INTRODUCTION

Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have
the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will be
not be able to complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs
thorough planning, hard work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the
task successfully. Data collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed
by the selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain
instrument to collect the data from the selected sample. The data collection component of
research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities,
business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and
honest collection remains the same.

DEFINITION

Data:

Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon
under study.

Data Collection:

The Data Collection is a process by which the researcher collects the information from all the
relevant sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the
outcome.

CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION

The aim of collecting data is to transform the data into meaningful information, in order to
identify and measure variables, describe behaviour, and compute empirical evidences that are
objective, reliable and valid.

There is a pertinent question that always strikes in the researcher’s mind: How to determine
what data are to be collected? Therefore, data collection should aim at identification of
observable and measurable facts or variables that would relate to these indicators. The
questions that need to be answered are: What are the indicators? How will they be measured
or recorded? What is the analysis planned?

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The five “questions” of data collection are:

1. What data are to be collected?

Decision is made about the type of data being sought. Study decision depends to
measure knowledge, attitude or behaviors. The type of data being sought, will also
govern the how, who, where and when of the data collection process. The answers to
all of these questions are interrelated, and it may be difficult to determine which
question should be answered first. The main consideration in data collection should be
the type of data needed to answer the research question.
2. How data are to be collected?
Research instrument is needed to collect the data. Choosing a data collection
instrument is a major decision that should be made only after careful consideration of
the possible alternatives.

3. Who will collect data?

Sometimes, scientific investigation involves team of researchers for data collection.
Sometimes, data collectors are paid for their services. If the researcher is going to
collect the data, it is easy. If more persons are involved, assumption must be made
that the data are being collected in the same manner. Training is needed for data
collectors.

4. From where the data will be collected?

Setting is very important. Optimum conditions should be sought. If questionnaire are
being used, researcher might ask respondents to complete the questionnaire while the
researcher remains in same area. If subjects are tired or environmental conditions is
not, adequate, the answers that are provided may not be valid.

5. When is the data to be collected?

The determination is made about the time. For data collection how long data
collection will take 'to answer this question, trial run of the procedure is done by the
researcher. If a questionnaire is used, it is pretested with proper subjects similar to the
potential research subjects. If it takes too long for completion, decision may be made
to revise the instrument.

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PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION:

The purpose of data collection is:-

 To obtain information
 To keep on record
 To make decisions about important issues
 To pass information on to others

TYPES OF DATA

Data are organized into two broad categories:

 Qualitative data
 Quantitative data

A. Qualitative Data:
 Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in
nature.
 The data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often (not always), such
data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.
 Deals with descriptions. Data can be observed. Data cannot be measured e.g. –Colour
of body coat, feather colour in poultry etc.
 Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and tend to
use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative
questions are open-ended.
 Qualitative data collection methods are characterized by the following attributes –
 They tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e.,
researchers may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or
dropping techniques or informants).
 They rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be
interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts
or check the reliability of data
 They use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,
researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity
of their results).
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  Generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population;
rather each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to
seek general patterns among different studies of the same issue.
 The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three
broad categories -
 In-depth interview
 Observation methods
 Document review.

B. Quantitative Data:
 Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed.
 Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal
scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data
includes measurements of something.
 Deals with numbers. Data which can be measured. e.g. –height ,weight , length of the
animals
 Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program.
 They use a systematic standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys
and ask questions.
 Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are
standardized so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually
be measured.
 Quantitative data collection methods produce results that are easy to summarize,
compare, and generalize.
 Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include –
 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc.)
 In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than
in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a

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 standard set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a
distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential
participants and therefore gain their cooperation.
 Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves
the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to
the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact
that their responses are anonymous.

SOURCES OF DATA

Information collected from different research studies generally depends on various sources. A
quality research study requires that highly reliable and valid data are collected; therefore,
diligence and application of the researcher can be of high importance. Sources of data
collection in different research studies largely depend on several factors, such as type of
research study, phenomenon under study, purpose of the study, etc.

Sources of data are generally categorized in two broad categories, namely

 Primary source
 Secondary source

Primary sources:

 Primary data are directly collected from the research units, which may be individuals,
objects, programmes, or institutions.
 Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its validity
is greater than secondary data.

Importance of Primary Data:

 In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary sources and work
on primary data. For example, the statistical records of female population in a country
cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other printed sources.
 A research can be conducted without secondary data but a research based on only
secondary data is least reliable and may have biases because secondary data has
already been manipulated by human beings. One of such sources is old and secondly
they contain limited information as well as they can be misleading and biased.

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Sources of Primary Data:

Following are some of the sources of primary data

a) Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform

logical study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine,
psychological studies, nutrition and for other scientific studies. In experiments the
experimenter has to keep control over the influence of any extraneous variable on the
results.
b) Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management,
marketing and psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different
methods.
c) Questionnaire: It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a
list of questions either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give
answers. Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or
in an institute, through electronic mail or through fax and other methods.
d) Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview
the main problem arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise
it is an in depth source of information. The interviewer can not only record the
statements the interviewee speaks but he can observe the body language, expressions
and other reactions to the questions too. This enables the interviewer to draw
conclusions easily.
e) Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person know that
s/he is being observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in
natural settings as well as in artificially created environment.

Advantages of Using Primary Data

 The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.

 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.

Disadvantages of Using Primary Data

1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection

 Deciding why, what, how, when to collect

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  Getting the data collected (personally or through others)
 Getting funding and dealing with funding agencies
 Ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.)

2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard

 All desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in

 There is no fake/ cooked up data
 Unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.

3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.

Secondary sources:

 Secondary data are collected from either internal or external secondary sources.
 It is collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the
investigator for another purpose).

Sources of Secondary Data:

a) External sources involve existing materials, such as published or unpublished records.

 Published records may include
 Journals
 Magazines
 Newspapers
 Government reports
 Statistical abstracts
 Census reports
 Constituents of mass communication
 Commission reports.
 Unpublished records may include
 Official records
 Patient records
 Thesis
 Dissertations
 Reports

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 b) Internal secondary sources also known as private documents may include
 Biographies
 Personal diaries
 Letters
 Memoires, etc.

Importance of Secondary Data:

 Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary data; in these cases getting information

from secondary sources is easier and possible.
 Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one has to confine the
research on secondary data.
 Sometimes primary data is present but the respondents are not willing to reveal it in
such case too secondary data can suffice. For example, if the research is on the
psychology of transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second they
may not be willing to give information you want for your research, so you can collect
data from books or other published sources.
 A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed
has already been carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have
been carried out, published texts and statistics could have been already used
elsewhere, media promotion and personal contacts have also been utilized. This
wealth of background work means that secondary data generally have a pre-
established degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-examined by the
researcher who is re-using such data.
 Secondary data can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary
research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can
be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity with a
review of the secondary data.

Advantages of Using Secondary Data

 No hassles of data collection.

 It is less expensive.
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t do it’).

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Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data

 The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and
accuracy of data go down.
 Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due variable
environmental factor.
 With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
 Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary
data a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
 Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.

METHODS AND TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION

Methods and Tools of Data Collection are the strategies or system used to gather information
from participants, programmes, and other elements of the evaluation.

Terms related to methods, techniques, and tools of data collection:

Methods of data collection: The various steps or strategies used for gathering and analysing
data in a research investigation are known as the methods of data collection.

Technique of data collection: The means of gathering data with the use of specific tools used
in given methods are known as techniques of data collection.

Instrument/tools for data collection: A research instrument is a device used to measure the
concept of interest in a research project that a researcher uses to collect data.

Factors influencing selection of methods of data collection:

1. The nature of phenomenon under study:

Each research phenomenon has its particular characteristics and, therefore, needs
different approaches and methods of data collection. For example, some phenomenon
can only be studied appropriately through observation, such as clinical practices or
processes in particular nursing procedures. Similarly, knowledge of a group of nurses
can only be assessed through questioning or interviews. Therefore, the nature of the

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 phenomenon under study significantly affects the selection of particular method of
data collection.

2. Type of research subjects:

Data collection methods are also influenced by the type of subjects under study. For
example, data collection from physically or psychologically disabled subjects can be
done either by interviews or through observation, where data collection through
questionnaires is not feasible. On the other hand, if data has to be collected from
objects or institutions, questionnaires or interviews may not be possible at all, and
researchers will have to depend mostly on observation to collect relevant data.

3. The type of research study:

Quantitative and qualitative research studies need different methods of data
collection. For example, in qualitative research, more in-depth information is
required; therefore, focused group interviews or unstructured participatory interviews
are feasible for data collection, while for quantitative research studies, more
structured interviews, questioning, or observation is used for data collection.

