MECHATRONICS

ACCELERATION & VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

SENSORS
PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK
MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

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Introduction

• An accelerometer is a sensor designed to measure acceleration, or

rate of change of speed, due to motion, vibration, and impact
events.
• Accelerometers are normally mechanically attached or bonded to
an object or structure for which acceleration is to be measured.
• The accelerometer detects acceleration along one axis and is
insensitive to motion in orthogonal directions.
• Strain gages or piezoelectric elements constitute the sensing
element of an accelerometer, converting acceleration into a voltage
signal.
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 Vibration and Acceleration Measurement

• The design of an accelerometer is based on the Accelerometer Displacement

inertial effects associated with a mass connected housing transducer
to a moving object through a spring, damper, and
displacement sensor.
• As object accelerates, there is relative motion Seismic
𝑥𝑜
between the housing and the seismic mass. mass (m)
• A displacement transducer senses the relative
motion. k c
• From frequency response analysis one can relate 𝑥𝑖
the displacement transducer output to either the
Vibrating object
absolute position or acceleration of the object.
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Frequency Response of the Accelerometer

• Relative displacement (𝑥𝑟 ) between the seismic mass

and the object is 𝑥𝑟 = 𝑥𝑜 - 𝑥𝑖
• Using Newton’s second law, the equation of motion for 𝑥𝑜 m
the seismic mass is
𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑜 = −𝑘𝑥𝑟 − 𝑐 𝑥ሶ 𝑟
𝑚(𝑥ሷ 𝑟 +𝑥ሷ 𝑖 ) = −𝑘𝑥𝑟 − 𝑐 𝑥ሶ 𝑟 𝑘𝑥𝑟 𝑐𝑥ሶ 𝑟
𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑘𝑥𝑟 = −𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑖
Free body diagram
• This 2nd order differential equation relates the
measured relative displacement 𝑥𝑟 to the input
displacement 𝑥𝑖

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• 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑘𝑥𝑟 = −𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑖 • For a frequency response
analysis, let the i/p
𝑐 𝑘 displacement is 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 =
• 𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 𝑥ሶ 𝑟 + 𝑥 = −𝑥ሷ 𝑖
𝑚 𝑚 𝑟 𝑋𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 (of sinusoidal
𝑘 form)
• Let us define 𝜔𝑛2 = and • Since the system is linear, the
𝑚
𝑐2 𝑐 resulting relative o/p
𝜁2 = then 𝜁 = displacement will be 𝑥𝑟 𝑡 =
4𝑚𝑘 2 𝑚𝑘
𝑋𝑟 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 (sinusoidal of
• 𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥ሶ 𝑟 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥𝑟 = −𝑥ሷ 𝑖 the same frequency but
different phase)

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• 𝑥ሷ 𝑟 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥ሶ 𝑟 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥𝑟 = −𝑥ሷ 𝑖 𝑋𝑟 𝜔/𝜔𝑛 2
• = 𝜔 2
𝑋𝑖
• Take Lapalce of both sides 1−
𝜔𝑛
+𝑗(2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )

𝑋𝑟 𝑠2 • Simplifying
• = − 2 2
𝑋𝑖 𝑠 +2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛
𝜔 2
• Replace 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and simplify 𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛2 1−
𝜔𝑛
−𝑗(2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )
• = 2
𝑋𝑟 𝜔2 𝑋𝑖 𝜔 2 𝜔 2
1− +(2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )2
• = 2 𝜔𝑛
𝑋𝑖 −𝜔2 +𝑗(2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜔)+𝜔𝑛

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• Writing the real and imaginary portion separately
𝜔 2
𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛2 1− (2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )
𝜔𝑛
• = 2 −𝑗 2
𝑋𝑖 𝜔 2 𝜔 2 𝜔 2
1− +(2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )2 1− +(2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )2
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

• The amplitude ratio and phase angle can be found as

𝑋𝑟 𝜔/𝜔𝑛 2 (2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )
• = ; 𝜙 = − tan−1 𝜔 2
𝑋𝑖 2 1−
𝜔 2 𝜔𝑛
1− +(2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )2
𝜔𝑛

