COM 226 - Computer Troubleshooting Handout Print

COM 226 – COMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING
Introduction – The Process of Fault diagnosis

The Universal Troubleshooting Process
Regardless of how complex your particular computer or peripheral device might be, a dependable
troubleshooting procedure can be broken down into four basic steps: define your symptoms, identify and
isolate the potential source (or location) of your problem, replace the suspected sub-assembly, and re-
test the unit thoroughly to be sure that you have solved the problem. If you have not solved the problem, start
again from Step #1. This is a “universal” procedure that you can apply to any sort of troubleshooting – not
just for personal computer equipment.
Define Your Symptoms

When a PC breaks down, the cause might be as simple as a loose wire or connector, or as
complicated as an IC or sub-assembly failure. Before you open your tool box, you must have a
firm understanding of all the symptoms. Think about the symptoms carefully—for example:
 Is the disk or tape inserted properly?
 Is the power or activity LED lit?
 Does this problem occur only when the computer is tapped or moved?
By recognizing and understanding your symptoms, it can be much easier to trace a problem to the
appropriate assembly or component. Take the time to write down as many symptoms as you can.
This note-taking might seem tedious now, but once you have begun your repair, a written record of
symptoms and circumstances will help to keep you focused on the task at hand. It will also help to
jog your memory if you must explain the symptoms to someone else at a later date. As a
professional troubleshooter, you must of-ten log problems or otherwise document your activities
anyway.
Identify and Isolate

Before you try to isolate a problem within a piece of computer hardware, you must first be sure
that the equipment itself is causing the problem. In many circumstances, this will be fairly
obvious, but some situations might appear ambiguous (i.e., there is no power, no DOS prompt,
etc.). Always remember that a PC works because of an intimate mingling of hardware and
software. A faulty or improperly configured piece of software can cause confusing system errors.
Chapter 3 touched on some of the problems that operating systems can encounter.
When you are confident that the failure lies in your system’s hardware, you can begin to identify
possible problem areas. Because this book is designed to deal with sub-assembly troubleshooting,
start your diagnostics there. The troubleshooting procedures throughout this book will guide you
through the major sections of today’s popular PC components and peripherals, and aid you in
deciding which sub-assembly might be at fault. When you have identified a potential problem area,
you can begin the actual repair process and swap the suspect sub-assembly.
Replace
Because computers and their peripherals are designed as collections of sub-assemblies, it is almost
always easier to replace a sub-assembly outright, rather than attempt to troubleshoot the sub-
assembly to its component level. Even if you had the time, documentation, and test equipment to
isolate a defective component, many complex parts are proprietary, so it is highly unlikely that you
would be able to obtain replacement components without a significant hassle. The labor and
frustration factor involved in such an endeavor is often just as expensive as replacing the entire
sub-assembly to begin with (perhaps even more expensive). On the other hand, manufacturers
and their distributors often stock a selection of sub-assemblies and supplies. You might need to
know the manufacturers part number for the sub-assembly to obtain a new one.
During a repair, you might reach a roadblock that requires you to leave your equipment for a day
or two, or maybe longer. This generally happens after an order has been placed for new parts, and
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you are waiting for those parts to come in. Make it a point to reassemble your system as much as
possible before leaving it. Gather any loose parts in plastic bags, seal them shut, and mark them
clearly. If you are working with electronic circuitry, be sure to use good-quality anti-static boxes
or bags for storage. Partial re-assembly (combined with careful notes) will help you remember
how the unit goes together later on. Another problem with the fast technological progress we
enjoy is that parts rarely stay on the shelf long. That video board you bought last year is no longer
available.
Changing Parts
Once a problem is isolated, technicians face another problem: the availability of spare parts.
Novice technicians often ask what kinds and quantity of spare parts they should keep on hand. The
best answer to give here is simply: none at all. The reason for this somewhat drastic answer is best
explained by the two realities of PC service.
Parts Are Always Changing

After only 15 years or so, the PC is in its sixth CPU generation (with such devices as the AMD K6
and Intel Pentium II). As a result, a new generation matures every 24 to 36 months (although
the newer generations have been arriving in 18 to 24 months). Even the “standardized” products,
such as CD-ROM drives, have proliferated in different speeds and versions (8, 10´, 12´, 16´, and even
20´ speeds). Once production stops for a drive or board, stock rarely remains for very long. You
see, even if you know what the problem is, the chances of your locating an exact replacement
part are often quite slim if the part is more than two years old. Notice the word exact—this is the
key word in PC repair.
The Booting Process

Computer initialization is a process—not an event. From the moment that power is applied until
the system sits idle at the command-line prompt or graphical desktop, the PC boot process is a
sequence of predictable steps that verify the system and prepare it for operation.
By understanding each step in system initialization, you can develop a real appreciation for the
way that hardware and software relate to one another—you also stand a much better chance of
identifying and resolving problems when a system fails to boot properly. This part of the chapter
provides a step-by-step review of a typical PC boot process.
Applying Power
PC initialization starts when you turn the system on. If all output voltages from the power supply
are valid, the supply generates a Power Good (PG) logic signal. It can take between 100 ms and
500 ms for the supply to generate a PG signal. When the motherboard timer IC receives the PG
signal, the timer stops forcing a Reset signal to the CPU. At this point, the CPU starts processing.
The Bootstrap
The very first operation performed by a CPU is to fetch an instruction from address
FFFF:0000h. Because this address is almost at the end of available ROM space, the instruction is
almost always a jump command (JMP) followed by the actual BIOS ROM starting address. By
making all CPUs start at the same point, the BIOS ROM can then send program control anywhere in
the particular ROM (and each ROM is usually different).
This initial search of address FFFF:0000h and the subsequent re-direction of the CPU is
traditionally referred to as the bootstrap in which the PC “pulls itself up by its bootstraps”—or
gets itself going. Today, we have shortened the term to boot, and have broadened its meaning
to include the entire initialization process.

Core Tests
The core tests are part of the overall Power-On Self-Test (POST) sequence, which is the most
important use of a system BIOS during initialization. As you might expect, allowing on the display
(and system initialization will halt). Remember that POST codes and their meanings will vary
slightly between BIOS manufacturers. If the POST completes successfully, the system will
respond with a single beep from the speaker. Chapter 15 covers I/O port POST codes.
Finding the OS
The system now needs to load an operating system (usually DOS or Windows XP/7). The first step
here is to have the BIOS search for a DOS volume boot sector (VBS) on the A: drive. If there is no
disk in the drive, you will see the drive light illuminate briefly, and then BIOS will search the next
drive in the boot order (usually drive C:). If a disk is in drive A:, BIOS will load sector 1 (head 0,
cylinder 0) from the disk’s DOS volume boot sector into memory, s t artin g at 0 0 0 0 : 7 C 0 0 h .
There are a number of potential problems when attempting to load the VBS. Otherwise, the first
program in the directory (IO.SYS) will begin to load, followed by MSDOS.SYS.
 If the first byte of the DOS VBS is less than 06h (or if the first byte is greater than or equal
to 06h and next nine words of the sector contain the same data pattern), you will see an
error message similar to: “Diskette boot record error.”
 If the IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS are not the first two files in the directory (or some other
problem is encountered in loading), you’ll see an error such as: “Non-system disk or disk
error.”
 If the boot sector on the diskette is corrupted and cannot be read (DOS 3.3 or earlier),
you’ll probably get a Disk boot failure message
 If the OS cannot be loaded from any floppy drive, the system will search the first fixed
drive (hard drive). Hard drives are a bit more involved than floppy disks. BIOS loads
sector 1 (head 0, cylinder 0) from the hard drive’s master partition boot sector (called the
master boot sector, MBS) into memory, starting at 0000:7C00h, and the last two bytes of
the sector are checked.
 If the final two bytes of the master- partition boot sector are not 55h and AAh
respectively, the boot sector is invalid, and you will see an error message similar to: “No
boot device available and system initialization will halt.” Other systems might depict the
error differently or attempt to load ROM BASIC. If the BIOS attempts to load ROM BASIC
and there is no such feature in the BIOS, you’ll see a ROM BASIC error message.
Otherwise, the disk will search for and identify any extended partitions (up to 24 total partitions).
Once any extended partitions have been identified, the drive’s original boot sector will search for a
boot-indicator byte, marking a partition as active and bootable. If none of the partitions are
marked as bootable (or if more than one partition is marked bootable), a disk error message will
be displayed such as: “Invalid partition table.” Some older BIOS versions might attempt to load
ROM BASIC, but will generate an error message in most cases anyway.
When an active bootable partition is found in the master partition boot sector, the DOS Volume
Boot Sector (VBS) from the bootable partition is loaded into memory and tested. If the DOS VBS
cannot be read, you will see an error message similar to: “Error loading operating system.”
When the DOS volume boot sector does load, the last two bytes are
Loading the OS
If no problems are detected in the disk’s DOS volume boot sector, IO.SYS (or IBM-BIO.COM) is
loaded and executed. If Windows XP/7 is on the system, IO.SYS might be re-named WINBOOT.SYS,
which will be executed instead. IO.SYS contains extensions to BIOS that start low-level device
drivers for such things as the keyboard, printer, and block devices. Remember that IO.SYS also

contains initialization code that is only needed during system startup. A copy of this
initialization code is placed at the top of conventional memory which takes over initialization.
The next step is to load MSDOS.SYS (or IBM-DOS. COM), which is loaded so that it overlaps the
part of IO.SYS containing the initialization code. MSDOS.SYS (the MS-DOS kernel) is then executed
to initialize base device drivers, detect system status, reset the disk system, initialize devices (such
as the printer and serial port), and set up system-default parameters. The MS-DOS essentials are
now loaded and control returns to the IO.SYS/WINBOOT.SYS initialization code in memory.
Establishing the Environment
If a CONFIG.SYS file is present, it is opened and read by IO.SYS/WINBOOT.SYS. The DEVICE
statements are processed first in the order they appear, then INSTALL statements are processed in
the order they appear. A SHELL statement is handled next. If no SHELL statement is present, the
COMMAND.COM processor is loaded. When COMMAND. COM is loaded, it overwrites the
initialization code left over from IO.SYS (which is now no longer needed). Under Windows XP/7,
COMMAND.COM is loaded only if an AUTOEXEC.BAT file is present to process the AUTOEXEC.BAT
statements. Finally, all other statements in CONFIG.SYS are processed, and WINBOOT.SYS also
looks for the SYSTEM.DAT registry file. When an AUTOEXEC.BAT file is present,
COMMAND.COM (which now has control of the system) will load and execute the batch file. After
the batch-file processing is complete, the familiar DOS prompt will appear. If there is no
AUTOEXEC.BAT in the root directory, COMMAND.COM will request the current date and time,
then show the DOS for Windows XP/7 systems, IO.SYS (or WINBOOT.SYS) combines the functions
of IO.SYS and MSDOS.SYS.
Creating a DOS Boot Disk

