
u 2+ u
m 2+ m1 1)
1 1 1 1
o m1 ( u 1) 2+ m2 ( u2 )2= m1 ( v 1 )2+ m2 ( v 2 )2
2 2 2 2
 For collision at an angle
o mu=mv 1 cos ∅ +m v 2 cos β
o 0=m v 1 sin ∅−m v 2 sin β
o E K remains constant :
1 1 1
mu 2= m ( v 1 )2+ m ( v2 )2
2 2 2
 Impulse of a force is equal to change in momentums
o 2nd law: F=∆ p ∆ t => F ∆ t=∆ p (Impulse = F ∆ t =N s)
Originally the unit N s was used for impulse but it can be used for
momentum also
 Force, Density and Pressure
 Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit
area over which that force is distributed
(ρv) g ρ ( A∗h ) g
o Pressure= weight = mg = = =ρgh
area A A A
F
o Pressure= Pressure=ρgh
A
 Upthrust or Buoyancy, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the
weight of a partially or fully immersed object
o Ptop =ρg h1 , Pbottom=ρg h2
F T = ρgh 1 A , F B= ρgh 2 A
o Upthrust = F B−F T
Upthrust = ρg h2 A−ρg h1 A
Upthrust = ρgA ( h 2−h1 ) =¿ ρgA ∆ h
Upthrust = ρg V l (V l = V of liquid displaced)
Upthrust = m l g (ml = m of liquid displaced)

 Barometer and that tube thing

 Moment is turning effect of force. It is product of force and

perpendicular distance from pivot
o Maximum Moment = Minimum Force (θ=90)
 Moment = Fd sin ( 90 ) =¿ Fd ¿
o Minimum Moment = Maximum Force (θ=0)
 Moment = Fd sin ( 0 ) =¿ Fd ( 0 )=0¿
 For a body to maintain state of equilibrium, its resultant force must be 0 (constant
velocity or no acceleration) and its resultant moment must also be 0
 Principle of Moments: For an object in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moment
must be equal to sum of anti-clockwise moment ( F 1 D1=F 2 D2)
 A couple refers to two parallel forces that are equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction and do not share a line of action.
o Moment due to couple : It is product of force F and perpendicular distance
between two forces
 Work, Energy and Power
 Work; is product of force applied and distance
travelled in the direction of the force. It is scalar
quantity. W =fdcos(θ) ¿

 1 joule : When a force of 1 N acts on an object, it covers a distance of 1m in the

direction of force

 Work done in circle¿ 0 J . Because velocity is

perpendicular to force

 Work done on inclined plane ¿ :

o Either take components of weight or distance

 Word done by gas

o W =F ( d 2−d 1) F=Pressure∗Area
W =FA ( d 2−d 1 )
W =F ( Ad2− Ad 1 )
W =F ( V 2−V 1 )
W =P ∆ V
 Energy; is defined as ability to do work

o 2 ad=v 2−u2
v 2−u2
d= [W =Fd]
2a
v 2−u2
W =F ( 2a ) [ F=ma]

v 2−u2
W =ma ( 2a )
1
K . E= m ( v 2−u 2)
2
Kinetic energy; is energy possessed by a mass by virtue of its motion

o W =Fd [ F=ma]
W =mad [d=h2−h 1]
W =mg ¿
G . P . E=mg∆ h
G.P.E: The energy possessed by a mass by virtue of its
position in a gravitational field
 Power; is defined as the rate of doing work (Watt)
W E Fd
o P= = = =Fv
t t t
o If F ∝ v then P ∝ v n, when F ∝ v then P ∝ v2
2

 P=Fv => P= ρA v 2 v => P= ρA v 3 (n=3)

 Efficiency
P o (W )
o n=
P i( W )

 Heat energy is product of Frictional force and distance covered

 Heat rate = Friction F ×Velocity

 Q: A conveyer belt is driven at velocity v by a motor. Sand drops vertically on

to the belt at a rate of mkg s−1.What is the additional power needed to keep the
conveyer belt moving at a steady speed when the sand starts to fall on it
mv
p=mv => rate of change of momentum = t = ( mt ) v=mv
Force = rate of change of momentum = mv , Power=Fv