4. The purpose of the research study:

The purpose of the study also influences the choice of the methods of data collection,
such as in a study conducted with the purpose of the exploration of phenomenon, in-
depth interviews may be needed for data collection, while studies conducted with
purpose of description or correlation of study variables may need more structured
methods of data collection.

5. Size of the study sample:

When a study is conducted on a small sample, interviews or direct observation may be
possible, while these methods can be tedious for large samples. For larger samples,
questionnaires can be better and more preferable methods of data collection.
Interviews and observation methods will also be cost-effective and easy for smaller
groups, while questionnaires will be convenient, easier, and cost-effective methods of
data collection for larger samples.

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6. Distribution of the target population:
If target population is spread in a large geographical area, it will not be possible to
carry out interviews or observation, and therefore, mailed questionnaires may be a
better option, which will be more convenient and cost-effective in such conditions.

7. Time frame of the study:

If a research is conducted for a long time, it may permit the researcher to use the less-
structured methods of data collection to gain in-depth information, while short time-
frame studies may not allow the researcher to use the unstructured methods of data
collection, where he/she gets very little time for data collection and analysis.
Therefore, structured methods of data collection are used more for short-term research
designs.

8. Literacy level of the subjects:

Illiterate subjects put constraints on the use of self-responding methods of data
collection, such as questionnaires. For illiterate subjects, interviews conducted in
native language is one of the few possible methods of data collection used, while
more varied and numerous options in methods of data collection are available for
literate subjects.

9. Availability of resources and manpower:

Some of the methods of data collection require more quantities of resources and
manpower, such as conducting interviews and observation compared to the use of
questionnaires. Therefore, availability of resources and manpower also affects the
selection of methods of data collection.

10. Researcher's knowledge level and competence:

The researcher's knowledge and competence also affect the selection of methods of
data collection; for example, conducting an interview and observation may require
special social and psychologic knowledge, skills, and competence, while the use of
questionnaires may not demand these skills; however, for the development and
construction of a good questionnaire, good writing skills may be required.

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Criteria of Evaluation/Assessment of Data Collection Methods:

The appropriateness of the data collection method may be evaluated or assessed by using
following criteria.

 Accuracy and completeness of data collection: Researcher must ensure that data
collection methods used will yield accurate and complete data to answer research
questions or test hypotheses.
 Compatibility educational level, sociocultural values, and beliefs of the subjects.
 Cost-effectiveness and speed in data collection procedure.
 In accordance with of phenomenon, type, purpose, time frame, and resources
available for the study.
 Further, following criteria may be considered while evaluating or assessing the
method for data collection:
 Is data collection method complete in all the aspects of the study variables?
 Are data collection methods thoroughly described?
 Are data collection methods in accordance with research questions/hypotheses
to be tested?
 Are validity and reliability of data collection methods established?
 Is the number of methods used for data collection sufficient for complete
coverage of research data or are additional methods required for data
collection?
 Are anonymity and confidentiality assured?
 Are instruments described in detail?
 Were the criterion measures or scoring methods clearly established?

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TYPES OF METHODS AND TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

Type of Methods/Techniques Tools for data collection

1 Interview  Interview schedule
.  Opinionnaire
2 Questioning(self-report)  Questionnaire
.  Opinionnaire
 Attitude scales/Composite scales (eg:
Likert scale and Semantic differential
scale)
 Visual Analogue scale
3 Observation  Rating scales
.  Checklist
 Anecdotes
 Videotapes/Films
 Closed circuit TV
4 Biophysiological methods  In-vivo biophysiologic measurements
.  In-vitro biophysiologic measurements
5 Other methods  Projective technique
.  Q-sorts
 Vignettes

INTERVIEW

The interview is a process of communication or interaction in which the subjects or

interviewee gives the needed information verbally in a face-to-face situation. Although the
interview is generally associated with counselling or psychotherapy, it is used effectively to
collect useful information about individuals in many research situations.

Interviewing is a popular way of gathering information in qualitative research. Interview

provides a wide range of data. It provides information about person's feelings, perceptions,
and opinions. Interviewers should not make presumptions about the respondents. Interview
requires high-level questioning skills and active participation.

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Interviewing requires face-to-face contact or contact over telephone and calls for
interviewing skills. Interviews may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary
one in collection of research-related data.

Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less
educated respondents. It is superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more
willing to talk than to write, once rapport is established, even confidential information can be
obtained.

Definitions:

 A method of data collection in which one person (interviewer) asks the questions from
another person (respondent) conducted either face-to-face or telephonically.
 Interview is a two-way systematic conversation between an informant and an
investigator. It is generally intended to get information that is relevant to a particular
purpose. It requires not only conversations but also learning from the respondent's
gestures, facial expressions and pauses, and his/her environment.

Characteristics of Interview:

 The participants, the interviewer, and the respondent are strangers.

 The relationship between the participants is a transitory one.
 Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally.
 The investigator records information furnished by the respondent in the interview.
 Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a conversation with a
specific purpose.
 The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be
face-to-face because interviews can be conducted over telephone also.
 Although an interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it is not always
limited to a single respondent.
 Interview is an interactional process—the interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent depends on how they perceive each other.
 Interview is not a standardized process; it can be modified according to situations.

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Benefits of Interview:

1. Provide in-depth and detailed information:

The greater value of this method is the depth and detail of information that can be
secured. When used with a well-conceived schedule, an interview can obtain a great
deal of information.

2. Permits greater depth of response:

The interview permits greater depth of response, which is not possible through any
other means. It also enables an interviewer to get information concerning feelings and
attitudes related to the phenomenon under research.

3. Data from illiterate subjects:

Interview is advantageous for illiterate subjects who do not write as fluently as they
speak.

4. Higher response:
Interview method results in better, more elaborate responses than questionnaires.
People who would normally ignore a questionnaire are willing to talk with an
interviewer, which elicits interesting information, for example hospitalized patients.

5. Clarify misunderstandings:
When conducting an interview, a researcher can be sensitive to the subject's
misunderstanding of questions, and can provide further clarification on the topic
under discussion.

6. Ask questions at several levels:

A researcher can plan to ask questions at several levels to gather maximum
information from the subjects.

7. Helps to gather other supplementary information:

The interviewer can gather other supplementary information, such as the economic
level, living conditions, etc.

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 8. Use of special devices:
The interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual material, etc. in order to
improve the quality of interviewing.

9. Accuracy can be checked:

The accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be
checked by observation.

10. Flexible and adaptable:

Interviews are flexible and adaptable to individual situations. The requisite amount of
control can be exercised over the interview situation. For people who are unable to
write their responses, interview is very advantageous, for example patients with eye
patches or in tractions, etc.

Types of Interviews:

Basically, interview can be classified in following six broad categories.

1. Structured Interview (Directive Interview)

Structured interview is a means of data collection in which the interviewer has an interview
schedule in which the questions are listed in the order in which they are to be answered.
These interviews are also known as standardized interviews. In other words, this is an
interview made with a detailed, standardized schedule. Same questions are put to all the
respondents and in the same order. Interviewers are not permitted to change the specific
wording of the interview schedule questions.

Structured interview consists of following characteristics:

 Interview schedule is formalized and has a limited set of questions.

 The aim is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same questions
in the same order.
 It increases the reliability and credibility of research data.
 It minimizes context effects, wherein answers given to survey questions depend on
the nature of preceding questions.

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Merits:

 Data from one interview to the next one is easily comparable.

 Recording and coding data does not pose any problem.
 Attention is not diverted to irrelevant and time-consuming conversation.

Demerits:

 It tends to lose the spontaneity of natural conversation.

 The way the interview is structured may be such that the respondent's views are
minimized and investigator's own biases regarding the problems under study are
assessed.
 The scope of exploration of information of data is limited.

2. Unstructured Interview (Nondirective Interview)

These interviews are also known as nonstandardized interviews. Unstructured interview is a

method wherein the questions can be changed to meet the respondent's intelligence,
understanding, and beliefs. Questions are changed based on how each individual person
responds to the questions. In this type of interview, the interviewer encourages the respondent
to talk freely about given topic with minimum prompting. In this, no preplanned schedule is
used

Unstructured interview consists of the following characteristics:

 Interview schedule is not formalized and has open-ended questions, where there is
opportunity to ask questions not planned before.
 The aim is to explore the information from the respondents.
 It increases the reliability and credibility of research data.
 It facilitates the natural unobstructed proceedings of the interview procedure.

Merits:

 It is less prone to interviewer's bias.