The most persistent problem with PC troubleshooting is that it can be difficult to boot a system
successfully—especially if there are hard-drive problems. This makes it particularly important to
have a bootable floppy diskette on hand. The two means of creating a boot disk are:
automatically (through an existing Windows platform) or manually (through a DOS prompt
platform). In either case, you’re going to need access to a running PC with an operating system
that is similar to the version you plan to install on the new PC.
Windows XP/7
Windows comes with an automatic “Startup Disk” maker. If you have access to a Windows system,
use the following procedure to create a DOS 7.x startup disk: Label a blank diskette and insert it
into your floppy drive.
 Click on Start, Settings, and Control Panel.
 Double-click on the Add/remove programs icon.
 Select the Startup disk tab.
 Click on Create disk.
 The utility will remind you to insert a diskette, then prepare the disk automatically.
When the preparation is complete, test the diskette. The preparation process takes several
minutes, and will copy the following files to your diskette: ATTRIB, CHKDSK, COMMAND, DEBUG,
DRVSPACE.BIN, EDIT, FDISK, FORMAT, REGEDIT, SCANDISK, SYS, and UNINSTAL. All of these files
are DOS 7.x-based files, so you can run them from the A: prompt.
The Windows XP/7 FDISK utility has been reported to have a bug that can cause problems when
creating more than one partition on the same drive. Later releases of Windows XP/7 (i.e., OSR 2)
claim to have corrected this issue, but if you encounter problems with FDISK, use the DOS 6.22
version.

Process of Fault Diagnosis

Before getting into the troubleshooting details, it is important to know about what goes on during
the startup process. The reason is, there are actually quite a few steps that occur in between
switching the power ON and hearing the familiar Windows XP/7, 98 or Windows ME. /XP startup
sounds and seeing the Windows desktop. In fact, there are a whole series of files that are
automatically loaded one after the other when you turn your computer on. The trick with
troubleshooting startup problems is trying to figure out which of those files (or what step in the
process) causes a specific problem in the computer. If we know approximately where in the
startup process the problem occurs (Computer gets stuck), we can diagnose the problem easily.
This chapter explains the various problems that occur in a computer and the troubleshooting
procedures. The system to initialize and run with flaws in the motherboard, memory, or drive
systems can have catastrophic consequences for files in memory or on disk. To ensure system
integrity, a set of hardware-specific self-test routines checks the major motherboard
components, and identifies the presence of any other specialized BIOS ICs in the system (i.e.,
drive-controller BIOS, video BIOS, SCSI BIOS, and so on). BIOS starts with a test of the
motherboard hardware such as the CPU, math co-processor, timer ICs, Direct Memory Access
(DMA) controllers, and interrupt (IRQ) controllers.
If an error is detected in this early phase of testing, a series of beeps (or beep codes) are
produced. By knowing the BIOS manufacturer and the beep code, you can determine the nature of
the problem. Chapter 15 deals with beep and error codes in more detail. Beep codes are used
because the video system has not been initialized. Next, BIOS looks for the presence of a video
ROM between memory locations C000:0000h through C780:000h. In just about all systems, the
search will reveal a video BIOS ROM on a video adapter board, plugged into an available
expansion slot. If a video BIOS is found, its contents are evaluated with a checksum test. If the
test is successful, control is transferred to the video BIOS, which loads and initializes the video
adapter.
When initialization is complete, you will see a cursor on the screen and control returns to the
system BIOS. If no external video adapter BIOS is located, the system BIOS will provide an
initialization routine for the motherboard’s video adapter and a cursor will also appear.
Once the video system initializes, you are likely to see a bit of text on the display
identifying the system or video BIOS ROM maker and revision level. If the checksum test fails, you
will see an error message such as: C000 ROM Error or Video ROM Error. Initialization will usually
halt right there.
Now that the video system is ready, system BIOS will scan memory from C800:0000h through
DF80:0000h in 2KB increments to search for any other ROMs that might be on other adapter
cards in the system. If other ROMs are found, their contents are tested and run. As each
supplemental ROM is executed, they will show manufacturer and revision ID information. In some
cases, a supplemental (or “adapter”) ROM might alter an existing BIOS ROM routine. For
example, an Ultra DMA/33 drive-controller board with its own on-board ROM will replace the
motherboard’s older drive routines. When a ROM fails the checksum test, you will see an error
message such as: “XXXX ROM Error.” The XXXX indicates the segment address where the faulty
ROM was detected. If a faulty ROM is detected, system initialization will usually halt.
POST – Power On Self-Test

BIOS then checks the memory location at 0000:0472h. This address contains a flag that
determines whether the initialization is a cold start (power first applied) or a warm start (reset
button or <Ctrl>+<Alt>+<Del> key combination). A value of 1234h at this address indicates a

warm start—in which case, the (POST) routine is skipped. If any other value is found at that
location, a cold start is assumed, and the full POST routine will be executed. The full POST checks
many of the other higher-level functions on the motherboard, memory, keyboard, video adapter,
floppy drive, math co-processor, printer port, serial port, hard drive, and other sub-systems.
Dozens of tests are performed by the POST.
When an error is encountered, the single-byte POST code is written to I/O port 80h, where it
might be read by a POST-code reader. In other cases, you might see an error message
BIOS – Basic Input Output System

When your computer is first turned on, it automatically loads a program called the BIOS, or Basic
Input/Output System, which is stored on a special chip on your computer’s motherboard. The
BIOS is essentially a combination of software and hardware in that it consists of software, but
the contents of that software is stored in a hardware chip.
One of the first things we should see on your computer’s monitor when we start the PC is some
type of message like "Hit Esc to enter Setup," although instead of Esc it may say F2 or F10 or any
number of other keys and instead of Setup it may say CMOS Setup or BIOS Setup or just CMOS.
Make note of the key required to enter the Setup program because we may need that later (some
startup problems can only be solved by changing some BIOS/CMOS settings via the Setup
program).
Power-On Self-Test (POST)

The first thing that the BIOS does when it boots the PC is to perform what is called the Power-On
Self-Test, or POST for short. The POST is a built-in diagnostic program that checks the hardware
to ensure that everything is present and functioning properly, before the BIOS begins the actual
boot. It later continues with additional tests such as the memory test and then it lists any devices
that it finds attached to the computer’s internal IDE controller(s). (that is seen on the screen of the
monitor) as the boot process is proceeding.
The POST runs very quickly, and you will normally not even noticed that it is happening-- unless it
finds a problem. You may have encountered a PC that, when turned on, made beeping sounds
and then stopped without booting up. That is the POST telling you something is wrong with the
machine. The speaker is used because this test happens so early on, before the video is
activated! These beep patterns can be used to diagnose many hardware problems with the PC. The
exact patterns depend on the maker of the BIOS; the most common are Award and AMI BIOS.
BIOS Startup Screen

When the system BIOS starts up, you will see its familiar screen display, normally after the video
adapter displays its information. These are the contents of a typical BIOS start up screen:
 The BIOS Manufacturer and Version Number.
 The BIOS Date: The date of the BIOS can be important in helping you determine its
capabilities.
 Setup Program Key: The key or keys to press to enter the BIOS setup program. (This is
usually {Del}, sometimes {F2}, and sometimes another key combination.
 System Logo: The logo of the BIOS Company, or in some cases the PC maker or
motherboard manufacturer.
 The "Energy Star" Logo: This distinctive logo is displayed if the BIOS supports the Energy
Star standard, which almost all newer ones do.
 The BIOS Serial Number: This is normally located at the bottom of the screen. Since
BIOSes are highly customized to the particular motherboard, this serial number can be used

in many cases to determine the specific motherboard and BIOS version you are using. Check
out Wim Bervoets' BIOS site for a huge list of these numbers
Troubleshooting BIOS Beep Codes
When a problem is identified with the system during the POST, the BIOS will normally produce an
error message. However, in some cases the problem is detected so early in the test that the BIOS
cannot even access the video card to print the message! In this case the BIOS will produce a
beeping pattern on the speaker to tell you what the problem is.
The exact meaning of the beep codes depends on the type and version of BIOS that you have. The
three most popular types of BIOS are those made by Award, American Megatrends (AMI) and
Phoenix. The beep codes for these BIOS products are described in this part of the troubleshooter. If
you are using a PC made by a company that writes its own BIOS, you will have to consult your
owner's manual
A single beep during the boot process, usually right before the BIOS startup screen is displayed, is
normal and does not indicate a failure as long as the boot continues on.
Beep codes can be in several different patterns, depending on the BIOS that you are using. Some
BIOSes use very simple beep codes in a pattern of varying numbers of short beeps, while others
may mix short and long beeps. The Phoenix BIOS is famous for its complicated beep patterns
that are actually in up to four groups--one or more beeps and then a pause, followed by as many
as three more patterns.
Fault Report Forms

To make maintenance easy forms are needed to document systems and corresponding fault
1. PC configuration form Use this form when installing or configuring the PC and its expansion
boards.
2. System CMOS sheet Use this form to record system parameters (as shown in the system
SETUP screens).
3. IOS upgrade Use this form when planning a BIOS upgrade for your PC.
4. Customer billing a simple time and material form for beginning technicians
Diagnostic Programs
Software and hardware complement one another Diagnostic program is used to detect both
hardware and software problems the computer memory can be diagnosed to known the size the
processor types too can also be checked to do these well one has to know how to distinguish
hardware problem from the software.
Bench Marking
We all know that today’s personal computers are capable of astounding performance. If you
doubt that, consider any of the current 3D games, such as Quake II or Monster Truck Madness.
However, it is often important to quantify the performance of a system. Just saying that a PC is
“faster” than another system is simply not enough—we must often apply a number to that
performance to measure the improvements offered by an upgrade, or to objectively compare the
performance of various systems. Benchmarks are used to test and report the performance of a PC
by running a set of well-defined tasks on the system. A benchmark program has several different
uses in the PC industry depending on what you’re needs are:
1. System Comparisons:
Benchmarks are often used to compare a system to one or more competing machines (or
to compare a newer system to older machines). Just flip through any issue of PC
Magazine or Byte, and you’ll see a flurry of PC ads all quoting numerical performance
numbers backed up by benchmarks. You might also run a benchmark to establish the

overall performance of a new system before making a purchase decision.
2. Upgrade Improvements:
Benchmarks are frequently used to gauge the value of an up-grade. By running the
benchmark before and after the upgrade process, you can get a numerical assessment of just
how much that new CPU, RAM, drive, or motherboard might have improved (or hindered)
system performance.
3. Diagnostics Benchmarks sometimes have role in system diagnostics. Systems that are
performing poorly can be benchmarked as key components are checked or reconfigured.
This helps the technician isolate and correct performance problems far more reliably than
simple “visual” observations.
Avoiding Benchmark Problems