Power=mv∗v =m v 2

 Q: The force resisting the motion of a car is taken as being PR optional to the
square of cars speed. The magnitude of the force at a speed 20 m s−1 is 800N.
What effective power is required from the car’s engine to maintain a steady
speed of 40 m s−1
800
F ∝ v2 => F=k v 2 => k= =2 => F=2 v 2
202
P=Fv=2 v2∗v =2 v 3 => P=2 ( 40 )3=128000
 Electricity
 Current is rate of flow of charges.
Q Ne
 I= t = t N : Number of electrons , t = time
Q=It e : charge on 1 electron (1.602∗10−19)]
no . of electrons N
 charge density = Volume(wire) => n= AL => N=nAL
Ne nALe
 I = t = t =nA V d e [V d =Drift velocity ]
(n=m−3 , A=m2 ,e=C ,V d=ms−1)
 Electric Field Strength, at a point is defined as force per unit charge acting on a
small stationary positive charge placed at the point. It is also defined as potential
difference applied between two terminals, distance l apart.
F v
o E= (unit: N c−1) E= (unit: V m−1)
Q l
VQ VQ
o F=EQ => F= => acceleration=
l lm
VQ
o v= ( lm )
t [ v=u+at ] u=0
2
ρAv
o I =nAve=nA Vqt e= t e n e
( lm ) ( lm ) => I=
l
ρl
o R= [ρ = resistivity]
A
 In series circuit Law of conservation of Energy is used. It means that E.M.F of a cell
must be equal to the potential drops across the circuit
E = V 1 +V 2 +V 3 +V 4
I T R T =I T R1 + I T R2 + I T R 3+ I T R4
RT =R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
 In parallel circuit, Law of conservation of Charge is used. It means that voltage
across the circuit remains same but current changes
I T =I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4
E E E E E
= + + +
R T R1 R2 R3 R 4
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + =>
R T R1 R2 R3 R 4
 Ohmic conductor is a conductor that obeys ohms law.
o Ohms law states that electric current is proportional to voltage and
inversely proportional to resistance.
o 1 Ohm: transmitting a current of 1A when subjected to potential difference
of 1 volt
o To find resistance find the
gradient of the graph.
 Non-Ohmic conductors
o Diode; is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts
current primarily in one direction. It has low resistance in
one direction and high resistance in other direction
 o LDR (Light – dependent resistor)
Forward Bias Reverse Bias  Light
Resistance minimum Resistance minimum
Allows current to pass through Allows current to pass through
intensity
P (junction) --> +¿ ve P (junction) --> −¿ve terminal increases
terminal
N (junction) --> −¿ve N (junction) --> +¿ ve terminal
=
terminal
Resistance decreases
 Light intensity decreases = Resistance increases

o Thermistor
 Temperature increases = Resistance decreases
 Temperature decreases = Resistance increases

o Filament Lamp:
 As current increases resistance increases as well and eventual current
become constant.

o To find resistance on any point on curve of I-V graph, simply divide x /y

o To find resistance on any point on curve of V-I graph, simply divide y /x

Point¿(2,3)
V x 3
R= = = =1.5Ω
I y 2
 When checking E.M.F of a cell make sure cell is directly connected to voltmeter
and not in a circuit
 When a high resistance voltmeter is connected across the terminals of the cell, the
meter reads 5 volts. This is because no current flows from the battery.
When a resistor ( R) is connected to a battery, a current flows through the resistor
( R) and through the internal resistance (r ) of battery to complete the circuit
Now the voltmeter reading is 4.5 V since some potential difference is across small r
 E=I T RT => E=T T ( R+ r ) => E=IR+ Ir
IR=E−Ir => V T =E−Ir [V T = Terminal Potential Difference]
E−V T
r=
I
 Voltage divider
VI
E=I RT => V I =I ( R1 +R2) => I=
R 2+ R 1
VI
V 2=I R 2 => V 2= ( )R
R 2+ R 1 2
R2
V o =V I ( R1 + R2 )
 Kirchhoff's circuit laws
o (1st or) Current law: The algebraic sum of all the currents
entering and leaving a node is always zero [ I 1=I 2 + I 3 + I 4 ]
o (2nd or) Voltage Law: Algebraic sum of EMFs in closed loop
must be equal to the sum of potential differences in that loop, based on law
of conservation of energy [ E=V 2+ V 3+ V 4]
 Q
Resistance BF wire = R
Length = L BE
= ¼ BF
Apply 2nd law on
ABCDEFGA, BCDEB, and GFBAG

