Continuity in precast, prestressed concrete girders provides another cost-effective, constructible

and high performance alternative that can be used for longer spans that are often constructed
with custom steel plate girders, steel box girders, and post-tensioned segmental girders. This
research study will identify and investigate effective and economical options for continuity
details for continuous precast concrete girder bridges. The long-term goal of this project is to
develop and recommend standard design procedures for this type of bridge system to be used
throughout Texas for any prospective long-span bridge projects.

1.3 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

The major goal of this research project is to review, validate, and recommend details for
the design of durable and constructible details to achieve structural continuity between the
standard precast, prestressed concrete girder sections used in Texas. Additional goals are to
obtain longer span-to-depth ratios and greater economy with the consideration of superimposed
dead loads and live loads. The objectives of this study are:
 Review and document the various alternatives for the design and construction of
continuous precast, prestressed concrete bridge girders.
 Identify the continuity connection technology that has the potential to extend span
lengths providing a simple, constructible, and cost-effective solution.
 Validate the most appropriate splicing details and suitable construction procedure.
 Perform preliminary design for initial evaluation of benefits of continuous bridge
girders.
 Recommend continuity splice details and specifications and identify limitations.
This study focuses on Tx70 and Texas U54 prestressed concrete bridge girders, which are
precast sections widely used in Texas.

1.4 RESEARCH PLAN

The outcome of this research study will support TxDOT’s implementation of continuous
precast, prestressed concrete bridge girders to achieve longer span-to-depth ratios with greater
economy than currently possible with simple spans. The following tasks were performed to
accomplish the objectives of Phase 1 of this research study.

3
1.4.1 Review Literature and State-of-the-Practice
The research team compiled a comprehensive literature review of the state-of-the-art and
state-of-the-practice related to continuous precast, prestressed concrete girders using the standard
girder shapes developed by different state DOTs. Many states have used different techniques and
approaches to extend span ranges with variations in the design enhancements and material
properties. From review of the state-of-the-practice, it was found that the girder segment size is
controlled by the hauling limitations and type of lifting equipment available. The current state-
of-the-art and practice illustrated that in-span spliced girder technology has the greatest potential
to extend the span range of simple spans. This technology facilitated wider spacing between
girder lines, minimum number of substructure units, and adoption of conventional construction
procedures on site. Application of continuous construction using splicing of standard precast,
prestressed girders presented a cost-competitive, constructible, and high-performance alternative
to steel plate or steel box girder solutions for longer spans up to 280 ft. Selection of the
construction method and type of splice detail depended on the terrain, available equipment, and
experience of the local contractors. Findings from the review indicated that designers,
fabricators, and contractors with successful collaboration from the planning stages of bridge
details can take the advantage of the most cost-effective use of personnel, equipment, and
materials.

1.4.2 Preliminary Designs

Preliminary designs were developed to carry out an initial evaluation of the design details
with regard to construction and implementation for use with the continuous precast, pretensioned
girders. The research team considered the most promising options reviewed in Task 1.1. The
focus of this study was Tx70 and Texas U54 prestressed girder bridges. The research team
gathered input and suggestions from TxDOT related to consideration of the girder type and sizes,
girder spacing, material properties, etc. to ensure that they are representative of typical bridges in
Texas. The concrete strengths at service and at release were limited to values commonly
available from Texas precasters. The girder segment length and girder spacing are dictated by
TxDOT practice. The research team evaluated different design considerations to determine their
impact on the final design loads and thermal effects. The potential key design constraints
evaluated were deflection, shear demand on thin webs considering post-tensioning ducts,

4
moment demand and ultimate strength, flexure-shear interaction at supports, and serviceability
stresses under live load and thermal gradient effects. The results of the preliminary designs
helped to determine the maximum feasible spans that can be achieved using the standard TxDOT
girders. Several design issues were identified and resolved using suitable recommendations that
the research team provided. The results indicated that based on the above considerations, it may
be possible to nearly double the span length of the standard Texas prestressed concrete girder
bridges using drop-in and over-pier girder segments with in-span splice connections.
The research team proposed preliminary details for the splice connections. Results of the
review indicated that the use of in-span splices to make precast, prestressed concrete bridge
girders continuous presents a cost-competitive alternative for increasing span lengths using
standard precast girder sections. This system was found to fill the gap between 150 ft precast,
pretensioned concrete bridges made continuous at the pier for live loads and the 300 ft
continuous, post-tensioned concrete segmental box girder bridges. Based on the review of
different splice connection details used in the past to provide continuity, the splice details can be
classified as fully prestressed, partially prestressed, and fully reinforced connections. The
research team has discussed the advantages and disadvantages of each approach in this report,
with focus on construction and long-term serviceability.

