PSY714_PGD

2020/2021 EDITION

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Contributors
1. The Animal Cell ------------------------------------------------------ Chapter One
a. Helen Obeki
b. Adebayo Adeola
c. Tobi Thomas
d. Omoegba Patience
e. Ajaezu Chinenye
2. Hormones: Types, Functions and Malfunctions ----------- Chapter Two
a. Oladipupo Olawale Babatunde
b. Bukola Lameed
c. Ifeobu Precious Chiamaka
d. Anajekwu Lilian Adaora-
3. Research Techniques: Study of The Living Brain --------- Chapter Three

a. Akanmu Opeyemi Oladayo

b. Gbadeyan Temitope
c. Nmeje Mary
d. Odiyi Lotanna
e. Oloyede Taiwo Adedolapo
f. Onyinyechi Okorie
g. Phillips Moses Rapu
4.

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 THE ANIMAL CELL

Cell: This is the basic unit of life. In other words, it is the smallest structural and
functional unit of an organism. Though very microscopic, it consists of cytoplasm
and nucleus usually enclosed in a membrane.
Animal Cell: “As with all of Earth’s organisms, animals are built from microscopic
structures called cells. These microscopic structures work together and perform all
the necessary functions to keep an animal alive.” (Adam Purcell – Introduction to
Basic Biology). The animal cell is characterized by the absence of a cell wall (which
differentiates it from the plant cell), Nucleus and specialized structures called
organelles.

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PRINCIPLE STRUCTURES OF THE ANIMAL CELL

The animal cell has a variety of structures and Organelles which aid with the
specific function of the cell. Below are some of these structures:
The Nucleus
All cells (plant and animal cells) usually have a nucleus which consists of a nuclear
envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin. It is a specialized organelle that serves as the
administrative and information center of the cell.
The Cytoplasm
This is the internal area of an animal cell. It consists of a jelly-like substance known
as Cytosol which allows for easy movement within the cell.
The Plasma Membrane
This acts as the wall of the animal cell whose function is to regulate what goes in
and out of the cell. The plasma membrane consists of a double layer lipid
embedded with compounds such as carbohydrates and protein which is
responsible for signal reception and creation of channels through the membrane.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
This is a cellular organelle composed of a thin, widening network of membranous
sacs originating from the nucleus.
Mitochondria
This is the powerhouse of a cell as it is responsible for the energy release. The
mitochondrion does this by breaking down sugars and other compounds into
cellular energy. It is in the Mitochondria that oxygen is used and Carbon dioxide
(CO2) is produced as a byproduct of respiration.

Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi body is a set of membranes within the cell whose function is to
manufacture, store and transport cellular substances throughout the cell.
Centrosomes

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These are organelles involved in cell division and the production of flagella and
cilia. It is in the centrosomes that microtubules are produced. During cell division,
as the nuclear envelope breaks down, microtubules interact with the cell’s
chromosomes and prepare them for cellular division.
Peroxisomes
These are small organelles that produce and convert hydrogen to water. They are
responsible for the digestion of compounds such as amino acids, fats, and sugars.
Ribosomes
These are usually either attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or floating freely in
the cell’s cytoplasm. They are the site of protein synthesis (involved in the process
of protein creation).
Lysosomes
These act as the waste disposal unit of the cell. They are organelles surrounded
by membranes composed of digestive enzymes that help in digestion, excretion
and in the cell renewal process.

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TYPES OF ANIMAL CELL
There are numerous types of animal cells, each designed to serve specific
functions. The most common types of animal cells are:
Skin Cells
This type of cells mostly consists of Keratinocytes and Melanocytes.
Keratinocytes make up about 90% of all skin cells. It produces a protein called
Keratin which strengthens the outer skin layer and helps it act as a barrier. Hairs
and nails are made of Keratin.
Melanocytes produce a compound known as Melanin which is responsible for skin
color. The more the melanin in your skin, the darker your complexion.
Blood Cells
The blood cells are made up of Red and White blood cells. The red blood cells
makeup about 99.9% of all blood cells and are responsible for delivering oxygen
from the lungs to other parts of the body. This is the only animal cell without a
nucleus. On the other hand, white blood cells are responsible for the immune
systems such that it battles infection by killing damaging bacteria and other
compounds.
Muscle Cells
These are long tube-like cells whose function is to aid in the movement of an
organism’s limbs and organs. They can either be skeletal, cardiac or smooth cells.
Skeletal Muscle cells (responsible for the conscious movement of the body)
Cardiac muscle cells (controls the contraction of heart by generating electrical
impulses)
Smooth muscle cells (control subconscious movements of tissue such as blood
vessels, uterus, and stomach)
Nerve Cells
These are also called neurons and are the main cells of the nervous system. They
make use of dendrites and axons to deliver and receive signals to and from the
cell respectively.
Fat Cells

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These are also called adipocytes and are the main constituent in adipose tissue.
They are used to store fats (triglycerides) and other lipids as energy reserves.
Once the triglycerides are used up, the fat cells shrink.
Sperm Cells
These are tadpole-shaped cells and are the smallest in the human body. Sperm
cells are haploid (carry one chromosome each) and as such cannot divide, unlike
many other cells that are diploid in nature. They are motile due to the presence of
flagellum which is filled with the energy-giving mitochondria.
Egg Cells
This is also referred to as a giant as it is the largest human cell. Egg cells are also
haploid such that the DNA from the sperm and egg can combine to create a diploid
cell.

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FUNCTIONS OF ANIMAL CELLS

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF ANIMAL CELLS

Cells carry out all the processes of the body including:

● · Producing and storing energy, making proteins, replicating the DNA,

and transportation of molecules through the body.
●
Cells are highly specialized to carry out specific tasks: for example the heart
cardiac muscle cells that beat in unison. Digestive tract cells have cilia,
which are
finger-like projections that increase surface area for the absorption of
nutrients during digestion. Each cell type has the organelles suited to its
particular task.

There are over 200 different types of cells in the human body. Red blood cells
contain hemoglobin, the molecule that carries oxygen, and they have no nuclei;
this is a specialization that allows each red blood cell to carry as much oxygen
within it as possible.
Multiple cells form tissues. These groups of cells carry out a specific function. In
turn, groups of similar tissues form the body’s organs, such as the brain, lungs,
and heart. Organs work together in organ systems, like the nervous system,
digestive system, and circulatory system. Organ systems vary depending on the
species.
For example, insects have open circulatory systems, where blood is pumped
directly into body cavities and surrounds their tissues. Vertebrates such as fish,
mammals, and birds, on the other hand, have closed circulatory systems. Their
blood is enclosed within blood vessels where it travels to target tissues. In this way,
all animals have evolved specific uses for each of the cells in their bodies.

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ANIMAL CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
SUMMARY TABLE

Organelle Summary of Function

Cell membrane
● Protects the cell
● Controls the entry and exit of molecules
● Gives the cell a shape
● Adheres to neighboring cells to form tissue
● Helps the cell to communicate with the exterior

Cytoplasm &
Cytoskeleton ● The cytoplasm holds water and nutrients
● The cytoskeleton gives structural rigidity to the cell
● The cytoskeleton helps the movement of organelles
and chromosomes

Nucleus
● The command center of the cell
● Duplicate and store genetic information
● Makes ribosomes
● Sends commands to ribosomes for protein synthesis

Ribosomes
● Protein synthesis

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Endoplasmic Summary of the function of the Smooth ER:
Reticulum (ER) ● Lipid synthesis
● Detoxification of alcohol and drugs

Summary of the function of the Rough ER:

● Protein synthesis

Golgi apparatus
● Processes and packages proteins and transports
them to other parts of the cell or outside the cell.

Mitochondria
● Converts food we eat into the energy we use
● Assist in cell growth, cell cycle, and cellular death

Lysosomes &
Peroxisomes ● Break down cellular waste into building blocks
● Destroy foreign invaders
● Peroxisomes break down hydrogen peroxide – a
harmful compound
● Peroxisomes are involved in the synthesis of lipids
and bile acids

Vacuoles
● Store food, water, and waste

Cilia & Flagellum

● Lung cells use cilia to move mucus out of the lungs
● A sperm cell uses its flagellum to swim through the
female reproductive tract

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NEURONS

WHAT IS NEURON: - Neurons are responsible for transmitting signals throughout the
body, which could be electrical and chemical messages, they help to control all the
important functions of life.

Neuron which is also known as the Nervous System is everywhere in the body, it detects
what is happening around and inside us, they decide our action i.e. activate and
deactivate, send messages and more are all controlled and managed by the Neuron. The
ability to see, smell, touch, taste or carry out purposeful action i.e. allows us to think about
and remember what is going on is also done by neuron.

The neuron is connected to one another creating a good and effective network for
communication.

Neuron Cell function

Receive Messages Send Messages

TYPES OF MESSAGE
1) Chemical
2) Electrical

Neurons are found in the

C N S

Central Nervous System

N S

Brain Spinal Cord

TYPE OF NEURONS
Neurons are two types in different ways: which is by connection or function

CONNECTION:
Efferent Neurons:- takes messages from the CNS which is the brain and spinal cord
then send to other cells in the body ]

Afferent Neurons:- Takes messages from other cells then transmit to the Central
Nervous System.