i) ABCDEFGA −I 2 R2−I 2 R 3+ I 3 ( 34 R )+ I r =E −E
1 1 1 2

ii) BCDEB ( 34 R)−I R −I R =−E

−I 3 2 2 2 3 2

3 1
iii) GFBAG −E =−I ( R )−I ( R )−I r
1 1 3 1 1
4 4
 Use Conventional current path (positive to negative terminal)
 See this one : [s09_p22_q7 (b.ii)]
 Radioactivity
 α-particle scattering experiment
o The screen is rotated around the chamber
and the results are
θ Observation Conclusion
0o Max flashes observed Atom is mostly
vacant
¿ 90 o Some flashes observed Atom has a small
positively charged
nucleus
¿ 180o >90 o A few flashes observed Nuclease is highly
dense

o Vacuum chamber was used so that alpha particles should not be ionised
o Rutherford concluded Diameter of : Atom = 10−10 m , Nucleus = 10−10 m
 Nucleon Number ( A ) ; is sum of proton and neutron
 Proton Number ( Z ) ; is number of protons in atom
 Isotopes: Atoms of same elements with different mass number (or neutron number)
 During nuclear radioactive decay quantities conserved are:
Energy-Mass, Momentum, Charge,
Nucleon Number, Lepton Number & Baryon Number
 Types of emissions
Emissio Composition Range Ionising Effect of Magnetic field Effect of Electric
n ability field
Alpha 2P , 2N Low penetration Very high Deflected slightly Attracts to –ve
A few cm of paper
Beta Electron A few cm of air Moderate Deflected greater B−¿ ¿ to +ve
A few mm of
B+¿¿ to -ve
metal
Gamma High Few cm of lead Low Undeflected Undeflected
frequency Several m of
EM waves concrete

o Alpha Decay
 AZ X → 42α + AZ−2
−4
Y
o Beta Decay
 B−¿ decay¿ (Mostly beta decay in questions means this):
 0n → 1 p + −1e + v́
1 1 0

 B+¿decay ¿
 1 p → 0n + 1 e + v
1 1 0

o Gamma decay
 AZ X ¿ → AZ X + Energy
  Fundamental particles; are particles that cannot be further split, they have no internal
structure.
 Electron is a fundamental particle but neutrons and protons are not; they are made up of
quarks
 And all particles have anti-particles so quarks have also antiquarks, to form antiprotons and
antineutrons
Quark Symbol Charge Antiquark Symbol Charge
u Anti-Up ú - 2/3
Up + 2/3
d Anti-Down d́ + 1/3
Down - 1/3
s Anti-Strange ś + 1/3
Strange - 1/3

Neutron (u d d) Proton (u u d)
1 Up , 2 Down 2 Up , 1 Down
+2 1 1 +2 2 1
− − =0 + − =+1
3 3 3 3 3 3

 Quarks do not exist on their own, but exists in form of groups called Hadrons
o 2-Quarks Hadrons : Mesons 3-Quarks Hadrons : Baryons
 4 fundamental forces that govern the universe

Force Particles experiencing Force Carrier Particle Range Relative strength

Gravity acts between All particles with mass Graviton Infinity
objects with mass much weaker
0
−¿,Z ¿
Weak Force governs Quarks and Leptons +¿ ,W ¿ Short range
W
particle decay (W ∧Z )
Electromagnetism acts Electrically charged γ Infinity
between electrically (Photons)
charged particles
Strong force Quarks and Gluons g Short range much stronger
https://www.clearias.com/four-
binds quarks together (Gluons) fundamental-forces-of-nature/

