Geotechnical Engineering-II Lab

OPEN ENDED LAB

5th Semester Section D

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 Time Dependent Consolidation Settlement &
Shear Strength investigation of Soil Subsurface

Group Number 04

Group Members
Name Reg Number Class Number
Muhammad Attique 18PWCIV5097 153
Hamad Raza 18PWCIV5140 162
Hamza Saeed 18PWCIV5066 172
Maryam Durrani 18PWCIV5158 165
Haris Amjad 18PWCIV5068 171
Asad Iqbal 18PWCIV5102 154
Abdur Rahim 18PWCIV5107 155

Course Instructor:
Engr. Waqas Ahmad

Department of CIVIL Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

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 Table of Contents

Acknowledgement ______________________________________________ 5
Abstract ________________________________________________________ 6
Location of Site: _________________________________________________ 7
EXPERIMENT NO 01 __________________________________________________________ 8
Direct Shear Test ____________________________________________________________________________ 8
ASTM Standard: _____________________________________________________________________________ 8
Name According to ASTM ____________________________________________________________________ 8
Link: ______________________________________________________________________________________ 8
Objective: __________________________________________________________________________________ 8
Scope: _____________________________________________________________________________________ 8
RELATED THEORY: _______________________________________________________________________ 8
Required Apparatus __________________________________________________________________________ 9
Knowledge of Equipment: _____________________________________________________________________ 9
Schematic Diagram: _________________________________________________________________________ 10
Procedure: _________________________________________________________________________________ 10
Observations and Calculations ________________________________________________________________ 11
Result: ____________________________________________________________________________________ 14
Conclusion: ________________________________________________________________________________ 14

EXPERIMENT NO 02 _________________________________________________________ 15
Unconfined Compression Test ________________________________________________________________ 15
ASTM Standard: ____________________________________________________________________________ 15
Name According to ASTM ___________________________________________________________________ 15
Link: _____________________________________________________________________________________ 15
Objective: _________________________________________________________________________________ 15
Scope: ____________________________________________________________________________________ 15
RELATED THEORY: ______________________________________________________________________ 15
Required Apparatus _________________________________________________________________________ 16
Schematic Diagram: _________________________________________________________________________ 17
Procedure: _________________________________________________________________________________ 17
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 Observations and Calculations ________________________________________________________________ 18
Result: ____________________________________________________________________________________ 19
Conclusion: ________________________________________________________________________________ 19

EXPERIMENT NO 03 _________________________________________________________ 20
Consolidation Test __________________________________________________________________________ 20
ASTM Standard: ____________________________________________________________________________ 20
Link: _____________________________________________________________________________________ 20
Objective: _________________________________________________________________________________ 20
Scope: ____________________________________________________________________________________ 20
RELATED THEORY: ______________________________________________________________________ 20
Required Apparatus _________________________________________________________________________ 21
Schematic Diagram: _________________________________________________________________________ 21
Procedure: _________________________________________________________________________________ 22
Observations and Calculations ________________________________________________________________ 23
Result: ____________________________________________________________________________________ 29
Conclusion: ________________________________________________________________________________ 29
General Remarks: ___________________________________________________________________________ 30
References: ________________________________________________________________________________ 31

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 Acknowledgement

We would like to express our deepest appreciation to all those who

provided us with the possibility to complete this report. A special
gratitude is given to our Lab Instructor, Engr. Waqas Ahmad, whose
contribution in stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped us to
coordinate our project especially in writing this report.
A special thanks g to all of our group mates, who contributed during the
experiments and helped in writing the report. Last but not least, many
thanks go to the head of the Geotechnical laboratory, whose have
invested his full effort in guiding the team at every experiment.