 It provides greater opportunity to explore the problem in an unrestricted manner
 It is useful for gathering information on sensitive topics, like divorce, social
discrimination, drug addiction, etc.

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Demerits:

 The data obtained from one interview is not comparable to the data from the next.
 Time may be wasted in unproductive conversation. There is no order or sequence in
this interview.
 This requires more skills on the part of the researcher.

3. Semistructured Interview

Semistructured interview is a flexible method that allows new questions to be brought up

during the interview, depending upon the situation during the interview.

Semistructured interviews have the following characteristics:

 Interviewer prepares an interview guide, which is an informal list of topics and

questions the interviewer can ask in different ways from different participants.
 Interview guide helps the researcher to focus on the topics at hand without
constraining them to a particular format.

4. In-Depth Interview

This is an intensive and investigative interview conducted and aimed at studying the
respondent's opinion and emotions on the basis of interview guide. This requires more
training and interpersonal skills than structured interviewing. This deliberately aims to elicit
unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions. This is designed to
encourage free expressions of affectively charged information.

5. Focused Group Interview

Focused group interview is an unstructured group interview technique where 6—10 members
are brought together under the guidance of a trained interviewer to focus on a specific
phenomenon. Its purpose is to gain insight from the appropriate sample or target population.
The researcher tries to focus his/her attention on a particular aspect of a problem. It is a
carefully planned discussion where the interviewer guides discussion according to written set
of questions or topics to be covered. In focused group interviews, special attention is given to
specific topics or ideas. An attempt is made to concentrate the discussion on the real effects
of a provided experience to which respondents have been asked to respond. The interview is

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aimed to analyse the subjective experience of the respondent that is his/her opinion or
emotional response to the topic of research.

The basic characteristics of this type of interviews are:

 It consists of 6—10 members homogeneous in terms of demographic and

socioeconomic characteristics.
 Duration of the interview is 1.5—2 hours.
 All information including facial expressions and body language is recorded
 It has a moderator to lead the discussion.
 It permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions to an experience.
 It is free from inflexibility of formal methods.
 There is plenty of opportunity for respondents to present their views.
 The interviewer can freely choose the order of questions and ensure the extent of
asking the questions.

Merits:

 Wide range of information is collected.

 It stimulates new ideas and creative concepts.
 One person's comments may trigger a response from another person, leading to an in_
depth discussion on the topic.
 It increases excitement in a group.
 Participants feel more comfortable to answer in a group with similar interests.
 It involves many participants at one time.

Demerits:

 There are chances of client and researcher bias.

 It is difficult to moderate.
 It is difficult to code, analyse, and interpret.
 Focus group interview is not a representative of general population.

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6. Telephone Interview

Telephone interviewing is a nonpersonal method of data collection. This method of collecting

information consists of contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is used widely in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.

Merits

 It is more flexible and a quick way of obtaining information.

 Cost is relatively less and rate of response is high.
 Access to respondent is easy through a telephone directory.
 No field staff is required and wider coverage of sample is possible.

Demerits

 It is difficult to establish a rapport between respondent and the interviewer

 Surveys are limited to respondents having telephone facilities.
 Respondent's characteristics, facial expressions, and environment cannot be observed'
 Possibility of bias of interviewer is more.

Interviewing Process:

The interviewing process includes following steps:

1. Preparation for interview

a) Fix appointment: Interviewer should fix up the topic and time of interview with
subject ahead of time. It would save time of interviewer.

b) Appearance and dress: interviewer should dregs in a fashion fairly familiar and with
due regards to the sensibilities of people who will be interviewed, interviewer Should
be pleasant and should communicate a genuine interest.

c) Familiarity with interview schedule: interview schedule must be studied carefully and
the interviewer must practice reading it aloud to be very familiar with all the

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 questions. The interviewer must also be able to list items to respondents without
errors.

2. Preinterview introduction

 Researcher must introduce himself or herself to all respondents respectfully as per

their cultural practices.
 Identify the respondent by name.
 Select a setting with as little disturbance as practicable. Describe the intention of the
interview.
 Mention the confidentiality terms.
 Describe the interview structure.
 Give hint so as to how long the interview would go on.
 Ask them if they have any questions.

3. Developing rapport

After primary introduction, the researcher starts developing rapport with respondents. This is
developed through confidence building and understanding the concerns of the respondents by
beginning the conversation on general topics.

4. Carrying the interview forward

After establishing rapport, the technical task of asking questions from the interview schedule
starts. While interviewing the respondent, following guidelines should be used:

 Start the interview.

 Ask only one question at a time.
 Repeat a question if necessary.
 Try to make sure that the subject understands the questions.
 Listen carefully to the subject's answer.
 Observe the subject's facial expressions, gestures, and tone of voice.
 Allow the subject a sufficient time to answer the questions.
 Do not show signs of surprise, shock, or anger.
 Maintain a neutral attitude with respect to controversial issues during the interview.

21
  Take a note of answers that seem to be vague or ambiguous.
 Ask additional questions to follow-up clues or to obtain additional information.
 Do not hurry the interview. If silence is too prolonged, introduce a stimulus.

5. Recording the interview

 It is essential to record the responses as they take place.
 Good information can be taken by note-taking.
 A tape recorder or video recording may be used to record the responses of respondent.
 Shorthand may be used to record responses.

6. Closing the interview

After the interview is over, a polite leave of the respondent should be taken, thanking him
or her with a friendly smile and saying goodbye.

Advantages of Interview

 Interviews are useful to obtain information about people's feelings, perceptions, and
Opinions.
 Interviews allow more detailed questions to be asked. High response rate is achieved.
 Respondent's own words are recorded.
 Ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete answers are followed up.
 Interviews are not influenced by others in the group.
 Meaning of questions can be clarified.

Disadvantages of Interview

 Interviews are time-consuming and costly affairs.

 Different interviewers may understand and translate interviews in different ways.
 There are high degree chances of interview's biases.

QUESTIONING

1. QUESTIONNAIRE

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Questionnaires are one of the most popular methods of conducting research. They provide a
convenient way of gathering information from a target population. They are cost-effective
and easy to construct and analyse. A questionnaire is a planned self-reported form designed
to elicit information through written or verbal responses of the subjects. In other words, a
questionnaire is a research instrument used for data collection. It is a set of questions that
may or may not provide response alternatives to be answered by the subject.

Definitions

 A questionnaire is a structured instrument consisting of a series of questions prepared

by researcher that a research subject is asked to complete, to gather data from
individuals about knowledge, attitude, beliefs, and feelings.

 A questionnaire is a structured self-report paper and pencil instrument that a research

subject is asked to complete.

Types of Questions:

1. Open-Format Questions

Open-ended questions are those questions that provide opportunity to the respondents to
express their opinions and answers in their own way.

Open-format questions have following characteristics:

 There is no predetermined set of responses.

 They provide true, insightful, and unexpected suggestions.
 An ideal questionnaire contains open-ended questions towards the end of all the
questions that would ask respondents about the suggestions for changes or
improvements. For example: State your opinion about the quality of health care
services in Punjab?

2. Closed-Format Questions

These questions offer respondents a number of alternative replies from which the subjects
must choose the one that most likely matches the appropriate answer.

Closed-format questions have following characteristics:

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  They facilitate easy statistical calculation of data.
 Provide easy preliminary analysis.
 Can be asked to different groups at different intervals.
 Facilitate efficient tracking of opinion.

Subtypes of closed-format questions

a) Dichotomous questions: These require the respondent to make a choice between two
responses, such as Yes/No or Male/Female.

Example: Q. Have you ever been hospitalized?

(a) Yes (b) No

b) Multiple choice questions: These questions require respondents to make a choice

between more than two response alternatives.

Example: Q. Which of the following diseases is sexually transmitted?

(a) Diabetes mellitus (b) Hypothyroidism (c) Syphilis (d) Hypertension

c) Cafeteria questions: These are special type of multiple-choice questions that ask
respondents to select a response that most closely corresponds to their views.

Example: Q. What do you think about hormone replacement therapy?

 It is dangerous
 should be avoided
 One should be cautious while using it
 lam uncertain about my views
 It is beneficial, should be promoted.

d) Rank Order questions: These questions ask respondents to rank their responses from
most favorable to least favorable.

Example: Q. What according to you is most important for your life? Rank from most
favorable to least favorable

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 (a) Money (b) Education (c) Family (d) Health

e) Contingency questions: A question that is asked further only if the respondent

particular response to a previous question.

Example: Q. Are you stressed?

