Chapter I

STRESS The circumferential stress can be

obtained from the free-body diagram in Fig.
2.7 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 2.12(b). This free body is obtained by taking the
slice of infinitesimal length 𝑑𝑥 shown in Fig.
A pressure vessel is a pressurized 2.12(a) and cutting it in half along a diametral
container, often cylindrical or spherical. The plane.
pressure acting on the inner surface is resisted by The fluid isolated by the cuts is
tensile stresses in the walls of the vessel. If the considered to be part of the free-body diagram.
wall thickness t is sufficiently small compared to The resultant force due to the pressure acting on
the radius r of the vessel, these stresses are the diametral plane is 𝑝(2𝑟𝑑𝑥), where 2𝑟𝑑𝑥 is the
almost uniform throughout the wall thickness. It area of the plane.
can be shown that if 𝑟/𝑡 ≥ 10, the stresses If we assume the circumferential stress 𝜎𝑐
between the inner and outer surfaces of the wall in the wall of the cylinder is constant throughout
vary by less than 5%. In this section we consider the thickness, then its resultant force is 2(𝜎𝑐 𝑡𝑑𝑥).
only vessels for which this inequality applies. Neglecting the weight of the fluid and the
vessel, we find that the equilibrium of vertical
a. Cylindrical Vessels forces becomes
Consider the cylindrical tank of inner
radius r and wall thickness t shown in Fig. 1.9(a). Σ𝐹𝑣 = 0 ↑ +
The tank contains a fluid (or gas) under pressure 2(𝜎𝑐 𝑡𝑑𝑥) − 𝑝(2𝑟𝑑𝑥) = 0
𝑝. In this simplified analysis, we assume that the
weights of the fluid and the vessel can be which yields for the circumferential stress
neglected compared to the other forces that
act on the vessel. The tensile stresses in the wall 𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑐 = = Equation (2-17)
that resist the internal pressure are the 𝑡 2𝑡
longitudinal stress 𝜎𝑙 and the circumferential
stress 𝜎𝑐 (also known as the hoop stress), as To obtain the longitudinal stress s l , we
shown in Fig. 2.12(a). cut the cylinder into two parts along a cross-
sectional plane. Isolating the cylinder and the
fluid to the left of the cut gives the free-body
diagram in Fig. 2.12(c).
For thin-walled cylinders, the cross-
sectional area of the wall can be approximated
by (mean circumference) × (thickness) = (2𝜋𝑟̅)𝑡,
where 𝑟̅ = 𝑟 + 𝑡/2 is the mean radius of the
vessel. Therefore, the resultant of the longitudinal
stress is 𝜎𝑙 (2𝜋𝑟̅𝑡).
The resultant of the pressure acting on
the cross section is 𝑝(𝜋𝑟 2 ). From the equilibrium
of axial forces, we get

Σ𝐹𝐻 = 0 ⟶ +
𝜎𝑙 (2𝜋𝑟̅𝑡) − 𝑝(𝜋𝑟 2 ) = 0

Therefore, the longitudinal stress is 𝜎𝑙 = 𝑝𝑟 2 /2𝑟̅𝑡.

For thin-walled vessels, we can use the
approximation 𝑟̅ ≈ 𝑟, which results in
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷
𝜎𝑙 = = Equation (2-18)
2𝑡 4𝑡
Figure 2.12 (a) Cylindrical pressure vessel; (b) free-body
diagram for computing the circumferential stress 𝝈𝒄 ; (c) free-
body diagram for computing the longitudinal stress 𝝈𝒍 .
 Comparing Eqs. (2-17) and (2-18), we see denotes the mean radius of the vessel and 𝑡 is
that the circumferential stress is twice as large as the wall thickness. Therefore, the resultant force
the longitudinal stress. It follows that if the due to 𝜎 is 𝜎(2𝜋𝑟̅𝑡). The equilibrium equation
pressure in a cylinder is raised to the bursting
Σ𝐹𝑣 = 0 ↑ +
point, the vessel will split along a longitudinal
line. 𝜎(2𝜋𝑟̅𝑡) = 𝑝(𝜋𝑟 2 )
When a cylindrical tank is manufactured
from curved sheets that are riveted together, as yields 𝜎 = 𝑝𝑟 2 /2𝑟̅ 𝑡. If we again neglect the small
in Fig. 2.13, the strength of longitudinal joint difference between 𝑟̅ and 𝑟, the stress becomes
should be twice the strength of girth joints.
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷
𝜎= = Equation (2-19)
2𝑡 4𝑡

As pointed out before, the di¤erence between the

inner radius 𝑟 and the mean radius 𝑟̅ of a thin-walled
vessel (𝑟/𝑡 ≥ 10) is insignificant, so that either radius
may be substituted for 𝑟 in Eqs. (2-17)–(2-19). The
stresses computed using 𝑟̅ rather than 𝑟 would be
different, of course, but the discrepancy is at most a few
percent.

Figure 2.13 Cylindrical pressure vessel made of curved sheets.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1.5 A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in
b. Spherical vessels diameter with a wall thickness of 20 mm, is
Using an analysis similar to that used for subjected to an internal pressure of 4.5 MN/m2.
cylinders, we can derive the expression for the (a) Calculate the circumferential and
tensile stress s in the wall of the thin-walled, longitudinal stresses in the steel.
spherical pressure vessel in Fig. 2.14(a). (b) To what value may the internal pressure be
increased if the stress in the steel is limited to 120
MN/m2?

Solution:

Figure 2.14 (a) Spherical pressure vessel; (b) free-body

diagram for computing the stress 𝝈.