1.4.3 Focus Group Meetings

The research team held focus group meetings to present findings from Tasks 1.1 and 1.2
and solicited input regarding potential implementation of various continuity details. Three
separate meetings were held with TxDOT engineers, precasters, and contractors. The research
team developed questionnaires for Texas precasters and contractors, with input from the TxDOT
Project Monitoring Committee (PMC), to collect feedback on the preliminary design and details
developed in Task 1.2. In addition, information related to the preliminary details of the proposed
splice connections was distributed to the precasters and contractors. The information and
questionnaires included four connection styles for in-span splices of standard TX girders and
specific feedback was requested on the connection types, as well as other considerations related
to design, precasting, shipping, and construction. The precasters provided guidance related to the
most economical and reliable details for precasting and hauling operations. The contractors

5
Nikzad, K.A., T. Trochalakis, S.J. Seguirant, and B. Khaleghi (2006). Design and Construction
of the Old 99 Bridge – An HPC Spliced Girder Structure. PCI Journal, Vol. 23, No. 18,
pp. 98–109.

Oesterle, R.G., J.D. Gilkin, and S.C. Larson (1989). Design of Precast-Prestressed Bridge
Girders Made Continuous. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Report
No. 322, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.

Poon, Sandy Shuk-Yan (2009). Optimization of Span-to-Depth Ratios in High-Strength Concrete

Girder Bridges. M.A.Sc Thesis, University of Toronto, Canada, 146 pages.

Ronald, H.D. (2001). Design and Construction Considerations for Continuous Post-tensioned
Bulb Tee Girder Bridges. PCI Journal, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 44–66.

Sun, C. (2004), High Performance Concrete Bridge Stringer System. Ph.D. Dissertation, The
University of Nebraska- Lincoln, 228 pages.

Tadros, M.K. and C. Sun (2003). Implementation of the Superstructure/Substructure Joint

Details. University of Nebraska, Omaha, Department of Civil Engineering, Nebraska
Department of Roads, Project Number SPR-PL-1(038), 514 pages.

Tadros, M.K. (2007). Design Aids for Threaded Rod Precast Prestressed Girder Continuity
System. Nebraska Department of Roads Research Report, 103 pages.

TxDOT (2010). TxDOT Bridge Design Manual. Bridge Division, Texas Department of
Transportation, Austin, Texas.

163
Fig. 6 An order of structures

Over the years, the authors and their colleagues tried to apply the principles of lightweight to all the
types of structures shown in Fig. 6 including bridges, towers, concrete shells and cable net,
membrane, and glass-covered roofs. Projects will be presented during the fib-days and a selection of
photographs can be found at www.sbp.de.
JWCL068_ch07_332-382.qxd 9/30/08 8:23 AM Page 379