Interneurons: This is the message communication between neurons in the Central

Nervous System.

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FUNCTION
SENSORY:– Transmit the information from the senses to the Central Nervous System

RELAY:- This is to transmit signal around and within the Central Nervous System (CNS)

MOTOR – This takes messages from the CNS to Muscles

HOW NEURONS PASS MESSAGES

When Neurons receive information from other neurons, it then adds it up until they exceed
a particular threshold (magnitude that must be exceeded for a certain reaction to take
place or manifest) as soon as this threshold is exceeded it triggers the neuron to send a
message along the Axon. This is called an action potential.

STRUCTURE OF THE NEURONS

Dendrite

Nucleus

Cell Body
Axon
Neural Impulse

Schenn Cell

Myelin Sheath

Axon Terminal

Synapse

Dendrite: are branch-like structures, of which their major role is to receive chemical
messages from other neurons.

Axons: This transmits electrical impulses from the cell body to other neurons
Neural Cell: are the electrical signal traveling down the axon.

Myelin Sheath:- covers the axon of some neuron and helps speed neural impulses.

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Cell Body: are the life support cells center where normal cellulant take place like
production of assumption of food making sure the cell is regulated internal and external
temperature is done by the cell body.

Terminal Branches of Axon:- This form junction with other cells from which chemical
messages are sent.
Synapse: are the small space that separates neurons and dendrites.

Synapse: contains sacs of neurotransmitters

Chemical

After the release of neurotransmitters

1) Demolition of remaining Neurotransmitters
2) Reuptake

Examples of Neurotransmitters
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine,
Dopamine and Serotonin

All this can be found in the neuron

WHAT IS UNIPOLAR, BIPOLAR, MULTIPOLAR NEURONS

These are three (3) major categories of neurons recognized

Axon Axon
Unipolar Neuron

Dentrite Axon Axon Terminal

Cell Body
Cell Branch

Bipolar Neuron
Dentrite Cell Branch

Axon

Multipolar Neuron
FUNCTIONS

Unipolar Neuron only has one form of process from the cell body which is very short, it
causes it to break the process into longer processes. It is sensory neurons that lead the
impulses into the CNS.

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Bipolar Neuron have two processes (axon and dendrite) this are sensory part for the
transmission of senses such as taste, smell, sight, hearing, and touch.

Multipolar Neuron:- This is a type of neuron with a single axon but a lot of dendrites and
branches that coordinate information from other neurons.

These are the most common neurons, located in the Central Nervous System, brain and
spinal cord.

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SUPPORTING CELLS OF THE CNS BLOOD -BRAIN BARRIER

In the Central Nervous System or the CNS for short, they are four types of
supporting cells:

- Oligodendrocytes:
Oligodendrocytes are a type of large glial cell found in the central nervous system.
They produce the myelin sheath insulating neuronal axons (analogous to Schwann
cells in the peripheral nervous system), although some oligodendrocytes (called
satellite oligodendrocytes) are not involved in myelination.

Mammalian nervous systems depend crucially on myelin sheaths, which reduce

ion leakage and decrease the capacitance of the cell membrane, for rapid signal
conduction, myelin also increases impulse speed, as saltatory propagation of
action potentials.

Satellite oligodendrocytes are considered to be a part of the grey matter whereas

myelinating oligodendrocytes are a part of the white matter. They may support
neuronal metabolism. Satellite oligodendrocytes may be recruited to produce new
myelin after a demyelinating injury.

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 - Microglia
Microglia are a type of neuroglia (glial cell) located throughout the brain and spinal
cord. They account for 10–15% of all cells found within the brain.
As the resident macrophage cells, they act as the first and main form of active
immune defense in the central nervous system (CNS).
Microglial cells fulfill a variety of different tasks within the CNS mainly related to
both immune response and maintaining homeostasis. The following are some of
the major known functions carried out by these cells such as; Scavenging (each
microglial cell physically surveys its domain on a regular basis), Phagocytosis
(phagocytosis involves the ingesting of various materials. Such as cellular debris,
lipids, and invading virus), Extracellular signaling (maintaining homeostasis in non-
infected regions and promoting inflammation in infected or damaged tissue),
Cytotoxicity (microglia can also release a variety of cytotoxic substances.),
Synaptic stripping
(post-inflammation microglia remove the branches from nerves near damaged
tissue.), Promotion of repair (it can pass through several steps to promote regrowth

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of neural tissue.)

- Astrocyte
Astrocytes (Astro from Greek Astron = star and cyte from Greek "kytos" = cavity
but also means cell), also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-
shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord. They help form the physical structure
of the brain and are thought to play a number of active roles, including the secretion
or absorption of neural transmitters and maintenance of the blood-brain barrier.
They are the most abundant glial cells in the brain that are closely associated with
neuronal synapses.
They usually regulate the transmission of electrical impulses within the brain. The
astrocytes next to neurons in the frontal cortex and hippocampus store and release
glucose. Thus, astrocytes can fuel neurons with glucose during periods of a high
rate of glucose consumption and glucose shortage.
Metabolic Support: They provide neurons with nutrients such as lactate.

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Glucose sensing: normally associated with neurons, the detection of interstitial
glucose levels within the brain is also controlled by astrocytes.
Transmitter uptake and release: Astrocytes express plasma membrane
transporters such as glutamate transporters for several neurotransmitters,
including glutamate, ATP, and GABA. More recently, astrocytes were shown to
release glutamate or ATP in a vesicular, Ca2+-dependent manner.

- Ependymal cells.
Ependymal cell, type of neuronal support cell (neuroglia) that forms the epithelial
lining of the ventricles (cavities) in the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.
Ependymal cells also give rise to the epithelial layer that surrounds the choroid
plexus, a network of blood vessels located in the walls of the lateral ventricles (the
two largest ventricles, which occur as a pair in the cerebral hemispheres).

It is involved in the production of cerebrospinal fluid or CSF for short. Lining the
CSF-filled ventricles, the ependymal cells play an important role in the production
and regulation of CSF. Their apical surfaces are covered in a layer of cilia, which

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circulate CSF around the CNS. Their apical surfaces are also covered with
microvilli, which absorb CSF.
Modified tight junctions between epithelial cells control fluid release. This release
allows free exchange between CSF and nervous tissue of the brain and spinal
cord, which is why sampling of CSF (e.g. through a "spinal tap") provides a window
to the CNS.

CONCLUSION

Cells are the building block of life. The animal cells have a very intricate
design and are built
with such precision.
The different types of the animal cells perform different functions which aid
human existence,
reproduction and survival. The central nervous system (CNS) which consists
of the brain and
spinal cord is the part of the human body that coordinates behavior and
transmits information to
all other parts of the body. This CNS is able to achieve all it does due to the
presence of a nerve
cell known as Neurons.
Emphatically, human activities are made possible by the presence of the
animal cell.

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UNIT 2- Hormones

HORMONES

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 Abstract

The human body has to maintain homeostasis which definitely requires a prompt coordination of
many different cells, tissues, systems and organs. Communication between neighboring cells,
and between cells and tissues in distant parts of the body, occurs through the release of chemicals
called hormones. Hormones are released into body fluids (usually blood) and some are secreted
through a duct that carry these chemicals to their target cells. At the target cells, which are cells
that have a receptor for a signal or ligand from a signal cell, the hormones elicit a response. The
cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones make up the exocrine and endocrine system.
Examples of glands of the endocrine system include the adrenal glands, which produce hormones
such as epinephrine and norepinephrine that regulate responses to stress, and the thyroid gland,
which produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolic rates. While some examples of exocrine
system includes the salivary glands, sweat glands and many glands of the digestive system where
the glands secrete straight to a target site via ducts or tubes. Diseases and other conditions such
as aging may affect the hormonal functional systems in several ways. After hormones produce
their effects at their target organs, they are broken down (metabolized) into inactive molecules.
The liver and kidneys are the main organs that break down hormones, hence, the ability of human
body to break down hormones may be decreased in people who have chronic heart, liver, or
kidney disease.

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 Introduction

Hormones are signaling chemical molecules secreted in the blood where which they serve as
messengers carrying information from organs and tissues of the body to regulate physiology and
behaviour of living organisms. Hence, there are many types of hormones that act on different
aspects of bodily functions and processes.
Hormones are the body’s own messenger substances which carry out specific regulating
functions in the cells of their respective effector organs and thereby control physiologic processes.
Their regulation takes place on three levels: the hypothalamic level (primary releasing function),
the stimulator level in the pituitary gland, and the glandular level in the respective organs. The
secretion of the hormones is controlled via feedback mechanisms among the three levels or via
the blood levels of the substance they are regulating (e.g. insulin and glucose, glucagon and
glucose, calcium and parathyroid hormone). (Cornway, 2015)
Hormones are very much like neurotransmitters in that only cells that have receptors to the
hormone can respond. Specificity of hormone action derives from the specificity of the molecular
interaction of hormone and receptor. (Fetcher, 2017) Although a given hormone may travel
throughout the body in the bloodstream, it will affect the activity only of its target cells; that is, cells
with receptors for that particular hormone. Hormones play a critical role in the regulation of
physiological processes because of the target cell responses they regulate. These responses
contribute to human reproduction, growth and development of body tissues, metabolism, fluid,
and electrolyte balance, sleep, and many other body functions. The major hormones of the human
body and their effects are identified in two glands namely:

• Exocrine Glands

• Endocrine Glands

Endocrine Glands Vs Exocrine Glands?