(a) No (b) Yes. If yes, what are the reasons?

f) Rating questions: These questions ask respondents to judge something along an

ordered dimension. Respondent is generally required to provide rating to a specific
element on a scale selecting among the points from poor to good. They may provide a
number of choices

Example: Q. How do you rank the education quality in India?

1 2 3 4
Good Fair Poor Very poor

g) Importance questions: In this, respondents are asked to rate the importance of a

particular issue on a rating scale of 1—5. This helps to know the things/ issues that
are important to a respondent.

Example: Q. Exercising every day is________________for the health.

1 2 3 4 5
Extremely Very Somewhat Not very Not at all
important important important important important

h) Likert questions: Likert questions help to know how strongly the respondent agrees
with a particular statement. These questions help to assess how respondent feels
towards a certain issue/ services.

Example: Q. Is this community a good place to raise children?

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 1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
     agree disagree

i) Bipolar questions: Bipolar questions are questions that have two extreme answers.
Respondent has to mark his/her response between two opposite ends of the scale.

Example: Q. What is your balance of preference here?

I like going for walks [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] I like watching movie

j) Matrix questions: Matrix questions include multiple questions, and identical response
categories are assigned. Questions are placed one under another, forming a matrix.
Response categories are placed along the top and a list of questions down the side

Example: Q. Please let us know your weekly schedule of the following:

Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

Gym (weight training)
Aerobics
Eating (Dinner/lunch)
Drink (Alcohol beverages)

Guidelines for Designing a Good Questionnaire:

General points:

 The questionnaire must be developed exactly in accordance with study objectives.

 The questionnaire should begin with the instructions for the respondents to provide
the responses
 The drafting of the questionnaire should be concise, precise, and brief because lengthy
questionnaires may lead to boredom among respondents.

26
  The language of the questionnaire should be according to the respondents' knowledge
about a particular language.
 Questions outside the respondents' experience should not be asked.
 In asking questions about past events, too much reliance should not be placed on the
respondents' memory.
 Questions that are likely to lead to bias in the respondents should be avoided.
 Questions should be very clear and simple. Avoid professional jargons.
 As far as possible, open-ended questions should be avoided in quantitative research
studies.
 Avoid questions with difficult concepts, which are not easily understandable for
respondents.
 Controversial and ambiguous questions should be avoided.
 The structure of the questionnaire should be according to the form in which the
responses are to be recorded.
 Cross-check the respondent by asking same information in two different ways.
 A mailed questionnaire should be accompanied with an introduction to the study,
purpose, and directions to fill the questionnaire.
 Abrupt ending of the questions and questionnaire should be avoided.

Sequence of Questions:

 There should be logical sequence of the questions in the questionnaire.

 Researcher has to make sure that the answer to a question is not derived from a
previous question.
 There should be a flow of questions in the trend from general to more specific.
 Moreover, there should be a flow of questions from least to most sensitive.
 Sandwich theory states that a questionnaire should generally start with demo file of
subjects, followed by specific questions according to the objectives of the study.

Question Construction

 Use statements that can be interpreted in same way by all subjects.

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  Use such kind of statements where persons may have different opinions or traits and
may give different answers
 Use only one aspect of the construct in which you are interested.
 Avoid asking double-barreled questions containing two distinct ideas or concepts.
 For example, are you satisfied with pay and fringe benefits?
 Avoid leading, loaded, ambiguous, and long questions.
 Avoid negative and double negative questions.
 Use positive statements.
 Assumptions should not be made about respondent.
 Comprehensible and clear wording should be used.
 Use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuations.

Questions researcher must consider before developing a questionnaire:

The sample Who are you going to ask?

The method How are you going to ask them?
The questionnaire What are you going to ask them?
The result What will you do with the information?
The cost How much do you want to pay for the answer?
The time scale By when do you need the information?

Methods of Questionnaire Administration

A questionnaire may be administered with following methods:

1. Postal
 Low cost
 Not labour intensive
 Anonymity

2. Phone
 High speed
 Rapport with respondent
 Detailed questions
 High response rate

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3. Electronic
 Low cost
 High speed
 Anonymity
 Not labour intensive

4. Personally administered
 Detailed questions
 High response rates

Advantages of Questionnaires

 Questionnaires are cost-effective.

 They are easy to analyse.
 They require less time and energy to administer.
 Questionnaires offer the possibility of anonymity.
 They reduce bias as interviewer is not present.
 Questionnaires are used for large sample size.
 Questionnaires are less intrusive than phone or face-to-face interview.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

 Questionnaires are not suitable for all, for example children, blinds, and illiterates.
 Low response rate.
 Questionnaire sent by mail may be filled by someone other than the intended person.
 Questionnaires provide only superficial information.
 Probing of response is not possible.
 There are chances of misinterpretation.
 People can lie and answer the question vaguely.

2. COMPOSITE SCALES/ATTITUDE SCALES

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A scale is a device designed to assign a numeric score to people to place them on a
continuum with respect to attributes being measured, like a scale for measuring attitude, or
weight, or so on.

 These rating scales can also be used to assess the attitudes or feelings of self-concept.
 The expressions of any point of view are accounted as measurements towards any
item, object, or concept; they show the person's positive or negative attitude towards
any concept.
 Measuring the score between two opposite concepts tells us about the attitude, feeling,
and perception of a person or study subject towards the directions of positive or
negative attitude in a scale.
 Visual scales illustrate visual depiction of any culture; photographs are given to get
the feelings, beliefs, opinions about contrast, texture, colour, and elements.

Definition

The composite scales may be defined as:

 Composite scales are socio-psychologic measurements directed towards quantifying

the qualitative attributes, such as feelings, attitude, self-concept, perceptions, beliefs,
etc.
 Composite scales are socio-psychologic rating scales generally used for qualitative
measures and discriminate people with different attribute, perception, fears, motives,
personality traits, and needs that are often incorporated into interviews or
questionnaires.

A. LIKERT SCALE

 Likert scale is one of the most commonly used scaling techniques. It was developed to
measure the attitudes, values, and feelings of people.
 The original version of this scale was developed as a five-point scale (strongly agree,
agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree) containing the mixture of positive
and negative declarative statements regarding measurement of variables.
 However, in recent times, one can even observe the Likert scale with four points
(strongly agree, moderately agree, disagree, and uncertain) to seven points (very

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 strongly agree, strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, strongly disagree, and very
strongly disagree) scaling categories.

Definitions

 Likert scale is a composite measurement scale used to measure attitude, values, and
feelings of the people that involve summation of scores on the set of positive and
negative declarative statements regarding measuring variables to which respondents
are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement.
 Likert scale is a composite measure of attitudes that involve summation of scores on
set of items (statements) to which respondents are asked to indicate their degree of
agreement or disagreement.

Uses of Likert Scale

 Basically, it is used to measure the attitudes, values, and feelings of the people about
specific concepts, such as situations, people, places, objects, programmes, practices,
policies, and so on.
 This scale is used to have quantified measurement of the qualitative attributes of
people, such as feelings, values, and attitudes.
 It may also be used to assess the opinions of the respondents about a particular
abstract concept.
 It collects the opinions of people with various attitudes, emotions, and feelings
towards a particular concept.

Characteristics of Likert Scale

The main characteristics of the Likert scale are as follows:

a. Psychologic measurement tool: Likert scale is basically a psychologic measurement

tool to assess the attitudes, values, and feelings of the people about a specific concept.

b. Illustrative in nature: This scale is generally illustrative in nature, where each

statement in a scale is stated in an explicitly illustrative way so that a person can make

31
 a clear judgement about the degree of agreement or disagreement with the particular
item on the scale.

c. Neutral statements: This must contain neutral statements without incorporation of any
bias of the researcher.

d. Bipolar scaling method: This is composed of alternative positive and negative

declarative statements so that respondent's casual response bias can be eliminated.
Here positive statement gets high score with agreement and negative statements gets
high score with disagreement with statement.

e. Measurement of the specific number of scaling categories: This scale was originally
developed with five scaling categories; but later scales were even developed with
four, six, and seven scaling categories.

Scoring of the Likert Scale

 Scoring of the Likert scale is done on the basis of type of statement and level of
respondents' agreement with statement.
 For a positive statement, respondents get higher score if there is agreement with
statement.
 In case of negative statement, respondent gets higher score if there is a disagreement
with statement or vice versa

Advantages of Likert Scale

 It is relatively easy to construct this scale

 Likert scale is considered as more reliable and valid tool to measure the psychosocial
variables.
 It is easy to administer, since respondents only have to tick in spaces provided against
each statement.
 It is less time-consuming in administration of tools for data collection.