One of the most serious problems encountered with benchmarks is the integrity of their
numbers. You’ve probably heard that “statistics can lie,” and the same thing is true of benchmarks.
In order for benchmarks to provide you with reliable results, you must take some precautions:
 Note the complete system configuration When you run a benchmark and achieve a result,
be sure to note the entire system configuration (i.e., CPU, RAM, cache, OS version, etc.).
 Run the same benchmark on every system Benchmarks are still software, and the way in
which benchmark code is written can impact the way it produces results on a given
computer. Often, two different versions of the same benchmark will yield two different
results. When you use benchmarks for comparisons between systems, be sure to use the
same program and version number.
 Minimize hardware differences between hardware platforms A computer is an
assembly of many interdependent sub-assemblies (i.e., motherboard, drive controllers,
drives, CPU, etc.), but when a benchmark is run to compare a difference between systems,
that difference can be masked by other elements in the system. For example, suppose
you’re using a benchmark to test the hard-drive data transfer on two systems. Different
hard drives and drive controllers will yield different results (that’s expected). However,
even if you’re using identical drives and controllers, other differences between the
systems (such as BIOS versions, TSRs, OS differences, or motherboard chipsets) can also
influence different results.
 Run the benchmarks under the same load The results generated by a benchmark do not
guarantee that same level of performance under “real-world” applications. This was one of
the flaws of early computer benchmarking—small, tightly written benchmark code
resulted in artificially high performance, but the system still performed poorly when real
applications were used. Use benchmarks that make use of (or simulate) actual programs, or
otherwise simulate your true workload.
Obtaining Benchmarks
Benchmarks have been around since the earliest computers, and there are now a vast array
of benchmark products to measure all aspects of the PC—as well as measure more specialized
issues, such as networking, real-time systems, and UNIX (or other operating sys-tem) platforms.
Table 4-1 highlights a cross-section of computer benchmarks for your reference. In many cases,
the table includes a URL or FTP site where you can obtain source code for the benchmark, or
download the complete benchmark program. Today, Ziff Davis and CMP publish a suite of
freeware benchmark utilities that have become standard tools for end users and technicians alike.

BatteryMark: BatteryMark uses a combination of hardware and software to measure the battery
life of notebook computers under real-world conditions (the hardware used in BatteryMark is
the same ZDigit II device required by version 1.0). BatteryMark exercises a different 32-bit
software workload engines for processor, disk, and graphics tasks.
BatteryMark mixes these workloads together and adds periodic breaks in the work that reflect
the way users pause while working. BatteryMark 2.0 works with Advanced Power Management
(APM) under Windows XP/7.
NetBench: NetBench is our benchmark test for checking the performance of net-work file
servers. NetBench provides a way to measure, analyze, and predict how a file server will handle
network file I/O requests. It monitors the response of the server as multiple clients request data,
and reports the server’s total throughput. To test application servers, you should use the
ServerBench utility instead.
ServerBench: ServerBench i s the latest version of Ziff-Davis’ standard benchmark for

measuring the performance of servers in a true client/server environment. Server-Bench
clients make requests of an application that runs on the server—the server’s ability to service
those requests is reported in transactions per second. ServerBench 4.0 runs on IBM’s OS/2
Warp Server, Microsoft’s Windows NT Server 4.0 (for both Digital Alpha and x86-compatible
processors), Novell’s NetWare 4.11, Sun’s Solaris 2.5 on SPARC, and SCO’s OpenServer Release
5 and UnixWare 2.1. To test network file servers, use the NetBench utility instead.
WebBench: WebBench is the Ziff Davis benchmark test for checking performance of Web-
server hardware and software. Standard test suites produce two overall scores for the server:
requests per second and throughput (as measured in bytes per second). WebBench includes static
testing (which involves only HTML pages), and dynamic testing (including CGI executables,
Internet Server API libraries, and Netscape Server API dynamic link libraries.
JMark: JMark is a suite of 11 synthetic benchmark tests for evaluating the performance of Java
virtual machines. The JMark 1.01 suite simulates a number of important tests of Java
functionality. It includes Java versions of a number of classic benchmark test algorithms, as well as
tests designed to measure graphics performance in a GUI environment. You can download JMark
1.01 from Ziff Davis, or run the tests online within your browser.
Wintune XP/7: Wintune for Windows XP/7/NT is a recent benchmark entry from CMP, the
publishers of Windows Magazine. Wintune 97 is an overall benchmark to measure Windows
XP/7/NT performance. It has a fast user interface that allows the program to load much faster
than the earlier Wintune 95, and will now support testing of the latest Pentium II systems.
Wintune 97 tests video systems on the fastest new computers at full-screen resolution.
Troubleshooting BIOS Beep Codes - AMI BIOS

The AMI BIOS is one of the most popular in the PC world today, and fortunately is quite
consistent in its use of beep codes, across its many different versions. Please select the beep pattern
you are hearing from the list in the table given below.

Beep Explanation Diagnosis Troubleshooting steps

1 Beep: DRAM refresh failure This code usually means a Troubleshoot the
The system is having a problem problem either with the system motherboard.
accessing the system memory to memory or with the Treat as an apparent
refresh it. Refreshing is done on motherboard itself. memory failure.
all system memory to keep its
contents active.
2 Beeps Parity circuit failure This code usually means a Treat as an apparent
The parity circuit is problem with either the memory failure.
Responsible for generating and system memory or the Troubleshoot the
checking the parity bit on the motherboard. motherboard
system memory when parity
checking is used. This circuitry
is not working properly.
3 Beeps Base 64K RAM failure The first bank of memory Treat as an apparent
There is a failure of some probably h a s a b a d memory failure.
sort within the first 64 KB of m e m o r y chip in it
system memory. somewhere. It is possible that Troubleshoot the
there is a failure related to the motherboard.
motherboard or a system
4 Beeps System timer failure This
deviceisasusually
well. a motherboard Troubleshoot the
There is a problem with one failure. motherboard.
or more of the timers used by
the system to control functions
on the motherboard.
5 Beeps Processor failure There is a problem related to Troubleshoot the
the processor or motherboard. processor. If the
The system processor is Note that this doesn't mean processor is not at fault,
generating an error condition that the processor is troubleshoot the
indicating a problem with it. necessarily dead; with a dead motherboard.
processor the system won't
boot at all (it runs the BIOS
code that is used to start up
6 Beeps Keyboard controller / This is usually a problem with Troubleshooting the
the PC.)
gate either the keyboard or the keyboard is relatively
A20 failure motherboard easy; try that first.
The k e y b o a r d c o n t r o l l e r Troubleshoot the
i s a chip on the motherboard keyboard controller.
that communicates with your
keyboard. It also controls the Troubleshoot as a
A20 gate that provides access motherboard
to the high memory area failure
(HMA). This component is
7 Beeps indicating
Virtual modea failure.
exception error There is a problem related to Troubleshoot the
Virtual mode is one of the the processor or motherboard. processor.
different modes that the Note that this doesn't mean that Troubleshoot the
processor can run in. The the processor is necessarily motherboard.
system is reporting an error dead, since the system won't
when testing this mode. boot at all with a dead
processor.

8 Beeps Display memory read/write This is usually caused by a Troubleshoot the

failure problem with the video card, video card.
or the memory on the video
The BIOS is unable to write to card. It can also be a Troubleshoot the
the frame buffer memory on motherboard issue. motherboard
the video card.
Note: Unlike the other AMI
beep codes, this one is "non-
fatal". The system may
9 Beeps ROM BIOS checksum failure The continue
BIOS to boot
ROM despite
chip on thethis Troubleshoot the
error.
The read-only memory (ROM) motherboard is probably motherboard. It is
containing the BIOS program faulty. It could also be another possible to replace just
(which is what is running when component on the the BIOS ROM chip but
you turn on the PC and what motherboard. often replacing the
generates this error) uses a motherboard will make
checksum value as a double- more sense for cost and
check that the ROM code is simplicity reasons.
correct. This checksum is
compared against the values
in the ROM each time the PC is
booted and if there is a
mismatch, this code is
generated
10 Beeps CMOS shutdown There is likely a problem with Troubleshoot the
register read/write the motherboard. motherboard.
error
A component of the
motherboard is producing an
error interacting with the
CMOS memory that holds the
BIOS settings.
11 Beeps Cache memory error This usually means a problem Troubleshoot the
The system has attempted to with the system cache. It may secondary cache.
verify the operation of also be a more general Troubleshoot the
the secondary (level 2) cache problem with the motherboard.
and has encountered an error. motherboard.
Continuous Memory or video problem This is usually caused by a Troubleshoot the

Beeping problem with the system system memory.
The system is producing memory, or possibly the video Troubleshoot the
constant beeping in no specific card. The memory is more video card.
pattern, or a fast "ringing" likely--the system complains Troubleshoot the
sound. long and loud if it can't find any motherboard.
usable memory, as there is no
way to even start the boot
process when this is the case.
The motherboard itself could
also be the problem.

Troubleshooting BIOS Beep Codes - Award BIOS

Award is the other major BIOS provider today, along with AMI. Award uses by far the fewest
beep codes of any of the BIOS manufacturers.
Beep Explanation Diagnosis Troubleshooting steps

1 Long Beep Memory problem The first bank of memory Treat as an apparent
probably has a failure of memory failure.
There is a failure of some sort; this is usually Troubleshoot the
some sort related to just a physical problem motherboard.
the system memory. such as an incorrectly
inserted module, but may
also mean a bad memory
chip in a module. It is
possible that there is a
failure related to the
motherboard or a system
device as well.
1 Long, then 2 Video error This is usually caused by Troubleshoot the
Short Beeps a problem with the video video card.
The BIOS is unable to card, or the memory on the If the video card is not
access the video system in video card. It can also be a at fault, troubleshoot
order to write any error motherboard issue. the motherboard
messages to the screen.
1 Long, then 3 Video

Video error
error This
Thisisisusually
usuallycaused
causedby by Troubleshoot the
Short Beeps The
The BIOS
BIOS is unable to
is unable toaaproblem
problemwithwiththethevideo
video video card.
access
access the video system in card, or the memory the
the video system in card, or the memory on on If the
the video
videocard
cardisis not
order
order totowrite
writeany error
any errorvideo card. card.
the video It can Italso
canbealso
a not
at fault,
at fault,troubleshoot
messages
messages to to the
the screen.
screen. motherboard issue.issue.
be a motherboard troubleshoot
the motherboard. the
Continuous Memory or video motherboard.
This is usually caused by Troubleshoot the
Beeping problem a problem with the system memory.
The system is system memory, or Troubleshoot the
producing constant possibly the video card. video card.
beeping in no specific The memory is more Troubleshoot the
pattern, or a fast likely--the system motherboard.
"ringing" sound complains long and loud if
it can't find any usable
memory, as there is no way
to even start the boot
process when this is the
case. The motherboard
itself could also be the
problem.
Power Supply (Problems at Startup)
The power supply is the silver box that is usually located in the rear right quarter of the
enclosure. Ac enters the supply through the ac line cord, which is connected at the rear of the
enclosure. A supply then produces a series of dc outputs that power the motherboard and
drives. The importance of a power supply is easy enough to understand, but its implications for
system integrity and expandability might not be as obvious. Power supplies sustain a great
deal of electrical stress in normal everyday operation.