What is a Gland?

A gland is a functional unit of cells (organ) which creates and releases substances into a duct or
directly into the blood stream to performs a specific function in the body. Glands
are an organized collection of secretory epithelial cells. Most glands are formed during
development by proliferation of epithelial cells so that they project into the underlying connective
tissue. Some glands retain their continuity with the surface via a duct and are known as
EXOCRINE GLANDS. Other glands lose this direct continuity with the surface when their ducts
degenerate during development. These glands are known as ENDOCRINE glands. (Mitchell
Peckham, 2004)

Exocrine Gland:

Exocrine glands are the glands of external secretion i.e. They secrete substances on the
body surface through a duct. Typical exocrine glands include sweat glands, salivary glands,
mammary glands, and many glands of the digestive system. Exocrine glands are located in the
intestinal wall, gastrointestinal tract, or outside such as salivary glands, liver, pancreas, etc. They

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secrete water, ions, and mucins in the digestive tract. The three types of exocrine glands are:
Holocrine Glands, Merocrine Glands and Apocrine Glands.
Exocrine glands are comprised of an acinus and a duct with different cell types respectively.
These glands are found in many organs within the body and demonstrate a large variety in the
function of their
secretions. As such, a wide range of cell types exist in exocrine glands. While the duct functions
primarily to transport glandular secretions, the acinus is responsible for the production of glandular
secretions, and as such shows more variety in cellular composition. Typical cell types within the
acinus include serous, mucinous, or sebaceous. Salivary glands are made up of serous cells to
a large extent. Mucinous glands secrete mucus. Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily
compound. Sebaceous glands are most prevalent in the face, scalp, groin, and armpits.
(Freeman, 2006)

Figure 1- Figure 1: Exocrine Gland

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 Endocrine Gland:

The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism,
growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among
other things. Endocrine glands secrete their respective substances directly into the bloodstream
rather than through a duct. Endocrine glands belong to the body’s internal control system and
they produce hormones which help to regulate the functions of cells and tissues. The major glands
of the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals,
pineal body, and the reproductive organs (ovaries and testes) (Mayor Clinic UK).

Figure 2: Endocrine Gland

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The endocrine system is the regulator of homeostasis (Thibodeau, 1983). Endocrine systems
function to maintain control over many of the other systems of the body via glands that release
hormones that circulate in the blood stream. Endocrine toxicity results when a chemical interferes
with the synthesis, secretion, transport, metabolism, binding action, or elimination of hormones
necessary for endocrine functions resulting in loss of normal tissue function, development, growth,
or reproduction (Andrew, 2012, p. 73,74) (Wallace, 2012). The endocrine system is a complex
network of glands and organs. It uses hormones to control and coordinate your
body's metabolism, energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury,
stress, and mood. The following are integral parts of the endocrine system:

• Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain, near the optic

chiasm where the optic nerves behind each eye cross and meet. The hypothalamus

secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the release of hormones in the pituitary

gland, in addition to controlling water balance, sleep, temperature, appetite, and blood

pressure.

• Pineal body: The pineal body is located below the corpus callosum, in the middle of

the brain. It produces the hormone melatonin, which helps the body know when it's

time to sleep.

• Pituitary: The pituitary gland is located below the brain. Usually no larger than a pea,

the gland controls many functions of the other endocrine glands.

• Thyroid and parathyroid: The thyroid gland and parathyroid glands are located in

front of the neck, below the larynx (voice box). The thyroid plays an important role in

the body's metabolism. The parathyroid glands play an important role in the regulation

of the body's calcium balance.

• Thymus: The thymus is located in the upper part of the chest and produces white

blood cells that fight infections and destroy abnormal cells.

• Adrenal gland: An adrenal gland is located on top of each kidney. Like many glands,

the adrenal glands work hand-in-hand with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The

adrenal glands make and release corticosteroid hormones and epinephrine that

maintain blood pressure and regulate metabolism.

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• Pancreas: The pancreas is located across the back of the abdomen, behind the

stomach. The pancreas plays a role in digestion, as well as hormone production.

Hormones produced by the pancreas include insulin and glucagon, which regulate

levels of blood sugar.

• Ovary: A woman's ovaries are located on both sides of the uterus, below the opening

of the fallopian tubes (tubes that extend from the uterus to the ovaries). In addition to

containing the egg cells necessary for reproduction, the ovaries also produce estrogen

and progesterone.

• Testis: A man's testes are located in a pouch that hangs suspended outside the male

body. The testes produce testosterone and sperm.

Figure
Figure 3:4:Male
Male andFemale
and FemaleEndocrine
Endocrine

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 Characteristics of Hormones

Hormones general characteristics are encapsulated in being chemical entities produced by

special cells of endocrine glands and are transported to the target cells/ tissue/organ via
circulation. Their actions are species specific and are only active in very minute quantities. They
are mostly water soluble and hence, they have low molecular weight. Hormones are generally
destroyed after their actions because they are chemical and are heterogeneous substances.
Almost all hormones cannot be stored for a longtime; usually they are synthesized and secreted
during the time of requirement. They usually activate target cells by forming hormone receptor
complex.

Hormone Secreting gland(s) Function

Adrenaline Adrenal Increases blood pressure,
heart rate, and metabolism in
reaction to stress
Aldosterone Adrenal Controls the body’s salt and
water balance
Cortisol Adrenal Plays a role in stress
response
Dehydroepiandrosterone Adrenal Aids in production of body
Sulfate (DHEA) odor and growth of body hair
during puberty
Estrogen Ovary Works to regulate menstrual
cycle, maintain pregnancy,
and develop female sex
characteristics; aids in sperm
production
Follicle Stimulating Hormone Pituitary Controls the production of
(FSH) eggs and sperm
Glucagon Pancreas Helps to increase levels of
blood glucose
Insulin Pancreas Helps to reduce your blood
glucose levels
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Pituitary Controls estrogen and
testosterone production as
well as ovulation
Melatonin Pituitary Controls sleep and wake
cycles

Oxytocin Pituitary Helps with lactation,

childbirth, and mother-child
bonding

Parathyroid Hormone Parathyroid Controls calcium levels in

bones and blood

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 Progesterone Ovary Helps to prepare the body for
pregnancy when an egg is
fertilized

Prolactin Pituitary Promotes breast-milk

production

Insulin Pancreas Helps to reduce your blood

glucose levels
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Pituitary Controls estrogen and
testosterone production as
well as ovulation
Melatonin Pituitary Controls sleep and wake
cycles
Oxytocin Pituitary Helps with lactation,
childbirth, and mother-child
bonding
Parathyroid Hormone Parathyroid Controls calcium levels in
bones and blood
Progesterone Ovary Helps to prepare the body for
pregnancy when an egg is
fertilized
Prolactin Pituitary Promotes breast-milk
production
Insulin Pancreas Helps to reduce your blood
glucose levels
Table 1: Characteristics of Endocrine Gland

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Classes of Hormones

There are three general classes of hormones characterized by their structure, and not their
function. The three categories are:

Steroids:

Steroids are lipids formed from cholesterol. Examples include testosterone and cortisol. These
hormones are given off by gonads, adrenal cortex, and the placenta. Steroids are natural
substances with many different effects in the human body with primary use in health care to
reduce inflammation and other disease symptoms. Steroid inhalers have an important role in
reducing deaths from asthma, local steroid injections are useful in treating painful joints and
ligaments. Steroids make the whole immune system less active, which can be very useful in
illnesses where there is an immune component. Steroids are the ultimate anti-inflammatory
drugs. However, steroid use in medicine is limited by very serious side effects in the body as a
whole. Steroids also affect the brain, and high doses can make people feel happy, euphoric,
hyped-up, with disturbance of sleep and even serious psychiatric illness such as mania, very
aggressive behavior and psychosis (delusions, pananoia, loss of touch with reality) (Berg, 2007).