of 14 and a fluid density scale of 1.0 is to be designed to predict the through the tube, it is observed that at some critical velocity the par-
depth of fluid, y, along the plate. Assume that inertial, gravitational, ticles will rise and be transported along the tube. A model is to be
surface tension, and viscous effects are all important. What are the used to determine this critical velocity. Assume the critical velocity,
required viscosity and surface tension scales? Vc, to be a function of the pipe diameter, D, particle diameter, d, the
fluid density, r, and viscosity, m, the density of the particles, rp, and
7.52 The drag on a 2-m-diameter satellite dish due to an 80-kmⲐhr
the acceleration of gravity, g. (a) Determine the similarity require-
wind is to be determined through a wind tunnel test using a geomet-
ments for the model, and the relationship between the critical
rically similar 0.4-m-diameter model dish. Assume standard air for
velocity for model and prototype (the prediction equation). (b) For
both model and prototype. (a) At what air speed should the model
a length scale of 12 and a fluid density scale of 1.0, what will be the
test be run? (b) With all similarity conditions satisfied, the measured
critical velocity scale (assuming all similarity requirements are
drag on the model was determined to be 170 N. What is the pre-
satisfied)?
dicted drag on the prototype dish?
7.57 The pressure rise, ¢p, across a blast wave, as shown in Fig.
7.53 A large, rigid, rectangular billboard is supported by an elastic
P7.57 and Video V11.7, is assumed to be a function of the amount
column as shown in Fig. P7.53. There is concern about the deflec-
of energy released in the explosion, E, the air density, r, the speed
tion, d, of the top of the structure during a high wind of velocity V.
of sound, c, and the distance from the blast, d. (a) Put this relation-
A wind tunnel test is to be conducted with a 1 : 15 scale model. As-
ship in dimensionless form. (b) Consider two blasts: the prototype
sume the pertinent column variables are its length and cross-
blast with energy release E and a model blast with 1/1000th the en-
ergy release 1Em ⫽ 0.001 E2. At what distance from the model blast
sectional dimensions, and the modulus of elasticity of the material
used for the column. The only important “wind” variables are the
will the pressure rise be the same as that at a distance of 1 mile from
air density and velocity. (a) Determine the model design conditions
the prototype blast?
and the prediction equation for the deflection. (b) If the same struc-
tural materials are used for the model and prototype, and the wind
tunnel operates under standard atmospheric conditions, what is the
required wind tunnel velocity to match an 80 kmⲐ hr wind?
Air (ρ , c) Δp = p2 – p1
(2) (1)
V δ

d
Billboard F I G U R E P7.57

7.58 The drag, d, on a sphere located in a pipe through which a

fluid is flowing is to be determined experimentally 1see Fig. P7.582.
Assume that the drag is a function of the sphere diameter, d, the
pipe diameter, D, the fluid velocity, V, and the fluid density, r. (a)
What dimensionless parameters would you use for this problem?
(b) Some experiments using water indicate that for d ⫽ 0.2 in.,
D ⫽ 0.5 in., and V ⫽ 2 ftⲐs, the drag is 1.5 ⫻ 10 ⫺3 lb. If possible,
estimate the drag on a sphere located in a 2-ft-diameter pipe
Front View Side View through which water is flowing with a velocity of 6 ft兾s. The sphere
F I G U R E P7.53 diameter is such that geometric similarity is maintained. If it is not
possible, explain why not.
7.54 A thin flat plate having a diameter of 0.3 ft is towed through
a tank of oil 1g ⫽ 53 lbⲐft3 2 at a velocity of 5 ftⲐs. The plane of the V
plate is perpendicular to the direction of motion, and the plate is Sphere d D
submerged so that wave action is negligible. Under these condi-
tions the drag on the plate is 1.4 lb. If viscous effects are neglected,
predict the drag on a geometrically similar, 2-ft-diameter plate that
F I G U R E P7.58
is towed with a velocity of 3 ftⲐs through water at 60 °F under con-
ditions similar to those for the smaller plate.
7.59 An incompressible fluid oscillates harmonically (V ⫽
7.55 For a certain model study involving a 1 : 5 scale model it is V0 sin vt, where V is the velocity) with a frequency of 10 radⲐ s in a
known that Froude number similarity must be maintained. The pos- 4-in.-diameter pipe. A 14 scale model is to be used to determine the
sibility of cavitation is also to be investigated, and it is assumed that pressure difference per unit length, ¢p/ (at any instant) along the
the cavitation number must be the same for model and prototype. pipe. Assume that
¢p/ ⫽ f 1D, V0, v, t, m, r2
The prototype fluid is water at 30 °C, and the model fluid is water at
70 °C. If the prototype operates at an ambient pressure of 101 kPa
1abs2, what is the required ambient pressure for the model system? where D is the pipe diameter, v the frequency, t the time, m the fluid
7.56 A thin layer of particles rests on the bottom of a horizontal viscosity, and r the fluid density. (a) Determine the similarity re-
tube as shown in Fig. P7.56. When an incompressible fluid flows quirements for the model and the prediction equation for ¢p/. (b) If
the same fluid is used in the model and the prototype, at what fre-
quency should the model operate?
7.60 As shown in Fig. P7.60, a “noisemaker” B is towed behind a
Vc minesweeper A to set off enemy acoustic mines such as at C. The
drag force of the noisemaker is to be studied in a water tunnel at a
1
F I G U R E P7.56 ⁄4 scale model (model 1⁄4 the size of the prototype). The drag force is
JWCL068_ch07_332-382.qxd 9/23/08 10:47 AM Page 377

ters, on log–log graph paper. Use a standard curve-fitting technique

to determine a general equation for ¢p. What are the limits of ap- ␮ (N • s/m2) 11 17 39 61 107
plicability of the equation? t 1s2 15 23 53 83 145