Group Number 04
Section D

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 Abstract
Testing the soil, also known as soil investigation or geotechnical investigation, is
used to help determine soil properties at a construction site. Doing so helps to
establish the soil conditions and if it is solid enough for construction as well as help
determine properties of the building itself. It is part of the building and site
preparation process and is completed by drilling into the soil to a reasonable depth,
depending on the construction plans and then having a professional grade the soil
and estimate its properties.
Soil testing is a vital and necessary step in the construction process. The soil
properties once established, such as settlement of the soil and other relevant data,
can be used by engineers for following purposes
 To Determine the suitability of the soil, allowing you to assess whether the
construction project can be accommodated at the location.
 By drilling in multiple different locations on the site, you can help to identify
the different types of soil located on the site and where they are.
 Test the soil for strength, density, compaction, contamination, sand content,
etc. and assess what the impact of the soil may have on the construction
project.
 Get data that is necessary to compile technical and safety data reports that can
help support you in getting planning permissions from council.
 Receive precise results and ensure maximum quality and safety for the project.

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Location of Site:

Phase-I Hayatabad

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 EXPERIMENT NO 01
Direct Shear Test
ASTM Standard:
ASTM-D3080
Name According to ASTM
Standard test method for direct shear test of soils under consolidated drained
conditions.
Link:
https://www.astm.org/Standards/D3080

Objective:
 To determine the consolidated drained ultimate shear strength of a soil
sample under the influence of normal load.
 To understand how to handle the direct shear test apparatus in the laboratory.
 To draw the curves for the calculation of internal friction angle.
Scope:
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls,
slab bridges, pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and
cohesion of the soil involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used
to predict these parameters quickly. The laboratory report covers the laboratory
procedures for determining these values for cohesionless soils.

RELATED THEORY:
Shear Strength of a soil specimen define as the resistance of the soil against
sliding overeach other. Beside other factors, shear strength is a unique factor in
judging the various parameters of soil structure i.e. slope stability, embankments
etc.

If at a point on any plane within a soil mass the shear stress becomes equal to the
shear strength of the soil then failure will occur at that point. The shear strength
(τf) of a soil at a point on a particular plane was expressed by Coulomb as a linear
function of the normal stress at failure (τf) on the plane at the same point:
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 τf = c + Ϭf tan φ

while c and φ are the shear strength parameters referred to as the cohesion
intercept and the angle of shearing resistance, respectively. However, in
accordance with the principle that shear stress in a soil can be resisted only by
the skeleton of solid particles, shear strength should be expressed as a function of
effective normal stress at failure (Ϭ’f), the shear strength parameters being
denoted c’ and φ’:

τ’f = c’ + Ϭ’f tan φ’

The specimen is confined in a metal box (known as the shearbox) of circular cross
section splithorizontally at mid-height, a small clearance being maintained
between the two halves of the box. Porous plates are placed below and on top of
the specimen if it is fully or partially saturated to allow free drainage: if the
specimen is dry, solid metal plates may be used.
Required Apparatus
 Direct shear box apparatus
 Loading frame (motor attached).
 Dial gauge.
 Proving ring.
 Tamper.
 Straight edge
 Electronic Balance
 Aluminum container.
 Spatula.
Knowledge of Equipment:
Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil container, loading
unit, proving ring, dial gauge to measure shear deformation and volume changes. A two piece
square shear box is one type of soil container used. A proving ring is used to indicate the shear
load taken by the soil initiated in the shearing plane.

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Schematic Diagram:

Procedure:

 Check the inner dimension of the soil container

 Put the parts of the soil container together.
 Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
 Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a
dense sample is desired tamp the soil.
 Weigh the soil container, the difference of these two is the weight of
the soil. Calculate the density of the soil.
 Make the surface of the soil plane.
 Put the upper grating on stone and loading block on top of soil.
 Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
 Apply the desired normal load.
 Remove the shear pin.
 Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume.
 Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
 Before proceeding to test check all adjustments to see that
there is no connection between two parts except sand/soil.
 Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and record the reading.
 Take volume change readings till failure.
 Add normal stress of 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure
 Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the
experiment

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 Observations and Calculations
Diameter of sampler ring = 6cm
Weight = 51g
Weight of ring & sampler = 142.5 g
Area of halve = 28.27 cm2
Least count of proving ring = 0.425 kg/cm
Least count of deformation ring = 0.01 mm
Thickness of sampler ring= 2cm

Normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2

Horizontal Proving
Horizontal/shear Shear
Gauge Ring Shear Stress
Deformation Force (kg)
Reading Reading
0 0 0 0 0
50 16.0 0.5 6.80 0.24
100 22.0 1 9.36 0.33
150 24.5 1.5 10.42 0.37
200 27.0 2 11.48 0.41
250 28.5 2.5 12.12 0.43
300 29.5 3 12.54 0.44
350 30.8 3.5 13.10 0.46
400 31.5 4 13.39 0.47
450 32.0 4.5 13.61 0.48
500 32.3 5 13.74 0.49
550 32.9 5.5 13.99 0.49
600 32.9 6 13.99 0.49
650 32.9 6.5 13.99 0.49
700 32.9 7 13.99 0.49
750 32.9 7.5 13.99 0.49
800 32.9 8 13.99 0.49

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 Normal stress 1 kg/cm2
Horizontal Proving
Horizontal/shear Shear
Gauge Ring Shear Stress
Deformation Force (kg)
Reading Reading
0 0 0 0 0
50 12 0.5 5.10 0.19
100 18 1 7.65 0.28
150 23 1.5 9.78 0.36
200 27 2 11.48 0.42
250 30 2.5 12.75 0.47
300 32 3 13.6 0.5
350 34 3.5 14.45 0.53
400 36 4 15.3 0.56
450 38 4.5 16.15 0.59
500 40 5 17 0.62
550 42 5.5 17.85 0.65
600 43 6 18.28 0.67
650 44 6.5 18.7 0.69
700 45 7 19.13 0.70
750 45 7.5 19.13 0.70
800 45 8 19.13 0.70

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 Normal stress 1.5 kg/cm2
Horizontal Proving
Horizontal/shear Shear
Gauge Ring Shear Stress
Deformation Force (kg)
Reading Reading
0 0 0 0 0
50 13.0 0.5 5.53 0.20
100 23.0 1 9.78 0.35
150 29.0 1.5 12.33 0.44
200 34.0 2 14.46 0.51
250 39.0 2.5 16.58 0.59
300 42.0 3 17.86 0.65
350 47.0 3.5 19.98 0.73
400 50.0 4 21.25 0.77
450 53.0 4.5 22.54 0.83
500 55.0 5 23.39 0.86
550 57.0 5.5 24.23 0.89
600 58.0 6 24.65 0.90
650 59.0 6.5 25.075 0.92
700 60.0 7 25.5 0.935
750 60.0 7.5 25.5 0.935
800 60.0 8 25.5 0.935

Normal Stress (Kg/cm2) Max. Shear Stress (kg/cm2)

0.5 0.49
1.0 0.70
1.5 0.935

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Result:
Cohesion = 0.2633 kg/cm2

Internal friction angle = tan-1 (0.445) = 22.83º

φ = 23.99º

Conclusion:
Internal Friction angle is less while cohesion is high in the regions of higher
stresses while internal friction angle is more and cohesion is less in the regions of
lower stresses.

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 EXPERIMENT NO 02
Unconfined Compression Test
ASTM Standard:
ASTM-D2166
Name According to ASTM
Standard test method for determination of compressive strength of
unconfined cohesive soil.
Link:
https://www.astm.org/Standards/D2166

Objective:
 To determine graphically the compressive strength of an unconfined cohesive soil sample
in the intact, remoulded and reconstituted conditions using strain-controlled application
of axial load.
 To determine approx. the shear strength using compressive strength of the given soil
sample.

Scope:
The primary purpose of the unconfined compression test is to quickly obtain a
measure of compressive strength for those soils that possess sufficient cohesion to
permit testing in the unconfined state. This information is used to estimate the
bearing capacity of spread footings and other structures when placed on deposits
of cohesive soil.

RELATED THEORY:
The compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail
in a simple compression test. In this test method, unconfined compressive strength
is taken as the maximum load attained per unit area or the load per unit area at 15
% axial strain, whichever is secured first during the performance of a test.