Peptides:

Peptides are the most common type of hormones and contain a chain of amino acids. Examples
include TRH and vasopressin. These hormones are given off by the heart, liver, stomach, kidney,
pituitary gland, and parathyroid. Peptides play a crucial role in fundamental physiological and
biochemical functions of life. For decades now, peptide research is a continuously growing field
of science. Peptides (proteins) are present in every living cell and possess a variety of biochemical
activities. They appear as enzymes, hormones, antibiotics, receptors, etc. Synthetic peptides may
be useful in structure-function studies of polypeptides, as peptide hormones and hormone
analogues, in the preparation of cross-reacting antibodies, and in the design of novel enzymes.
Peptides are synthesized by coupling the carboxyl group or C-terminus of one amino acid to the
amino group or N-terminus of another. There are two strategies for peptide synthesis: liquid-phase
peptide synthesis and solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) (US National Library, 2012).

Amines:

Amine-derived hormones are derived from the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. Examples
include catecholamines and thyroxine. These hormones are given off by the thyroid and adrenal
medulla. In amines, the hydrogen atoms in the ammonia have been replaced one at a time by
hydrocarbon groups. Amines fall into different classes depending on how many of the hydrogen
atoms are replaced. In primary amines, only one of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonia molecule
has been replaced. That means that the formula of the primary amine will be RNH2 where "R" is
an alkyl group. In a secondary amine, two of the hydrogens in an ammonia molecule have been
replaced by hydrocarbon groups. In a tertiary amine, all of the hydrogens in an ammonia molecule
have been replaced by hydrocarbon groups.

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FUNCTIONS AND MALFUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

Hormones serve the human body very well, but can cause harm to us when it is over, under or
not secreted. Below are some hormones and their functions and malfunctions.

ESTROGEN

Estrogens are a group of sex hormones that promote the development and maintenance of female
characteristics in the human body.

Estrogen is crucial to the reproductive function and cycle of a woman. In females,

estrogen enhances the following areas of the body:

• Ovaries: Estrogen helps stimulate the growth of an egg follicle.

• Vagina: It also stimulates the growth of the vagina to its adult size, the thickening of the
vaginal wall, and an increase in vaginal acidity that reduces bacterial infections. It also
helps lubricate the vagina.

• Fallopian tubes: Estrogen is responsible for the growth of a thick, muscular wall in the
fallopian tubes, and for the contractions that transport the egg and sperm cells.

• Uterus: Estrogen enhances and maintains the mucous membrane that lines the uterus. It
increases the size of the endometrium as well as enhancing blood flow, protein content,
and enzyme activity. Estrogen also stimulates the muscles in the uterus to develop and
contract. Contractions help during the delivery of an infant and placenta, and they also
assist the wall of the uterus in getting rid of dead tissue during menstruation.

• Cervix: Estrogen is thought to regulate the flow and thickness of uterine mucous
secretions. This enhances the movement of a sperm cell to an egg and enables
fertilization.

• Mammary glands: Estrogen forms unique relationships with other hormones in the
breast. They are responsible for the growth of the breasts during adolescence, the
pigmentation of the nipples, and eventually stopping the flow of milk when an infant is no
longer breast-feeding.

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Estrogen is also responsible for the differences between male and female bodies. For
example, in a female body:

• Estrogen makes the bones smaller and shorter, the pelvis broader, and the shoulders
narrower.

• It increases fat storage around the hips and thighs, meaning that the body is more curved
and contoured.

• Estrogen helps to slow down the growth of females during puberty and increases
sensitivity to insulin. Insulin influences the amount of body fat and lean muscle a person
can develop.

• It influences body hair to become finer and less pronounced while making the hair on a
woman’s head more permanent.

• Estrogen makes the voice box smaller and the vocal cords shorter, giving females a
higher-pitched voice than males.

• Estrogens suppress the activity of the glands in the skin that produce oily substances. This
reduces the likelihood of acne in females.

VASSOPRESSIN

Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is a nonapeptide that is synthesized in the

hypothalamus. It has long been known to play important roles in the control of the body’s osmotic
balance, blood pressure regulation, and proper kidney function. Given its vital role in those
functions, it is no surprise that ADH is of great clinical significance. ADH primarily affects the ability
of the kidney to reabsorb water; when present, ADH induces expression of water transport
proteins in the late distal tubule and collecting duct to increase water reabsorption. Several
disease states arise when the body loses control of ADH secretion or responds to its presence
(Brian Cuzzo; Sarah L. Lappin1).

ADH is the main hormone responsible for tonicity homeostasis. Hyperosmolar states most
strongly trigger its release. ADH is stored in neurons within the hypothalamus. These
neurons express osmoreceptors that are exquisitely responsive to blood osmolarity and

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respond to changes as little as two mOsm/L.[2] Therefore, slight elevations in osmolarity
result in secretion of ADH. ADH then acts primarily in the kidneys to increase water
reabsorption, thus returning the osmolarity to baseline.

ADH is also secreted in times of hypovolemia or volume contraction. In these states,

decreased arterial blood volume is sensed by baroreceptors in the left atrium, carotid
artery, and aortic arch. Information about low blood pressure sensed by these receptors
is transmitted to the vagus nerve, which directly stimulates the release of ADH. ADH then
promotes water reabsorption in the kidneys and at high concentrations will also cause
vasoconstriction. These two mechanisms together serve to increase effective arterial
blood volume and increase blood pressure to maintain tissue perfusion. It is also
important to note that in states of hypovolemia, ADH will be secreted even in hypoosmotic
states. Conversely, ADH secretion is inhibited by hypervolemia; therefore, in
hyperosmotic hypervolemic states, ADH secretion will be reduced.]

MALFUNCTION OF VASSOPRESSIN

There are three pathologic states related to ADH. The first is the syndrome of inappropriate ADH
(SIADH) and occurs when ADH is released in excessive unregulated quantities. SIADH results in
excess water reabsorption and thus creates dilutional hyponatremia. Although water is being
retained in quantities greater than the body needs, these patients typically remain euvolemic and
do not exhibit features of the third spacing of fluid such as edema. The mechanism behind is that,
regardless of the excess ADH present, the kidneys maintain their ability to excrete salt. As ADH
signals for increased water reabsorption, the body senses the increase in extracellular volume,
and natriuretic mechanisms come into play that cause increased salt excretion via the kidneys.
The increased salt in the urine will osmotically attract water to be excreted as well, thus keeping
the body in a euvolemic state. This increase in salt excretion also contributes to the hyponatremia
seen in SIADH. Settings in which SIADH arises include malignancies (most often by autonomous
production of ADH by small cell lung cancer), central nervous system (CNS) disturbances (e.g.,
stroke, hemorrhage, infection, trauma, etc.), drugs (e.g., selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors,
carbamazepine, and others), surgery (most likely secondary to pain), and more.

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Patients with SIADH may be asymptomatic or present with a spectrum of severity of complaints
based on their level of hyponatremia. Nausea and malaise are typically the earliest presenting
symptoms and are seen when the sodium acutely falls below 125-130 mEq/L. Lower levels of
sodium are associated with headache, obtundation, seizure, and even coma and respiratory
arrest.[4] These symptoms arise due to the increased movement of water into neurons as the
extracellular osmolarity falls. The intracellular swelling causes neuronal dysfunction.[5]

THYROXIN

This hormone helps to control several body functions, including the rate of metabolism and energy
levels. The thyroid gland is an important part of the endocrine system, secreting a number of
hormones that affect everything from heart health to metabolism. One of those hormones is
thyroxine, also known as T4. Because of the many functions that thyroxine impacts, it is
considered one of the most important thyroid hormones. Understanding thyroxine is crucial to
protecting your overall health.

Thyroxine is a hormone the thyroid gland secretes into the bloodstream. Once in the
bloodstream, thyroxine travels to the organs, like the liver and kidneys, where it is
converted to its active form of triiodothyronine. Thyroxine plays a crucial role in heart and
digestive function, metabolism, brain development, bone health, and muscle control. It
affects almost all of the body's systems, which means proper thyroxine levels are vital for
health. This is why many doctors will test T4 levels along with the more common T3 levels
when testing for thyroid disorders.

What Can Go Wrong with Thyroxine?

Having too little thyroxine or too much thyroxine can cause health problems. If your body
releases too much thyroxine, you will suffer a condition called thyrotoxicosis. This can
cause a goiter, which is a swelling of the neck because of an enlarged thyroid gland.
Thyrotoxicosis can also cause menstrual irregularities, an increase in bowel movements,
weight loss, heat intolerance, fatigue, and irritability. Thyrotoxicosis is commonly caused
by hyperthyroidism, tumors in the thyroid gland, or thyroid inflammation.

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The body can also produce too little thyroxine, a condition known as hypothyroidism. Low
thyroxine levels cause problems with development if it occurs when an individual is young.
In adults, thyroxine deficiency will lower the metabolic rate, causing weight gain, memory
problems, infertility, fatigue, and muscle stiffness.

INSULIN

Insulin is a chemical messenger that allows cells to absorb glucose, a sugar, from the
blood.

The pancreas is an organ behind the stomach that is the main source of insulin in the
body. Clusters of cells in the pancreas called islets produce the hormone and determine
the amount based on blood glucose levels in the body.

The higher the level of glucose, the more insulin goes into production to balance sugar
levels in the blood.

Insulin also assists in breaking down fats or proteins for energy.

