POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Code: (13A03804) – R13 Syllabus

UNIT I
SOURCES OF ENERGY AND POWER PLANT ECONOMICS
Contents:
Introduction to The Sources Of Energy – Resources and Development of Power in India.

Layouts of Steam, Hydel, Diesel, MHD, Nuclear and Gas Turbine Power Plants - Combined Power Cycles -
Comparison and Selection

Power Plant Economics and Environmental Considerations: Capital Cost, Investment of Fixed Charges,
Operating Costs, General Arrangement of Power Distribution, Load Curves, Load Duration Curve.
Definitions of Connected Load, Maximum Demand, Demand Factor, Average Load, Load Factor, Diversity
Factor – Tariff - Related Exercises.

Effluents from Power Plants and Impact on Environment – Pollutants and Pollution Standards – Methods of
Pollution Control. Inspection And Safety Regulations.

Introduction to Sources of Energy:

Various sources of Energy available in nature are as follows:
1.Fuels
2.Energy stored in water
3.Nuclear energy
4.Wind power
5.Solar energy
6.Tidal power
7.Geothermal energy
8.Thermoelectric power

Fuels:
Fuels maybe chemical or nuclear. A chemical fuel substance releases heat energy on combustion. The
principal combustible elements of each fuel are carbon and hydrogen. Though sulphur is a combustible
element its presence in the fuel is considered to be undesirable.

Classification of fuels
Based on nature of availability fuels are classified as i)primary fuels and ii)secondary fuels.
i) Primary Fuels: Fuels which are readily available in nature are called primary fuels.
ii) Secondary fuels: Fuels which are prepared are called as secondary fuels.

Based on the state which it is available fuels classified as i)Solids ii)Liquids and iii) Gases.
Solid fuels: Coal is an example of solid fuels.
Coal: Its main constituents are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, moisture and ash. Coal passes
through different stages during its formation from vegetation.

Stages of coal formation are listed as follows: Plant debris - Peat - Lignite - Brown coal - sub bituminous
Coal - Bituminous Coal - Semi Bituminous Coal - Semi Anthracite Coal - Anthracite Coal - Graphite

Liquid fuels:
Petroleum is a best example of liquid fuel. Other liquid fuels are kerosene, fuel oil, colloidal fuels and
alcohol. Heavy fuel oil or crude oil is imported and refined at different refineries. The refining of crude oil

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supplies the most important product called petrol and the remaining extracts are used depending upon their
properties.

Gaseous Fuels:
Examples of gaseous fuels, natural gas, coal gas, Coke oven gas, blast furnace gas, producer gas, water gas,
Sewer gas.

Energy stored in water or Hydel Energy:

Energy contained in flowing streams of water is a form of mechanical energy. Exist as kinetic energy of a
moving stream or potential energy of water at some elevation. Hydroelectric power plants are constructed to
take the advantage of this energy which is stored in water.

Nuclear energy:
One of the outstanding facts about nuclear power is large amount of energy that can be released from a small
mass of active material. Complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium contains an energy equivalent to 45000 tons of
coal or 2000 tons of oil. The nuclear power is not only available in abundance but it is cheaper than the
power generated by conventional sources.

Wind power:
In this type of energy the energy contained in blowing wind is taken advantage by using a propeller and rotor
which is suitable for the generation of electrical energy on rotation. This can also be utilised for lifting of
water from deep Wells, charging of storage batteries etc.

Solar Energy:
The heat or the energy received from the radiation which is emitted from the sun is taken advantage in solar
energy by using reflectors or concentrators are used to track the energy received from the sun continuously
and divert to the focal point where the heating of water or working fluid is performed. In addition to the
generation of electricity, solar energy is also used to boil water, produce steam and industrial heating
applications.

Tidal power:
The Rise and fall of tide offer means for storing water at the Rise and discharging the same at the Fall. The
head of water available under such cases is very low but with increased catchment area considerable amount
of power can be generated at a negligible cost. To harness the tide a Dam would be built across the mouth of
the bay in which a Gate and a low head hydraulic turbines would be installed. At the time of high tide the
gate opens and after storing the water in tidal basin the gate gets closed. due to hydraulic head between the
basin and sea water in low tide,water flow back to the sea through turbine installed in the dam. With this
type of arrangement generation of electric power is not continuous however by using reversible water
turbine the turbine can be run continuously.

Geothermal Energy:
The energy which is present beneath the surface of the earth is called geothermal energy. It may be in the
form of steam or hot water. The geothermal energy can be directly applied for operating of a turbine or in an
indirect method by heating the working fluid which operates in a power cycle. The geothermal Energy is
extracted from the fissures or erupted volcanoes. It can also be utilised by making deep drilling to the
surface of the earth to the point where the geothermal Energy is present and can be extracted for making it
useful.

Thermo – Electric Power:

According to Seebeck effect, when two ends of a dissimilar metal loop are held at different temperatures, an
electromotive force is developed and the current flows in loop. This method by selection of suitable material
can be used for power generation which is called thermoelectric power generation.

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Resources and development of power in India:

Economic growth in India being dependent on power sector has necessitated an enormous growth in
electricity demand over the last two decades. In 1947 total power generation capacity was only 1360
megawatt, by 1991 it has grown up to 65000 megawatt of which 69 % was generated in thermal plants. As
on total generation capacity in India was 308 Gigawatts. Power generated through Thermal sector
contributes upto 2,10,675 MW as on date.
Hydropower development as stated or not so environmentally friendly as earlier believed they can
cause conflict over usage of lands and the damage to ecology. The total Indian hydro potential as estimated
by the central electricity authority as 84000 megawatt. The installed capacity as on 2016 is through hydro
power plant is 42783 MW.
Nuclear power promotion has almost ceased in many areas of the world as the consequence of
growing public concern about the safety. In India about 2.5% of the total power generation is achieved by
using Nuclear sector amounting to 5780MW. In addition to the existing plants of uranium many researches
are being taken up in India to introduce fast breeder programmes using plutonium and thorium fuels.
The state of the art technology for utilization of renewable sources such as solar, wind, biomass,
OTEC etc are also gaining attraction and many research programmes were being initiated to produce more
amount of power through this sector. As on 2016 total of 42727MW of power is produced through
renewable sources.

Sector Generation Capacity in MW’s

Thermal Power Plants (Coal, Gas, Diesel) 2,10,675
Hydro Power Plants 42,783
Nuclear Power Plants 5,780
Other types of Power Plants 42,727
Total Generation Capacity 3,01,965
Layout of Steam Power Plant:
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns
into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator.
After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was
heated, this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is
due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert
forms of heat energy into electricity. Some thermal power plants also deliver heat energy for industrial
purposes, for district heating, or for desalination of water as well as delivering electrical power. A large
proportion of CO2 is produced by the worlds fossil fired thermal power plants, efforts to reduce these
outputs are various and widespread.