The conversion of ac into dc results in substantial heat, which is why so many power supplies are
equipped with a cooling fan. Surges, spikes, and other anomalies that plague ac power distribution
(especially in underdeveloped regions of the world) also find their way into PC power supplies,
where damage can occur. The quality of a power supply’s design and components and design
dictate how long it will last in operation. A quality supply will resist power problems and
tolerate the rigors of normal operation, but a sub-standard supply can fail spontaneously
after only a few months of operation. When replacing or upgrading a power supply, be sure to
choose a reliable model. Power supplies also limit a system’s expandability. Every element used in
the PC requires a certain amount of power (marked W for watts). The supply must be capable of
producing enough power to adequately meet the system’s demand. An under-powered supply
(typical in low-profile systems) or a supply overloaded by excessive expansion (which frequently
occurs in tower systems) might not be able to support the power needs of the system. Inadequate
power results in very strange system behavior such as unpredictable system lockups, random
memory faults, or disk-access problems. When replacing a power supply, be certain that the
new supply can provide at least as much power as the supply being replaced. When upgrading
a supply, choose a supply that offers at least 50 watts more than the original supply.
Hardware Diagnostic Utility

After the PC has been cleaned and checked inside and out, it’s time to check the hard drive for
potential problems. This involves checking the drive’s file system, reorganizing files, and creating
an updated boot disk. To perform a drive check, you’ll need a copy of Scan- Disk and Defrag.
Because these utilities are already built into Windows XP/7, you can reboot the system and use
those utilities directly. If you are more comfortable with running these utilities from DOS, create a
startup disk from within Windows XP/7 and boot from that diskette. Then run ScanDisk and
Defrag right from the startup disk. You should perform the drive check very regularly—once a
month is usually recommended, or whenever you make major additions or deletions of files from
your system.
Run Scandisk
The ScanDisk utility is designed to check your drive for file problems (such as lost or cross-
linked clusters), then correct those problems. ScanDisk is also particularly useful for testing for
potential media (surface) errors on a disk. ScanDisk will report any problems and give you the
option of repairing the problems.
Run Defrag
Operating systems like DOS and Windows XP/7 segregate drive space into groups of sectors
called clusters. Clusters are used on an “as found” basis, so it is possible for the clusters that
compose a file to be scattered across a drive. This forces the drive to work harder (and take
longer) to read or write the complete file because a lot of time is wasted moving around the
drive. The Defrag utility allows related file clusters to be relocated together. Defrag will relocate
every file on the disk so that all their clusters are positioned together (contiguous).
A Memory Failure
Memory is a cornerstone of the modern PC. Memory that holds the program code and data that is
processed CPU—and it is this intimate relationship between memory and the CPU that forms the
basis of computer performance. With larger and faster CPUs constantly being introduced, and more
complex software is developed to take advantage of the processing power. In turn, the more
complex software demands larger amounts of faster memory. With the explosive growth of
Windows (and more recently, Windows XP/7) the demands made on memory performance are
more acute than ever. These demands have resulted in a proliferation of memory types that go
far beyond the simple, traditional DRAM. Cache (SRAM), fast page-mode (FPM) memory, extended
data output (EDO) memory, video memory (VRAM), synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), flash BIOS, and

other exotic memory types (such as RAMBUS) now compete for the attention of PC technicians.
These new forms of memory also present some new problems. This chapter will provide you an
understanding of memory types, configurations, installation concerns, and troubleshooting
options.
Memory Package Styles and Structures

Ultimately, the memory die is mounted in a package just like any other IC. The completed memory
packages can then be soldered to your motherboard or attached to plug-in structures, such as
SIMMs, DIMMs, and memory cards. Only four package styles are normally used for memory
devices:
(i.) DIP (Dual In-line Package) This classic IC package is used for through-hole mounting
(prior to surface-mount technology). The advantage of DIP ICs is their compatibility with
IC sockets, which allows ICs to be inserted or removed as required. Unfortunately, the long
metal pins can bend and break if the IC is inserted or removed incorrectly. Also, the overall
size of the package demands extra space. DIP ICs were used in older PCs (286 and earlier
systems) and older VGA/SVGA video boards. DIPs are still sometimes used on
motherboards to provide cache RAM.
(ii.) SIP (Single In-line Package) This type of IC package is rarely used today—there are
simply not enough pins. However, they did make a short appearance with memory devices
in late-model 286 and early 386 systems, which flirted with proprietary memory
expansions. I remember NEC using such devices in a 2MB add-on for their 386SX/20—
and you needed to add that module before you added even more memory in the form of
proprietary SIMMs. SIPs can be troublesome because they are difficult to find
replacements for, so expect replacement memory modules using them to cost a premium.
(iii.) SOJ (Small-Outline “J” Lead) This is the contemporary package style for surface mount
circuits. The leads protrude from the package like a DIP, but are bent around just under the
package in the form of a “j”. Sockets for SOJ packages are often used for replaceable memory
ICs, such as the BIOS ROM, but most RAM devices are soldered directly to the motherboard
as system memory (or a video board as video RAM). SIMMs often use SOJ memory
components.
(iv.) TSOP (Thin, Small-Outline Package) Like the SOJ, a TSOP is also a surface-mount package
style. However, its small, thin body makes TSOP memory ideal for narrow spaces. Expect to
find such devices serving as memory in notebook/sub-notebook systems or PCMCIA cards
(a.k.a., PC Cards).
Add-On Memory Devices

Memory has always pushed the envelope of IC design. This trend has given us tremendous
amounts of memory in very small packages, but it also has kept memory relatively expensive.
Manufacturers responded by providing a minimum amount of memory with the system, then
selling more memory as an add-on option—this keeps the cost of a basic machine down and
increases profit through add-on sales. As a technician, you should understand the three basic types
of add-on memory.
Proprietary Add-On Modules: Once the Intel i286 opened the door for more than 1MB of
memory, PC makers scrambled to fill the void. However, the rush to more memory resulted in a
proliferation of non-standard (and incompatible) memory modules. Each new motherboard came
with a new add-on memory scheme—this invariably led to a great deal of confusion among PC
users and makers alike. You will likely find proprietary memory modules in 286 and early 386
systems

SIMMs and DIMMs: By the time 386 systems took hold in the PC industry, proprietary memory
modules had been largely abandoned in favor of the “Memory Module”. A SIMM (Single In-line
Memory Module) is light, small, and contains a relatively large block of memory, but perhaps the
greatest advantage of a SIMM is standardization. Using a standard pin layout, a SIMM from one PC
can be installed in any other PC. The 30-pin SIMM (Table 23-1) provides 8 data bits, and generally
holds up to 4MB of RAM.
The 30- 748 Memory Troubleshooting

A 72-pin SIMM
A 168-pin DIMM
Memory Organization
The memory in your computer represents the result of evolution over several computer
generations. Memory operation and handling is taken care of by your system’s microprocessor. As
CPUs improved, memory-handling capabilities have improved as well. Today’s microprocessors,
such as the Intel Pentium or Pentium Pro, are capable of addressing more than 4GB of system
memory—well beyond the levels of contemporary software applications.
Unfortunately, the early PCs were not nearly so powerful. Older PCs could only address 1MB of
memory because of the limitations of the 8088 microprocessor.
Because backward compatibility is so important to computer users, the drawbacks and
limitations of older systems had to be carried forward into newer computers, instead of being
eliminated. Newer systems overcome their inherent limitations by adding different “types” of
memory, along with the hardware and software to access the memory. This part of the chapter
describes the typical classifications of computer memory: conventional, extended, and expanded
memory. This chapter also describes high memory concepts. Notice that these memory types
have nothing to do with the actual ICs in your system, but the way in which software uses the
memory.
Memory Considerations
Memory has become far more important than just a place to store bits for the
microprocessor. It has proliferated and specialized to the point where it is difficult to keep track
of all the memory options and architectures that are available. This part of the chapter reviews
established memory types, and explains some of the current memory architectures.
Memory Speed and Wait States

The PC industry is constantly struggling with the balance between price and performance.
Higher prices usually bring higher performance, but low cost makes the PC appealing to more
people. In terms of memory, cost-cutting typically involves using cheaper (slower) memory
devices. Unfortunately, slow memory cannot deliver data to the CPU quickly enough, so the CPU
must be made to wait until memory can catch up. All memory is rated in terms of speed—
specifically, access time. Access time is the delay between the time data in memory is successfully
addressed, to the point at which the data has been successfully delivered to the data bus. For PC
memory, access time is measured in nanoseconds (ns), and current memory offers access times
of 50 to 60 ns. 70-ns memory is extremely common.
The question often arises: “Can I use faster memory than the manufacturer recommends?” The
answer to this question is almost always “Yes,” but rarely does performance benefit. As you will
see in the following sections, memory and architectures are typically tailored for specific
performance. Using memory that is faster should not hurt the memory or impair system
performance, but it costs more and will not produce a noticeable performance improvement. The
only time such a tactic would be advised is when your current system is almost obsolete, and you

would want the new memory to be useable on a new, faster motherboard if you choose to upgrade
the motherboard later on.
A wait state orders the CPU to pause for one clock cycle to give memory additional time to operate.
Typical PCs use one wait state, although very old systems might require two or three. The latest
PC designs with high-end memory or aggressive caching might be able to operate with no (zero)
wait states. As you might imagine, a wait state is basically a waste of time, so more wait states
result in lower system performance. Zero wait states allow optimum system performance. Table
23-9 illustrates the general relationship between CPUs, wait states, and memory speed. It is
interesting to note that some of the fastest systems allow the most wait states. This flexibility lets
the system support old, slow memory
A Hard Drive Failure