A delicate balance of insulin regulates blood sugar and many processes in the body. If
insulin levels are too low or high, excessively high or low blood sugar can start to cause
symptoms. If a state of low or high blood sugar continues, serious health problems might
start to develop.

Insulin Problems

In some people, the immune system attacks the islets, and they cease to produce insulin
or do not produce enough.

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When this occurs, blood glucose stays in the blood and cells cannot absorb them to
convert the sugars into energy.

This is the onset of type 1 diabetes, and a person with this version of diabetes will need
regular shots of insulin to survive.

In some people, especially those who are overweight, obese, or inactive, insulin is not
effective in transporting glucose into the cells and unable to fulfill its actions. The inability
of insulin to exert its effect on tissues is called insulin resistance.

Type 2 diabetes will develop when the islets cannot produce enough insulin to overcome
insulin resistance.

Since the early 20th century, doctors have been able to isolate insulin and provide it in an
injectable form to supplement the hormone for people who cannot produce it themselves
or have increased insulin resistance.

OXYTOCIN

• They are also known as the “Birth hormone”. It helps to regulate the Central Nervous
System (CNS) different behaviours like social behaviour and patterns of sexual
functioning. It is fundamental to birth process and breast milk production. Oxytocin is
originated in the Hypothalamus part of the brain in the pituitary gland that's responsible for
it's secretion. The pituitary gland secretes the oxytocin. This hormone helps with lactation,
childbirth, and mother-child bonding
When oxytocin is being wrongly regulated or malfunctioned, it leads to various disorders
like depression, schizophrenia and anxiety disorder. Also low oxytocin production can lead
to Autism.

FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE

This is also secreted by the pituitary gland. This hormone controls the production of eggs and
sperm

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GLUCAGON

This hormone is secreted by the pancreas gland. It helps to increase levels of blood glucose

LUTEINIZING

This controls estrogen and testosterone production as well as ovulation

MELATONIN
controls sleep and wake cyclec

CAUSES OF ENDOCRINE DISORDERS

Endocrine disorders are typically grouped into two categories:

• Endocrine disease that results when a gland produces too much or too little of an endocrine
hormone, called a hormone imbalance.
• Endocrine disease due to the development of lesions (such as nodules or tumors) in the
endocrine system, which may or may not affect hormone levels.

The endocrine's feedback system helps control the balance of hormones in the bloodstream. If your
body has too much or too little of a certain hormone, the feedback system signals the proper gland or
glands to correct the problem. A hormone imbalance may occur if this feedback system has trouble
keeping the right level of hormones in the bloodstream, or if your body doesn't clear them out of the
bloodstream properly.

Increased or decreased levels of endocrine hormone may be caused by:

• A problem with the endocrine feedback system

• Disease
• Failure of a gland to stimulate another gland to release hormones (for example, a problem
with the hypothalamus can disrupt hormone production in the pituitary gland)
• A genetic disorder, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) or congenital hypothyroidism
• Infection
• Injury to an endocrine gland
• Tumor of an endocrine gland

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Most endocrine tumors and nodules (lumps) are noncancerous. They usually do not spread to other
parts of the body. However, a tumor or nodule on the gland may interfere with the gland's hormone
production.

TYPES OF ENDOCRINE MALFUNCTION

• Adrenal insufficiency. The adrenal gland releases too little of the hormone cortisol and
sometimes, aldosterone. Symptoms include fatigue, stomach upset, dehydration,
and skin changes. Addison's disease is a type of adrenal insufficiency.
• Cushing's disease. Overproduction of a pituitary gland hormone leads to an overactive
adrenal gland. A similar condition called Cushing's syndrome may occur in people, particularly
children, who take high doses of corticosteroid medications.
• Gigantism (acromegaly) and other growth hormone problems. If the pituitary gland produces
too much growth hormone, a child's bones and body parts may grow abnormally fast. If growth
hormone levels are too low, a child can stop growing in height.
• Hyperthyroidism. The thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone, leading to weight
loss, fast heart rate, sweating, and nervousness. The most common cause for an overactive
thyroid is an autoimmune disorder called Grave's disease.
• Hypothyroidism. The thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone, leading
to fatigue, constipation, dry skin, and depression. The underactive gland can cause slowed
development in children. Some types of hypothyroidism are present at birth.
• Hypopituitarism. The pituitary gland releases little or no hormones. It may be caused by a
number of different diseases. Women with this condition may stop getting their periods.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia I and II (MEN I and MEN II). These rare, genetic conditions are
passed down through families. They cause tumors of the parathyroid, adrenal, and thyroid
glands, leading to overproduction of hormones.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Overproduction of androgens interfere with the
development of eggs and their release from the female ovaries. PCOS is a leading cause of
infertility.
• Precocious puberty. Abnormally early puberty that occurs when glands tell the body to release
sex hormones too soon in life.

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RESEARCH-TECHNIQUES:
STUDY OF THE LIVING BRAIN

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INTRODUCTION

Conventional x-rays had their benefits however, but there were issues using this method
to image the brain because of the bony density of the skull that attenuates many of the x-
rays that go through it. Also, the brain itself is made of soft tissue and water and is bathed
in cerebrospinal fluid (water) and these densities looked the same on conventional x-rays.
These and other difficulties led scientists to develop more advanced methods of brain
imaging such as CAT, PET, EEG, FMIR and more.

There are two broad categories of brain imaging techniques

• Structural Techniques
These techniques reveal the structural qualities of the brain
• Functional Techniques
These techniques reveal the brain activity in a living brain

COMPUTERIZED AXIAL TOMOGRAPHY (CAT)

The word “tomography” comes from the Greek words “tomos” meaning “slice” and
“graphe” meaning “drawing”. A Computerized axial tomography or “CAT scan” is a
structural brain imaging technique that shows detailed cross sections of a subject’s brain.
This technique uses a fan shaped x-ray beam to take cross sectional images of a person’s
brain, the beam rotates around the person’s head to get different angles of the brain, the
data is then transformed by a computer into an image of a cross section or “slice” of the
brain.

A detailed structure of the brain is revealed by a computer measuring the level of

penetration of the x-ray beam (x-ray attenuation) to different tissues within the brain to
figure out the density of those areas. The higher the density of the tissue the whiter it will
appear on CAT imaging.

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During a CAT scan the patient may or may not receive a “contrast material”. A contrast
material is a substance taken by mouth or injection that makes the organ being studied
appear more clearly.

With these images you can detect if there is any structural abnormality in the brain such
as a tumor or brain damage. This method of brain imaging utilizes radiation, and It needs
to be done quickly to minimize the potential damage caused by the radiation from the
beam.

How is a CAT scan performed?

Step 1: A motorized bed moves the subject into the CAT scanner.

Step 2: As the subject goes through the machine a narrow fan shaped beam of x-ray
rotates around their body.

Step 3: Many images are taken at different angles during one complete rotation.

Step 4: The information is sent to a computer to reconstruct all the different images and
create a cross sectional image of the brain.

A CAT scan is a useful method of brain imaging; however it has some limitations;

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 • Some patients have allergic reactions to the contrast agent used in the procedure.
• This technique exposes the patient to ionizing radiation which has a risk of causing cancer
if over exposed.
• It is costly.
• The machine is very large in comparison to conventional x-rays and EEG.

POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET)

A positron emission tomography (PET) is a functioning technique that measures

radioactive elements introduced into the brain. During a PET scan a small amount of
radioactive material called a tracer is introduced to the subject’s body, usually through
injection, and doctors monitor its circulation into the brain.

A radioactive version of glucose is produced called “FDG” which stands for

“Fluorodeoxyglucose”. FDG behaves chemically similar to glucose. So, wherever glucose
is utilized in the body so will FDG, only difference is that FDG is radioactive and emits a
subatomic particle as it decays (a positron). A positron is similar to an electron the only
difference is that it is positively charged and is an anti-matter that cannot co-exist with
other matter.

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Therefore, once it comes in contact with an electron (e-) they will destroy each other and
will be converted to energy which will produce 2 photons of gamma radiation that will then
be detected by the scanner and enable it to track the location of brain activity. When the
scanner detects the levels of this substance the researcher can tell how much blood flow
there is in a certain area of the brain.

How is a PET scan performed?

• FDG is administered
• FDG accumulates where glucose metabolized. Positron emission
• -e- +e+ convert to energy
• 2 gamma photons released
• Energy gets detected and traced by the scanner

What does this tell us about function?

Areas of the brain that are more active will require more blood flow because they will be
using more energy and by seeing which areas have greater blood flow, we can estimate
which areas of the brain are more active. The information is then color coded with the
blue areas depicting less activity yellow and orange areas are more active.

Radioactive glucose (FDG) is widely used in brain PET scans because the brain uses
glucose for its metabolism. Other substances may be used for PET scanning, depending
on the purpose of the scan.

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WHAT CAN IT DETECT?

PET scans are used to;

• Evaluate the functioning of the brain

• Evaluate the efficacy of treatments
• Diagnose diseases/disorders such as Epilepsy, Dementia, Alzheimer’s disease etc.