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• To relate the relative output displacement signal 𝑥𝑟 to the input
acceleration 𝑥ሷ 𝑖
• 𝑥𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡
• 𝑥ሷ 𝑖 𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑋𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡
• So amplitude of input acceleration is 𝜔2 𝑋𝑖 , so rewriting amplitude
ratio expression as
2
𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛 1
• = = 𝐻𝑎 (𝜔) so,
𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 2
𝜔 2
1− +(2𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑛 )2
𝜔𝑛

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 Phase response of an
ideal accelerometer

Amplitude response of an ideal

accelerometer

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• If we design the accelerometer so that 𝐻𝑎 (𝜔) ≈ 1 over a large
frequency range, then
• 𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 = 𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛2 /𝐻𝑎 (𝜔) becomes 𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 = 𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛2 i.e.,
• Input acceleration amplitude= 𝜔𝑛2 (relative displacement amplitude)
• The largest frequency range resulting in a unity amplitude ratio
occurs when the 𝜁= 0.707 and the 𝜔𝑛 is as large as possible.
• Also, a 𝜁 = 0.707 results in the best phase linearity for the system.
• One can make the natural frequency large by choosing a small
seismic mass and a large spring constant as 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑘/𝑚.

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• Thus we can have small package common to commercial
accelerometers.
• Equation 𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 = 𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛2 applies to every frequency component lying
within the bandwidth of the sensor.
• If an arbitrary i/p composed of a number of frequencies that lie
within the bandwidth, each frequency contributes to the signal
according to Equation 𝑋𝑖 𝜔2 = 𝑋𝑟 𝜔𝑛2 .
• So, the total acceleration, due to all frequency components, is also
directly related to the total measured relative displacement, i.e.,
• 𝑥ሷ 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥𝑟 (𝑡)
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Vibrometer
• The same spring-mass-damper
configuration used to measure
acceleration can also be
designed to measure
displacement.
𝑋𝑟
• Let us define 𝐻𝑑 (𝜔) =
𝑋𝑖
𝑋𝑟
• So 𝑋𝑖 =
𝐻𝑑 (𝜔)
• If we design the vibrometer so
that 𝐻𝑑 (𝜔) ≈ 1 over a large Amplitude response of a
frequency range, then 𝑋𝑖 = 𝑋𝑟 Vibrometer

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• The largest frequency range resulting
in a 𝐻𝑑 (𝜔) ≈ 1 occurs when the 𝜁=
0.707 and the natural frequency 𝜔𝑛 is
as small as possible.
• We can make the natural frequency
small by choosing a large seismic mass
and a small spring constant as 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑘/𝑚.
• This is why seismographs which
measure motion due to an earthquake
has large mass.

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Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Accelerometer
housing Damper
• The highest quality Preloaded
accelerometers use spring
piezoelectric crystal.
• When the vibrating object Mass
experiences acceleration, Conductive
relative displacement occurs Piezo-
coating crystal
between the object and the
mass due to the inertia of the Vibrating object
mass.
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• The resulting strain in the piezoelectric
crystal causes a displacement charge
between the crystal conductive coatings
as a result of the piezoelectric effect.
• This accelerometer requires no external
power supply.
• It measures acceleration in the mounted Commercially
direction (along the axis of spring) available piezoelectric
accelerometer

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• Piezoelectric crystal is effectively a capacitor
and a charge source that generates a charge Equivalent circuit for
q across the capacitor plates proportional to piezoelectric crystal.
the deformation of the crystal.
• Representing the accelerometer by a
Thevenin equivalent circuit the open circuit
𝑞
voltage V is 𝑉 =
𝐶𝑝
• Typically q is in the picocoulomb range, and Thevenin equivalent of
𝐶𝑝 in the picofarad range. piezoelectric crystal.
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• The sensitivity of the accelerometer is the ratio of the charge output to
the acceleration of the housing expressed in pC/g, (rms pC)/g, or (peak
pC)/g, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
• The o/p of the accelerometer is attached to a charge amplifier, which
converts the displacement charge on the crystal to a voltage that can be
measured.
• Accelerometers are calibrated in millivolts/ g for a specified charge
amplifier.
• In general, piezoelectric accelerometers cannot measure constant or
slowly changing accelerations.
• But they are excellent for dynamic measurements such as vibration and
impacts.