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The four main circuits one would come across in any thermal power plant layout are
- Coal and Ash Circuit
- Air and Gas Circuit
- Feed Water and Steam Circuit
- CoolingWater Circuit
Coal and Ash Circuit: Coal and Ash circuit in a thermal power plant layout mainly takes care of feeding
the boiler with coal from the storage for combustion. The ash that is generated during combustion is
collected at the back of the boiler and removed to the ash storage by scrap conveyors. The combustion in the
Coal and Ash circuit is controlled by regulating the speed and the quality of coal entering the grate and the
damper openings.
Air and Gas Circuit: Air from the atmosphere is directed into the furnace through the air preheated by the
action of a forced draught fan or induced draught fan. The dust from the air is removed before it enters the
combustion chamber of the thermal power plant layout. The exhaust gases from the combustion heat the air,
which goes through a heat exchanger and is finally let off into the environment.
Feed Water and Steam Circuit: The steam produced in the boiler is supplied to the turbines to generate
power. The steam that is expelled by the prime mover in the thermal power plant layout is then condensed in
a condenser for re-use in the boiler. The condensed water is forced through a pump into the feed water
heaters where it is heated using the steam from different points in the turbine. To make up for the lost steam
and water while passing through the various components of the thermal power plant layout, feed water is
supplied through external sources. Feed water is purified in a purifying plant to reduce the dissolve salts that
could scale the boiler tubes.
Cooling Water Circuit: The quantity of cooling water required to cool the steam in a thermal power plant
layout is significantly high and hence it is supplied from a natural water source like a lake or a river. After
passing through screens that remove particles that can plug the condenser tubes in a thermal power plant
layout, it is passed through the condenser where the steam is condensed. The water is finally discharged back
into the water source after cooling. Cooling water circuit can also be a closed system where the cooled water
is sent through cooling towers for re-use in the power plant. The cooling water circulation in the condenser
of a thermal power plant layout helps in maintaining a low pressure in the condenser all throughout.
All these circuits are integrated to form a thermal power plant layout that generates electricity to
meet our needs.

Advantages:
 Generation of power is continuous.
 Initial cost low compared to hydel plant.
 Less space required.
 This can be located near the load centre so that the transmission losses are reduced.
 It can respond to rapidly changing loads.

Disadvantages:
 Long time required for installation.
 Transportation and handling of fuels major difficulty.
 Efficiency of plant is less.
 Power generation cost is high compared to hydel power plant.
 Maintenance cost is high.
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Layout of Hydro Electric Power Plant:

Dam: Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and form a reservoir. The
Reservoir stores the water flowing down the river. This water is diverted to turbines in power
Stations. The dams collect water during the rainy season and stores it, thus allowing for a steady flow
through the turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used for controlling floods and irrigation. The dams
should be water-tight and should be able to withstand the pressure exerted by the water on it. There are
different types of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams and buttress dams. The height of water in the dam is
called head race.
Spillway: A spillway as the name suggests could be called as a way for spilling of water from dams. It is
used to provide for the release of flood water from a dam. It is used to prevent over toping of the dams which
could result in damage or failure of dams. Spillways could be controlled type or uncontrolled type. The
uncontrolled types start releasing water upon water rising above a particular level. But in case of the
controlled type, regulation of flow is possible.
Penstock and Tunnels: Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines inside
power station. They are usually made of steel and are equipped with gate systems. Water under high pressure
flows through the penstock and reaches the turbine for power generation. A tunnel serves the same purpose
as a penstock. It is used when an obstruction is present between the dam and power station such as a
mountain.
Surge Tank: Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conveying system. It serves the purpose of
reducing water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to pipes. The sudden surges of water in
penstock is taken by the surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the collected water
thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.
Power Station: Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator. The water brought to the power
station rotates the vanes of the turbine producing torque and rotation of turbine shaft. This rotational torque
is transferred to the generator and is converted into electricity.
The used water is released through the tail race. The difference between head race and tail race is
called gross head and by subtracting the frictional losses we get the net head available to the turbine for
generation of electricity.

Advantages:
 Water the working fluid is natural and available plenty.
 Life of the plant is very long.
 Running cost and maintenance are very low.
 Highly reliable.
 Running cost is low.
 Maintenance and operation costs are very less.
 No fuel transport problem.

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  No ash disposal problem.

Disadvantages:
 Initial cost of plant is very high.
 Power generation depends on quantity of water available which depends on rainfall.
 Transmission losses are very high.
 More time is required for erection.

Layout of Diesel Power Plant:

Diesel power plants produce power from a diesel engine. Diesel electric plants in the range of 2 to 50 MW
capacities are used as central stations for small electric supply networks and used as a standby to
hydroelectric or thermal plants where continuous power supply is needed. Diesel power plant is not
economical compared to other power plants.
The diesel power plants are cheaply used in the fields mentioned below.
1. Mobile electric plants
2. Standby units
3. Emergency power plants
4. Starting stations of existing plants
5. Central power station etc.
Layout:

Figure shows the arrangements of the engine and its auxiliaries in a diesel power plant.
The major components of the diesel power plant are:
Engine: Engine is the heart of a diesel power plant. Engine is directly connected through a gear box to the
generator. Generally two-stroke engines are used for power generation. Now a days, advanced super & turbo
charged high speed engines are available for power production.
Air supply system: Air inlet is arranged outside the engine room. Air from the atmosphere is filtered by air
filter
and conveyed to the inlet manifold of engine. In large plants supercharger/turbocharger is used for
increasing the pressure of input air which increases the power output.
Exhaust System: This includes the silencers and connecting ducts. The heat content of the exhaust gas is
utilized in a turbine in a turbocharger to compress the air input to the engine.
Fuel System: Fuel is stored in a tank from where it flows to the fuel pump through a filter. Fuel is injected
to the engine as per the load requirement.
Cooling system: This system includes water circulating pumps, cooling towers, water filter etc. Cooling
water is circulated through the engine block to keep the temperature of the engine in the safe range.
Lubricating system: Lubrication system includes the air pumps, oil tanks, filters, coolers and pipe lines.
Lubricant is given to reduce friction of moving parts and reduce the wear and tear of the engine parts.
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Starting System: There are three commonly used starting systems, they are;
1) A petrol driven auxiliary engine
2) Use of electric motors.
3) Use of compressed air from an air compressor at a pressure of 20 Kg/cm.
Governing system: The function of a governing system is to maintain the speed of the engine constant
irrespective of load on the plant. This is done by varying fuel supply to the engine according to load.

Advantages:
 Diesel power plants can be quickly installed and commissioned.
 Quick starting.
 Requires minimum labour.
 Plant is smaller, operate at high efficiency and simple compared to steam power plant.
 It can be located near to load centres.

Disadvantages:
 Capacity of plant is low.
 Fuel, repair and maintenance cost are high.
 Life of plant is low compared to steam power plant.
 Lubrication costs are very high.
 Not guaranteed for operation under continuous overloads.
 Noise is a serious problem in diesel power plant.
 Diesel power plant cannot be constructed for large scale.

Layout of Nuclear Power Plant:

Nuclear power is the use of sustained or controlled nuclear fission to generate heat and do useful work.
Nuclear Electric Plants, Nuclear Ships and Submarines use controlled nuclear energy to heat water and
produce steam. Scientists are experimenting with fusion energy for future generation, but these experiments
do not currently generate useful energy.
Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity, with
the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity. Also, more
than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built. Just as many conventional thermal power
stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear
power plants convert the energy released from the nucleus of an atom, typically via nuclear fission.
LAYOUT:

Nuclear Reactor: A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which heat is produced due to nuclear fission chain
reaction.