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Axial Strain:
∆𝐿
e=
𝐿0

Area Correction:
𝑨𝟎
𝑨𝒄 =
(𝟏−𝒆)

Compressive stress σc:

𝑷
σc =
𝑨𝒄

Required Apparatus
 Loading frame
 Proving ring
 Deformation Indicator
 Sample Extruder
 Specimen trimming
 Remolding apparatus,
 Weighing balance
 Oven
 Containers

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Schematic Diagram:

Procedure:

 Place the specimen in the loading device so that it is centered on the bottom platen.
 Adjust the loading device carefully so that the upper platen just make
contact with the specimen.
 Zero the deformation indicator or record the initial reading of the
electronic deformation device.
 Apply the load so as to produce an axial strain at a rate of 1⁄2 to 2% per
min.
 Record load, deformation, and time values at sufficient intervals to define
the shape of the stress-strain curve (usually 10 to 15 points are sufficient).
 The rate of strain should be chosen so that the time to failure does not exceed
about 15 min
 Continue loading until the load values decrease with increasing strain, or until 15%
strain is reached
 Determine the water content of the test specimen using the entire specimen,
unless representative trimmings are obtained for this purpose, as in the case
of undisturbed specimens

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 Observations and Calculations
Proving Corrected
Ring Dial Strain Sectional Applied Axial Load(kg) Stress(Kg/cm^2)
Deformation Area(cm-2)
graduations
Dial Reading
0 0 0 19.63 0 0
50 5 0.005 19.72 1.09 0.055
100 9 0.01 19.82 1.962 0.099
150 12.5 0.015 19.92 2.725 0.137
200 15 0.02 20.03 3.27 0.163
250 20 0.025 20.13 4.36 0.217
300 24 0.03 20.23 5.232 0.259
350 29 0.035 20.34 6.322 0.311
400 32 0.04 20.44 6.976 0.341
450 34 0.045 20.55 7.412 0.361
500 35 0.05 20.66 7.63 0.369
550 36 0.055 20.77 7.848 0.378
600 37 0.06 20.88 8.066 0.386
650 38 0.065 20.99 8.284 0.395
700 39 0.07 21.10 8.502 0.403
750 40 0.075 21.22 8.72 0.411
800 41 0.08 21.33 8.938 0.419
850 41 0.085 21.45 8.938 0.417
900 41 0.09 21.57 8.938 0.414
950 40 0.095 21.69 8.72 0.402
1000 39 0.1 21.81 8.502 0.390
1050 38 0.105 21.93 8.284 0.378

 Least Count for Proving Ring = 0.218 kg/div

 Least Count for Deformation Ring = 0.001 cm
 Diameter of cylindrical specimen = 3.5 cm
2
 Actual area of cylindrical specimen = 19.625 cm

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Result:
Unconfined compressive strength (qu) = 0.42 kg/cm2

Conclusion:

From the above given table it can be seen that the unconfined compressive
strength of the sample comes into the range of soft.

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 EXPERIMENT NO 03
Consolidation Test
ASTM Standard:
ASTM-D2435
Link:
https://www.astm.org/Standards/D2435

Objective:
 To determine the magnitude and rate of consolidation of a fully saturated soil when it is
restrained laterally and drained axially while subjected to incrementally applied stress-
controlled loading.

Scope:
When a layer of fine-grained (cohesive) soil, including ML, CL, and CH, is
subjectedto an increase in effective stress through an increase overburden
stress, the soil undergoes a long-term reduction in void ratio “e” which is
accompanied by settlement of the soil layer. To quantify both the ultimate amount
of settlement and the time rate of settlement in the soil layer,a one-dimensional
consolidation test is performed in the laboratory. Using laboratory-derived
parameters, field settlement behaviour of the soil layer can be predicted.
The data from the consolidation test are used to estimate the magnitude and rate
of both differential and total settlement of a structure or earth fill. Estimates of
this type are of key importance in the design of engineered structures and the
evaluation of their performance.
The test results can be greatly affected by sample disturbance. Careful selection
and preparation of test specimens is required to reduce the potential of
disturbance effects.
RELATED THEORY:
Consolidation is a time dependent settlement of a cohesive soil under the
influence of a normal load applied on it. For rate of consolidation, it is necessary
that all the voids are filled with water i.e. fully saturated soil, so that pore water
pressure uniformly generated across the soil sample.