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR)

Is the response of atomic nuclei to changes in a strong magnetic field. The atoms give
off weak electric signals, which can be recorded by detectors placed around the body and
used for imaging parts of the body, including the brain. NMR is also routinely used in
advanced medical imaging techniques, such as in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

The principle of NMR usually involves three sequential steps:

• The alignment (polarization) of the magnetic nuclear spins in an applied,

constant magnetic fieldB0.
• The perturbation of this alignment of the nuclear spins by a weak oscillating magnetic field,
usually referred to as a radio-frequency (RF) pulse. The oscillation frequency required for
significant perturbation is dependent upon the static magnetic field (B0) and the nuclei of
observation.

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 • The detection of the NMR signal during or after the RF pulse, due to the voltage induced
in a detection coil by precession of the nuclear spins around B0. After an RF pulse,
precession usually occurs with the nuclei's intrinsic Larmor frequency and, in itself, does
not involve transitions between spin states or energy levels.

In other words, the principle behind NMR is that many nuclei have spin and all nuclei are
electrically charged. If an external magnetic field is applied, an energy transfer is possible
between the base energy to a higher energy level (generally a single energy gap).

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the

surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the
sample, producing various signals that contain information about the
surface topography and composition of the sample. The electron beam is scanned in
a raster scan pattern, and the position of the beam is combined with the intensity of the
detected signal to produce an image. In the most common SEM mode, secondary
electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam are detected using a secondary
electron detector (Everhart-Thornley detector). The number of secondary electrons that
can be detected, and thus the signal intensity, depends, among other things, on specimen
topography. Some SEMs can achieve resolutions better than 1 nanometer.

Because of its great depth of focus, a scanning electron microscope is the EM analog of
a stereo lightmicroscope. It provides detailed images of the surfaces of cells and whole
organisms that are not possible by TEM. It can also be used for particle counting and size
determination, and for process control.

STEREOTAXIC SURGERY

Stereotaxic surgery is often used to locate tensions in the brain and to deliver radiation
therapy.

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Stereotaxic surgery is also called stereotatic surgery or stereotaxy. These are three
dimensional surgical technique that enable lesions deep within tissues to be located and
treated using cold (as in cryosurgery) heat or chemicals.
The first device of stereotaxic surgery was described in 1968 by British neuroscientist and
surgeon Sir Victor Horsley and a British physiologist Robert Henry Clark. This device is
named after Horsley and Clark. Horsley-Clark apparatus. The apparatus facilitate the
study of cerebellum in animals by enabling accurate electrolytic lesioning to be made in
the brain.

To ensure lesion would be introduce in correct site, Horsley and Clark created atlases
containing pictures of the brains of animals on which they experimented. After a short
period in 1918, a Canadian neurologist Aubrey mussed designed the first stereotaxic
apparatus for humans. However the first stereotaxic surgery in human were not made
until 1940. This attempt were pioneered by American neurologist Ernst. a. Spiegel and
Henry t. wycls. And since then there has been number of modification and refinements
made to stereotoxic devices, procedures and atlases and this advances have significantly
improved the unity of stereotaxy.
In procedures that involve the brain , such as ablation therapy in Parkinson disease, the
head is held motion less in a head ring known as (halo frame) and the lesion or area to
be treated is located using the three dimensional coordinates based on information from
x- rays computerized axial to mography, magnetic resonance imaging, which is called
electrodes. In traditional therapy, stereotaxis is used to focus high- intensity radiation on
localized areas to shrink tumors or to obliterate arteriovenous malformations.

Sterotaxic technique also is highly effective for guiding fine –needle aspiration biopsies
of brain lesion; it requires that only one bur hole be made in the skull with the patient
under local anesthesia. stereotaxic fine- needle biopsy also is used to evaluate breast
lesion that are not palpable but are detected by mammography.

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 STEREOTATIC FRAME DEVICE

RECORDING BRAIN ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY

Electrode

An electrode is a conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g.
Skin, an electrolyte or a vacuum).

ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)

EEG is used to measure electrical activity in the brain through electrodes that are
attached to the scalp. Small electrical charges that are detected by the electrodes are
graphed over a period of time, indicating the level of activity in the brain.

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Four types of EEG patterns:

• Alpha wave
• Betta wave
• Theta wave
• Delta wave

Each of these patterns has two basic properties that psychologists exam:

• Amplitude: the intensity or size of the activity

• Frequency: the speed or quality of activity

EEG patterns produce two distinctive states:

• Synchronized:A synchronized pattern is where a recognized waveform (alpha, beta,

delta and theta) can be detected.
• Desynchronized: A desynchronized is where no pattern can be detected.

EEG can be used to detect illnesses like epilepsy and sleep disorders, and to diagnose
other disorders that affect brain activity, like Alzheimer’s disease.

ELECTRICAL STIMULATION

Electrical stimulation is a form of electrotherapy where a neuron in the brain is stimulated

by exciting it’s cell membranes using weak electric currents through an electrode
implanted in the brain.

It is mostly used in the treatment of chronic pain and tremors associated with Parkinson
disease. It is limited to be a pain management tool.

In electric stimulation, an electrode is implanted into the patient's thalamus and it is

attached to an electric pulse generator through an electric wire. The pulse generator is
implanted into the patient's pectoral area and the wire is laid under the skin. The pulse

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generator sends out electrical stimulation to the electrode implanted in the thalamus and
this stimulation inhibits the tremor.

T he pulse generator is usually turned off and on with a magnet and needs to be replaced
every five years.

There are several types of Electrical stimulation and each name reflect either the intended
use or the characteristics of the stimulation. The most commonly used are;

Electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) - It uses a lower frequency rectangular wave form
designed to make the muscles contract strongly. It is mostly used by athletes during
athletic training to strengthen the muscles, increase muscle size and muscle endurance.

Russian Electrical stimulation (RES) – It is similar to the EMS but uses a high frequency
sinusoidal waveforms.

Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve (TEN) – it is used as temporary pain relief and has
the same waveform as the NMES.

Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation (NMES) – This is used to train the muscle after
an injury such as relaxing muscle spasms. It is similar to the EMS but widely used for
therapy instead of athletic training.

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Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) – This is the same as the NMES but it is used
in neurological rehabilitation as the stimulation turns muscle contraction into functional
movement.

It is mostly incorporated into devices or exercise to maximize functionality.

Interferential current electrical stimulation (IFC) - is used as a relief for acute pain,
chronic pain, post-traumatic pain and post-surgical pain. It is similar to the TENS but more
effective.

It is less common than the TNS yet more functional and expensive.

In a)The cell nucleus is responsible for synthesizing input from dendrites and deciding
whether or not to generate signals. b) A functional electrical stimulation system injects
electrical current into the cell. c) The intact but dormant axon receives the stimulus and
propagates an action potential to (d) the neuromuscular junction. (e) The corresponding
muscle fibers contract and generate (f) muscle force. (g) A train of negative pulses is
produced. (h) Depolarization occurs where a negative current enters the axon at the
"active" electrode indicated.

ES has been found to result in the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and
norepinephrine. Thereby, current research strategies have focused on the use of drugs
rather than ES to regulate the production of these transmitters.

Risks

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It might cause hemorrhage, infarction, infection and cerebral oedema which can cause
irreversible neurological damage

Patients might experience constant headaches, disequilibrium, burning or tingling of

theskin and partial paralysis.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

In the brain, communication is both electric and chemical. An electric impulse (action
potential) propagates down an axon, and chemicals (neurotransmitters) are released. In
neuroscientific research, the application of a neurotransmitter to a specific region may be
necessary and one way to do this is through microelectrophoretic techniques such as
microiontophoresis. Using this method, neurotransmitter can be administered to a living
cell and the consequent reactions recorded and studied.

MICROIOTOPHORESIS

Microiontophoresis is derived from a Greek term Phoretikos which refers to the induction
or production of movement. It is hereby a technique with which drugs and other ionized
particles can be ejected in very small amounts from solutions contained in glass
micropipettes. This ejection is achieved by applying a voltage across the micropipette,
causing the electrode to become polarized. Ionized particles in solution migrate in the
applied field and will be ejected from the tip as they carry the current into the tissue. To
determine the effects of various substances on firing parameters of both central and
peripheral neurons and muscles, this technique is widely used.

Microiontophoresis became popular during the 1950s, in investigating the phenomenon

of synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction. Initially, a technique appropriate
for the study of synaptic pharmacology was first acquired by Nastuk (1953) which was
later developed by del Castillo and Katz (1955), and it consisted essentially of the
microiontophoretic method, i.e., movement of charged particles produced by an electric
current, restricted to a micropipette with a tip diameter of the order of 1μm. Thus, solutions
of acetylcholine chloride were used, and by passing a suitable current to this solution,

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acetylcholine ions could be ejected from the 1 μm orifice onto a correspondingly localized
area of subsynaptic membrane at the neuromuscular junction.