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Fig. shows the various parts of reactor, which are as follows:
1. Nuclear Fuel
2. Moderator
3. Control Rods
4. Reflector
5. Reactors Vessel
6. Biological Shielding
7. Coolant.
Nuclear Fuel: Nuclear reactor Fuel of a nuclear reactor should be fissionable material which can be defined
as an element or isotope whose nuclei can be caused to undergo nuclear fission by nuclear bombardment and
to produce a fission chain reaction. It can be one or all of the following U233, U235 and Pu239. Natural
uranium found in earth crust contains three isotopes namelyU234, U235 and U238
and their average percentage is as follows:
U238 - 99.3%
U235 - 0.7%
U234 - Trace
Moderator: In the chain reaction the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons. These fast moving
neutrons are far less effective in causing the fission of U235 and try to escape from the reactor. To improve
the utilization of these neutrons their speed is reduced. It is done by colliding them with the nuclei of other
material which is lighter, does not capture the neutrons but scatters them. Each such collision causes loss of
energy, and the speed of the fast moving neutrons is reduced. Such material is called Moderator. The slow
neutrons (Thermal Neutrons) so produced are easily captured by the nuclear fuel and the chain reaction
proceeds smoothly. Graphite, heavy water and beryllium are generally used as moderator
Control Rods: The Control and operation of a nuclear reactor is quite different from a fossil fuelled (coal or
oil fired) furnace. The energy produced in the reactor due to fission of nuclear fuel during chain reaction is
so much that if it is not controlled properly the entire core and surrounding structure may melt and
radioactive fission products may come out of the reactor thus making it uninhabitable. This implies that we
should have some means to control the power of reactor. This is done by means of control rods.
Control rods in the cylindrical or sheet form are made of boron or cadmium. These rods can be
moved in and out of the holes in the reactor core assembly. Their insertion absorbs more neutrons and damps
down the reaction and their withdrawal absorbs less neutrons. Thus power of reaction is controlled by
shifting control rods which may be done manually or automatically.
Reflector: The neutrons produced during the fission process will be partly absorbed by the fuel rods,
moderator, coolant or structural material etc. Neutrons left unabsorbed will try to leave the reactor core
never to return to it and will be lost. Such losses should be minimized. It is done by surrounding the reactor
core by a material called reflector which will send the neutrons back into the core. The returned neutrons can
then cause more fission and improve the neutrons economy of' the reactor. Generally the reflector is made up
of graphite and beryllium.
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Reactor Vessel: It is a. strong walled container housing the cure of the power reactor. It contains moderator,
reflector, thermal shielding and control rods.
Biological Shielding: Shielding is required in the radioactive zones of the reactor to protect the operating
men from the harmful effects of possible radiation hazard. During fission of nuclear fuel, alpha particles,
beta particles, deadly gamma rays and neutrons are produced. Out of these gamma rays are of main
significance. A protection must be provided against them. Thick layers of lead or concrete are provided
round the reactor for stopping the gamma rays. Thick layers of metals or plastics are sufficient to stop the
alpha and beta particles.
Coolant: Coolant flows through and around the reactor core. It is used to transfer the large amount of heat
produced in the reactor due to fission of the nuclear fuel during chain reaction. The coolant either transfers
its heat to another medium or if the coolant used is water it takes up the heat and gets converted into steam in
the reactor which is directly sent to the turbine.

Advantages:
 Need less space.
 Fuel consumption is small, hence transportation and storage charges are low.
 Well suited for large power demands.
 Less work men required.
Disadvantages
 Capital cost very high.
 Radioactive wastes, if not disposed properly have adverse effect on environment.
 Maintenance cost high.

Layout of Gas Power Plant:

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an
upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed with air and ignited. In the high
pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The products of
the combustion are forced into the turbine section. There, the high velocity and volume of the gas flow is
directed through a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and
drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the turbine comes from the reduction in the
temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas.

Layout: The gas turbine power plants which are used in electric power industry are classified into two
groups as per the cycle of operation.
(1) Open cycle gas turbine.
(2) Closed cycle gas turbine.
Open cycle gas turbine:

1- Atmospheric Air

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2- Compressed Atmospheric Air
3- Combustion Products
4- Exhaust gases.
The compressed atmospheric air and the fuel get mixed, combusted in the combustor. The heated
gases coming out of combustion chamber are then passed to the turbine where it expands doing mechanical
work. Part of the power developed by the turbine is utilized in driving the compressor and other accessories
and remaining is used for power generation. Since ambient air enters into the compressor and gases coming
out of turbine are exhausted into the atmosphere, the working medium must be replaced continuously. This
type of cycle is known as open cycle gas turbine plant and is mainly used in majority of gas turbine power
plants as it has many inherent advantages.

Advantages:
 Warm-up time is very less.
 Low weight and size.
 Almost any hydrocarbon fuels can be used.
 Open cycle plants occupy comparatively little space.
 Very economical when compared to other plants.
 Independent of separate cooling medium.

Disadvantages:
 The part load efficiency of the open cycle plant decreases rapidly as the considerable percentage of
power developed by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
 The system is sensitive to the component efficiency; particularly that of compressor.
 The open cycle plant is sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature, pressure and
humidity.
 The open-cycle gas turbine plant has high air rate compared to the other cycles.
 It is essential that the dust should be prevented from entering into the compressor.
 The deposition of the carbon and ash on the turbine blades is not at all desirable as it also reduces the
efficiency of the turbine.
Closed cycle gas turbine:

1- Low PressureWorking Fluid @ Low temperature

2- High PressureWorking Fluid
3- Fuel +Working Fluid mixture@ High Pressure and Temperature
4- Low PressureWorking Fluid @ Temperature T4 < Temperature T3

In closed cycle gas turbine plant, the working fluid (air or any other suitable gas) coming out from
compressor is heated in a heater by an external source at constant pressure. The high temperature and high-
pressure air coming out from the external heater is passed through the gas turbine. The fluid coming out
from the turbine is cooled to its original temperature in the cooler using external cooling source before
passing to the compressor. The working fluid is continuously used in the system without its change of phase
and the required heat is given to the working fluid in the heat exchanger.

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Advantages:
 The closed cycle plant is not sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air temperature, pressure and
humidity.
 The closed cycle avoids erosion of the turbine blades due to the contaminated gases and fouling of
compressor blades due to dust.
 The need for filtration of the incoming air which is a severe problem in open cycle plant is
completely eliminated.
 Load variation is usually obtained by varying the absolute pressure and mass flow of the circulating
medium, while the pressure ratio, the temperatures and the air velocities remain almost constant.
 The density of the working medium can be maintained high by increasing internal pressure range,
therefore, the compressor and turbine are smaller for their rated output. The high density of the
working fluid further increases the heat transfer properties in the heat exchanger.
 As indirect heating is used in closed cycle plant, the inferior oil or solid fuel can be used in the
furnace and these fuels can be used more economically because these are available in abundance.
 The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful life.

Disadvantages:
 The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling water is required in
the pre-cooler.
 Higher internal pressures involve complicated design of all components and high quality material is
required which increases the cost of the plant.
 The response to the load variations is poor compared to the open-cycle plant.
 It requires very big heat-exchangers as the heating of workings fluid is done indirectly.
Layout of Magento Hydro Dynamic (MHD) Plant:
MHD power generation is a new system of electric power generation which is said to be of high
efficiency and low pollution. In advanced countries MHD generator are widely used but in developing
countries like India it is still under construction. This construction work is in progress at Tiruchirapalli in
Tamilnadu under joint efforts of BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre), BHEL, Associated Cement
Corporation and Russian technologists.
As its name implies, magneto-hydro-dynamic (MHD) is concerned with the flow of
conducting fluid in presence of magnetic and electric field. This fluid may be gas at elevated temperature or
liquid metal like sodium or potassium. A MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy of fuel
directly into electric energy without a conventional electric generator. The basic difference between
conventional
Generator and MHD generator is in the nature of conductor.
Principle of MHD Power Generation:

When an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field an emf is induced in it,
which produces an electric current. This is the principle of the conventional generator also, where the
conductors consists of copper strips.