Δp 7.34 In order to maintain uniform flight, smaller birds must beat

their wings faster than larger birds. It is suggested that the relation-
ship between the wingbeat frequency, v, beats per second, and the
bird’s wingspan, /, is given by a power law relationship, v  /n.
V (a) Use dimensional analysis with the assumption that the wingbeat
D d frequency is a function of the wingspan, the specific weight of the
bird, g, the acceleration of gravity, g, and the density of the air, ra,
to determine the value of the exponent n. (b) Some typical data for
F I G U R E P7.30 various birds are given in the table below. Does this data support
your result obtained in part (a)? Provide appropriate analysis to
*7.31 Describe some everyday situations involving fluid flow and show how you arrived at your conclusion.
estimate the Reynolds numbers for them. Based on your results, do
you think fluid inertia is important in most typical flow situations?
Explain. Wingbeat frequency,
*7.32 As shown in Fig. 2.26, Fig. P7.32, and Video V2.10, a rec- Bird Wingspan, m beats/s
tangular barge floats in a stable configuration provided the dis-
tance between the center of gravity, CG, of the object (boat and purple martin 0.28 5.3
load) and the center of buoyancy, C, is less than a certain amount, robin 0.36 4.3
H. If this distance is greater than H, the boat will tip over. Assume mourning dove 0.46 3.2
H is a function of the boat’s width, b, length, /, and draft, h. (a) crow 1.00 2.2
Put this relationship into dimensionless form. (b) The results of a Canada goose 1.50 2.6
set of experiments with a model barge with a width of 1.0 m are great blue heron 1.80 2.0
shown in the table. Plot these data in dimensionless form and
determine a power-law equation relating the dimensionless para-
meters. *7.35 The concentric cylinder device of the type shown in Fig.
P7.35 is commonly used to measure the viscosity, m, of liquids by
relating the angle of twist, u, of the inner cylinder to the angular ve-
/, m h, m H, m locity, v, of the outer cylinder. Assume that
u ⫽ f 1v, m, K, D1, D2, /2
2.0 0.10 0.833
4.0 0.10 0.833 where K depends on the suspending wire properties and has the di-
2.0 0.20 0.417 mensions FL. The following data were obtained in a series of tests
4.0 0.20 0.417 for which m ⫽ 0.01 lb ⴢ sⲐft2, K ⫽ 10 lb ⴢ ft, / ⫽ 1 ft, and D1 and
2.0 0.35 0.238 D2 were constant.
4.0 0.35 0.238

CG U (rad) V (rad/s)
0.89 0.30
H 1.50 0.50
h 2.51 0.82
3.05 1.05
C 4.28 1.43
b 5.52 1.86
6.40 2.14
F I G U R E P7.32

Determine from these data, with the aid of dimensional analysis,

the relationship between u, v, and m for this particular apparatus.
Hint: Plot the data using appropriate dimensionless parameters,
and determine the equation of the resulting curve using a standard
curve-fitting technique. The equation should satisfy the condition
that u ⫽ 0 for v ⫽ 0.
JWCL068_ch07_332-382.qxd 9/23/08 10:47 AM Page 382