 Beta energy spectrum: a sharing of energy. In beta decay, either an electron or a

positron is emitted along with them a neutrino or antineutrino is also emitted. Since the
kinetic energy of resulting nucleus is negligible, the other two particles share the decay
energy in variable proportions
 Leptons→ Electron Family : { Electron , Positron , Neutrino , Antineurino }
 Hadron → Baryons { Proton , Neutrons } (Baryon & Lepton Number = 1) (Anti = -1)
 Quark model of
o Quark undergo change to another quark in what is called weak interaction
o B−¿ decay¿
 ( u d d )Neutron → (u u d ) Proton +¿ ¿ ¿
(Baryon and Lepton
numbers are balanced) [ B=+1 B=+1 L=+1 L=−1 ]
o B+¿decay ¿
( u u d )Proton → ( u d d ) Neutron +¿ ¿ ¿

(Baryon and Lepton

numbers are balanced) =>
 [ B=+1 B=+1 L=−1 L=+1]

Electric Field
 Electric field is region around a charge in which its force can be
experienced
 Electric field strength is defined as force acting per unit positive
charge ( N C−1)
o E=F/Q [Q : Test charge or charge which is moving]’
 Non-uniform electric field: A field where changing the distance
changes field force [ F A > F B ] [ F B=F C ]
 Uniform electric field: A field where a charge experience same
force at all points of fields. [ F A=F B =FC ]
∆V
o E=
∆d
F ∆V ∆ Vq
o = => F=
Q ∆d ∆d

 In uniform field, alpha particle’s mass is greater than

beta so that’s why they take longer time to bend
 They don’t follow arc because to make an arc of circle
force must be perpendicular to velocity but in this
case velocity keeps changing
 Q Does the alpha particle hits the plate or not
o 1 Way:
 Horizontally
d
 v= t
 Vertically
u=0
Vq Vq
F=ma => =ma => a=
L Lm
1 1 1 Vq 2
s=ut+ a t 2 =>
2
s= a t 2
2
=> s=
2 Lm ( )
(t )

L
 If s ≥ 2 particle hits the plate else not
o 2nd way
d
 Find time particle takes to cover d using t 1= v
h

 Then find time particle takes to hit *Extra*

1 Vq 2
( )
the plate using s= 2 Lm (t 2 ), where Electron mass = 9.11∗10−31 kg
Proton/Neutron mass = 1.67∗10−27 kg
s is half of L
Q (charge) value = 1.60∗10−19
1eV (electronvolt) value = 1.60∗10−19 J
 If t 1> t2 then particle hits the plate else not
 Waves
 Displacement: Position of an oscillating particles from its equilibrium position
 Amplitude: The maximum magnitude of displacement of an oscillating particles
form its equilibrium position
 Period: Time taken for a particle to undergo one complete oscillation
 Frequency: Number of complete oscillation per unit time
 Wavelength ( λ ): For a progressive wave, it is the distance between any two
successive particles that are in phase, eg distance b/w successive crests and troughs
 Wave speed ( v): The speed at which wave travels in the direction of propagation
of
 Progressive wave; is a wave which results in a net transfer of energy from 1 point
to another
o Transverse wave: A wave which propagates in direction perpendicular to the
direction of vibration of particles. It propagates in form of crests and troughs
o Longitudinal wave: A wave that propagates in direction parallel to the
vibration of particles
 Intensity of a wave is power transferred per unit area, where the area is measured
on the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the energy
1
o I =P/ A I ∝ A2 , I ∝ 2 ,I ∝ f
2
[s14_p13_q27], [s04/p1/q26], [w05/p1/q24]
d
 Doppler effect; is change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is
moving relative to wave source
Higher frequency

S f o >f s v ± vo
f o=f s
[ ]
v ± vobserved
f o = frequency s

Lower frequency f s = frequency of source

v = speed of sound (343 m s−1)
f o <f s v o = speed of observer
S
v s = speed of source

o Red shift; when stars move away stretching

wavelength, so light is shifted as seen to move towards red part of spectrum
 Star move away, observed frequency small (less f ∝ high λ )
o Blue shift; when stars moves closer compressing wavelength, so light is
shifted as seen to move towards blue part of spectrum
 Star moves closer, observed frequency greater (high f ∝less λ )
 Superposition: When two or more waves meets at a point, the resultant
displacement is algebraic sum of the displacements of individual
Where n is a
o Waves must be coherent (constant phase difference), of whole number
same type and meet at a point
o Constructive interference when path difference is n λ
n
o Destructive interference when path difference is 2 λ
 Path difference  is the difference in distance travelled by the two waves from their
respective sources to a given point on the pattern
 Phase difference is measured in radians and degree, it shows the difference
between the two waves [w06/p1/q25] [s15/p12/q24]
 Diffraction is spreading of a wave as its passes through a narrow gap or opening.
It can be observed both in sound and light waves.