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 In MHD generator the solid conductors are replaced by a gaseous conductor; i.e.an ionized gas. If
such gas is passed at high velocity through a powerful magnetic field, a current is generated and can extract
by placing electrodes in a suitable position in the stream.
Layout:

A MHD conversion is known as direct energy conversion because it produces electricity directly
from heat source without the necessity of the additional stage of steam
generation as in a steam power plant. An ionized gas is employed as a conducting field.
Ionization is produced either by thermal means i.e. by an elevated temperature or by seeding with substance
like cesium or potassium vapour which ionize at relatively low temperature. The atom of seed element split
off electrons. The presence of negatively charge electrons make the carrier gas an electrical conductor.

Advantages:
 Large amount of power is generated.
 No moving parts, so more reliable.
 Closed cycle system produces power, free of pollution.
 Ability to reach its full power as soon as started.
 Size of the plant is considerably small.
 Low overall operation cost.
 Better utilization of fuel.
Disadvantages
 Needs very large magnets (high expensive).
 Very high friction and heat transfer losses.
 It suffers from the reverse flow of electrons through the conducting fluids around the ends of the
magnetic field.

Combined Cycle Power Plants:

In electric power generation a combined cycle is an assembly of heat engines that work off the same
source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy, which in turn usually drives electrical generators. The
principle is that the exhaust of one heat engine is used as the heat source for another, thus extracting more
useful energy from the heat, increasing the system's overall efficiency. This works because heat engines are
only able to use a portion of the energy their fuel generates (usually less than 50%).
The objective of this approach is to use all of the heat energy in a power system at the different
temperature levels at which it becomes available to produce work, or steam, or the heating of air or water,
thereby rejecting a minimum of energy waste. The best approach is the use of combined cycles. There may

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be various combinations of the combined cycles depending upon the place or country requirements. Even
nuclear power plant may be used in the combined cycles.
The common types of combined power plants are:
i. Gas Turbine – Steam Turbine Combined cycle power plant
ii. MHD – Steam Turbine Combined cycle power plant
iii. Thermoionic –Steam Turbine Combined cycle power plant
iv. Thermoelectric – Steam Turbine Combined cycle power plant
v. Nuclear – Steam Turbine Combined cycle power plant

GT-ST Combined Power plants:

It has been found that a considerable amount of heat energy goes as a waste with the exhaust of the
gas turbine. This energy must be utilized. The complete use of the energy available to a system is called the
total energy approach. The remaining heat (e.g., hot exhaust fumes) from combustion is generally wasted.
Combining two or more thermodynamic cycle’s results in improved overall efficiency, reducing fuel costs.
In stationary power plants, a successful, common combination is the Brayton cycle (in the form of a turbine
burning natural gas or synthesis gas from coal) and the Rankine cycle (in the form of a steam power plant).
Multiple stage turbine or steam cylinders are also common.

ST-MHD Combined Power plants:

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 In general gas entering the MHD generator would be of the temperature range of about 3000 degrees
centigrade. Even after expansion in the MHD steam generator the temperature would be around 2000 degree
centigrade. If it is maintained at lower temperature it doesn't produce the electrical conductivity so the
exhaust gases would be maintained at least at a temperature of around 2000 degrees centigrade. The heat
energy which is present in the exhaust gases are taken advantage and used to generate steam in a heat
exchangers. Combining both the cycles power could be generated and the cycle is called MHD – Steam
Turbine Combined cycle power plants.

Comparison of Different types of Power Plants:

Description Steam power Hydro electric Diesel power Nuclear power

Site Located where water Located where large Located anywhere as Located in isolated
and coal and reservoirs or dams very less water is areas away from
transportation can be created like in required. population.
facilities are adequate hilly areas
Initial Cost Initial cost is lower Initial cost pretty Initial cost is the Initial cost is highest
than hydro and high due to large dam least. as cost of reactor
nuclear. construction. construction is very
high.
Running Cost Running cost is Practically nil as no Highest running cost Cost of running is
higher than nuclear fuel is required. due to high price of low as very very less
and hydro due to diesel. amount of fuel is
amount of coal required.
required.
Availability of Coal is source of Water is source of Diesel is source of Uranium is fuel
Source of Energy power. So limited power which is not a power which is the source along with
quantity is available. dependable quantity. least available among platinum rods. So
all. sufficient quantity is
available.
Cost of Fuel Cost of fuel No cost for fuel Higher than hydro Cost of fuel
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Transportation transportation is transportation and nuclear power transportation is
maximum due to plants. minimum due to
large demand for small quantity
coal. required.
Cleanliness and Least environment Most environment A good friend of Better friend of
Pollution friendly friendly environment than environment than
steam or nuclear. steam power plant.
Efficiency 25% overall Around 85% About 35% efficient. More efficient than
efficiency. efficient. steam power.
Maintenance Maintenance cost is Maintenance cost is Maintenance cost is Maintenance cost is
very high. quite low. less. the highest as highly
skilled workers are
required.
Standby Losses Maximum standby No standby losses. Less standby losses. Less standby losses.
losses as boiler still
keeps running even
though turbine is not.
Selection of Type of Power Plant:
While choosing the type of generation the following points should be taken into consideration:
 Type of fuel available or availability of suitable size for water power generation.
 Fuel transportation cost.
 Land required.
 Foundation cost.
 Availability of cooling water.
 Type of load to be taken by power plant.
 Reliability in operation.
 Plant life.
 Cost of transmitting the energy.
Selection of Power Plant Equipment:
Selection of boilers:
 Type of fuel to be burnt.
 Type of load.
 Cost of fuel.
 Desirability of heat reclaiming equipment.
 Availability of space.
Selection of prime mover:
 Load Curve.
 Type of use.
 Cost
Selection of size and number of generating units:
 Load curve.
 Spare capacity.
 Unit price.

POWER PLANT ECONOMICS:

The costs included in the power plant may be braqodly classified into two types.
i. Capital or Fixed Cost
ii. Operational Cost
Capital or Fixed Cost:
Fixed Cost is the capital invested in the complete installation of complete plants. It includes cost of
land, building, equipments, transmission and distribution lines, cost of planning and designing the plant,
15
substation and many others. It further includes the interest on the invested capital, insurance, maintenance
and depreciation cost.
Initial Cost or Land building and equipment cost:
The cost of land, building, does not change much with different types of plants but cost of equipment
changes considerably. Cost of equipment or plant investment cost is usually expressed on the basis of KW
capacity installed. The capital cost for KW installed capacity does not change much in thermal plant but it
changes a lot in case of hydro plants.
Interest:
Enterprises need investment of money and this money may be obtained as loan, through bonds and
shares or from owners of personal funds. Interest is the difference between money borrowed and money
returned. It may be charged at a simple rate as percentage per annum or may be compounded, in which case
interest is reinvested and added to the principal. Suitable rate of interest is to be considered while investing
on the capital.
Insurance:
It becomes necessary to insure the costly equipments especially for fire risks. A fixed sum is set aside
per year as insurance charges accounting around 2 to 3% of the capital value.
Depreciation:
Depreciation accounts for deterioration of equipment decrease in its value due to corrosion,
weathering, wear and tear with use. It also covers the decrease in value of equipment due to obsolescence.
With Rapid improvements in design and construction of plants obsolescence factor is of enormous
importance. Availability of better models with lesser overall cost of generation makes it imperative to
replace the old equipment earlier than its useful life. So actual span of the plant is to be taken short than
which it would normally be expected out of it.
Depreciation can be calculated by the following methods:
i. Straight line method
ii. Sinking fund method
iii. Percentage method
iv. Unit method
For all the methods
Let P = Initial investment to install the plant
S = Salvage value at the end of plant life
n = Life of plant in years
r = Annual rate of compound interest on the invested capital
A = amount set aside per year for the accumulation of depreciable investment
Straight line method:
It is the simplest and commonly used method. It is obtained by deducting the salvage value at the end
of plant life from the capital invested and dividing the balance with the expected life span of the plant in
years. In this method, the amount is set aside per annum as depreciation fund.
P−S
A=
n
Sinking Fund method:
In this method the amount set aside per year consists of annual instalments and the interest earned on
all the instalments. It is based on the concept that the annual uniform deduction from income for
depreciation will accumulate to the capital value at the end of life of plant.
r
[
A=
]
(1+ r )n−1
( P−S )

Percentage Method:
In this method the deterioration in value of equipment from year to year is taken into account and the
amount of depreciation is calculated upon actual value for each year. It thus reduces for successive years.
Unit Method:

16
 In this method depreciation is obtained by multiplying the number of working hours of the plant in
that year with a constant. The constant is obtained by dividing the total number of working hours that the
plant can last with the capital value invested on the plant.