Because of symmetry, di¤erent directions a. Circumferential stress (longitudinal section)

on the surface of the sphere are
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷
indistinguishable. Therefore, the stress is constant 𝜎𝑐 = =
throughout the vessel. 𝑡 2𝑡
As shown in Fig. 2.14(b), we use half of 4.5(400)
the vessel as the free-body diagram. The fluid is 𝜎𝑐 =
2(20)
included in the free-body diagram, but its
weight is neglected together with the weight of 𝝈𝒄 = 𝟒𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
the vessel. The resultant force due to the
pressure acting on the circular surface of the
fluid is 𝑝(𝜋𝑟 2 ), where 𝑟 is the inner radius of the
vessel. We use again the approximation 2𝜋𝑟̅𝑡 for
the cross-sectional area of the wall, where 𝑟̅
 1.6 A cylindrical steel pressure vessel has
hemispherical end-caps. The inner radius of the
vessel is 24 in. and the wall thickness is constant
at 0.25 in. When the vessel is pressurized to 125
psi, determine the stresses and the change in
the radius of (1) the cylinder; and (2) the end-
caps. Use E = 29 x 106 psi and 𝑣 = 0.28 for steel.

Solution:
Part 1
The circumferential and longitudinal stresses in
the cylinder are
Longitudinal stress (Transverse section)
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷 𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷 125(24)
𝜎𝑙 = = 𝜎𝑐 = = =
2𝑡 4𝑡 𝑡 2𝑡 0.25

4.5(400) 𝝈𝒄 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊

𝜎𝑙 =
4(20) 𝜎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑐 /2 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝝈𝒍 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂 The circumferential strain is obtained from biaxial
Hooke’s law—see Eq. (2.10):
b. Substitute the stress for circumferential or 1
longutidanl stress: 𝜖𝑐 = (𝜎 − 𝑣𝜎𝑙 )
𝐸 𝑐
In circumferential stress: 1
𝜖𝑐 = [12000 − 0.28(6000)]
𝑝1 𝑟 𝑝1 𝐷 29 × 106
𝜎𝑐 = =
𝑡 2𝑡 𝜖𝑐 = 355.9 × 10−6
𝑝1 (400)
120 = Because the radius is proportional to the
2(20)
circumference, 𝜖𝑐 is also the strain of the radius
𝑝1 = 12 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (change of radius per unit length); that is,
𝜖𝑐 = 𝛿𝑟/𝑟. Therefore, the change in the radius of
In longitudinal stress: the cylinder is
𝑝2 𝑟 𝑝2 𝐷 𝛿𝑟 = 𝜖𝑐 𝑟 = 355.9 × 10−6 (24)
𝜎𝑙 = =
2𝑡 4𝑡 𝜹𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟓 𝒊𝒏.
𝑝2 (400)
120 = Part 2
4(20)
The stress in the spherical end-caps is
𝑝2 = 24 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷 125(24)
Since the pressure in longitudinal section is less 𝜎= = =
2𝑡 4𝑡 2(0.25)
than the stress in the transverse section,
therefore, the masimum internal pressure that 𝝈 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒊
can be applied until the vessel burst is 12 MPa.
Because 𝜎 acts biaxially, the strain must again
be computed from biaxial Hooke’s law, which
yields
1 1
𝜖= (𝜎 − 𝑣𝜎) = [6000 − 0.28(6000)]
𝐸 29 × 106
𝜖 = 148.97 × 10−6

Therefore, the change in the radius of an end-cap is

𝛿𝑟 = 𝜖𝑟 = 148.97 × 10−6 (24)
𝜹𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟖 𝒊𝒏.
 Because 𝜎 acts biaxially, the strain must again
be computed from biaxial Hooke’s law, which
1.7 The cylindrical pressure vessel with
yields
hemispherical end-caps is made of steel. The 1 1
vessel has a uniform thickness of 18 mm and an 𝜖 = (𝜎 − 𝑣𝜎) = [18.2 − 0.30(18.2)]
𝐸 200 × 103
outer diameter of 400 mm. When the vessel is
pressurized to 3.6 MPa, determine the change in 𝜖 = 0.0000637
length in the cylinder and hemisphere and the
overall length of the vessel. Use E = 200 GPa and Therefore, the change in the radius of an end-cap is
𝑣 = 0.3 for steel. Neglect localized bending. 364
𝛿𝑟 = 𝜖𝑟 = 0.0000637 ( )
2
𝜹𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝒎

The overall change in length of the vessel is,

𝛿𝐿 𝑇 = 0.0218 + 2(0.0116
𝜹𝑳𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝒎

Solution:
Part 1 Cylindrical part
Solving the inner diameter of the cylinder,

𝐷 = 400 − 2(18) = 364 𝑚𝑚

Solving the circumferential and longitudinal

stress,
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷 3.6(364)
𝜎𝑐 = = =
𝑡 2𝑡 2(18)

𝜎𝑐 = 36.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑐 /2 = 18.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎

The longitudinal strain is obtained from biaxial

Hooke’s law—see Eq. (2.10):
1
𝜖𝑙 = (𝜎 − 𝑣𝜎𝑐 )
𝐸 𝑙
1
𝜖𝑙 = [18.2 − 0.30(36.4)]
200 × 103
𝜖𝑙 = 0.0000364
𝛿𝐿 = 𝜖𝑙 𝐿 = 0.0000364(600)
𝜹𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝒎

Part 2 Hemispherical part

Solving the inner diameter of the cylinder,

𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝐷 3.6(364)
𝜎= = =
2𝑡 4𝑡 4(18)

𝜎 = 18.20 𝑀𝑃𝑎