Consolidation Test is used to determine the rate and magnitude of settlement in

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soils. The settlement values obtained by this test are due to primary consolidation
only which is 90%of the total consolidation. The moment just after the
application of normal stress, there is a sudden settlement of the specimen which
is due to removal of air voids and it can’t be categorized as consolidation which is
due to dissipation of excess pore water pressure.

Required Apparatus
 Odometer
 Consolidation ring
 Two porous stones
 Two filter papers
 Loading pad
 Stop watch
 Vernier calipers
 Oven
 Water reservoir
 Dial gauge (accuracy of 0.002mm)
 Knife or spatula or fine metal wires
 Weighing balance (accuracy of 0.01g)

Schematic Diagram:



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Procedure:
 First step is to collect the soil specimen using consolidation metal
ring. The ring should be clean and dried and its weight, inner
diameter and height are measured using weighing balance and
Vernier callipers respectively.
 Press the metal ring into the soil sample using hands and it is
taken out with soil specimen.
 Now trim the excess soil content on top and bottom of the rings
using Knife or spatula or fine metal wires. This excess soil can be
used to measure the water content of soil sample.
 Assemble the oedometer. Place the parts of oedometer from
bottom to top in the order beginning with bottom porous stone,
filter paper, specimen ring, filter paper and top porous stone.

 Place the loading Pad and mount the whole assembly on the
loading frame and centre it such that load is applied axially. Water
reservoir is connected to the mounted assembly to saturate the
soil. The water level in the water reservoir should be of same level
as the soil specimen.
 Now apply the initial load of pressure intensity 0.4 kg/cm2 and
note down the deformation dial reading after given time.
 Next apply the second load increment of 0.8 and repeat same
procedure. Similarly apply the load increments 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 & 3.2
kg/cm2 and repeat the same procedure and note down the
readings.
 Now drained out all the excess water and remove the applied
loads gently. Take out a sample of specimen from it for the
calculation of final water contents.

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 Observations and Calculations
 Height of ring = 2cm
 Diameter of ring = 6cm
 Area of ring = 28.27cm2
 Volume of ring = 56.55cm3
 Weight of ring = 100 gm
 Specific Gravity of Solids, G = 2.23
 Weight of ring + wet soil specimen = 209.9 gm
 Initial water content = 9.93%
 Initial void ratio = 0.22
 Initial height of specimen, H = 2 cm

Final Dial Changein Height Change in void

Pressure Initial Initial Void Ratio
Reading (∆H) ratio (∆e)
Intensity Dial Height
(kg/cm2) Reading H(mm)

0.4 0 141 20 0.36 0.02 0.19

0.8 141 410 19.64 0.68 0.04 0.16
1.6 410 672 18.96 0.66 0.04 0.12
3.2 672 924 18.3 0.64 0.04 0.08

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Calculation for 𝒎𝒗 :
∆𝒆
𝒎𝒗 = ∆𝝈(𝟏−𝒆
𝟏)
𝟎.𝟏𝟗−𝟎.𝟏𝟔
𝒎𝒗 = (𝟎.𝟖−𝟎.𝟒)∗(𝟏−𝟎.𝟏𝟔)

𝒎𝒗 = 0.089 𝑐𝑚2⁄𝑘𝑔

Calculation for 𝑪𝑪 :
𝒆𝟎 −𝒆𝟏
𝑪𝒄 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝈𝟏 −𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝈𝟎
0.12−0.08
𝐶𝑐 = 0.505−0.204

𝐶𝑐 = 0.133
Calculation for 𝐶𝑟 :

𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝟏
𝑪𝒓 =
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝈𝟏 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝝈𝟎

𝟎. 𝟏𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐
𝑪𝒓 =
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏. 𝟔 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟎. 𝟒

𝐶𝑟 = 0.116

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For 0.4 kg/cm^2:
Dial Gauge
Deformation at
Time (min) Reading at
0.4kg/cm2
0.4kg/cm2
(mm)
0 0 0
0.25 49 0.12446
0.5 50.5 0.12827
1 52 0.13208
2 54.5 0.13843
4 58 0.14732
8 64 0.16256
15 71.5 0.18161
30 85 0.2159
60 99 0.25146
120 112 0.28448
240 137.5 0.325
480 140 0.35
1440 141 0.35814