Hard Drive Failure – Symptoms and Troubleshooting
The hard-disk drive (HDD) evolved to answer the incessant demands for permanent high-volume
file and data storage in the PC. Early floppy disks provided simple and inexpensive storage, but
they were slow and programs quickly became far too large to store adequately on diskettes.
Switching between multiple diskettes also proved to be a cumbersome proposition. By the early
1980s, hard drives had become an important part of PC architecture and helped to fuel further OS
and applications development. Today, the hard drive is an indispensable element of the modern
PC. The hard drive holds the operating system, which boots the system, stores the multi-
megabyte applications and files that we rely on, and even provides “virtual memory” for systems
lean on RAM. Hard-drive performance also has a profound effect on overall system performance.
As you might imagine, hard-drive problems can easily cripple a system. This chapter presents the
technology and principles of hard-disk drives, and provides you with some solutions for drive
testing and troubleshooting.
Drive Concepts
The first step in understanding hard drives is to learn the basic concepts involved. Many of the
terms covered in Chapter 16 also apply to hard drives, but the additional performance
requirements and operating demands placed on hard drives have resulted in an array of
important new ideas. In principle, a hard-disk drive is very similar to a floppy drive—a
magnetic recording media is applied to a substrate material, which is then spun at a high rate of
speed. Magnetic read/write heads in close proximity to the media can step rapidly across the
spinning media to detect or create flux transitions, as required. When you look closely, however,
you can see that there are some major physical differences between floppy and hard drives.
Platters and Media

Where floppy disks use magnetic material applied over a thin, flexible substrate of Mylar (or
some other plastic), hard drives use rugged, solid substrates, called platters. You can clearly view
the platters of a hard drive. A platter is traditionally made of aluminum
Power-Mode Definitions
Modern hard drives are not simply “on” or “off.” They operate in any one of several modes,
and each mode makes different power demands on the host system. This is particularly important
because today’s PCs are becoming ever-more power conscious, so the ability to control drive
power is an integral part of PC power-conservation systems. Typical hard drives operate in any
of five different power modes:
(i.) Spin-up The drive is spinning up following initial application of power and has not yet
reached full speed. This demands about 14 W and is particularly demanding of the power
supply (if the supply is marginal or overloaded, the hard drive might not spin-up properly).

(ii.) Seek This is a random-access operation by the disk drive as it tries to locate the required
track for reading or writing. This demands about 8.5- to 9.0 W.
(iii.) Read/write A seek has been completed, and data is being read from or written to the drive.
This uses about 5.0 W.
(iv.) Idle This is a basic power-conservation mode, where the drive is spinning and all other
circuitry is powered on, but the head actuator is parked and powered off. This drops power
demands to about 4 W, yet the drive is capable of responding to read commands within 40
ms.
(v.) Standby The spindle motor is not running (the drive “spins down”). This is the main power-
conservation mode, and it requires just 1 W. It might require up to several seconds for the
drive will leave this mode (or spin-up) upon receipt of a command that requires disk access.
Smart Command Set

Some of the newest hard drives use the Self-Monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology
(SMART) command set. SMART-compliant drives improve the data integrity and data availability of
hard-disk drives by regularly checking for potential drive problems. In some cases, a SMART-
compliant device will predict an impending failure with sufficient time to allow users to backup
their data and replace the drive before data loss occurs.
Drive Testing and Troubleshooting

Hard-disk drives present some perplexing challenges for computer technicians and every day
users alike. The problem with hard drives is that they are inaccessible devices. Unless you have the
cleanroom environment to open the sealed drive platters, it is pointless to even consider
replacing failed drive mechanics. Even if you could open a drive safely, the advances in hard-drive
technology have been so fast and furious that no spare parts market has ever developed. Drive
manufacturers themselves rarely bother to repair faulty drives or invest in specialized drive-testing
equipment. Clearly, the course for hard-drive repair is to identify defective drives and replace
faulty units with new (usually better) ones. Fortunately, not all hard-drive problems are
necessarily fatal. True, you might lose some programs and data (backup your hard drive
frequently), but many drive problems are recoverable without resorting to drive replacement.
Instead of focusing on repairing a hard drive’s electronics or mechanics, today’s repair tactics focus
on repairing a drive’s data.
The important thing to remember when using this workaround is that you must keep a record
of the translation values used so that they can be re-entered if the contents of CMOS RAM are lost, or
if the drive is moved to another system. Write the values on masking tape and stick the tape on the
drive itself. Cover from a wide variety of drive problems. Before you begin any sort of drive
troubleshooting, you should take the following steps:
 Gather a DOS boot disk or Windows XP/7 startup disk. If you don’t have a boot disk on hand,
you should make one before continuing.
 Gather your DOS installation disk(s) or Windows XP/7 CD-ROM—if
you need to reinstall the operating system, these will be invaluable.
 Gather any hard drive/controller diagnostics that you’ll need.
 Backup as much as you can from your hard drive(s) before attempting any sort of drive
service.

HDD-Controller Bios Error Codes

There might be times when your hard-drive controller fails or cannot communicate
properly with the hard drive. When this occurs, you’ll often find that the controller returns an
error code.
Troubleshooting “DOS Compatibility Mode” Problems

One of the great advantages enjoyed by Windows 95 is that it operates in the
“protectedmode”— that is, drivers and software can be executed beyond the traditional “real-
mode” RAM limit of 1MB. By comparison, DOS is a real-mode environment. DOS programs and
drivers can only be executed within the first 640KB of RAM (the “conventional memory” area). If
Windows XP/7 cannot establish protected-mode operation for a drive, it will fall back to real-
mode driver support. This is known as DOS compatibility mode. Unfortunately, real mode
support often impairs system performance. If you notice that one or more of the hard drives in a
system is using DOS compatibility mode (there might be an error message such as:
“Compatibility mode paging reduces overall system performance”), you’ll need to track down
and correct the cause. In general, Windows XP/7 might invoke the DOS compatibility mode for
any of the following reasons:
 A questionable device driver, TSR, or computer virus has hooked the INT 21h or INT 13h
chain before Windows XP/7 loaded.
 The hard-disk controller in your computer was not detected by Windows XP/7.
 The hard-disk controller was removed from the current configuration in Device
manager.
 There is a resource conflict between the hard-disk controller and another hardware
device.
 The Windows XP/7 protected-mode driver is missing or damaged.
 The Windows XP/7 protected-mode driver detected incompatible or unsupportable
hardware.
You can use the following procedure to isolate and correct the cause of DOS compatibility mode
problems:
1. Open the Control panel, double-click the System icon, then choose the Performance tab in
the System properties dialog. You can identify which drive is using DOS compatibility
mode and why.
2. If the driver name listed as causing the DOS compatibility mode is:
MBRINT13.SYS, your computer might be infected with a boot-sector virus or you are
running real-mode disk overlay software (for an IDE hard disk with more than 1024
cylinders) that is not compatible with Windows XP/7 protected-mode disk drivers.
a. Run a recent anti-virus program to detect and remove boot-sector viruses (such as
Norton Anti-Virus, NAV). You might need to rewrite your boot sector using a DOS
command, such as FDISK /MBR.
b. If you cannot detect any virus activity, check the disk-management software. Be
sure that you’re using Disk Manager 7.0 or later (use Disk Manager 7.04 if you’re
running DriveSpace 3, include with the Microsoft Plus! pack).
3. If the driver name that is listed is in the CONFIG.SYS file, contact the driver’s
manufacturer to determine whether there is a more recent version of the driver that
allows protected-mode operation in Windows XP/7. You might be able to download the
latest driver version from the driver manufacturer’s Web site.
4. If no driver is listed on the Performance tab, check that the hard-disk controller is listed in

the Device manager. If not, install it through the Add new hardware wizard. If the wizard
cannot detect the controller automatically, run the wizard again, but do not let it attempt to
detect the hardware in your computer—instead, select the controller specifically from the
hardware list. If your particular controller is not listed, contact the manufacturer of the disk
controller to obtain a Windows XP/7 protected-mode disk driver (or a Windows 3.1x 32-
bit disk access (FastDisk) driver, if available).
5. If the hard-disk controller is listed in the Device manager, but has a yellow “!” over it, there
is a resource conflict (IRQ, I/O, DMA, or BIOS address range) with another device, the
protected-mode driver is missing or damaged, or the Disable all 32-bit protected- mode disk
drivers check box has been selected in File system properties.
a. Doubleclick the System icon in the Control panel, click the Performance tab, then
click File system. Select the Troubleshooting tab and see that the Disable all 32-bit
protected- mode disk drivers check box has not been selected
b. Resolve any resource conflicts with other devices in the system
c. Check that the protected-mode driver is in the Windows\SYSTEM\IOSUBSYS
directory and is loading properly. To find which driver is providing 32-bit disk
access, click Properties for the disk controller in Device manager and click the Driver
tab to see which driver files are associated with the controller. For most IDE, EIDE,
and ESDI disk controllers, 32-bit disk access is provided by the ESDI_506.PDR driver.
For SCSI controllers, Windows XP/7 often uses SCSIPORT.PDR and a “mini port” (or .MPD)
driver. Restart Windows XP/7, press <F8> when the “Starting Windows XP/7” message appears,
then select a “Logged” (BOOTLOG.TXT) start. If the 32-bit driver is listed as loading properly,
you’re all set. Otherwise, the driver might be missing or damaged—try reinstalling the respective
32-bit drivers.
6. Load SYSTEM.INI into a text editor and check to see if the MH2BIT.386 driver is being
loaded (check for a line that reads: “device=mh32bit.386”). This driver is installed by
MicroHouse EZ-Drive software, and is not compatible with the Windows XP/7 protected
mode disk drivers. Unfortunately, this driver is not removed by Windows XP/7 Setup, so
you’ll need to disable the line manually, save your changes, and reboot the PC.
7. If all else fails, you might be able to achieve protected-mode support from the disk
controller by disabling any of the controller’s advanced features (i.e., caching, fast or
“turbo” modes), or reducing data-transfer rates. You might also try systematically
disabling advanced IDE controller features in the CMOS setup.
8. If problems persist, you might have to replace the drive controller with a model that better
supports protected-mode operation.
Symptoms and Solutions

Now it’s time to take a look at some problems and solutions. The important concept here is that a
hard-drive problem does not necessarily mean a hard-drive failure.
Drive Testing and Troubleshooting 623