Disadvantages of Likert Scale

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  In Likert scale, respondents may feel forced to answer the questions against all
preplanned items and their categories.
 Feelings of the respondents may not be fully assessed due to researcher's preplanned
statements and categories.
 Difficulty in justifying the selection of the number of categories and numerical
assignment to these categories.
 Casual approach of respondent in these scales may provide misleading data.

B. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

 People's attitudes regarding objects, stimulus words, and concepts are measured by
semantic differential questions.
 This comprises a series of differential adjective pairs, such as beneficial—harmful,
good—bad, etc., which are mentioned on the two ends of a bipolar scale.
 As these questions are very easy to structure and administer and as these render
reliable quantitative data and reasonably valid, hence these questions are considered
popular.

Definition

Semantic differential scale is a type of rating scale designed to measure the connotative
meaning of objects, events, and concepts. These connotations are used to derive the
respondents' attitude towards the objects, events, and concepts.

Usages of Semantic Differential Scale

Semantic differential scale is most commonly used in:

 Patient satisfaction survey

 Customer satisfaction survey
 Employee survey
 Marketing survey
 Operational research
 Personality measurements
 Clinical psychology

Advantages of Semantic Differential Scale

33
  A convenient method to assess the beliefs, attitudes, and values in quantitative form.
 Easy to administer.
 Provides reasonable valid and reliable quantitative data.

Disadvantages of Semantic Differential Scale

 It is difficult to select the relevant concepts, which are appropriate for any given
investigation.
 It is time-consuming to find the appropriate adjective pairs.

C. VISUAL ANALOGOUS SCALE

 It is a widely used psychomotor response scale, which is a measurement instrument

for subjective characteristics or attitudes that cannot be directly measured. This has 10
cm lines and the ends mark semantic opposites (e.g., alert—drowsy).
 Visual analogous scale (VAS) is used to measure the intensity of certain sensations
and feelings, such as pain, discomfort, anxiety, alertness, quality of sleep, severity of
clinical symptoms, functional ability, and attitude towards environmental conditions.

Definitions

 Visual analogous scale is a tool that is used to assist a person in rating the intensity of
certain feelings and sensations (e.g., pain).
 The VAS is a self-report measure consisting simply of a 10 cm (100 mm) line with a
statement at each end representing one extreme of the dimension being measured.

 The VAS is a bipolar scale used to determine the degree of stimuli a patient
experience. One side of the scale expresses the absence of stimuli, while the other
expresses the presence of stimuli.

 Visual analogous scale is a 100 mm horizontal or vertical line with right angle stop at
either end. Between these two extreme ends (e.g., best and worst, no pain and severe
pain, alert and drowsy), respondent provides his response for particular phenomenon
measured, which is later measured by using a ruler from left end.

34
 For example, a straight line with no pain at one end and the worst pain imaginable at the
Other end indicates the visual analogue scale for pain. As per the amount of pain he/she
feels, a patient usually marks a point on the line that matches with his/her feelings.

No pain Worst pain ever

Uses of Visual Analogous Scale

 To measure the level of pain, anxiety, mood.

 To measure the alertness, quality of sleep, severity of clinical symptoms, functional
ability and attitude towards environmental conditions.
 To choose the right dose of medicine for the treatment of the disease.
 To determine the drug's effect on the patient.
 For rating soft variables, such as skills, confidence, quality of team work,

Advantages of VAS

 It is a reliable and valid tool to measure the intensity of certain sensations and
feelings.
 The quantitative assessment of a highly subjective phenomenon is possible by this
scale. This scale is of most value when looking at changes within individuals.

Disadvantages of VAS

 This scale cannot be used for comparing results across a group of individuals at the
same time.
 While measuring pain, the scale does not provide the patient a chance to document an
increase in pain. Thus, it creates a treatment bias.
 In measuring pain or such sensations, the reliability of this scale is low owing to the
patient's need to recall his/her initial pain severity.

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 OBSERVATIONS

 Observation is a way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events, or noting

physical characteristics in their natural setting.
 Observation is a method of data collection that can be used to gather such information
as characteristics and conditions of individual, verbal, and nonverbal communication,
etc.
 Observation method of data collection is particularly well-suited to nursing research.
 There are several situations that require nurses to use the observation method for data
collection, such as behaviour and attributes of the patients, their families, and hospital
staff, and so on.
 As everyone is aware that observations are being noticed, hence these can be overt or
covert (they are not aware that they are being noticed and the observer is hiding).
 The advantage in covert observation lies in the fact that people most likely behave
naturally as they are ware that they are being noticed. Howsoever, one will
specifically require employing overt observations due to ethical problems linked to
hiding the observation.
 There can be either direct or indirect observations too. Whenever you see processes,
interactions, or behaviours as they happen, these are direct observations; for example,
noticing a teacher giving lesson from a written document to ascertain whether they are
providing it with accuracy.
 When you see the results of processes, interactions, or behaviours, these are indirect
observations; for example, determining how much waste is left in the plates by
Students in a school cafeteria to ascertain if a new food is acceptable to them.

Definitions

 Observation is a technique for collecting data or acquiring information through

occurrences that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices.

 It is a two-part process to collect data for study that includes an observer (someone
who is observing) and the observed (there is something to observe).

36
Uses of Observation Method

Observation as a method of data collection is used in following situations:

1. To understand an ongoing process or situation: Through observation, a process or

situation can be monitored and evaluated as it occurs at a particular time. For example, a
researcher wants to assess the existing ward management practices in public and private
hospitals. In this situation, only observation could be the best method of data collection.

2. To gather data on individual behaviours or interactions between people: Observation

allows researchers to watch peoples' behaviours and interactions directly, or watch for the
results of behaviours or interactions. For example, how nurses respond to the agitated
patients in an emergency setting.

3. To know about a physical setting: Observing the environment or place where something
happens can facilitate increased understanding of the activity, event, or situation that the
researcher is evaluating. For example, a researcher can observe whether a classroom or
training facility is conducive to learning.

4. Data collection where other methods are not possible: If respondents are unable to
provide data through questionnaires or interviews or unwilling to do so, observation is a
process that needs little from the individuals for whom we require data. For example, a
researcher is conducting the study on satisfaction of the deaf and dumb illiterate children
residing in a rehabilitation centre. In this situation, the researcher has only observation
method to observe their nonverbal gestures and behaviour to assess their satisfaction.

Types of Observation

Observation method of data collection can be classified into following four broad categories

a) Structured observation:
 In structured observation method, researcher prepares a structured or
semistructured tool in advance to observe the phenomenon under study.
 Structured observation is guided by the preplanned structured or
semistructured instrument, where the researcher observes only specific
attributes or behaviour in accordance with planned observation guidelines.

37
  This helps researchers to be on track while carrying out an observation as well
as analysis of data collected during this method of observation remains easy.
 Structured observation is generally carried out by using following tools
 Checklist
 Rating scale
 Category system

b) Unstructured Observation:
 Unstructured observation is generally used in qualitative studies, where
observation is made with minimally structured or researcher-imposed
categories.
 It is used for complete and nonspecific observation of phenomenon, which is
very well-known by the researcher.
 Unstructured observation is carried out by using unstructured tools, and the
following tools are generally used by the researchers:
 Log and field notes
 Anecdotes
 Field diary
 Video recording

c) Participant observation:
 Historically, field and ethnographical researches have been a e sociated most
strongly with participant observation, where observer may live or work in field
and actively participate in ongoing activities for an extended period.
 In addition, observer becomes the accepted member of the group or
community.
 The level of participation of the observer may range from a completely
absorbed state to a minimal state of Participation in the group or community
under study.
 During participatory observation, Unstructured tools are used to collect the
data, such as logbooks, field notes, field diary, tape, video recording, etc.

38
 d) Nonparticipant observation:
 In nonparticipatory observation, the observer works as an eavesdropper
(secretly listening or observing), where an attempt is made to observe people
without interacting with them.
 In this technique, the observer is not a participant in the setting but is merely
viewing the situation. In addition, people are observed without their
knowledge that they are being observed
 This method is routinely used by psychologists to study children or animals.
However, this method possesses ethical problems due to observation of people
without their consent.

Advantages of Observation

 Collects data so as to when and where an activity or event is happening.

 Does not believe on people's ability or willingness to give information.
 Directly allows you to notice what people do rather than checking what people tell
that they did.

Disadvantages of Observation

 Observer's bias.
 'Hawthorne effect' susceptibility: People usually do better when they come to realize
that they are being noticed, although this may decrease by indirect observation.
 Can be time-consuming and expensive as against other data collection techniques.
Does not enhance the clear-cut understanding of why people behave as they do.