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Seminconductor Sensor and Microelectromechanical
(MEM) Devices
• Technique of producing IC’s developed new class
semiconductor sensors and actuators called MEM devices.
• In 1980 first MEM sensor was developed using IC technology
to etch silicon and produce a device that responds to
acceleration.
• It consists of tiny silicon cantilever with integrated
semiconductor strain gauge.
• Acceleration deflects the cantilever (due to inertia) and strain
gauge sense the magnitude of acceleration.

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• MEM accelerometers are now used in automobiles to control
airbag systems.
• MEM sensors include pressure sensors for automobile tire
pressure monitoring systems (TPMS).
• MEM sensors also include accelerometers and gyros for
detecting orientation and motion of video game and TV
controllers and portable electronic devices (e.g., smart
phones & cameras).

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• IC’s are made by a series of processes consisting of
– Photoresist lithographic layering.
– Light exposure
– Controlled chemical etching.
– Vapour deposition.
– Doping.
• Chemical itching process is important because tiny mechanical
devices can be created by a technique known as micromachining.
• Using carefully designed masks and timed immersion in chemical
baths, microminiature version of accelerometers, static electric
motor, and hydraulic or gas driven motors can be formed.

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• Semiconductor sensor designs are based on different
electromagnetic properties of doped silicon and gallium arsenide
and the variety of ways they function in different physical
environments.
• The piezoresistive characteristic of doped silicon, the coupling
between resistance change and deformation, is the basis for
semiconductor strain gauges and pressure sensors.
• The piezoresistive effect describes the changing electrical
resistance of a material due to applied mechanical stress.
• The piezoresistive effect differs from the piezoelectric effect.
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• In contrast to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoresistive effect only causes
a change in resistance; it does not produce an electric potential.
• The magnetic characteristic of doped silicon, principally the Hall effect, are
the basis of semiconductor magnetic transistors where the collector
current can be modulated by an external magnetic field.
• Electromagnetic waves and nuclear radiation induce electrical effects in
semiconductors forming the basis of light color sensor and other radiation
detectors.
• The thermal properties of semiconductors are the basis for themistors,
thermal conductivity sensors, humidity sensors, and temperature sensor
IC’s.
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Surface Acoustic Waves (SAW)
Interdigital
transducer Reflector grating
• Important class of MEM sensor
• Consists of flat piezoelectric
substrate with metallic
patterns lithographically
deposited on the surface. Piezoelectric
substrate
• These patterns form Antenna
interdigital transducer (IDT)
and reflection coupler grating.
Transmitted pulse Reflected signal
pattern
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• An interdigital transducer (IDT), or interdigitated transducer, is a device
which consists of two interlocking comb-shaped metallic coatings (in the
fashion of a zipper) which are applied to a piezoelectric substrate, such as
quartz or lithium niobite. IDTs are primarily used to convert microwaves to
surface acoustic waves (SAW).
• An input signal applied to an interdigital transducer excites a deformation
in the piezoelectric substrate generating an acoustic wave that propagates
on the surface.
• Conversely a SAW can induce a voltage in an interdigital transducer (IDT)
resulting in o/p signal.

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Example

• A wireless identification system.

• Device is used in automatic highway toll both to identify the vehicles.
• MMS (Micro measurement system) has sensors, signal processing circuit,
together with a hybrid circuit that has transducer, A/D converters,
programmable memory and microprocessors.
• A transmitter sends out a pulse that is received by the passive SAW device
via antenna.
• The resulting SAW wave is reflected as a pattern of pulses unique to the
spacing within the reflector grating.
• The pulses are retransmitted through the same antenna back to the
receiver allowing the identification of SAW device.
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• Silicon micromachining technology has helped the development of
many microsensors.
• Vision microsensors have found applications in medical technology.
• A fiberscope of approximately 0.2 mm in diameter has been developed
to inspect flaws inside tubes.
• A microtactile sensor, which uses laser light to detect the contact
between a catheter and the inner wall of blood vessels during insertion
that has sensitivity in the range of 1 mN.
• Similarly, the progress in the area of nanotechnology has led the
development of nanosensors. This helped in miniaturization and are
expected to open new avenues for sensing applications.

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References

• D.G. Alciatore & Michael B. Histand, Introduction to

Mechatronics, Mc Graw Hill, 2014.

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Thank You

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