If the hard-disk controller is listed in Device manager, but has a red “X ” over it, it has been
removed from the current hardware profile. Click Properties for the controller in Device manager,
then click the check box that corresponds to the current hardware profile under Device usage.
Sector or track does not automatically indicate physical head or platter damage—that is why
software tools have been so successful.
Even if one or more sectors are physically damaged, millions of sectors are on a hard drive. A few
bad sectors do not render a drive faulty.
One of the only times that a drive is truly irreparable is when physical media damage occurs

on track 00, but software tools will help you to identify the scope of the problem.
Symptom 17-1. The hard drive is completely dead

The drive does not spin up, the drive light doesn’t illuminate during power-up, or you see an
error message indicating that the drive is not found or ready. In most cases, you should suspect a
power problem first. Be sure that the 4-pin power connector is inserted properly and
completely. If the drive is being powered by a “Y-connector,” be sure any interim connections are
secure.
Use a voltmeter and measure the +5-V (pin 4) and +12-V (pin 1) levels. If either voltage (especially
the +12-V supply) is unusually low or absent, replace the power supply. Also check your signal
cable. See that the drive’s signal interface cable is connected securely at both the drive and
controller ends. For IDE/EIDE drives, this is the 40-pin ribbon cable.
If the cable is visibly worn or damaged, try a new cable. The PC cannot use a hard drive that it
can’t recognize, so enter the CMOS setup routine and see that all of the parameters entered for the
drive are correct. Heads, cylinders, sectors per track, landing zone, and write pre-compensation
must all be correct—otherwise, POST will not recognize the drive. If you have an “auto-detect”
option available, try that also. Remember to save your changes in CMOS and reboot the system.
If problems continue, the hard drive itself might be defective. Try a known-good hard drive. If a
known-good drive works as expected, your original drive is probably defective, and should be
replaced. If a known-good hard drive fails to operate, replace the drive controller board.
Symptom 17-2. You see drive activity, but the computer will not boot from the hard drive
In most cases, there is a drive failure, boot-sector failure, or DOS/Windows file corruption. Check
the signal cable first. Be sure that the drive’s signal interface cable is connected securely at both
the drive and controller. If the cable is visibly worn or damaged, try a new one. You should check
the CMOS setup next—see that all of the parameters entered for the drive are correct. Heads,
cylinders, sectors per track, landing zone, and write precompensation must all correct. Otherwise,
POST will not recognize the drive. If it has an option to “auto-detect” the drive, try that as well.
The boot sector might also be defective. Boot from a floppy disk and try accessing the hard drive. If
the hard drive is accessible, chances are that the boot files are missing or corrupt
Try a utility, such as DrivePro’s Drive Boot Fixer or DISKFIX with PC Tools. You might also try
running “FDISK /MBR,” which will rebuild the drive’s master boot record.
Careful: the FDISK /MBR command might render the files on your drive inaccessible. Finally, you
might have a problem with your drive-system hardware. If you cannot access the hard drive, run a
diagnostic such as Windsor Technologies’ PC Technician.
Test 624 Hard Drive

Drive troubleshooting has the potential of destroying any data on the drive(s). Before
attempting to troubleshoot hard-disk problems, be sure to back up as much of the drive as
possible. If no backup is available, do not repartition or reformat the drive unless absolutely
necessary, and all other possible alternatives have been exhausted. The drive and drive controller.
If the controller responds, but the drive does not, try repartitioning and reformatting the hard
drive. If the drive still doesn’t respond, replace the hard drive outright. If the controller doesn’t
respond, replace the hard-drive controller.
Symptom 17-3. One or more sub-directories appear lost or damaged

Both the root directory of a drive and its FAT contain references to sub-directories. If data in either
the root directory or file allocation table is corrupt, one or more sub-directories might be
inaccessible by the drive. Try repairing the drive’s directory structure. Use DISKFIX (with PC Tools)
or SCANDISK (with DOS 6.2 or later) to check the disk’s directory structure for problems.

Symptom 17-4. Errors occur during drive reads or writes

Magnetic information does not last forever, and sector ID information can gradually degrade
to a point where you encounter file errors. Start by checking for file structure problems on the
drive.
Use a utility, such as DISKFIX or SCANDISK, to examine the drive and search for bad sectors. If a
failed sector contains part of an .EXE or .COM file, that file is now corrupt and should be restored
from a backup. If you cannot isolate file problems, you might need to consider a Low-Level (LL)
format. This is an ideal solution because LL formatting rewrites sector ID information, but the
sophistication of today’s drives makes LL formatting almost impossible. If the drive manufacturer
provides a “drive preparation” utility, you should backup the drive, run the utility, FDISK, FORMAT,
and restore the drive. Symptom 17-5. The hard drive was formatted accidentally A high-level
format does not actually destroy data, but rather it clears the file names and locations kept in the
root directory and FAT— this prevents DOS from finding those files. You will need to recover
those files. Use a utility, such as UNFORMAT (with PC Tools), which can reconstruct root
directory and FAT data contained in a MIRROR file. This is not always a perfect process and you
might not be able to recover all files.
Symptom 17-6. A file has been deleted accidentally

Mis-typing or forgetting to add a drive specification can accidentally erase files from places you did
not intend to erase. You can often recover those files if you act quickly. Use a utility, such as
UNDELETE (with PC Tools and DOS), to restore the deleted file. This is not always a perfect process
and you might not be able to recover every file.
Symptom 17-7. The hard drive’s root directory is damaged

A faulty root directory can cripple the entire disk, rendering all sub-directories inaccessible. You
might be able to recover the root directory structure. Use a utility, such as DISKFIX (with PC
Tools), to reconstruct the damaged FATs and directories. If you have been running MIRROR,
DISKFIX should be able to perform a very reliable recovery. You might also try other recovery
Drive Testing and Troubleshooting 625

In order for MIRROR data to be useful, do not save new files before running
UNFORMAT. In order for UNDELETE to be useful, do NOT save new files before running
UNDELETE. Utilities, such as DrivePro or ScanDisk. However, if you cannot recover the root
directory reliably, you will need to reformat the drive, then restore its contents from a backup.
Symptom 17-8. Hard drive performance appears to be slowing down over time
In virtually all cases, diminishing drive performance can be caused by file fragmentation. To a
far lesser extent, you might be faced with a computer virus. Start the PC with a “clean” boot disk
and be sure that no TSRs or drivers are being loaded. After a clean boot, run your anti- virus checker
and be sure that there are no memory-resident or file-based viruses. If the system checks clean
for computer viruses, you should check for file fragmentation next. Start your defragmentation
utility (such as COMPRESS with PC Tools or DEFRAG with DOS) and check to see the percentage of
file fragmentation. If it has more than 10% fragmentation, you should consider running the
defragmentation utility after preparing Windows. Before defragmenting a drive, reboot the
system normally, start Windows, access the Virtual memory controls for your version of
Windows, and shut down virtual memory. Then leave Windows and boot the system “clean” again.
Restart your defragmentation utility and proceed to defragment the disk. This process might take several
minutes, depending on the size of your drive. Once defragmentation is complete, reboot the system normally,
start Windows, access the Virtual memory controls for your version of Windows, and recreate a
permanent swap file to support virtual memory. You should now notice a performance improvement.

Symptom 17-9. The hard drive accesses correctly, but the drive light stays on continuously
A continuous LED indication is not necessarily a problem as long as the drive seems to be
operating properly. Check the drive and drive controller for drive “light jumpers”— examine the
drive itself for any jumper that might select Latched mode vs. Activity mode. If no such jumpers are
on the drive, check the drive controller or motherboard. Set the jumper to Activity mode to see the
drive light during access only.
Next, consider the possibility of drive-light error messages. Some drive types (especially SCSI
drives) use the drive-activity light to signal drive and controller errors. Check the drive and
controller documents and see if any error is indicated by the light remaining on.
Symptom 17-10. The hard drive is not accessible and the drive light stays on continuously
This usually indicates a reversed signal cable, which is most common when upgrading or
replacing a drive system. In virtually all cases, one end of the signal cable is reversed. Be sure that
both ends of the cable are installed properly (remember that the red or blue stripe on one side of
the cable represents pin 1). If problems persist, replace the drive controller. It is rare for a fault
in the drive controller to cause this type of problem, but if trouble persists, try a known-good
drive controller board.
Symptom 17-11. A “No fixed disk present” error message appears on the monitor
This kind of problem can occur during installation, or at any point in the PC’s working life. Check
the power connector first, and be sure the 4-pin power connector is inserted properly and
completely. If the drive is being powered by a Y-connector, be sure any interim
connections are secure. Use a voltmeter and measure the +5-V (pin 4) and +12-V (pin 1) levels. If
either voltage (especially the +12-V supply) is unusually low or absent, replace the power supply.
Next, check the signal connector. Be sure that the signal cable is connected securely at both the
drive and controller. If the cable is visibly worn or damaged, try a new one.
If problems persist, check the CMOS setup—enter the CMOS setup routine and see that all of the
parameters entered for the drive are correct. Heads, cylinders, sectors per track, landing zone, and
write precompensation must all correct—otherwise, POST will not recognize the drive. You might
also try “auto-detecting” the drive. Also check for hardware conflicts.
Be sure that no other expansion devices in the system use the same IRQs or I/O addresses used by
your drive controller. If so, change the resources used by the conflicting device. If your drive
system uses a SCSI interface, be sure that the SCSI cable is terminated properly. If problems
continue, try a known-good hard drive. If a known-good drive works as expected, your original
drive is probably defective. If problems persist with a known-good hard drive, replace the drive-
controller board.
Symptom 17-12. The drive spins up, but the system fails to recognize it
Your computer might flag this as a “Hard-disk error” or “Hard-disk controller failure” during
system initialization. Start by checking the signal connector. Be sure that the interface signal cable
is inserted properly and completely at the drive and controller. Try a new signal cable. Next,
check any drive jumpers, and see that a primary (master) drive is configured as primary, and a
secondary (slave) drive is configured as secondary. For SCSI drives, see that each drive has a unique
ID setting and check that the SCSI bus is terminated properly.
Enter the CMOS setup routine and see that all of the parameters entered for the drive are correct.
Heads, cylinders, sectors per track, landing zone, and write pre-compensation must all correct—
otherwise, POST will not recognize the drive. Try using the “auto-detect” feature if it is available.
If the CMOS is configured properly, you should suspect a problem with the partition. Boot from a
floppy disk and run FDISK to check the partitions on your hard drive.
Be sure that there is at least one DOS partition. If the drive is to be your boot drive, the primary