Operational Costs:
The operating cost of electrical power generation includes cost of fuel, cost of lubrication,
consumable articles, wages, taxes, maintenance and repairs etc.
The major elements in operational cost can be listed as:
i. Cost of Fuels
ii. Labour Cost
iii. Cost of maintenance and repairs
iv. Cost of Stores
v. Supervision
vi. Taxes
General Arrangement of Power Distribution:
In the design of a power generating unit, consideration must be given to the arrangement of main and
auxiliary machinery. The various important factors which are considered for any economic design are
volume and area requirements per KW capacity of plant, reliability of operation, ease of control,
convenience to access all the equipments and station cot per KW capacity of plant. The following factors
should be taken care of while deciding about power plant building and its layout:
 The power plant structure should be simple and rugged with pleasing appearance.
 The power plant interior should be clean, airy.
 Sufficient clearances around generators, boilers, heaters, condensers etc., should be provided.
Walkways around hot objects and rapidly moving objects should be more compared to normal areas.
 Provision for future extension should be made.
 The height of the room should be sufficient such that it would be enough for operation of overhead
cranes and lifting of heavy equipments.
 Each wall should have symmetrical treatment in window openings.
 The chimney height should be sufficiently high so that the gasses are released into the atmosphere
without affecting the surroundings.
 The foundation of the plant should be rigid to distribute the weight of the machine, bed plate over a
safe subsoil area, it also should damp the vibrations caused by the machine.
 Sufficient storage area is to be provided.
The common type of layouts used are as under:
1. Inline arrangement of units
2. Units perpendicular to each other or parallel to division wall
3. One room one floor station
4. Unit plan station
5. Outdoor type steam electric station
Load Curve:
Load curve is a graphical record showing the power demand for every incident during a certain time
interval. Such a record considered for an hour is called hourly load curve, for a day called as daily load
curve, for a month called as monthly load curve and for a year called as yearly load curve.

17
  The area under load curve represents the energy generated in the period considered.
 Area under the curve divided by total number of hours give the average load on the power station.
 Peak load indicated by the load curve represent the maximum demand of the power station.
Significance of Lord Curve:
 Load curve give full information about the incoming load and help to decide the installed capacity of
power station and to decide the economical sizes of various generating units.
 These curves also help to estimate generating cost and to decide the operating schedule of power
station, i.e., the sequence in which different units should be run.

Load Duration Curve:

Load duration curve represents re-arrangements of all load elements of chronological load curve in
order of descending magnitude. This curve is derived from the chronological load curve.

Above figure shows a typical daily load curve of a power station. It may be observed that the maximum
load on power station is 35 KW from 8 a.m. to 2 P.M. This is plotted in the bottom figure, similarly other
loads of the load curve are plotted in descending order in the same figure. This is called load duration curve.
Importance of load duration curve:
 The area under load duration curve and the corresponding chronological load curve is equal and
represents the total energy delivered by a generating station.
 Load duration curve give a clear analysis of generating power economically. Proper selection of base
load power plants and peak load power plants becomes easier.

Load Terminology of Power Plants:

18
Connected Load: Connected load on any system or a part of system is combined continuous rating of all the
receiving apparatus on consumer’s premises which is connected to the system or part of the system under
consideration.
Demand: Demand of an installation or system is the load that is drawn from the source of supply at the
receiving terminals averaged over a suitable specified interval of time demand is expressed in KW or other
suitable units.
Maximum demand or peak load: Maximum demand of an installation or system is the greatest of all
demands that have occurred during a given period. It is determined by measurement according to
specifications over a prescribed interval of time.
Average load: Average load is the ratio of the total power generated in the period considered to the total
number of hours.
Total Generation∈the giventime period
Average Load=
Number of Hours
Demand factor: Demand factor of any system is the ratio of maximum demand of the system to the total
connected load of the system.
Maximum Demand
Demand Factor =
Connected Laod
Load factor: Load factor is the ratio of the average load to the maximum demand.
Average Load
Laod Factor =
Maximum Demand
Diversity factor: Diversity factor of any system is the ratio of maximum power demands of subdivisions of
the system to the maximum demand of the whole system under consideration measured at the point of
supply.
Diversity Factor=
∑ of Individual maximum demands
Maximum Demand of Entire Group
Utilization factor: Utilization factor is the ratio of the maximum generator demand to the generator
capacity.
MaximumGenerator Demand
Utlization Factor=
Generator Capacity
Plant capacity factor / Plant Factor: It is defined as ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum
possible energy that could have been produced during the same period.
Energy Produced during a period
Plant Capacity Factor=
Maximum possible Energy that c ould have been produced duringthe same period
Plant use factor: It is defined as the ratio of energy produced in a given time to the maximum possible
energy that could have been produced during the actual number of hours the plant was in operation.
Energy Produced duringa period
Plant Use Factor =
Maximum possible Energy that could have been produced during thehours ∈o peration

Tariff:
Cost of generation of electrical energy consists of fixed cost and running cost. Since the electrical
energy generated is to be supplied to the consumers, the total cost of generation has to be recovered from the
consumers. Tariffs or energy rates are the different methods of charging the consumers for the consumption
of electricity. It is desirable to charge the consumer according to maximum demand (KW) and the energy
consumed (KWh). Tariff chosen should recover the fixed cost, operating cost and profit etc incurred in
generating the electrical energy.
General tariff form:
A large number of tariffs have been proposed from time to time and are in use. They are derived from the
following generalized equation.
Z = ax + by + c
z = total amount of Bill for the period considered
x = maximum demand in Kilowatt