 Young’s double slit experiment

o If you cover one slit interference will disappear, whole screen would have 1
colour and intensity will decrease by 4 since I ∝ A 2

λD
w=
s

w = distance between 2
consecutive dark or bright fringes
D = screen to grating distance

s = slit separation
 Diffraction grating is a plate on which there is very large number of parallel,
identical and very closely spaced slits
o Difference between these slits is called grating element denoted by d .
Mostly is question number of line per unit length is written ( D )
d=1/D ( D=L /N L is length of grating and N is number of lines)

d sin θ=n λ

d
n max=
λ
nT =2 ( nmax ) +1

 Polarisation of wave: Restrict the wave to pass in 1 direction

o Transverse wave:

o longitudinal wave:

o Testing if its transverse or longitudinal

If I 2=I 1 wave is longitude

If I 2< I 1 wave is transverse

 Electromagnetic waves are traverse waves that

can travel even through vacuum and travel at the speed of light (3∗108).
 Stationary Waves
 Stationary wave is result of interference between two waves traveling in opposite
directions. Waves must be of same type and coherent

Movement Movement
Movement # 1 ___# 2 Movement # 3 ----# 4

 Properties of stationary waves

o Points with permanently zero displacement are called nodes (N)
o Points with permanently maximum displacement are called anti-nodes (A)
o All the points are in phase between two nodes
o Each point along the wave has a different amplitude of vibration (In
stationary waves each particle has its own maximum displacement unlike
progressive where each particle reach maximum amplitude on the wave)
o Distance between two consecutive nodes or antinode = λ /2
o Distance between a node and its adjacent antinode = λ /4
o If two points are equidistant from a single node, then
they are 180o out of phase
 The graphs below are of same stationary wave

Displacement graph node → Pressure graph anti-node

Displacement graph anti-node → Pressure graph node

Compression and rarefactions occur at nodes (i.e

displacement node or pressure antinode)
 Stationary waves in pipe with both end closed

L=λ /2 , λ=2 L
v v
f 1= =
λ 2L

λ λ λ L
L= + =2 , λ=2
2 2 2 2
v 2v
f 2= = ∨2 f 1
λ 2L

λ λ λ λ L
L= + + =3 , λ=2
2 2 2 2 3
v 3v
f 2= = ∨3 f 1
λ 2L

f n=n ( f 1 )

f n=n ( v /2 L )
 Stationary waves in pipe with 1 end closed

L=λ /4 , λ=4 L
v v
f 1= =
λ 4L

λ λ λ L
L= + =3 , λ=4
4 2 4 3
v v
f 2= =3 ∨f =3 f 1
λ 4L 2

λ λ λ λ L
L= + + =5 , λ=4
4 2 2 4 5
v v
f 3= =5 ∨f =5 f 1
λ 4L 3
f n=(2n−1) ( f 1 )

f n=( 2 n−1 ) ( 4vL )

 Stationary waves in pipe with both ends opened

L=λ /2 , λ=2 L
v v
f 1= =
λ 2L

λ λ λ L
L= + =2 , λ=2
2 2 2 2
v 2v
f 2= = ∨2 f 1
λ 2L

λ λ λ λ L
L= + + =3 , λ=2
2 2 2 2 3
v 3v
f 2= = ∨3 f 1
λ 2L

f n=n ( f 1 )

f n=n ( v /2 L )
  In these equations above n is harmonic number starting from first harmonice or
fundamental harmonic. (Overtone = Harmonic - 1)
 To see diffraction in transverse wave use ripple tank with a barrier and a dipper.
To see transverse wave put a strobe/lamp above the water and screen below
 To see diffraction in longitudinal waves use any source of sound eg speak near a
slit and place a microphone and C.R.O on the other side of slit
 Measuring speed of sound using stationary waves

Uniform layer of sand

Measure the length of 2 or 3 heaps
Heaps are made at nodes ( f is written on C.R.O connected to speaker)
3 2
L= λ=¿ λ= L
2 3
2
v=f λ=f L
3