Later, Curtis and his colleagues adopted this technique for studying the mammalian
central nervous system (CNS) (Curtis and Eccles 1958b). The experiments of Curtis and
coworkers, however, involved an important modification of the original method, in that this
group used multibarrel micropipettes. To produce these, several lengths of tubing are
fused together and then pulled so as to produce a single collective tip, but with each barrel
having its own orifice.

Multibarrel micropipettes are usually composed of five to seven barrels. Usually, the
central barrel is the recording electrode, while the other side barrels contain drug
solutions. As the drug molecules would tend to diffuse from solution in the pipette tip into
the extracellular environment, it is necessary to apply a small current to reduce that efflux.
This is known as a "holding" or "retaining" current.

It is also a usual practice to include a barrel containing sodium chloride solution, which
can be used to control the effects of the current itself. This may be done either by
periodically passing through the control barrel the same current used for drug ejection or
by passing continuously a current adequate to cancel out the instantaneous sum of
ejecting and retaining currents passing through the drug-containing barrels. This is known
as "current balancing."

Multibarell Micropippettes.

The use of microiontophoresis is suitable for any ionized molecule, but nonionized
compounds can be ejected by the closely related variant "electro-osmosis," which is
attributable to the presence of an electrical "double layer" within the barrel tip.

MICROIONTOPHORESIS IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

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This technique having being employed for over 50years since Curtis and Eccles I1958a,
b) first employed it, has provided a great contribution in identifying the central effects of
neurotransmitters (such as glutamate, aspartate, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA),
noradrenaline, serotine, dopamine) and a variety of neuropeptides (such as enkephalins,
cholecystokinin, neurotensin, tachykinins). Microiontophoresis also allows the histological
confirmation of the sites of electrophysiological recordings, and the neuroanatomical
determination of pathways by applying dyes, markers, and materials, which are carried
by axonal transport for tracing fiber tracts. Alterations in neuronal sensitivity due to the
influence of anesthetic compounds have been monitored when pharmacological agonists
have been tested using microiontophoresis.

Applications

The largest number of studies has been concerned with the central nervous system.
These studies have yielded information on:

• The qualitative sensitivity of neurons to putative neurotransmitters and drugs

• Quantitative estimates of variations and sensitivity in different CNS regions or of different
cell types and the following lesions or the administration of drugs
• The pharmacology of transmitter receptors
• The effects of modifier of putative transmitter effects (antagonistic or enhancing
substances) on synaptic transmission
• The mechanisms and ionic conductance underlying transmitters effects.

Excitatory Amino Acids

Some of the earliest iontophoretic studies demonstrated marked excitatory activity of

several simple dicarboxylic acids, including L-glutamic and L-aspartic acids (Curtis and
Watkins 1960). Responses to some of these amino acids, especially glutamate and
aspartate, terminate rapidly when an ejecting iontophoretic current is switched off. It is
unclear to what extent this is due to the kinetics of iontophoresis or reflects the presence
of rapid and efficient uptake processes. Some authors have reported long-lasting

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changes of cortical neuronal firing following iontophoresis of glutamate sufficient to at
least double the resting firing rate. The development of a series of potent amino acids
analogs with very high agonist potency led to the discovery of NMDA and non-NMDA
glutamate receptors. This discovery was strengthened by additional findings that
phosphonate analogs of amino acids, such as 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (AP-5)
blocked the effects of NMDA, but not of quisqualic and kainic acids

Inhibitory Amino Acids

Both glycine and GABA act as potent inhibitors of neuronal activity in the CNS, usually
causing hyperpolarization associated with increased membrane conductance to chloride.
Glycine is selectively antagonized by strychnine, whereas the effects of GABA are
blocked by picrotoxin and bicuculline. Microiontophoretic experiments showing
potentiation of the inhibitory effects of GABA by benzodiazepines were among the earlier
experimental evidence for the modulatory action of these drugs on GABAA receptors
(Gallagher 1978).

Acetylcholine

Almost every region of the brain has been examined for its sensitivity to iontophoretically
applied cholinergic agents. Most of the earlier work in vivo was concerned primarily with
establishing the direction of responses to cholinomimetics and whether the effects
involved muscarinic or nicotinic receptors. Many studies examined only cells encountered
randomly in a particular brain region, but others have often succeeded in relating the
direction of responses to cholinomimetics with some specific function. In the cerebral
cortex deep pyramidal tract, cells are excited by acetylcholine. Several authors have also
described an inhibitory action of acetylcholine, largely muscarinic in nature, in more
superficial levels of the cortex and an excitatory action, which appears to have a
predominant nicotinic pharmacology, in the same superficial layers. Some authors have
shown that acetylcholine enhances the stimulus-evoked responses of visually driven
cortical units, without affecting the overall excitability of the cell. Thus, orientation and
direction specificity of neurons is preserved and increased relative to the nonpreferred
responses. This phenomenon is reminiscent of the effects of some amines, which can

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also increase the signal-to-noise ratio by potentiating evoked activity and suppressing
background.

Noradrenaline

Early microiontophoretic studies have shown that noradrenaline would cause a

depression of neuronal firing in the cat cerebral cortex, and a large number of experiments
have revealed similar responses in most areas of the CNS. This inhibition often seems to
involve a voltage-dependent hyperpolarization accompanied by an increased membrane
resistance, although a decreased membrane resistance was found on neurons of the
locus coeruleus in slice preparation in vitro. The biochemical basis of this
hyperpolarization has been the subject of much argument. Although it was originally
suggested that they may be mediated by an increase in the intracellular concentration of
cyclic AMP, some group failed to reproduce these findings. Overt excitatory effects of
noradrenaline have also been observed in many areas of the CNS. Neuronal responses
to iontophoretic application of noradrenaline, apparently excitatory as well as inhibitory,
can be enhanced by antidepressants. However, this potentiation can occur even after the
loss of most aminecontaining terminals, and it may be restricted to certain layers of the
cortex. The pharmacology of responses to iontophoretically applied noradrenaline has
been extensively studied. Some authors have postulated that, in the neocortex, excitatory
responses to noradrenaline are mediated by α1-adrenergic receptors, whereas inhibitory
responses occur through β-adrenergic receptors. Activation of α2-adrenergic receptors
does also elicit inhibitory responses.

Dopamine

Dopamine was first tested iontophoretically in the cerebral cortex, where profound
suppression of spontaneous cell firing was observed. This action has been confirmed by
several authors, although excitatory effects have also been reported. Much attention has
been centered on the effects of dopamine in the neostriatum where its action is usually
inhibitory in the caudate nucleus. Bunney and Aghajanian (1976) have performed a

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laminar analysis of amine responses in the rat cerebral cortex. They found that neurons
in layers II and III, which receive a dense noradrenergic projection, were more sensitive
to noradrenaline than dopamine, whereas the reverse pattern was noted in layers V and
VI, which receive a greater dopamine-containing projection. These authors also reported
that desipramine, a selective inhibitor of noradrenaline reuptake, would enhance
noradrenaline responses in layers II and III, but not in deeper layers, while benztropine
enhanced dopamine responses only in layers V and VI. Dopamine receptors are present
not only on innervated cells but also on the dopaminergic neurons themselves: the so-
called autoreceptors. Activation of such receptors by dopamine or apomorphine causes
marked inhibition of cell firing, and these effects are blocked by neuroleptic drugs.
Microiontophoretic studies of dopamine response pharmacology have mostly proved
consistent with behavioral and neurochemical work. Phenothiazines, for example, block
dopamine but not noradrenaline responses in the cerebral cortex and the striatum.
Iontophoretically applied α-flupenthixol can also block the effects of dopamine, although
intravenously administered α-flupenthixol or pimozide did not modify neuronal responses
to iontophoretic dopamine.

Serotonin

There is an extensive scientific literature regarding the effects of microiontophoretically

applied serotonin on different areas of the central nervous system. Indeed, the
microiontophoretic technique contributed substantially to the elucidation of the physiology
and pharmacology of the central serotonergic system. Thus, an important factor
controlling the activity of central serotonergic neurons is neuronal feedback inhibition.
This is thought to be a homeostatic response, which, under physiological conditions, acts
to compensate for increases in synaptic availability of serotonin. Thus, as the
concentration of serotonin increases in the brain, the activity of central serotonergic
neurons correspondingly decreases. The mechanism underlying this feedback regulation
is both local or intrinsic to the raphe region (where serotonergic cell bodies are located)
and through a feedback loop from postsynaptic target neurons. Serotonin released in the
raphe region from dendrites and possibly from axon terminals appears to inhibit
serotonergic neurons by activating somatodendriticautoreceptors, which produces

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hyperpolarization of the cell membrane via an increase in potassium conductance.
Historically, the first drug reported to exert a preferential action on the 5-HT autoreceptor
was LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) applied microiontophoretically on the dorsal raphe
nucleus of rats. Subsequently, several other hallucinogenic indoleamines, notably 5-
MeODMT (5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine), were found to share this property with
LSD. Since that time, several highly selective 5-HT1A agonist compounds such as 8-OH-
DPAT have been synthesized and shown to suppress the firing of serotonergic neurons
with potencies comparable with, or even greater than, that of LSD. On the basis of
electrophysiological data, the serotonin autoreceptor has been characterized as the 5-
HT1A subtype. Microiontophoretic technique also contributed to characterize the action
of serotonin agonists and antagonists and to elucidate the physiological role of serotonin
receptor subtypes such as 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT2C. As regards the 5-HT2C, it was
found that this receptor subtype exerts a tonic inhibitory influence on the activity of
dopamine-containing neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the ventral
tegmental area. Apparently, this inhibitory effect is mediated through the activation of
nondopaminergic (presumably GABA-ergic) neurons in the substantia nigra pars
reticulata. Thus, it was recently shown that microiontophoretic application of 5-HT2C
receptor agonists stimulates the basal activity of nondopaminergic (presumably GABA-
ergic) neurons in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (Invernizzi et al. 2007) By using
microiontophoresis, it was also found that serotonin exerts a tonic inhibitory influence on
the activity of noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus.