19
y = energy consumed in kilowatt hour during the period considered
a = rate per kilowatt of maximum demand
b = energy rate per kilowatt hour
c = constant amount charged to the consumer during each building period discharge is independent of the
man or Total energy because a consumer that remains connected to the line increase the expenses he even if
he does not use energy.
Various types of Tariffs:
Flat Demand Rate:
Flat demand rate is expressed as follows:
Z = ax
Bill depends only on maximum demand irrespective of the amount of energy consumed. It is based
on customer’s installation of energy consuming devices which is generally denoted by so many Kilowatt per
month or per year. It is one of the early systems of charging energy rates. The rate could be expressed as a
price per lamp or unit of installed capacity. Now a days the use of this tariff is restricted to signal system,
street lighting system where the number of hours is fixed and energy consumption can be easily predicted. In
this form of tariff, unit energy cost decreases progressively with an increasing energy usage as the total cost
remains constant.
Straight Meter Rate:
Straight metre rate can be expressed in the form:
Z = b.y
This is the simplest form of tariff. Here the charge per unit is constant. The charges depend on energy used.
This Tariff is sometimes used for residential and commercial consumers.
Block metre rate:
In order to remove the inconsistency of strike metre rate, block metre rate charges have been used. It charges
the consumers on a sliding scale. The term block indicates a certain specified price per unit is charged for all
or any part of such units. The reduced prices per unit is charged for all or any part of succeeding blocks of
units. Such reduced price for unit applying only to a particular block or portion accomplishes the purpose of
decreasing unit energy charges with increasing consumption. Its main defect is it lacks a measure of
customers demand.
Hopkinson demand rate:
It charges the consumer according to the maximum demand and energy consumption this can be expressed
as
Z = a + b.y
This method required two metres to record the maximum demand and energy consumption of the consumer.
This form of tariff is generally used for industrial customers.
Doherty rate or 3 part Tariff:
Hopkinson method is modified by addition of a customer charge it becomes a three charge rate or Doherty
rate. It consists of a customer or metre charge plus demand charge plus energy charge.
Z = a.x + b.y + c
Many people consider that this is an ideal type of rate. It is better suited for industrial purposes rather than
residential customers it is also modified sometime by specifying minimum demand and the minimum energy
consumption must be paid for if they use less than the minimum value specified.
Wright Demand rate: This rate in intensifies the inducement by lowering both the demand and energy
charge for a reduction in maximum demand or in other words and improvement in load factor. This rate is
usually specified for industrial consumers who have some measure of control over their maximum demand.
```
EFFLUENTS FROM POWER PLANT AND IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT:
All power production plants, invariably, pollute the atmosphere and the resulting imbalance
on Ecology has a bad effect. The pollution is inevitable in some cases and has to be minimized to the
extent possible. This is being achieved by effective legislations all over the world.
The power plant pollutants of major concern are :

20
From fossil power plants:
(i) Sulphur oxide (ii) Nitrogen oxides
(iii) Carbon oxide (iv) Thermal pollution
(v) Particulate matter.
From nuclear power plants:
(i) Radioactivity release (ii) Radioactive wastes
(iii) Thermal pollution.
Besides this, pollutants such as lead and hydrocarbons are contributed by automobiles.
Fossil fuels are primarily used to generate electricity, to produce heat in industrial processes as well
as to drive engines for transport purposes in land, water and air. The products of combustion of such fuels are
CO2, CO, H2O, SO2, NO2, NO, etc. For many years, CO2 was regarded as a benign gas as long as it was not
inhaled in great amounts, for it is not poisonous. Since CO2 is released into the atmosphere, photosynthesis in
which green plants use CO 2 to produce sugars like glucose, kept levels of CO 2 in balance to sustain the
biosphere. Indeed, plants and therefore life, could not survive without CO 2. But gradually, as the decades went by,
scientists began to realize that the massive increase of CO2 in the atmosphere due to industrial activities
worldwide and deforestation has been causing a great harm to the world. This CO2 gas acts like the glass in a
greenhouse, trapping the sun's heat and causing the earth's atmosphere to warm up.
Unlike CO2, carbon monoxide is poisonous. It asphyxiates, or suffocates, people who inhale it. It causes
headache, dizziness and confusion. It tricks red blood cell which feed CO to the brain, instead of oxygen,
leading to it malfunction.
Nitrogen and oxygen combine during combustion (at high temperature) to form NO, NO2, N20, and so on,
termed together as NOX. These pollute the air which when inhaled, turns into acid in the lungs which eats away
at the lungs spongy structure causing it to lose the capacity to absorb oxygen from the air. Less oxygen is thus
passed into the blood stream as a result of which a person suffers shortness of breath, and lung and bronchial
illnesses, leading often to death.
If there is sulphur in fuel, it is emitted in the form of sulphur oxide like SO 2 or SO3, termed together as
SOX. It causes similar health problems as NOX especially those of the respiratory organs. In the atmosphere
it may combine with rainwater to form sulphuric acid turning the rainwater acidic. When this rainwater falls on
the earth, it scorches the earth making the soil absolutely infertile and destroys aquatic life in rivers and
lakes.
Pollutants in the air (acids, smog, dust, etc.) clog the tiny pores in leaves, stopping trees from
photosynthetic activity and respiration which helps plants breakdown food to give them energy.
A large source of pollution comes from burning wastes in incinerators. If
burning occurs without any effort to collect the dust and debris, these rise high
in the air and stay there, becoming part of the dirt contained in smog, eventually
falling as part of the dust and grit, along with chemicals released from plastics,
packing and other disposable articles. Thus, incinerators, manufacturing
chimneys belching out smoke and debris, exhaust pipes of cars and trucks, and stacks of electric power plants
are sources of air pollution.
The effects of pollution from various sources are as explained under:
Greenhouse Effect:
A greenhouse is designed with a transparent roof and side panels, normally made of glass, that allow
sunlight to reach the plants kept inside, keeping them al warm, so that in the middle of a frigid winter outside,
21
a temperature or tropical climate keeps the plants lush and green inside. The greenhouse effect for the
earth works in the same way. Certain gases in the atmosphere act as a transparent roof, the most abundandant
of these 'greenhouse gases' being carbon dioxide. The others are methane, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons and chlorofluoro-carbons (CFCs). These gases are transparent, so that the high-
temperature radiation from the sun passes through the atmosphere and reaches the earth, but the low-
temperature radiation from the earth is prevented from escaping into the outer space by the greenhouse
gases. The energy absorbed and trapped by the CO2 gas heats up the atmosphere causing global warming.
With the increasing energy needs of a growing population and economy, the Increase of fossil fuel
consumption has caused the atmospheric CO 2 level to increase, which in turn causes the earths' temperature
to rise. This has started to melt the ice caps at the North and South Poles, retreating the glaciers and
snowlines and causing the ocean levels to rise. It is projected that at this rate of CO 2 release, the oceans will
rise 2.0 — 2.5 meters by the end of this century, as a result of which the coastal plains, which are the
most fertile will be severely flooded with the consequent shortage of habitable and agricultural land.
A great deal of CO2 is dissolved in the sea. If the temperature rises due to increasing CO2 levels, then the top
70 m of seas will also heat up, releasing some of the dissolved CO2 which will further add to the greenhouse
effect. This will increase the temperature of the seas even more, releasing even more CO 2, and so on. This is
called the catastrophic greenhouse effect. Also, an increase in the sea's surface temperature would
substantially increase the number and severity of hurricanes leading to hundreds of deaths, millions
becoming homeless and also great property damage.
The greenhouse effect causes heavy rainfall and consequent flooding in one part or the world, while droughts
occur in other parts of the world to balance the water cycle. Both cause hardships to society and enormous
economic losses.

Acid Rain:

When water vapour in clouds condenses into water droplets, they fall as rain through the atmosphere
mixing with polluting gases such as oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon, forming dilute acids-sulphuric acid,