 To find wavelength of an unknown wave

 Move the microphone back and forth and mark 2 consecutive

points where C.R.O shows high displacement or no displacement.
Measure the distance between those two points as d
o λ=2∗d
 Let’s say a light wave of wavelength λ is normal to double slits with
separation s, which distance d apart from the screen
Changes Fringe separation Fringe brightness
D →2 D Increases Less bright
 λ → 1.5 λ Increases Less bright
Intensity increase unchanged Brighter
 Let’s say if you are using 2 light sources to see interference pattern.
So if you decrease the intensity (or amplitude) of one the source no
interference pattern will be observed, its dark fringes will disappear

or

or
 Deformation of solids
 When a force is applied to an object it starts to deform or change its shape
o If object is squashes or shortened the force is compressive
o If object is stretched the force is tensile
 Force extension graph of a spring

L: Proportional limit
E: Elastic Limit
B: Plastic Limit
Y: Thinning point
N: Breaking point
 Till L spring will follow hooks law come to original
position when unloaded
 Exceeding E the spring will deform and follow unloading line path to return to its
new shape.
 Thinning point is a point where the spring is just about to break
 Just after thinning point spring reaches its breaking point
 Hooks Law: A law stating that the strain in a solid is proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic limit of that solid. Force is directly proportional to
extension. F ∝ x =¿ F=kx (where k is spring constant)

In the graph after A there is not

straight line because the spring
has gone under elastic
deformation it means that it is
permanently deformed

L 1 L e 1
F=ke => k = => k ∝ F∝e => = => k ∝
e e 2 2 e
1 1
e T =2 e so k= eT = so k =2 e
2e 2e

e 3 e
e T = +e= e eT =
2 2 3
2 3
k= k=
3e e

Area under graph = work done

to stretch the spring

Area ¿ ½ Fx=½ k x 2
 Minimum Area of wire Amin

 In liquids Bulk modulus K is used not Young modulus because liquids

cannot be stretched. B.M = Stress/Volumetric Strain
−∆ P ∆P
K= =−V
o ∆V ∆V [k -Pascals, V -m3,∆ P -Pascals, ∆ V -m3]
V
∆V
 V is very small since change in volume of liquid is very small hence the
liquids are incompressible

Paper 3
 If in questions you have to either prove a relationship right or wrong
a ∝ b => a 1=k 1 b1 And a 2=k 2 b2 (Find k 1 and k 2)
k 1 +k 2
∆ k=k 1−k 2 , k avg=
2
∆k
%k= ∗100 [If (%k < 20%) relationship is supported else not]
K avg
 If you have to add 2 bodies length or sth, so final uncertainty will be sum of each
quantities uncertainty
 To find percentage uncertainty in a quantity use half range method e.g. t
( t +t )
o Range ¿ ( t 1−t 2) =∆ t Half Range ¿ 1 2 =t avg
2
∆t
o Percentage uncertainty ¿ t ∗100
avg

 When making the line of best fit make sure that number of plotted points above
and below the line must be equal
 While making table for readings, column heading must contain quantity and unit.
Decimal place for all values in the column must be same
 The number decimal places in your reading depends upon the uncertainty of your
device (Meter rule: 1.2 ±0.1 cm, Vernier Calliper: 1.21 ±0.01 cm)
 A meter rule might be worn out at one end so never take reading from 0 start
from 5cm or something and then subtract final length to get exact length of object
 Micrometre reading = Main scale + (Thimble Scale /100) – Zero Error
 Vernier reading = Main scale + (Vernier Scale/100) – Zero error
 In experiments where a ball is swinging make sure to that the time interval for n
number of swings must be greater than 20 seconds
1 2
 Determination of the acceleration of free fall ( s= 2 a t )
o Mark 2 points on the wall vertically at least 2 m apart( s). Then let the ball
fall from distance at least ½ m from the mark above. As the ball reaches first
mark start the timer and as the ball reaches second mark stop the timer.
1 2
Repeat this and find average t and use s= 2 a t to find acceleration
o It’s better to use light gates to increase precision of your time and
electromagnet to let the ball fall with zero force
SOURCES : Wikipedia, Sir Nausher’s lectures, Znotes