1. RATING SCALE

Rating is the term used to express the opinion or judgement regarding some performance of a
person, object, situation, or character. The rating scale has qualitative description of some
aspects of traits of a person or a thing. When rating scales are used, we value an object by
absolute terms as against some specific criteria (e.g., we rate the properties of objects without
any reference to such similar objects).

39
Definitions

 Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of opinion, which describes varying degree of
the dimensions of an attitude being observed.

 Rating scale is a device by which judgements may be qualified or an opinion

concerning a trait can be systematized.

 Rating scale is a tool in which the one person simply checks off another person's level of
performance. Rating scale could be three-point, five-point, seven-point, or more points
rating scale.

 Rating scale measures how much or how well something happened, where generally
quantitative and qualitative terms are used to judge the performance.

For example:

Q. How good was the nursing care you received?

Q. How many times nurses promptly responded to your calls?

No pain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Worst pain

FIGURE: A ten-point rating scale

Always Sometimes Never

FIGURE: A three-point rating scale

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Types of the Rating Scale

1. Graphic rating scale:

In this scale, the performance is printed horizontally at various points from lowest to
highest. It includes the numerical points on the scale. It is anchored by two extremes
presented to respondents for evaluation of a concept or object.

For example: How much are you satisfied with noise control in your ward?

Least Most

2. Descriptive rating scales:

This type of rating scales does not use number, but divide the assessment into series of
verbal phrases to indicate the level of performance.

For example: Q. Judge the level of performance of nursing personnel in Medical ICU

Nursing personnel in a Level of clinical performance

Very active Active Moderately Passive
ward
active
1. Amandeep
2 Jasveen
3. Tara
4. Kirandeep

3. Numerical rating scale:

It divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed number of points, but defines only numbers
at the extremes. In these scales, each statement is generally assigned a numerical score
ranging from 1 to 10, or even more.

For example: Pain assessment numerical scale.

No pain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Worst pain

41
4. Comparative rating scale:
In this type of rating scale, the researcher makes a judgement about an attribute of a
person by comparing it with that of a similar another person(s).

For example: Mr. Ram's decision-making abilities closely resemble those of Mr. Shyam
and Mr. Gopal. In this type of rating scale, researcher must have prehand knowledge
about the Selected attributes of the people with whom the subjects are supposed to be
compared.

Characteristics of Rating Scale

 Rating scales are value judgements about attributes of one person by another person,
 These scales are most commonly used tools to carry out structured observations.
 Rating scales are generally developed to make quantitative judgements about
qualitative attributes.
 Rating scales provide more flexibility to judge the level of performance or presence of
attributes among subjects.
 Guilford (1954) identified that a rating scale must have following basic
characteristics, which must be taken care of while constructing a rating scale.
 Clarity: Rating scale must be constructed using short, concise statements in
simple and unambiguous language.

 Relevance: The statements designed in rating scale should be relevant to the

Phenomenon and should be exactly in accordance with the variables under
study.

 Variety: While developing a rating scale, monotony in the statements must be

avoided and a variety in different statements must be ensured.

42
  Objectivity: Statements in the rating scale must be objective in nature, so that
it is convenient for the researcher to judge the attributes or performances of
the subjects under study.

 Uniqueness: Each statement constructed in rating scale must be unique in

itself, so that attributes can be judged appropriately.

Advantages of Rating Scale

 Easy to administer and score the measured attributes.

 Rating scales have a wide range of application in nursing research.
 Graphic rating scale is easier to make and requires less time.
 Rating scales can be easily used for a large group.
 It is also used for quantitative methods.
 It may also be used for the assessment of interests, attitudes, and personnel
characteristics.
 Used to evaluate performance, skills, and product outcomes.
 Rating scales are adaptable and flexible research instruments.

Disadvantages of Rating Scale

 It is difficult or dangerous to fix up rating about many aspects of an individual.

 Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.
 There are chances of subjective evaluation; thus, the scales may become unscientific
and unreliable.

2. CHECKLIST

 It is one of the most commonly used instruments for performance evaluation.

 A checklist enables the observer to note only whether or not a trait is present.
 It consists of a listing of steps, activities, and behaviours the observer records when an
incident occurs. The observer has to judge whether certain behaviour has taken place.

43
Definitions

 A checklist is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected items of

performance or attributes, which are checked by a researcher for their presence or
absence.

Example of Checklist: Checklist for Evaluation of Student’s Performance during Surgical

Dressing

Sl.no Behaviour Place a (√) mark

Yes No Remarks
1 Explains procedure
2 Collects necessary
equipment
3 Arranges equipment for
convenient use
4 Prepares patient
5 Washes hand
6 Maintains aseptic technique
7 Removes dressing
8 Observes condition of
wound
9 Cleans wound
10 Applies dressing
11 Removes equipment
12 Makes patient comfortable
13 Complete charting
14 Takes care of equipment

Characteristics of Checklists

 Observe one respondent at one time.

 Clearly specify the characteristics of behaviour to be observed.
 Use only carefully prepared checklist to avoid more complex traits.
 The observer should be trained how to observe, what to observe, and how to record
the observed behaviour.
 Use checklists only when you are interested in calculating a particular characteristic.

Advantages of Checklist

 Checklists allow inter-individual comparisons.

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  It provides a simple method to record observation.
 It is adaptable to subject matter areas.
 It is useful in evaluating learning activities.
 It is helpful in evaluating procedural work.
 A properly prepared checklist, helps the observer to keep attention directed towards
observation.
 Checklists have the objectivity to evaluate characteristics.
 Useful for evaluating those processes that can be subdivided into a series of actions.
 Decreases the chances of error in observation.

Disadvantages of Checklist

 Does not indicate quality of performance, so usefulness of checklist is limited.

 Only a limited component of overall clinical performance can be evaluated.
 Only the presence or absence of an attribute, behaviour, or performance parameter
may be assessed. However, degree of accuracy of performance cannot be assessed.
 It has a limited use in qualitative research studies.

BIOPHYSIOLOGIC METHODS

 The research community views biophysiologic measures as objective data.

 Researchers may use the biophysiologic data collection process either alone or in
combination with other methods.
 Specific technical instruments and equipment are used to measure the physiologic and
physical variables, and specialized training is needed for the interpretation of results.
 Data on physiologic activity or dysfunction can often be gathered through direct
observation. For example, phenomena, such as vomiting, cyanosis, post cardiotomy
delirium, oedema and wound status can be observed for presence or absence and
intensity. Other biophysiologic data can be gathered by asking people directly.
 The biophysiologic phenomenon requires the use of specialized technical apparatus that
yield quantitative measures.

Definition

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  'Biophysiologic method involves the collection of biophysiologic data from subjects
by using the specialized equipment to determine biological and physical status of
subjects'.

For example: blood pressure measurement by using special equipment, such as

sphygmomanometer and stethoscope.

Purposes of Biophysiologic Methods

The purposes of biophysiologic measures are as discussed below:

a. To study basic physiologic process:

Such studies involve the basic physiologic processes that are relevant to nursing care.
This involves healthy and normal subjects.

For example, a study of the person related to biophysiologic reactions during period of
stress.

b. To study physiologic outcome of nursing care:

Used in the studies exploring and documenting the ways in which nursing actions affect
patient's biophysiologic outcome.

For example, effect of tepid and cold sponging on the core body temperature of the
patient.

c. To evaluate nursing interventions:

These methods involve anew intervention that is being tested usually in comparison
with the standard methods of care. These methods involve a hypothesis stating that
innovative nursing procedures result in improved biophysiologic outcome of patients.

For example, a study on the effect of music on heartbeat rate and blood pressure of a
post-operative patient who underwent cardiac surgery.

d. To study correlation of physiologic functioning in patients with health problems:

These methods also may be used for the comparison of the physiologic functioning of
the patients with several health problems.

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 For example, a researcher may compare the relationship of the selected physiologic
parameters, such as hemoglobin, haematocrit, serum albumin, blood sugar, and
incidence of hospital-acquired infections.

Types of Biophysiologic Methods

Biophysiologic methods are basically classified in two categories:

1. In-vivo biophysiologic methods 2. In-vitro biophysiologic methods

Performed directly to measure Physiologic processes are measured
processes occurring internally within and analysis is done outside the
living organisms through medical or organism, for example blood tests
surgical instruments, for example
TPR, BP monitoring

1. IN-VIVO BIOPHYSIOLOGIC METHODS

 In in-vivo biophysiologic methods, measurements are directly performed over the

organism or study subject by using specialized instruments or equipment.
 It is the measurement of the biophysiologic attributes of the subjects by using an
instrument, which can then be interpreted by the researchers

For example: measurement of the blood pressure using sphygmomanometer,

measuring cardiac conduction using ECG machine and temperature using
thermometer, and so on.