nitric acid and carbonic acid. The first two are very strong corrosive acids and are cited as main culprits
causing acid rains. However, the third one, carbonic acid, much weaker than the first two, could actually be more
damaging because produced in much greater quantities.
The rain containing these acids falls everywhere -into lakes, rivers, mid oceans, over forests, fields and
farms and on to homes, buildings and Structures. Everything which comes into contact with rainwater is
subjected to the corrosive effects of the acids, which are harmful to everything, both to living beings and to
material objects, and as the acid concentrations increase, the rainwater becomes more destructive. The acid
concentrations increase as fossil fuel consumption increases.
As a result of acid rains, the waters in lakes, ponds or estuaries become more and more acidic, affecting
greatly the flora and fauna, decimating fish and all aquatic organisms. It causes irreparable damage to forests
and farms, affecting the quality and quantity of farm produce. Acid rain damages the protective coatings of
paint and exterior metallic trims on cars, buses and other vehicles. Acidified drinking water can cause various
ailments, especially in the kidneys and urinary tracts. Hundreds of species of plants and animals become
extinct every year due to the effects of fossil fuel generated pollutants and acid rains.
Smog:
The basic difference between fog (water vapour condensing on solid particles) and smog in which a
complex organic compound, peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN) condenses or gets adsorbed on pieces of particles like
fly ash or on dust floating in the air. It causes irritation to the eyes, attacks bronchial tubes and even causes death
of a person having a respiratory disease, if the smog is thick enough.

Nuclear Radiation:
22
 A properly constructed well-maintained nuclear reactor is harmless. However, nuclear plants are not
always well managed as it happened in Three-Mile Island (USA) and Chernobyl (erstwhile USSR). Emitting
radiations of high as well as low intensity may be extremely hazardous to human life and animals. So,
nuclear power plants may also not be as benign as they are thought out to be. Any kind of failure, either human
or otherwise, may cause a great catastrophe.
Pollution Standards:

Pollution from Thermal power plants:

The environment is polluted to a great extent by thermal power plants. The emission from
the chimney throws unwanted gases and particles into the atmosphere while the heat is thrown into
the atmosphere and rivers. Both these aspects pollute the environment beyond tolerable limits and
now are being controlled by appropriate regulations. The types of emissions, effects and methods of
minimizing these pollutions are discussed below.
The air pollution in a large measure is caused by the thermal power plants burning conven -
tional fuels (coal, oil or gas). The combustible elements of the fuel are converted to gaseous products
and non-combustible elements to ash. Thus the emission can be classified as follows:

 Gaseous emission
 Particulate emission
 Solid waste emission
 Thermal pollution (or waste heat).
23
 Gaseous Emission and its Control:

The various gaseous pollutants are :

(i) Sulphur dioxide (ii) Hydrogen sulphide

(iii) Oxides of nitrogen (iv) Carbon monoxide etc.

The effects of pollutants on environment are as follows :

Effects
S.
Pollutant
No. On man On vegetation On materials/animals

1. SO2 Destruction of sensitive Corrosion

Suffocation, irritation of throat crops and reduced yield
and eyes, respiration system

2. NO2 Irritation, bronchitis, — —

oedema of lungs
3. H2S Bare disease, respiratory Destruction of crops Flourosis in cattle
diseases grazing
4. CO Poisoning, increased — —
accident-liability

Removal of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 )

SO2 is removed by wet scrubbers as shown in Figure.

Cleaned Gas

24
 —The gases to be cleaned are admitted tangentially into the scrubber which will also help in
separating the particulate matters. Water spray absorbs these gases and particulate matters
which collect on the surface of the scrubber are washed down by the water and this water is
further treated, filtered and reused.
—The wet scrubbers also find application in chemical and grain milling industries.
—The collection efficiency of scrubber is about 90 per cent.
The following are disadvantages of using wet scrubbers :
1.The gases are cooled to such an extent that they must be reheated before being sent to the
stack.
2.The pressure drops are very high.
3.Water used, after dissolving sulphur oxides will contain sulphuric and sulphil-ous acids
which may corrode the pipelines and the scrubber itself. This water cannot be let out into the rivers for
obvious reasons.
In power plants where high sulphur content coal is the only source available, it is preferable to
remove the sulphur from the coal before it is burnt. This is done by coal washing which reduces the
fly-ash as well as some sulphur oxides in the flue gases. But the power plants employ "Flue-gas
desulphurization" (FGD) system similar to wet scrubber system. FGD can be of the following types
1.The recovery or regenerative system
2.Throw away or non-regenerative system. In this system the reactants are not recovered and the
final products are sulphur salts of calcium and magnesium.
Regenerative System
Some of the regenerative systems are :
1.FW-Bergbau process
2.Wellman-Lord process
3.Wet magnesium oxide process.
— In the Fig. is shown the FW-Bergbau process. In this process, SO 2 is removed
by adsorption and sulphur is collected as molten sulphur.

F.W. Bergbau Forshung adsorption FGD regenerative system

Below Figure shows the Wellman-Lord FGD system. This system removes SO 2 by absorption in
sodium carbonate and SO 2 i6 recovered as sulphur or sulphuric acid products.
In non-regenerative systems the principal reactant is either lime or limestone. The slurry is made
into sludge by adding fly-ash and other proprietary sludge additives and the sludge is dis posed. This
25
method could prove a bit more expensive since no sulphur or sulphur product is recov ered and the
reactant is not generated as in the case of FW Bergbau process.

Emission of NOx:
Nitrogen oxides are compounds of the elements nitrogen and oxygen, both of which are present in
air. The combustion of fossil fuels in air is accompanied by the formation of nitric oxide (NO) which is
subsequently partly oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The resulting mixture of variable combustion is
represented by the symbol NO x, where x has a value between 1 and 2. Nitrogen oxides are present in stack
gases from coal, oil and gas furnaces (and also in the exhaust gases from inter nal combustion engines and
gas turbines).
The following methods are commonly used to reduce the emission of NO x from thermal (and gas
turbine) power plants:
1. Reduction of temperature in combustion zone.
2. Reduction of residence period in combustion zone.
3. Increase in equivalence ratio in the combustion zone.
Particulate Emission and its Control
The particulate emission, in power plants using fossil fuels, is easiest to control. Particulate matter
can be either dust (particles having a diameter of 1 micron) which do not settle down or particles with a
diameter of more than 10 microns which settle down to the ground. The particulate emission can be
classified as follows:
Smoke. It composes of stable suspension of particles that have a diameter of less than 10 microns and are
visible only in the aggregate.
Fumes. These are very small particles resulting from chemical reactions and are normally composed of
metals and metallic oxides.
Fly-ash. These are ash particles of diameters of 100 microns or less.
Cinders. These are ash particles of diameters of 100 microns or more.

26
 The above particulates, in any system of controlling the particulate emission, are to be effec tively
collected from the flue gases. The performance parameters for any particulate remover is called the
collection efficiency defined as :
Mass of Dust Removed
Collector Efficiency= x 100
Massof Dust Prsent

For different systems the collector efficiency varies from 50 to 99% ; for an electrostatic
precipitator it is move than 90%.
Some collector systems, their efficiencies and their adaptability, are discussed in the follow ing
paragraphs.
Cinder catchers:
The cinder catchers are shown in Fig. 13.4 to 13.7.
—Refer Fig. 13.4. Sudden decreases in gas velocity makes the particulates separate and fall.
Refer Fig. 13.5. A sudden change in the direction of flow of flue gas throws the particulates away and
can be collected.

— Refer Fig. 13.6. Impingement of flue gases on a series of baffle stops the particulate matter as
shown. These are commonly used in stoker and small cyclone furnaces where crushed coal is burned
rather than the very fine pulverised coal. The collection efficiencies of cinder catchers are from 50 to
75%.
— Refer Fig. 13.7. Cinder-vane fan. The cinder vane fan uses the fan which imparts centrifugal force to
the particulates and they are collected as shown. The efficiency is from 50 to 75%.

Wet scrubbers:
— Wet scrubbers as described for removal of gases can also be used for removal of particulate matters ; but
the gases will have to be reheated before they are sent to the stack.