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 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝒅𝟐
𝑪𝒗 =
𝒕𝟓𝟎
Where d = 10mm and 𝑡50 = 41 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝐶𝑣 = 0.000103 𝑐𝑚^2/𝑠𝑒𝑐

For 0.8 kg/cm^2:

Dial Gauge
Deformation at Time Sqrt of time
Time (min) Reading at
0.8kg/cm2
0.8kg/cm2 (sec)
(mm)
0 141 0.35814 0 0
0.25 328 0.83312 15 3.87
0.5 343 0.87122 30 5.48
1 355 0.9017 60 7.75
2 366 0.92964 120 10.95
4 374 0.94996 240 15.49
8 382 0.97028 480 21.91
15 389 0.98806 900 30
30 391 0.99314 1800 42.43
60 395 1.0033 3600 60
120 400 1.016 7200 84.85
240 405 1.0287 14400 120
480 408 1.03632 28800 169.71
1440 410 1.0414 86400 293.94

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For 1.6 kg/cm^2:

Dial Gauge
Deformation at Time Sqrt of time
Time (min) Reading at
1.6kg/cm2
1.6kg/cm2 (sec)
(mm)
0 410 1.0414 0 0
0.25 580 1.4732 15 3.87
0.5 593 1.5062 30 5.48
1 605 1.5367 60 7.75
2 616 1.5646 120 10.95
4 626 1.5900 240 15.49
8 635 1.6129 480 21.91
15 643 1.6332 900 30
30 650 1.6510 1800 42.43
60 656 1.6662 3600 60
120 661 1.6789 7200 84.85
240 665 1.6891 14400 120
480 668 1.6967 28800 169.71
1440 672 1.7069 86400 293.94

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For 3.2 kg/cm^2:

Dial Gauge
Deformation at Time Sqrt of time
Time (min) Reading at
1.6kg/cm2
1.6kg/cm2 (sec)
(mm)
0 672 1.707 0 0
0.25 834 2.118 15 3.87
0.5 847 2.151 30 5.48
1 859 2.182 60 7.75
2 870 2.210 120 10.95
4 880 2.235 240 15.49
8 889 2.258 480 21.91
15 897 2.278 900 30
30 904 2.296 1800 42.43
60 910 2.311 3600 60
120 915 2.324 7200 84.85
240 919 2.334 14400 120
480 922 2.342 28800 169.71
1440 924 2.347 86400 293.94

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Result:
Compression Index (Cc) = 0.116
Coefficient of volume change (mv) = 0.089
Coefficient of consolidation (Cv) = 0.000103 cm^2/sec
Cr = 1.116
Conclusion:

-So the sample comes into the mexico city clay range.

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General Remarks:
1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its
weakest plane but along a predetermined or induced failure
plane i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of the
shear box. This is the main drawback of this test. Moreover,
during loading, the state of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be
evaluated only at failure condition i.e. Mohr’s circle can be
drawn at the failure condition only. Also failure is progressive.
2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner
specimens are used in shear box, they facilitate drainage of
pore water from a saturated sample in less time. This test is also
useful to study friction between two materials one material in
lower half of box and another material in the upper half of box.
3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state
of compaction, coarseness of grains, particle shape and
roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28o
(uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state)
to 46o (well graded sand with angular grains in dense state).
4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon
depending on gradation, particle shape, state and type of
packing, orientation of principal planes, principal stress ratio,
stress history, magnitude of minor principal stress, type of
apparatus, test procedure, method of preparing specimen etc.
In general loose sands expand and dense sands contract in
volume on shearing. There is a void ratio at which either
expansion contraction in volume takes place. This void ratio is
called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction can be
inferred from the movement of vertical dial gauge during
shearing.
5. The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and
rolling friction and interlocking action.

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References:
 Rajapakse, Ruwan., (2005), "Pile Design and Construction", 2005. ISBN 0-9728657-1-3
 Fang, H.-Y. and Daniels, J. (2005) Introductory Geotechnical Engineering : an environmental perspective,
 Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-30402-4
 NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.01, Soil Mechanics,
 US Government Printing Office
 NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.02, Foundations and Earth Structures

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