382 Chapter 7 ■ Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling

where E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the moment of inertia where X is the amplitude of the pressure gradient. Express this
of the beam cross section. The boundary conditions are y ⫽ 0 at equation in nondimensional form using h and v as reference para-
x ⫽ 0 and dyⲐdx ⫽ 0 at x ⫽ 0. (a) Rewrite the equation and meters.
boundary conditions in dimensionless form using the beam length,
/, as the reference length. (b) Based on the results of part 1a2, what
are the similarity requirements and the prediction equation for a ■ Lab Problems
model to predict deflections? 7.82 This problem involves the time that it takes water to drain
from two geometrically similar tanks. To proceed with this problem,
y P go to the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson.
7.83 This problem involves determining the frequency of vortex
x shedding from a circular cylinder as water flows past it. To proceed
with this problem, go to the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/
ᐉ
college/munson.
F I G U R E P7.79
7.84 This problem involves the determination of the head loss for
flow through a valve. To proceed with this problem, go to the
7.80 A liquid is contained in a pipe that is closed at one end as book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson.
shown in Fig. P7.80. Initially the liquid is at rest, but if the end is
suddenly opened the liquid starts to move. Assume the pressure p1 7.85 This problem involves the calibration of a rotameter. To pro-
remains constant. The differential equation that describes the re- ceed with this problem, go to the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/
sulting motion of the liquid is college/munson.
0 2vz
⫹ma 2 ⫹ b
0vz p1 1 0vz
r ⫽ ■ Life Long Learning Problems
0t / 0r r 0r
where vz is the velocity at any radial location, r, and t is time. Rewrite 7.86 Microfluidics is the study of fluid flow in fabricated devices
this equation in dimensionless form using the liquid density, r, the at the micro scale. Advances in microfluidics have enhanced the
viscosity, m, and the pipe radius, R, as reference parameters. ability of scientists and engineers to perform laboratory experi-
ments using miniaturized devices known as a “lab-on-a-chip.” Ob-
tain information about a lab-on-a-chip device that is available com-
p1 End initially mercially and investigate its capabilities. Summarize your findings
closed
in a brief report.
r vz R 7.87 For some types of aerodynamic wind tunnel testing, it is dif-
z
ficult to simultaneously match both the Reynolds number and
Mach number between model and prototype. Engineers have de-
ᐉ
veloped several potential solutions to the problem including pres-
F I G U R E P7.80 surized wind tunnels and lowering the temperature of the flow.
Obtain information about cryogenic wind tunnels and explain the
7.81 An incompressible fluid is contained between two infinite advantages and disadvantages. Summarize your findings in a brief
parallel plates as illustrated in Fig. P7.81. Under the influence of a report.
harmonically varying pressure gradient in the x direction, the fluid
oscillates harmonically with a frequency v. The differential equa-
tion describing the fluid motion is ■ FlowLab Problems

0u 0 2u *7.88 This FlowLab problem involves investigation of the

r ⫽ X cos vt ⫹ m 2 Reynolds number significance in fluid dynamics through the sim-
0t 0y ulation of flow past a cylinder. To proceed with this problem, go to
the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson.

h y u
x ■ FE Exam Problems
h
Sample FE (Fundamental of Engineering) exam questions for fluid
mechanics are provided on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/
F I G U R E P7.81 college/munson.
JWCL068_ch07_332-382.qxd 9/23/08 10:47 AM Page 378