In-vivo measuring instrument system involves the following six components:

a) Stimulus: Biophysiologic measurements need a stimulus to begin them. The stimulus

could be external or internal to the subject under study. For example, in
electromyography (EMC)could the monitoring system requires the stimulus coming
from brain and is passed to the nerve to the muscles.

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 b) Subject: Human body consists of chemical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and other
systems, which become subject for biophysiologic measures. Various other systems,
which become subject for biophysiologic measures.

c) Sensory equipment (transducers and electrodes): It consists of one or more

transducers or electrodes, which converts one form of energy into another that can be
measured and interpreted.

d) Signal conditioning (amplifiers and signals processors): Generally, two types of

signals are produced by the subjects: key physiologic signals and interference signals.
Key physiologic signals, such as electrocardiographic signals. The amplifiers and
signal processors are used to amplify the desired physiologic signals from transducers.

e) Display equipment: Display device converts the modified electrical signals into visual
auditory outputs; generally, or computers or electronic devices are used for this
purpose.

f) Recording equipment: For research purpose, it is usually necessary to obtain a

permanent record of the physiologic measurements for subsequent scrutiny and
analysis.

Physiologic measurements are good examples of in-vivo biophysiologic measurements. This

includes measurements of the physiologic attributes of an individual such as pulse,
respiration, temperature, blood of pressure, physiologic volumes, and pressures in the as body
of a study subject.

2. IN-VITRO BIOPHYSIOLOGIC METHODS

 In-vitro biophysiologic methods, measurements are carried out outside the organism
or study subject by using specialized equipment.
 It is the measurement of the biophysiologic attributes of the subjects, which is carried
out through collection of samples of data related to physical, biochemical,

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 microbiologic, pathologic, and anatomic status by using some technical instruments
and by sending them to the laboratory for their analysis and interpretation.

For example: a blood sample is collected from a patient to assess the blood and
electrolyte status of the patient.

The following measurements can be carried out using in-vitro biophysiologic methods:

a) Radiologic measurements:
This includes the measurements of the radiologic attributes of the subject, such as
evaluation of the body tissues by the use of X-rays, CT scan, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scan, etc.

b) Biochemical measurements:
This includes measurements of the biochemical attributes of an individual, such as
hormonal levels, blood sugar level, haemoglobin, serum electrolytes, liver function
tests, renal function tests, serum markers, etc.

c) Microbiologic measurements:
This includes measurements of the microbiologic attributes of an individual, such as
bacterial counts, culture, sensitivity tests, etc.

d) Cytologic measurements:
This includes measurements of the cytologic attributes of an individual, such as tissue
biopsies, etc.

Advantages of Biophysiologic Methods

 Biophysiologic measures are relatively more accurate and errorless. For example, to
assess the oxygen saturation, pulse oxymeter is used, which is believed to be more
accurate in providing the reading.

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  Biophysiologic measures are more objective in nature. For example, a nurse
measuring temperature or blood pressures are good examples of the objective
measurements.
 Provide valid measures for targeted variables. For example, a thermometer will only
record temperature and not blood pressure. This means biophysiologic measurement
tools only measure what they are supposed to measure.
 Easy access to most of the instruments used for biophysiologic measurements. The
instruments used for biophysiologic measurements are easily available in hospital
settings which are used for routine patient care.

Disadvantages of Biophysiologic Methods

 Some of the instruments used for biophysiologic measurements are very expensive.
 The use of biophysiologic method requires significant amount of training, knowledge,
and experience.
 The results produced by the biophysiologic measurement instruments may be affected
by the environment. For example, axillary temperature recording in a room with or
without air conditioning may have different readings.
 The use of biophysiologic measurement instruments may cause fear and anxiety
among participants. For example, the collection of blood sample for biophysiologic
measurements may have traumatic impact on the subjects.
 The use of some biophysiologic methods may have harmful effect on the participants,
such as repeated exposure to X-ray increases the health risk for study subjects.

OTHER METHODS

1. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE

 This involves a wide range of games and tasks in which respondents need to
participate during an interview or group which is schemed to extend, facilitate, or
enhance the discussion nature.
 Basically, taken in a psychotherapeutic setting and being loosely based on different
approaches, some are called 'projective' techniques.
 They are based on the idea that someone will 'project' his/her own beliefs or feelings
onto an imaginary situation or person. It enables the respondents to mention more

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 about the research subject than they can say spontaneously, accessing meanings,
thoughts, or feelings that are not readily available.

Definition

 These are methods for measuring psychologic attributes (values, attitudes, and
personality) by providing respondents with unstructured stimuli to which they
respond.

Types of Projective Techniques

Lindzey proposed a five-way classification of projective methods based on types Of

response.

1. Association Technique (Word Association Technique):

 This technique requires the subject to respond at the presentation of stimulus
(word) with the first thing that comes to mind, so as to extract information
regarding words that have maximum association (meaning).
 In this sort of test, the respondent is asked to mention the first word that comes in
mind. For example, interviewer says 'Pepsi' and the respondent may say 'Dil
Maange More'. Mostly used in marketing research to find the quality that is
mostly associated with brand of a product.

2. Completion Techniques:
Completion projective techniques supply the subject with stimulus that is incomplete and
the subject is required to complete it as he/she wishes.
 Sentence completion test:
 The subject is required to complete a sentence. It reveals his attitude
towards the topic.
 This technique permits the testing not only of words but of ideas as well,
and thus helps in developing hypothesis and construction of
questionnaires.
 In addition, this technique is also quick and easy to use. For example,
working with others all the time is subjects might respond with words,
such as mad, nervous, sick, tired (negative effect) or contended, good,
happy (positive effect).

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  Story completion test:
 The researcher contrives stories instead of sentences and asks the informants
to complete them.
3. Construction Techniques:
 Here the focus is on the product as it is related to the subject.
 The subject is required to produce or construct something at direction, usually a story
or a picture.
 There are several pictorial techniques used in construction technique. The important
ones include:
i. Thematic apperception test (TAT):
 The TAT consists of a set of pictures of a normal everyday event and
the respondents are asked to describe what they think the pictures
represent.

ii. Rosenzweig Test:

 This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have series of cartoons with
empty (no words inserted in) 'balloons'. The respondents are asked to
put their own words in an empty balloon space.

iii. Rorschach test:

 This test consists of 10 cards having prints of inkblots, wherein the
design happens to be symmetrical but meaningless. Respondents are
asked to describe what they perceive in them.

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 iv. Holtzman inkblot test (HIT):
 It is a modification of Rorschach test and consists of 45 cards, which
are based on colour, movement, shading, and other factors. One
response per card is interpreted at three levels of appropriateness.

v. Tomkins—Horn picture arrangement test:

 This test is designed for group administrations with five plates, each
containing three sketches that may be arranged in different ways to
portray sequences, which participants consider reasonable.

4. Expressive Technique:
 A subject is required to draw, role play, act, or paint a particular situation or
concept.

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  Expressive techniques generally concentrate on the way in which something is
constructed by the subject, as against on what it represents.

5. Ordering Choice:
 This type of projective technique is most frequently used in quantitative
researches.
 This technique is generally used informally in qualitative researches when the
subjects explain why specific things are 'most' or 'least' important, or to order,
rank, or categorize some factors related to topics under research.

Miscellaneous Type

a. Drawing a picture: Each participant is given a blank piece of paper and a pencil, and is
asked to draw a picture that might offer some insights on behaviour and attitudes.

b. Creating families: Using a family analogy, this technique is used to uncover

relationships between the target category and other categories.

c. Using fantasy and daydreams: Participants are asked to describe topic-related fantasies
and daydreams in order to surface characteristics or features that are important to the
study.

d. Clay modelling: Participants are provided with different colored clays and are requested
to give shape to them to reflect their feelings and thoughts.

Advantages of Projective Technique

 The amount, richness, and accuracy of the information collected is reliable to an

appreciating extent.
 If the research is related to personality, beliefs, values, motivation, or other aspects
related to individuals, their behaviours and unique cognitions, projective techniques
can make a specific contribution.
 These techniques give a view of the total functioning of individuals.