partition must be active and bootable. Repartition and reformat the drive, if necessary
If problems persist, try a known-good hard drive. If a known-good drive works as expected, your
original drive is probably defective. If a known-good hard drive fails to work as expected, replace
the drive controller. If problems persist with a known-good floppy drive, replace the drive-
controller board.
Symptom 17-13. The IDE drive spins up when power is applied, then rapidly spins down
gain
The drive is defective, or it is not communicating properly with its host system. Check the power
connector first. Be sure that the 4-pin power connector is inserted properly and completely into
the drive. Always check the signal connector next, and see that the interface signal cable is
inserted properly and completely at the drive and controller. Try a new signal cable.
Inspect the drive jumpers—the primary (master) drive should be configured as primary, and a
secondary (slave) drive should be configured as secondary. For SCSI drives, see that each drive has
a unique ID setting, and check that the SCSI bus is terminated properly. If problems persist, try a
known-good hard drive. If a known-good drive works as expected, your original drive is probably
defective.
\
Symptom 17-14. A “Sector not found” error message appears on the monitor
This problem usually occurs after the drive has been in operation for quite some time, and is
typically the result of a media failure. Fortunately, a bad sector will only affect one file. Try
recovering the file. Use a utility, such as SpinRite (from Gibson Research) or another data-
recovery utility, and attempt to recover the damaged file. Notice that you might be unsuccessful,
and have to restore the file from a backup later. Check the media itself. Use a disk utility, such as
ScanDisk, to evaluate the drive, then locate and map out any bad sectors that are located on the
drive.
If problems persist, perform a low-level format (if possible). Lost sectors often occur as drives
age and sector ID information degrades. LL formatting restores the sector IDs, but LL formatting
is performed at the factory for IDE/EIDE and SCSI drives. If an LL formatting utility is available for
your particular drive (available right from the drive manufacturer), and ScanDisk reveals a large
number of bad sectors, you might consider backing up the drive completely, running the LL
utility, repartitioning, reformatting, then restoring the drive.
Finally, if ScanDisk maps out bad sectors, you might need to restore those files from a backup.
Symptom 17-15. A “1780 or 1781 ERROR” appears on the monitor

The classic 1780 error code indicates a “Hard disk 0 failure,” and the 1781 error code marks a
“Hard disk 1 failure.” Start the PC with a “clean” boot disk and be sure that no TSRs or drivers are
being loaded. If you haven’t done so already, run your anti-virus checker and be sure that there
are no memory-resident or file-based viruses. Next, if you can access the hard drive once your
system is booted, chances are that the boot files are missing or corrupt.
Try a utility, such as DrivePro’s Drive Boot Fixer or DISKFIX with PC Tools. Otherwise, you will
need to repartition and reformat the disk, then restore disk files from a backup. Check the
hardware next—if you cannot access the hard drive, run a diagnostic such as Windsor
Technologies’ PC Technician. Test the drive and drive controller. If the controller responds but the
drive does not, try repartitioning and reformatting the hard drive. If the drive still doesn’t
respond, replace the hard drive outright. If the controller doesn’t respond, replace the hard-drive
controller.
Symptom 17-16. A “1790 or 1791 ERROR” appears on the monitor

The classic 1790 error code indicates a “Hard Disk 0 Error,” although the 1791 error code marks a
“Hard Disk 1 Error.” Check the signal connector first. Be sure that the interface signal cable is

inserted properly and completely at the drive and controller. Try a new signal cable. There might
also be a problem with the drive’s partition. Boot from a floppy disk and run FDISK to check the
partitions on your hard drive. Be sure that there is at least one DOS partition. If the drive is to be
your boot drive, the primary partition must be active and bootable. Repartition and reformat the
drive, if necessary.
If problems persist, replace the hard drive. If a known-good drive works as expected, your original
drive is probably defective. If problems persist with a known-good floppy drive, replace the drive-
controller board.
Symptom 17-17. A “1701 ERROR” appears on the monitor

The 1701 error code indicates a hard-drive POST error—the drive did not pass its POST test.
Check the power connector first, and be sure that the 4-pin power connector is inserted properly
and completely. If the drive is being powered by a Y connector, be sure that any interim
connections are secure. Use a voltmeter and measure the +5-V (pin 4) and +12-V (pin 1) levels.
If either voltage (especially the +12-V supply) is unusually low or absent, replace the power
supply. Enter the CMOS setup routine and see that all of the parameters entered for the d r i v e
are correct. Heads, c y l i n d e r s , se c t or s p e r t r a c k , l a n d i n g zon e , a n d w r i t e
precompensation must all correct; otherwise, POST will not recognize the drive. Try “auto-
detecting” the drive. If problems persist, perform a low-level format (if possible). ST506/412 and
ESDI drives might require LL formatting, but LL formatting is performed at the factory for
IDE/EIDE and SCSI drives. If an LL-formatting utility is available for your particular drive
(available right from the drive manufacturer), you might consider backing up the drive
completely, running the LL utility, repartitioning, reformatting, and then restoring the drive.
Symptom 17-18. The system reports random data, seek, or format errors
Random errors rarely indicate a permanent problem, but identifying the problem source can be
a time- consuming task. Check the power connector first. Be sure that the 4-pin power connector is
inserted properly and completely. If the drive is being powered by a “Y-connector,” be sure that any
interim connections are secure. Use a voltmeter and measure the +5-V (pin 4) and +12-V (pin 1)
levels. If either voltage (especially the +12-V supply) is unusually low, replace the power supply.
Check the signal connector next. Be sure that the interface signal cable is inserted properly and
completely at the drive and controller. Try a new signal cable. Also try re-routing the signal cable
away from the power-supply or “noisy” expansion devices. Check the drive orientation. If
problems occur after remounting the drive in a different orientation, you might need to
repartition and reformat the drive, or return it to its original orientation.
Try relocating the drive-controller away from cables and “noisy” expansion devices. If your
system has a “turbo” mode, your ISA drive controller might have trouble operating while the
system is in turbo mode. Take the system out of turbo mode. If the problem disappears, try a new
drive controller. The media might also be defective. Use a utility, such as ScanDisk, to check for
and map out any bad sectors. Once bad sectors are mapped out, you might need to restore some
files from your backup.
Try the hard drive and controller in another system. If the drive and controller work in
another system, excessive noise or grounding problems are probably in the original system.
Reinstall the drive and controller in the original system and remove all extra expansion boards.
If the problem goes away, replace one board at a time and retest the system until the problem
returns. The last board you inserted when the problem returned is probably the culprit. If the
problem persists, there might be a ground problem on the motherboard. Try replacing the
motherboard as an absolute last effort.

Symptom 17-19. A “Bad or Missing Command Interpreter” error message appears

This is a typical error that appears when a drive is formatted in one DOS version, but loaded with
another. Compatibility problems occur when you mix DOS versions.
Start by booting the PC with a “clean” boot disk, and be sure no TSRs or drivers are being loaded.
If you haven’t done so already, run your anti-virus checker and be sure that there are no
memory-resident or file-based viruses. Finally, be sure that the drive is partitioned and
formatted with the version of DOS that you intend to use. Also be sure to use FORMAT with
the /S switch, or SYS C: to transfer system files to the drive.
Symptom 17-20. An “Error reading drive C:” error message appears

Read errors in a hard drive typically indicate problems with the disk media, but might also
indicate viruses or signaling problems. Check the signal connector first. Be sure that the interface
signal cable is inserted properly and completely at the drive and controller. Try a new signal
cable. Next, start the PC with a “clean” boot disk and be sure that no TSRs or drivers are being
loaded. If you haven’t done so already, run your anti-virus checker and be sure that there are no
memory-resident or file-based viruses.
Consider the drive’s orientation. If problems occur after remounting the drive in a different
orientation, you might need to repartition and reformat the drive, or return it to its original
orientation. Also check the media—use a utility, such as ScanDisk, to check for and map out any
bad sectors. Once bad sectors are mapped out, you might need to restore some files from your
backup. Try a known-good hard drive. If a known-good drive works as expected, your original drive
is probably defective.
Symptom 17-21. A “Track 0 not found” error message appears

A fault on track 00 can disable the entire drive because track 00 contains the drive’s File
Allocation Table (FAT). This can be a serious error, which might require you to replace the drive.
Before going too far with this type of problem, check the signal connector and see that the
interface signal cable is inserted properly and completely at the drive and controller. Try a
new signal cable.
Boot from a floppy disk and run FDISK to check the partitions on your hard drive. Be sure that
there is at least one DOS partition. If the drive is to be your boot drive, the primary partition must
be active and bootable. Repartition and reformat the drive, if necessary. Try a known-good hard
drive. If a known-good drive works as expected, your original drive is probably defective.
Symptom 17-22. Software diagnostics indicate an average access time that is longer than
specified for the drive
The average access time is the average amount of time needed for a drive to reach the track and
sector, where a needed file begins.
Before you do anything else, check the drive specifications and verify the timing specifications for
your particular drive. Start your defragmentation utility (such as COMPRESS with PC Tools or
DEFRAG with DOS) and check to see the percentage of file fragmentation.
If there is more than 10% fragmentation, you should consider running the defragmentation utility
after preparing Windows (see Symptom 8).
Also remember that different software packages measure access time differently. Be sure that the
diagnostic subtracts system overhead processing from the access-time calculation
Try one or two other diagnostics to confirm the measurement. Before you panic and replace a drive,
try testing several similar drives for comparison. If only the suspect drive measures incorrectly,
you might not need to replace the drive itself just yet, but you should at least maintain frequent
backups in case the drive is near failure.