Fixed support

Rotating
Wire outer cylinder
Liquid
θ

Inner
cylinder ᐉ

7.46 If an airplane travels at a speed of 1120 km兾hr at an altitude

D1
of 15 km, what is the required speed at an altitude of 8 km to satisfy
D2 Mach number similarity? Assume the air properties correspond to
F I G U R E P7.35 those for the U.S. standard atmosphere.
7.47 (See Fluids in the News article “Modeling parachutes in a wa-
ter tunnel,” Section 7.8.1.) Flow characteristics for a 30-ft-diameter
Section 7.8 Modeling and Similitude prototype parachute are to be determined by tests of a 1-ft-diameter
7.36 Obtain a photograph/image of a prototype and the corre- model parachute in a water tunnel. Some data collected with the model
sponding model that was used for testing. Print these photos and parachute indicate a drag of 17 lb when the water velocity is 4 ftⲐs.
write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. Use the model data to predict the drag on the prototype parachute
falling through air at 10 ftⲐs. Assume the drag to be a function of the
7.37 Air at 80 °F is to flow through a 2-ft pipe at an average veloc- velocity, V, the fluid density, r, and the parachute diameter, D.
ity of 6 ft Ⲑs. What size pipe should be used to move water at 60 °F
and average velocity of 3 ft Ⲑs if Reynolds number similarity is en- 7.48 The lift and drag developed on a hydrofoil are to be deter-
forced? mined through wind tunnel tests using standard air. If full-scale
tests are to be run, what is the required wind tunnel velocity corre-
7.38 To test the aerodynamics of a new prototype automobile, a sponding to a hydrofoil velocity in seawater at 15 mph? Assume
scale model will be tested in a wind tunnel. For dynamic similarity, Reynolds number similarity is required.
it will be required to match Reynolds number between model and
prototype. Assuming that you will be testing a one-tenth-scale 7.49 A 1/50 scale model is to be used in a towing tank to study the
model and both model and prototype will be exposed to standard water motion near the bottom of a shallow channel as a large barge
air pressure, will it be better for the wind tunnel air to be colder or passes over. (See Video V7.16.) Assume that the model is operated
hotter than standard sea-level air temperature of 15 °C? Why? in accordance with the Froude number criteria for dynamic simili-
tude. The prototype barge moves at a typical speed of 15 knots.
7.39 You are to conduct wind tunnel testing of a new football de- (a) At what speed (in ft/s) should the model be towed? (b) Near the
sign that has a smaller lace height than previous designs (see bottom of the model channel a small particle is found to move
Videos V6.1 and V6.2). It is known that you will need to maintain 0.15 ft in one second so that the fluid velocity at that point is ap-
Re and St similarity for the testing. Based on standard college quar- proximately 0.15 ft/s. Determine the velocity at the corresponding
terbacks, the prototype parameters are set at V ⫽ 40 mph and point in the prototype channel.
v ⫽ 300 rpm. The prototype football has a 7-in. diameter. Due to
instrumentation required to measure pressure and shear stress on 7.50 A solid sphere having a diameter d and specific weight gs is
the surface of the football, the model will require a length scale of immersed in a liquid having a specific weight gf 1gf 7 gs 2 and then
2:1 (the model will be larger than the prototype). Determine the re- released. It is desired to use a model system to determine the max-
quired model freestream velocity and model angular velocity. imum height, h, above the liquid surface that the sphere will rise
upon release from a depth H. It can be assumed that the important
7.40 A model of a submarine, 1 : 15 scale, is to be tested at 180 ftⲐ liquid properties are the density, gf Ⲑg, specific weight, gf , and vis-
s in a wind tunnel with standard sea-level air, while the prototype cosity, mf . Establish the model design conditions and the prediction
will be operated in seawater. Determine the speed of the prototype equation, and determine whether the same liquid can be used in
to ensure Reynolds number similarity. both the model and prototype systems.
7.41 SAE 30 oil at 60 °F is pumped through a 3-ft-diameter 7.51 A thin layer of an incompressible fluid flows steadily over a
pipeline at a rate of 6400 galⲐmin. A model of this pipeline is to be horizontal smooth plate as shown in Fig. P7.51. The fluid surface is
designed using a 3-in.-diameter pipe and water at 60 °F as the work- open to the atmosphere, and an obstruction having a square cross
ing fluid. To maintain Reynolds number similarity between these section is placed on the plate as shown. A model with a length scale
two systems, what fluid velocity will be required in the model?
7.42 The water velocity at a certain point along a 1 : 10 scale
model of a dam spillway is 3 mⲐ s. What is the corresponding pro- Free surface

totype velocity if the model and prototype operate in accordance

with Froude number similarity? V
7.43 The drag characteristics of a torpedo are to be studied in a
water tunnel using a 1 : 5 scale model. The tunnel operates with
freshwater at 20 °C, whereas the prototype torpedo is to be used in F I G U R E P7.51
JWCL068_ch07_332-382.qxd 9/23/08 10:47 AM Page 381