— The wet scrubbers are not commonly used to remove particulate matters.
Electrostatic precipitator
— An electrostatic precipitator is shown in Fig. 13.8. In this device a very high voltage of 30 kV to 60
kV is applied to the wires suspended in a gas-flow passage between two grounded plates.

27
The particles in the gas stream acquire a charge from the negatively charged wires and arc then
attracted to the ground plates. The grounded plates are periodically rapped by a steel plug which is
raised and dropped by an electromagnet and dust is collected in the hoppers below.

—In this type of collector, care must be taken to see that large quantity of unburnt gases do
not enter the precipitator. If such a mixture enters, power should be turned off, otherwise there
could be explosion because of constant sparking between wires and plates.
—The collection efficiency is about 99 per cent.
— Electrostatic precipitators are suitable for power plants where fly-ash content
is high. Fly-ash having high electrical resistivity does not separate in the
electrostatic precipitator. This pi. oblem can be solved by injecting sulphur trioxide into
the exhaust gas which improves the conductivity of fly-ash. This again poses a problem
of discharging objectionable sulphur trioxide into the atmosphere ; this needs a wet
scrubber after the electrostatic precipitator.
Baghouse filters

Fig. shows a baghouse filter. Baghouse filters are found useful in removing the particulate
matters where low sulphur coal is used.
—The cloth filters cost about 20 per cent of installation cost and last for 12 to 3 years.
—The baghouse filter is usually cleaned by forcing air in the reversed direction. They need large
filter areas of about 6.5 m2/MW of power generation. Hence the installation cost could be high.
Although baghouse filters are expensive, yet they are be ing widely used in coal-fired
systems.
Solid Waste Disposal
From the fossil fuel fired power plants considerable amount of solids in the form of ash is
discharged. This ash is removed as bottom ash or slug from the furnace. The fossil fuel fired system
also discharges solid wastes such as calcium and magnesium salts generated by absorption of SO 2
and SO3 by reactant like lime stone.
Thermal Pollution
Discharge of thermal energy into waters is commonly called 'Thermal pollution'.
28
 Thermal power stations invariably will have to discharge enormous amounts of energy into
water since water is one medium largely used to condense steam. If this heated water from condens ers
is discharged into lakes or rivers, the water temperature goes up. The ability of water to hold
dissolved gases goes down when the temperature increases. At about 35°C, the dissolved oxygen will be
so low that the aquatic life will die. But in very cold regions, letting out hot water into the lakes or
rivers helps in increasing the fish growth. But, in our country, such places are not many and hence,
it is necessary that we minimise this thermal pollution of water. One of the regulations stipu lates that
a maximum temperature of water let out can be 1°C above the atmospheric temperature. Thus the
thermal power plants or any other industry has to resort to various methods of adhering to this
regulation.
Thermal discharge index (TDI)
Thermal discharge index (TDI) is the term usually used in connection with the estimation of the
amount of thermal energy released to environment from a thermal power plant. TDI of any power plant is
the number of thermal energy units discharged to the environment for every unit of electrical energy
generated.

TDI=Thermal Power Dischsarged ¿ Environment ∈MW (thermal) ¿

Electrcial poweroutput ∈MW ( electrical )

This index cannot be zero or else the plant violates the Second law of thermodynamics ; but this
index should be as low as possible to improve the efficiency of the plant as well as to keep the pollution
level low.
The thermal discharge index (TDI) is strongly dependent on the thermal efficiency of the plant.

How to reduce thermal pollution ?

While considering the efficiency of the thermal plant, it is desirable that the water from a river or
lake is pumped through the condenser and fed back to the source. The rise of temperature will be about
10°C which is highly objectionable from the pollution point of view. Hence, this waste heat which is
removed from the condenser will have to be thrown into the atmosphere and not into the water source, in
this direction following methods can be adopted :
1. Construction of a separate lake. 2. Cooling pond
3. Cooling towers.
1. Construction of a separate lake. A sufficiently large water storage in the form of a lake can be built
and once-through cooling the condenser can be adopted. If the natural cooling of water from the lake is not
sufficient, floating spray pumps can be employed.
This method improves the thermal efficiency of the plant but can prove expensive. Also, it may not
always be possible to have a large enough lake artificially built.
2. Cooling pond. A cooling pond with continuously operating fountains can be adopted for smaller power
plants. This will also serve as a beautifying feature of the power plant site.
3. Cooling towers. In order to throw heat into the atmosphere most power stations adopt the cooling
towers. The hyperbolic shape given to the tower automatically induces air from the bottom to flow
upwards and the water is cooled by coming in direct contact with the air. This is a natural convection
cooling and is also called 'wet-cooling tower'. The overall efficiency of such plants will be lower than those
of the plants adopting once-through cooling system. There will be considerable vapour flumes escaping

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 from the cooling towers. Sometime, make-up cooling water may be scarce. In such cases, dry cooling
tower can b - adopted. Dry cooling towers are much more expensive than wet cooling towers.
All cooling towers, whether dry or wet, are expensive and add to the initial investment of the plant.
Small plants can adopt mechanical-draft-systems using induced or forced draft systems. This helps in
avoiding height to the cooling towers. Thus, the cost is reduced but the maintenance cost of
mechanical-draft systems are high.
POLLUTION FROM NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS:
The various types of pollution from nuclear power plants are :
(i) Radioactive pollution (ii) Waste from reactor (solid, liquid, gases)
(iii) Thermal pollution.
(i) Radioactive pollution. This is the most dangerous and serious type of pollution. This is due to
radioactive elements and fissionable products in reactor. The best way to abate is the radioartire shield
around the reactor.
(ii) Waste from reactor. Due to nuclear reactor reaction nuclear wastes (mixtures of vari ous
Beta and Gamma emitting radioactive isotopes with various half lives) are produced which cannot
be neutralized by any chemical method. If the waste is discharged in the atmosphere, air and water
will be contaminated beyond the tolerable limits. Some methods of storage or disposal of radioactive
waste materials are discussed below :
1. Storage tanks. The radioactive wastes can be buried underground (very deep below the surface) in
corrosion resistance tanks located in isolated areas. With the passage of time these will become stable
isotopes.
2. Dilution. After storing for a short time, low energy wastes are diluted either in liquid or gaseous
materials. After dilution, they are disposed off in sewer without causing hazard.
3. Sea disposal. This dilution can be used by adequately diluting the wastes and this method is being
used by the British.
4. Atmospheric dilution. This method can be used for gaseous radioactive wastes. But solid
particles from the gaseous wastes must be filtered out thoroughly since they are the most dangerous
with higher half lives.
5. Absorption by the soil. Fission products are disposed off by this method. The radioactive particles
are absorbed by the soil particles. But this is expensive.
6. Burying is sea. Solid nuclear wastes can be stored is concrete blocks which are burned in the sea.
This method is expensive but no further care is needed.

POLLUTION FROM HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS AND SOLAR POWER

GENERATING STATIONS
Hydro-electric and Solar Power Generation plants have no polluting effect on the environ ment.
The hydro-electric project does not pollute the atmosphere at all, but it can be argued that the solar
power stations in the long run may upset the balance in nature. To extend the argument to the logical
end, imagine a very vast area of land is covered by solar collectors of different forms. Then the
minimum required sun's rays may not reach the earth's surface. This will certainly kill the
vegetation on the earth and also the bacteria which are destroyed by sun's rays may survive giving
rise to new types of health problems. Further, the evaporation of water and consequent rains may
change their cycles. Added to these, the average temperatures of the earth and ocean may change.
This may result in new balances among the living creatures which cannot be easily predicted. Since
we do not envisage such a large scale coverage of earth's surface in the near future, we can safely
state that the solar energy power plants do not pollute the atmosphere.

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