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  In the aspect of conventional focus group discussions or intensive individual
interviews, different projective techniques are generally employed. Once the subjects
are comfortable with each other and the moderator, these techniques may be
employed at various stages in the discussion process.
 At the start of a qualitative research project, projective techniques may be employed
as a basis of 'breaking the ice' in a focus group discussion.
 Rendering new energy in a group discussion and to lighten the tone or mood of the
proceedings, subjects enjoy projective techniques.
 The tasks provided to the subjects are usually unique and unstructured. With a wide
range of ideas, they are encouraged to respond and not provide right or wrong
answers to the exercise.
 In terms of academic or literacy skills, most of these techniques make very less
demand, They, generally, are largely independent of particular languages' do not
require reading, and in some cases, do not even involve speech at all. Thus, their
scope is wider than that of rating procedures or self-reporting.

Disadvantages of Projective Technique

 The interpretative skills are needed in the researchers to handle the complexity of
interpretation of projective techniques. Researchers who are skilled and trained in
interpretation of this type of information are required because the responses have little
meaning without careful interpretation.
 In the projective technique’s interpretation of responses, a considerable degree of
subjectivity is involved and the experts frequently do not agree among themselves.
 Highly skilled research staff has to be employed, hence projective techniques are
expensive to administer.
 With statistically significant samples, it is difficult to perform projective tests. This
restricts generalization of the results to the population as a whole.
 To project themselves into the roles that the researchers want them to do, it may be
difficult to get the subjects. Some subjects may disagree to take part in role-playing
exercises.

PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLECTION

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Data collection is a long and tedious process, which is generally done by researchers
themselves in small size studies; however, in large size studies, data collectors are used by
the investigators for data collection. Each study has different type of data to be collected and
involves several steps in data collection.

Data collection procedure involves following steps:

1. Operationally defining the data to be collected:

 It is essential for researcher to identify and clearly define the data to be
collected in the study
 Researcher must identify the nature of data to be collected whether they are
quantitative or qualitative in nature.
 Identifying the nature of data to be collected and operationally defining
them help the researcher in easy and effective selection of methods and
instruments of data collection.

2. Selecting appropriate methods of data collection:

 After clearly identifying and defining the data to be collected; the next step of data
collection is to select appropriate methods of data collection.
 There are different methods of data collection available such as self-reporting
methods (questionnaire, composite scales), interviews, observations and so on.
 Researcher has to select most suitable methods of data collection based on the
nature of data to be collected.

3. Selecting or developing data collection instrument(s):

 Once researcher makes a choice about most appropriate method of data collection,
the next step is to identify an existing tool(s) for data collection, which can be
used for present study.
 In case, the existing tool(s) does not exactly suit the present data collection needs,
it can be modified based on the needs of the present study.
 If no existing suitable tool is available for data collection for the present study;
then researcher has to develop a new tool(s) for data collection.
 New tool(s) may be developed with help of literature review and experts.

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  The modified tool(s) or newly developed tool(s) has to be given to experts for
ensuring the validity of data collection tool(s).

4. Try-out of data collection instrument(s) and procedure:

 Researcher either chose a data collection instrument, modify an existing tool or
develop a new data collection tool and decide the data collection methodology,
which need to be tried-out to identify practical difficulties may be faced in data
collection procedure and modifications are made accordingly in the data collection
instrument, as well as data collection methodology.
 The data collected during try-out are also used for calculating the reliability of
modified or newly developed instrument and further changes and retry-out may be
carried out based on calculated reliability score.

5. Developing data collection supportive forms and procedure:

 Once the researcher has a valid and reliable data collection instrument ready, he or
she also prepares the supportive forms needed for the data collection such as
informed consent, administrative permission letters, list, contact details of
participants and so on.

6. Training of data collectors:

 Investigators involve data collectors in most of the large studies.
 These data collectors need different levels of training based on their prior
experience of data collection.
 Training usually covers both general procedures (such as how to conduct a data
collection interview) and the specific to particular study (such as how to
administer particular specialized data collection instruments).
 A training manual is used for training of data collectors, which includes
background information of study (introduction, aim, objectives, hypotheses,
methodology of study), general instructions of data and all the copies of data
collection instruments and other supportive forms.

7. Inform the local authority for data collection and obtain due permissions:

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  Before actual data lection begins, it is the responsibility of the investigator to
inform the local authority in command and obtain their permission for data
collection, so that their support and cooperation can be obtained.

8. Data collection and data management:

 The final step in the procedure of data collection is data collection and data
management.
 This is the most crucial step of data collection procedure where consent is
obtained and data are collected carefully and if needed changes are made in data
collection methodologies based on ongoing needs of data collection procedure.
 For example, a researcher planned to undertake a phenomenological study of
pregnancy experience of women in prison, had obtained permission to tape record
interviews with pregnant inmates. When time came to begin the interviews, the
warden informed her that prison rules prohibited her from taking taped interviews
from the prison. The researcher needs to come up with an alternate plan of
recording data such as using hard-bound notebooks for recording experience of
inmates.

Sequence of data collection plan in quantitative study:

Determine what data need to be gathered

Are data needs extensive?

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 Prioritize the list of needs

What type of measures should be used for each variable (self-report, etc.)?

Are there existing instruments to capture the full conceptual definition of the variables?

Will the instrument yield high Do you have the skills and resources to
quality data? develop a new instrument?

Are the instruments Can the instruments be Develop Raise

suitable in terms of cost, adopted to yield more pretest/new problem
availability, norms, etc. suitable measures measure

Is permission to use the instrument needed?

Obtain permission Arrange measures in an appropriate sequence

Pretest entire instrument package

Make necessary revisions to instruments or sequencing

Develop data collection forms and protocols: develop data management procedures

Can data be collected by research alone?

Identify and hire appropriate data collectors

Train data collectors

Collect data Manage data according to data management plan

CONCLUSION

The most desirable approach with regard to the selection of the method depends on the nature
of the particular problem and on the time and resources (money and personnel) available
along with the desired degree of accuracy. More to above all this, much depends upon the

59
aptitude and understanding of the researcher. As accordance to Dr. A.L. Bowley’s comment
that “in collection of statistical data common sense is the chief requisite and experience the
chief teacher. That is to say ability and experience is the key in collection of data.

JOURNAL ABSTRACT

Text message link to online survey: A new highly effective method of longitudinal data
collection

Friedlander, E. B., Soon, R., Salcedo, J., Tschann, M., Fontanilla, T., & Kaneshiro, B. (2020).

60
Abstract

Objectives: To evaluate response rate to a text message link for an online survey as a method
of data collection over the course of a medication abortion.

Study design: This is a secondary analysis of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled

trial of 110 women initiating a medication abortion up to 70 days gestation. We sent a text
message containing a link to an online survey collecting pain scores, analgesic use, and
adverse effects at six time points over 72 h from time of misoprostol administration (0-, 2-,
6-, 12-, 24-, and 72-hours). Our primary outcome was the proportion of all text messages sent
for which an online survey response was received. Secondary outcomes included the
proportion of complete responses (all six surveys), responses received more than two hours
after text prompt (defined as late), and differences in response rate by time of day.

Results: From June 2015 to October 2016, we screened 241 women, and 110 were
randomized. We excluded three (1.2%) due to lack of a cellular phone with text capability,
and three (2.7%) were lost to follow-up after enrollment. We received a response to 95.9%
(633/660) of the delivered surveys, and 93.6% (103/110) of participants completed all six
surveys. Over three-quarters of all responses were received within two hours of the requested
time. Surveys sent before 08:00 were more likely to be returned late.

Conclusions: In this population of women seeking medication abortion, text message link to
online survey response appears to be an effective mode of data collection.

Implications: Text message prompts for an online survey may optimize longitudinal real-time
data collection response rates of sensitive data.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Denise F Polit, “Nursing Research Principles and Methods”, 7th edition, Lippincott
Williams and Wilkins
2. Denise F Polit, “Essentials of Nursing Research”, 7th edition, Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins

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3. Mamita Dey, “A guide to Nursing Research and Biostatistics”, 1st edition, 2016, Jaypee
4. Rose, Catherine, “Foundations of Nursing Research”,7th edition, 2018, Pearsons
5. Sharma K Suresh, “Nursing Research and Statistics”, 3rd edition,2018, Elsevier

Journal Reference:

1. Friedlander, E. B., Soon, R., Salcedo, J., Tschann, M., Fontanilla, T., & Kaneshiro, B.
(2020). Text message link to online survey: A new highly effective method of
longitudinal data collection. Contraception,101(4),244–248.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2019.11.008

Internet Reference:

1. http://www.prm.nau.edu/prm447/methods_of_data_collection_lesson.htm
2. https://www.slideshare.net/ChinmayRout/research-methodology-data-collection
3. https://www.slideshare.net/abhijeetbirari/data-collection-in-research-64721940

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