7.72 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Galloping Gertie,” Sec-
pollutant source. (b) For this type of model a typical length scale
tion 7.8.2.) The Tacoma Narrows bridge failure is a dramatic exam-
might be 1⬊200. If the same fluids were used in model and proto-
ple of the possible serious effects of wind-induced vibrations. As a
type, would the similarity requirements be satisfied? Explain and
fluid flows around a body, vortices may be created which are shed
support your answer with the necessary calculations.
periodically creating an oscillating force on the body. If the fre-
quency of the shedding vortices coincides with the natural frequency 7.75 River models are used to study many different types of flow
of the body, large displacements of the body can be induced as was situations. (See, for example, Video V7.12.) A certain small river
the case with the Tacoma Narrows bridge. To illustrate this type of has an average width and depth of 60 ft and 4 ft, respectively, and
phenomenon, consider fluid flow past a circular cylinder. Assume carries water at a flowrate of 700 ft3/s. A model is to be designed
the frequency, n, of the shedding vortices behind the cylinder is a based on Froude number similarity so that the discharge scale is
function of the cylinder diameter, D, the fluid velocity, V, and the 1兾250. At what depth and flowrate would the model operate?
fluid kinematic viscosity, n. (a) Determine a suitable set of dimen-
7.76 As winds blow past buildings, complex flow patterns can de-
sionless variables for this problem. One of the dimensionless vari-
velop due to various factors such as flow separation and interactions
ables should be the Strouhal number, nDⲐV. (b) Some results of ex-
between adjacent buildings. (See Video V7.13.) Assume that the lo-
periments in which the shedding frequency of the vortices (in Hz)
cal gage pressure, p, at a particular loaction on a building is a func-
was measured, using a particular cylinder and Newtonian, incom-
tion of the air density, r, the wind speed, V, some characteristic
pressible fluid, are shown in Fig. P7.72. Is this a “universal curve”
length, /, and all other pertinent lengths, /i, needed to characterize
that can be used to predict the shedding frequency for any cylinder
the geometry of the building or building complex. (a) Determine a
placed in any fluid? Explain. (c) A certain structural component in
suitable set of dimensionless parameters that can be used to study
the form of a 1-in.-diameter, 12-ft-long rod acts as a cantilever beam
the pressure distribution. (b) An eight-story building that is 100 ft
with a natural frequency of 19 Hz. Based on the data in Fig. P7.72,
tall is to be modeled in a wind tunnel. If a length scale of 1⬊300 is to
estimate the wind speed that may cause the rod to oscillate at its
be used, how tall should the model building be? (c) How will a mea-
natural frequency. Hint: Use a trial and error solution.
sured pressure in the model be related to the corresponding proto-
type pressure? Assume the same air density in model and prototype.
0.22 Based on the assumed variables, does the model wind speed have to
be equal to the prototype wind speed? Explain.

0.20 Section 7.10 Similitude Based on Governing

Differential Equations
0.18 7.77 Start with the two-dimensional continuity equation and the
Navier–Stokes equations 1Eqs. 7.28, 7.29, and 7.302 and verify the
St=nD/ V

nondimensional forms of these equations 1Eqs. 7.31, 7.34, and 7.352.

0.16
7.78 A viscous fluid is contained between wide, parallel plates
spaced a distance h apart as shown in Fig. P7.78. The upper plate is
0.14 fixed, and the bottom plate oscillates harmonically with a velocity
amplitude U and frequency v. The differential equation for the
velocity distribution between the plates is
0.12 0u 0 2u
10 100 1,000 10,000 r ⫽m 2
Re =VD/v 0t 0y
where u is the velocity, t is time, and r and m are fluid density and
F I G U R E P7.72
viscosity, respectively. Rewrite this equation in a suitable nondi-
mensional form using h, U, and v as reference parameters.
7.73 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Ice engineering,” Sec-
tion 7.9.3.) A model study is to be developed to determine the force
Fixed plate
exerted on bridge piers due to floating chunks of ice in a river. The
piers of interest have square cross sections. Assume that the force, u
R, is a function of the pier width, b, the depth of the ice, d, the ve- h
y
locity of the ice, V, the acceleration of gravity, g, the density of the x
ice, ri, and a measure of the strength of the ice, Ei, where Ei has the
u = Ucos ω t
dimensions FL⫺2. (a) Based on these variables determine a suitable F I G U R E P7.78
set of dimensionless variables for this problem. (b) The prototype
conditions of interest include an ice thickness of 12 in. and an ice 7.79 The deflection of the cantilever beam of Fig. P7.79 is gov-
velocity of 6 ftⲐs. What model ice thickness and velocity would be erned by the differential equation
required if the length scale is to be 1Ⲑ10? (c) If the model and pro-
d 2y
totype ice have the same density, can the model ice have the same EI ⫽ P1x ⫺ / 2
strength properties as that of the prototype ice? Explain. dx2