MECHATRONICS

DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSORS I

PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK

MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

1
Displacement, Position & Proximity Sensors

• Displacement:
– Measures amount by which the object has moved.
• Position:
– Measures position of the some object with respect to
some reference position.
• Proximity:
– Tells whether object has moved within some particular
distance or not.
2
• Potentiometer type
• Strain gauge element
• Capacitive element
• Differential transformer
• Eddy current proximity sensors
• Inductive proximity switches
• Optical encoders
• Pneumatic sensors
• Proximity switches
• Hall effect sensors
3
Selection Criteria

• A number of static and dynamic factors must be considered in

selecting a suitable sensor to measure the desired physical
parameter. Following is a list of typical factors:
– Range
– Resolution
– Accuracy
• Precision
– Ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given accuracy
• Sensitivity
4
• Linearity
– Percentage of deviation from the best-fit linear calibration
curve
• Response time
• Bandwidth
—Frequency at which the output magnitude drops by 3 dB
• Resonance
– The frequency at which the output magnitude peak occurs

5
• Operating temperature
– The range in which the sensor performs as specified
• Dead band
– The range of input for which there is no output
• Signal-to-noise ratio
– Ratio between the magnitudes of the signal and the noise
at the output

6
Potentiometer

• Potentiometer is a displacement measuring device.

• It is a variable resistance device whose output
resistance changes as the wiper connected to a
moving object moves across a resistive surface.
• This can be used for linear or rotary displacements.
• Here the displacement is converted into a potential
difference.

7
• Constant input voltage 𝑉𝑖 between terminal 1 and 3
• Output voltage 𝑉𝑜 between terminal 2 and 3.
8
• Vi is the input voltage, Vo is the
output voltage, R1 and R2 are
variable resistances, and RL is
the internal resistance of the
voltmeter. 𝑥
Thus, 𝑅1 = 1 − 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Potentiometer calibration 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑥
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
• when x = 0, R1 = Rmax; R2 = 0 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥

• when x = xmax, R2 = Rmax, R1 = 0.

9
 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑜
• 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑖𝑅1 so 𝑖 =
𝑅1
𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑜
• 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑖𝑅2 = 𝑅2
𝑅1
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑥
• 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑖
• 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑥
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥

10
Strain Gauge

• The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal

foil strip or a strip of semiconductor material which can be
pasted on surfaces.
• When subjected to strain, its resistance R changes.
∆𝑅
• The fractional change in resistance ( ) is proportional to
𝑅
∆𝑅 ∆𝑙 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
strain 𝜀 i.e., = 𝐺𝜀 = =
𝑅 𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
• G is constant of proportionality called gauge factor.
11
• G for metal wire/foil strain gauges with the metals is about 2
• G for silicon p type semiconductor stain gauge is about +100
• G for silicon n type semiconductor stain gauge is about -100
• G is supplied by manufacturer.
• Disadvantage is that resistance not only changes with strain
but also with temperature.

12
Commercially available form: Metal foil
13
Commercially available form: Semiconductor type
14
• Strain gauges are put at the top and bottom portions of a cantilever beam.
• In the undeflected beam position, these strain gauges when connected as
the arms of the Wheatstone bridge circuit cause the bridge to be balanced
with no reading in the Galvanometer

15
• Case when an end load (pure moment or pure bending load) has been
applied on the cantilever causing the bending of the cantilever with strain
gauge 1 subjected to stretching whereas strain gauge 2 is subjected to
compression.

16
• In this case, the beam bends with
constant curvature along its length and as
a result, the resistances R1 and R2 in the
bridge circuit change.
• The Galvanometer reading then becomes
non-zero and the bridge can be balanced
by varying the resistances R3 and R4 so
that the Galvanometer gives zero reading.
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅+∆𝑅 ∆𝑅
• = = so 𝜀 =
𝑅2 𝑅4 𝑅−∆𝑅 𝑅

17
Capacitive Elements
d
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate
𝜀 𝜀 𝐴 Plate moves
capacitor is given by 𝐶 = 𝑟 0
𝑑 and changes d
• 𝜀𝑟 is relative permittivity of the Overlap area
dielectric between the plates
• 𝜀0 is a constant called permittivity Plate moves
of free space and changes A
• A is the area of overlap between
the two plates
• d is plate separation. Dielectric
moves

18
• Push pull displacement sensor
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐴
• 𝐶1 = 𝐶1
𝑑+𝑥
x 𝐶2
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐴
• 𝐶2 =
𝑑−𝑥
• 𝐶1 is in one arm of an ac
bridge and 𝐶2 in the other,
then resulting out of balance
voltage is proportional to x
19
Commercially available form
20
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• LVDT is a transducer for

measuring linear displacement.
• It consists of primary and
secondary windings and a
movable iron core.
• It functions much like a
transformer, where voltages are
induced in the secondary coil in
response to excitation in the
primary coil.

21
• The LVDT must be excited by an AC
signal to induce an AC response in the
secondary.
• The core position can be determined
by measuring the secondary response.
• With two secondary coils connected in
the series-opposing configuration as
shown, the output signal describes
both the magnitude and direction of
the core motion.

22
• There is a midpoint in the core’s
position where the voltage induced in
each coil is of the same amplitude and
180 out of phase, producing a “null”
output.

23
• As the core moves from the null
position, the output amplitude
increases a proportional
amount over a linear range
around the null
• Therefore, by measuring the
output voltage amplitude, we
can easily and accurately
determine the magnitude of the
core displacement

24
• To determine the direction of
the core displacement, the
secondary coils can be
connected to a demodulation
circuit.
• The diode bridges in this
circuit produce a positive or
negative rectified sine wave,
depending on which side of
the null position the core is
located

25
Commercially available form
26
Optical Encoders

• An encoder is a device that converts a linear or angular

displacement into a sequence of pulses.
• By counting these pulses we can obtain the linear or
angular displacement.
• Encoders come in two basic forms, i.e., incremental
encoders and absolute encoders.
• Incremental encoders give the rotation with respect to
some reference position whereas absolute encoders
give the actual position.
27
Incremental Encoder

• A beam of light (from a LED) passes

through slots in a disc. This beam of
light is detected by a light sensor
(photo resistor) placed at the other
side of the disc.
• When the disc rotates, a pulsed output
is produced by the photo resistor.
• The number of pulses received by
photo resistor is proportional to the
angle through which the disc has
rotated.
28
• Actually, three concentric tracks with three
sensors are used in incremental encoders
where 𝛿 is the angle subtended by each hole.
• The inner track has one hole and it locates the
home position of the disc.
• The middle and outer track have equally
spaced holes around the periphery of the disc.
• Holes in the middle track are at an offset equal
to half the width of a hole in comparison to
outer track holes.

29
• If the shaft rotates in clockwise direction then
the pulses in the outer track lead those in the
middle track whereas if the shaft rotates in
anti-clock wise direction the pulses in the
outer track lag those in the middle track.
• This allows identification of the direction of
rotation.

30
References

• W. Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in

Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (6th Edition), Pearson,
2015
• R. Merzouki, A. K. Samantaray, P. M. Pathak, B. Ould
Bouamama, Intelligent Mechatronic Systems: Modeling,
Control and Diagnosis, ISBN 978-1-4471-4627-8, 2013,
Springer, London
• D.G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand, Introduction to
Mechatronics, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2012.
31
Thank You

32