Opiates and Opioids

Microiontophoresis has proved exceedingly valuable for opiate system studies, since it
allows the testing of discrete units activated by noxious or nonnoxious stimuli in the same
preparation. In most such studies, the applied opiates have depressed noxious
stimulusevoked activity, although usually in parallel with the effects on spontaneous or
chemically induced firing. Microiontophoresis has also been proved as a popular means
for comparing qualitatively opiate responses in normal and opiate-tolerant animals. Thus,
inhibitory responses to morphine were encountered less frequently in the neocortex of
morphinetolerant rats than in controls. It was shown that iontophoretically applied

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naloxone would elicit a large increase of firing in the locus coeruleus noradrenergic
neurons in morphinetolerant rats, presumably as a correlate of the withdrawal
phenomenon in such animals. Also, opioid peptides have been tested iontophoretically in
many regions of the central nervous system. Opioid peptides were found to excite
hippocampal neurons; however, these effects were apparently mediated through an
indirect action on transmitter release or to a naloxone-sensitive depression of local
inhibitory interneurons.

Peptides

Microiontophoretic or pressure ejection has been used to apply a wide range of

endogenous and synthetic peptides to neurons in vivo and in vitro. However, partly
because of the lack of selective antagonists, there has been little progress in relating the
observed responses to a physiological role, and as a result, attention has been
concentrated on the mechanism of the observed responses, and potential interactions
with neurotransmitters. Substance P, for example, appears to interact selectively with
acetylcholine. Microiontophoretic substance P has also been found to enhance the
response of spinal cord neurons to noxious stimulation but not innocuous ones, in some
cases leading to the occurrence of responses in initially unresponsive units. Some
excitatory effects of substance P can be mimicked by capsaicin, also applied
iontophoretically. It was also reported that the excitatory effect of substance P on
noradrenalin-containing neurons in the locus coeruleus is blocked by the selective
antagonist [D-Pro2, D-Trp7,9] substance P. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) has
been found to enhance the excitatory effects of acetylcholine on cortical neurons, with no
effects on resting firing rate. Somatostatin exerts a potent excitatory effect on
hippocampal neurons. Cholecystokinin (CCK) and neurotensin are also frequently
excitatory while angiotensin has excitant properties, which appear to be restricted to the
subfornical organ and related structures. However, it is important to point out that peptides
present special problems for microiontophoresis. Larger molecules tend to be adsorbed
on to charged surfaces, which include the internal wall of a micropipette tip. Some
peptides may also undergo denaturation or degradation during iontophoretic
experiments. This problem may be exacerbated if very high currents are applied for long

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periods of time through high resistance tips, in that any change of local temperature may
have a major impact on the stability of a peptide.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MICROIONTOPHORESIS

The original microiontophoretic technique was developed for answering questions

concerned with synaptic transmission and the neuromuscular junction. Using this
preparation, it is a simple matter to microscopically examine the muscle fiber being
studied, to determine the distance of the micropipette from the tissue, and to have ready
access to known synaptic inputs. These advantages are not valid for the CNS.
Nevertheless, with some further precautions and considerations, the technique has been
used successfully in the CNS for about 50 years. It is important to consider other
potentially confounding technical factors limiting the utility of microiontophoresis, as it is
used in central investigations. Of primary concern is the site of drug administration relative
to cell soma, where the strongest depolarizing or hyperpolarizing influences are
manifested, and the dendritic field, where synaptic influences are normally expressed and
where antagonists of transmitters must accumulate to modify trans-synaptic excitations.
Another consideration for central investigations also concerns the spatial distribution of
drugs in the CNS. Since the CNS is densely packed with cells, microiontophoretically
administered compounds cannot affect single neurons in isolation. This must be kept in
mind when interpreting the data.

RADIOACTIVE TRACERS

A radioactive tracer, radiotracer, or radioactive label, is a chemical compound in which

one or more atoms have been replaced by a radionuclide so by virtue of its radioactive
decay it can be used to explore the mechanism of chemical reactions by tracing the path
that the radioisotope follows from reactants to products. Radiolabeling or radiotracing
is thus the radioactive form of isotopic labeling.

Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number,
and consequently in nucleon number. All isotopes of a given element have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom.

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Isotopic labeling (or isotopic labelling) is a technique used to track the passage of an
isotope (an atom with a detectable variation in neutron count) through a reaction,
metabolic pathway, or cell. The reactant is 'labeled' by replacing specific atoms by their
isotope. The reactant is then allowed to undergo the reaction. The position of the isotopes
in the products is measured to determine the sequence the isotopic atom followed in the
reaction or the cell's metabolic pathway. The nuclides used in isotopic labeling may be
stable nuclides or radionuclides. In the latter case, the labeling is called radiolabeling

A nuclide also known as nuclear species) is an atom characterized by its number of

protons, Z, its number of neutrons, N, and its nuclear energy state.

A radionuclide (radioactive nuclide, radioisotope or radioactive isotope) is an atom

that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable. This excess energy can be used in
one of three ways: emitted from the nucleus as gamma radiation; transferred to one of its
electrons to release it as aconversion electron; or used to create and emit a new particle
(alpha particle or beta particle) from the nucleus.

Radioactive tracers are used in imaging tests that help find problems inside the body.
These tracers give off particles that can be detected and turned into a picture to help find
problems in organs or other structures.

The tracer is usually given through an intravenous (IV) line placed in a vein But the tracer
also may be given by mouth or by inhaling it into the lungs. The tracer then travels through
the body and may collect in a certain organ or area.

The types of tests that use radioactive tracers include positron emission tomography
(PET), Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT, or less commonly,
SPET and other nuclear medicine scans to look at specific organs such as the liver, lungs,
kidneys, and gallblad.

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Diagnostic techniques in nuclear medicine use radioactive tracers which emit gamma
rays from within the body. These tracers are generally short-lived isotopes linked to
chemical compounds which permit specific physiological processes to be scrutinised.

How long does radioactive tracer stay in the body?

The nuclear imaging agent is out of your system within 60 hours, but it is always decaying
so it becomes minimal in a relatively short period of time.

Preparing a radiotracer investigation

There are various requirements that need to be met before running a radiotracer
investigation. The most important of these is to select an appropriate radiotracer. It is of
fundamental importance that the radiotracer compound behaves in the same way as the
material to be traced. To obtain reliable and meaningful results, an industrial radiotracer
must also meet other basic requirements, such as a suitable half-life and radiation energy,
as well as physical and chemical stability. It must also be easily and unambiguously
detectable.
Before injecting a tracer into a system it must be clear how it will behave inside it. In
certain circumstances, the tracer may undergo decomposition, phase change,
undesirable absorption and adsorption, or chemical interaction with system constituents.
All this can lead to incorrect results.
It is often difficult to meet all the requirements of an ideal tracer. Certain compromises
have to be made. Even if a radiotracer meets the required criteria, it may not be available
to tracer groups

METHODOLOGY
When the atomic nucleus of an isotope is unstable, compounds containing this isotope
are radioactive. Tritium is an example of a radioactive isotope.
The principle behind the use of radioactive tracers is that an atom in a chemical compound
is replaced by another atom, of the same chemical element. The substituting atom,
however, is a radioactive isotope. This process is often called radioactive labeling.

60 | P a g e
The power of the technique is due to the fact that radioactive decay is much more
energetic than chemical reactions. Therefore, the radioactive isotope can be present in
low concentration and its presence detected by sensitive radiation detectors such as
Geiger counters and scintillation counters.

A Geiger counter is an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.
A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation
by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and detecting
the resultant light pulses.

There are two main ways in which radioactive tracers are used
• When a labeled chemical compound undergoes chemical reactions one or more
of the products will contain the radioactive label. Analysis of what happens to the
radioactive isotope provides detailed information on the mechanism of the
chemical reaction.
A radioactive compound is introduced into a living organism and the radio-isotope
provides a means to construct an image showing the way in which that compound and its
reaction products are distributed around the organism.

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