Symptom 17-23. Software diagnostics indicate a slower data transfer rate than specified
This is often because of “less-than-ideal” data-transfer rates, rather than an actual hardware
failure. Enter the CMOS setup routine and verify that any enhanced data-transfer modes are
enabled (such as PIO Mode 3). This can increase data transfer rate substantially. Also check
the drive specifications, and verify the timing specifications for your particular drive.
Check for fragmentation next. Start your defragmentation utility (such as COMPRESS with PC Tools
or DEFRAG with DOS), and check to see the percentage of file fragmentation.
Broadly speaking a hard disk can fail in four ways that will lead to a potential loss of data:
1. Firmware Corruption / Damage to the firmware zone
2. Electronic Failure
3. Mechanical Failure
4. Logical Failure
Combinations of these four types of failure are also possible. Whether the data on the hard disk is
recoverable or not depends on exactly what has happened to the disk and how bad the damage
is. All hard disks also develop bad sectors which can lead to data loss and drive inaccessibility.
1. Firmware Corruption / Damage to the firmware zone

Hard disk firmware is the information that is used by the computer that allows it to
correctly interact with the hard disk. If the firmware of a hard disk becomes corrupted or
unreadable the computer is often unable to correctly interact with the hard disk.
Frequently the data on the disk is fully recoverable once the drive has been repaired and
reprogrammed.
2. Electronic Failure
Electronic failure usually relates to problems on the controller board of the actual hard
disk. The computer may suffer a power spike or electrical surge that knocks out the
controller board on the hard disk making it undetectable to the BIOS. Usually, the data on
the hard disk has not suffered any damage and a 100% data recovery is possible.
3. Mechanical Failure Usually worse than electronic failure, mechanical failure can quite
often (especially if not acted on early) lead to a partial and sometimes total loss of data.
Mechanical failure comes in a variety of guises such as read / write head failure and motor
problems. One of the most common mechanical failures is a head crash. Varying in
severity, a head crash occurs when the read-write heads of the hard disk come into
contact, momentarily or continuously, with the platters of the hard disk.
Head crashes can be caused by a range of reasons including physical shock, movement of the
computer, static electricity, power surges and mechanical read-write head failure.
Mechanical failure can usually be spotted by a regular clicking or crunching noise. It's not
necessarily a head crash, the most important things to do if you suspect mechanical
problems is to switch off the drive immediately as further use will make matters worse.
4. Logical Errors Often the easiest and the most difficult problems to deal with, logical errors
can range from simple things such as an invalid entry in a file allocation table to truly
horrific problems such as the corruption and loss of the file system on a severely
fragmented drive.
Logical errors are different to the electrical and mechanical problems above as there is
usually nothing 'physically' wrong with the disk, just the information on it.

Remedial Procedure
Some of the steps involved in the remedy of the Hard drive failure are given below:
(1.) The first thing to check for is whether or not the hard disk can be seen by the hard disk
controller; usually on a true hard disk failure, the disk will not be detectable by the
controller (but this is not always the case). Assuming you have an IDE hard disk, enter
the BIOS setup program and use the IDE detection facility of the BIOS to see if the disk's
parameters can be detected. If the disk cannot be auto detected using the auto detect
feature in the BIOS program implies immediately some sort of hardware problem.
(2.) If you can see the hard disk when you auto detect, the problem is more likely to be
software than hardware. Remember that you cannot usually boot a brand new hard disk
until it has been partitioned and formatted.
(3.) See if the disk will boot up. If it will not boot, then boot from a floppy boot disk and then use
the FDISK command (or other partitioning software) to see if you can see the disk.
(4.) If the drive will boot up, then you should be getting a more specific error message of some
sort, or a more specific failure mode that you can use for troubleshooting.
(5.) If the drive is detected in the BIOS setup but cannot be booted or accessed when booting
from a floppy disk, then there is a good chance that the disk itself may be bad. If possible,
try connecting the hard disk to another system and see if the problem is present there as
well. Temporarily deactivate any screen saver. Click on START then SETTINGS then
CONTROL PANEL then DISPLAY then SCREEN SAVER. Set the Screen Saver to NONE and
click OK.
(6.) If the hard disk is dead and needs to be replaced follow the procedure given below:
a. Remove the screws that hold the drive in the bay.

b. Remove the defective hard disk

c. Remove the IDE cable
d. Select a good hard disk, connect the IDE cable and replace the hard disk.
e. Secure the hard disk on the drive bay slot by tightening the screws.
Scandisk:
This is a maintenance procedure built into the Windows operating system that checks the hard
drive to determine if there is physical damage or damage to the file system.
If the computer reports that it has corrupted, damaged, or missing files and the programs no longer
operate properly, then this is the first step to try and fix the problem. Also, if the computer seems
to be running slower than usual, sometimes this procedure will provide a fix. It is a good idea to
perform this operation often.
Scandisk Procedure
1. Temporarily deactivate any screen saver. Click on START then SETTINGS then CONTROL
PANEL then DISPLAY then SCREEN SAVER. Set the Screen Saver to NONE and click OK.
2. Click on START then PROGRAMS then ACCESSORIES then SYSTEM TOOLS then SCANDISK.
NOTE - Depending on what version of Windows you are running the above labels may be
slightly different, but not so different that you will not be able to find it.
The following window will open on your screen.

3. Be sure to select "C:" from the drop down box if it is not already chosen. Then click on the radio
button for Standard under Type of test. Next check the box (click on it) labelled
Automatically fix errors.
The Thorough test option should not be selected unless you suspect the physical hard drive has
been damaged. I suggest always running the Standard scandisk option first. Then If you still
have problems rerun it with the Thorough option selected. Also, if you do not select
Automatically fix errors the computer will stop and wait for you to answer some rather
confusing questions.
4. Click on the button labelled Advanced... to launch the following sub-window.
5. Be sure to click on all of the radio buttons and check boxes EXACTLY as shown. Then press
the OK button. This will return you to the former screen where you can press START.

The Scandisk process usually does not take long unless there are serious problems with the
hard drive. Do not be concerned if the procedure restarts itself.
6. When the entire procedure is completed, you can reactivate the screen saver and then start
working with applications. It is not necessary to restart the computer.
Reformatting a Hard disk

This procedure explains how to setup a new hard disk.
Warning - if you are setting up a hard disk which contains data, the following procedure would
completely erase your hard disk and the data would be unrecoverable.
Before a new hard disk can be used it needs to be setup. This involves partitioning and
formatting the hard disk. Windows 98 or ME boot disk contains the required software to perform
this procedure. FDISK.EXE and FORMAT.COM are the files required in your bootable floppy disk.
1. Start the partition and format procedure by booting your PC using a Windows boot disk.
2. Make sure you set the BIOS so that the boot sequence is set to detect the floppy disk first. If
your system has no problems booting you will be presented with a Windows boot disk menu.
This gives you the option to start the system with or without CD-ROM support.
3. Choose the option to boot without CD-ROM support. You should end up in the MS DOS prompt
A: (A drive). From A: command prompt type fdisk. You will be presented with following
message:
4. Choose "Y" to enable large disk support. You will now be presented with the FDISK main
menu as shown below.

5. From the menu, choose option 1 - Create DOS partition or Logical DOS drive. Another menu
will present the following options.
6. Choose option 1 - Create primary DOS Partition. FDISK verifies the integrity of your drive
and will ask you if want to use the maximum available size of your hard disk to create the
primary partition and set it active. To keep things simple we will create one large partition.
7. Choose "Y" to use maximum available space. When the partition has been created
successfully you will be notified by the system. Your drive is now known as C: (C drive).
Press "Esc" to return to the menu. Press "Esc" again to exit FDISK. You need to restart your
system for the changes to take effect. Leave boot disk in the drive.
8. When the system reboots, choose start without CD-ROM from the boot disk menu. While
booting from floppy disk you might get error message like "Invalid media type reading drive
C" this is OK for this stage as the hard disk is not formatted.
9. From A: command prompt type format c:
10. You will get a message saying "WARNING, ALL DATA ON NON- REMOVABLE DISK
DRIVE C: WILL BE LOST. Proceed with Format (Y/N)?”
11. Since you do not have any data in the new hard disk. Choose "Y". The format will proceed
showing a progress indicator. The time it takes to format a hard disk depends on the size

and speed of the drive. This could be around 5-30 minutes. Restart system after format is
complete.
12. Install an operating system.
Introduction (FLOPPY)
The ability to interchange programs and data between various compatible computers is a
fundamental requirement of almost every computer system. This kind of file-exchange
compatibility helped rocket IBM PC/XTs into everyday use and spur the personal computer
industry into the early 1980s. A standardized operating system, file structure, and recording media
also breathed life into the fledgling software industry. With the floppy disk, software developers
could finally distribute programs and data to a mass-market of compatible computer users. The
mechanism that allowed this quantum leap in compatibility is the floppy-disk drive.
A floppy-disk drive (FDD) is one of the least expensive and most reliable forms of mass storage ever
used in computer systems. Virtually every one of the millions of personal computers sold each year
incorporates at least one floppy drive. Most notebook and laptop computers also offer a single
floppy drive. Not only are FDDs useful for transferring files and data between various systems, but
the advantage of removable media—the floppy disk itself—make floppy drives an almost intuitive
backup system for data files. Although floppy drives have evolved through a number of iterations:
from 8" to 5.25" to 3.5", their basic components and operating principles have changed very little.
Magnetic-Storage Concepts
Magnetic-storage media has been attractive to computer designs for many years—long before the
personal computer had established itself in homes and offices. This popularity is primarily because
magnetic media is non-volatile. Unlike system RAM, no electrical energy is needed to maintain the
information once it is stored on magnetic media. Although electrical energy is used to read and
write magnetic data, magnetic fields do not change on their own, so data remains intact until “other
forces” act upon it (such as another floppy drive). It is this smooth, straightforward translation from
electricity to magnetism and back again that has made magnetic storage such a natural choice. To
understand how a floppy drive works and why it fails, you should have an understanding of
magnetic storage.
This part of the chapter shows you the basic storage concepts used for floppy drives.
Media
For the purposes of this book, media is the physical material that actually holds recorded
information. In a floppy disk, the media is a small Mylar disk coated on both sides with a precisely
formulated magnetic material, often referred to as the oxide layer. Every disk manufacturer uses
their own particular formula for magnetic coatings, but most coatings are based on a naturally
magnetic element (such as iron, nickel, or cobalt) that has been alloyed with non-magnetic
materials or rare earth. This magnetic material is then compounded with plastic, bonding
chemicals, and lubricant to form the actual disk media.
The fascinating aspect of these magnetic layers is that each and every particle media acts as a
microscopic magnet. Each magnetic particle can be aligned in one orientation or another under
the influence of an external magnetic field. If you have ever magnetized a screwdriver’s steel shaft
by running a permanent magnet along its length, you have already seen this magnetizing process
in action. For a floppy disk, microscopic points along the disk’s surfaces are magnetized in one
alignment or another by the precise forces applied by read/write (R/W) heads. The shifting of
alignment polarities would indicate a logic 1, but no change in polarity would indicate a logic 0
(you will see more about data recording and organization later in this chapter).

In analog recording (such as audio tapes), the magnetic field generated by read/write heads varies
in direct proportion to the signal being recorded. Such linear variations in field strength cause
varying amounts of magnetic particles to align as the media moves.
On the other hand, digital recordings, such as floppy disks, save binary 1s and 0s by applying
an overwhelming amount of field strength. Very strong magnetic fields saturate the media—that
is, so much field strength is applied that any further increase in field strength will not cause a
better alignment of magnetic particles at that point on the media. The advantage to operating in
saturation is that 1s and 0s are remarkably resistant to the degrading effects of noise that can
sometimes appear in analog magnetic recordings. Although the orientation of magnetic particles
on a disk’s media can be reversed by using an external magnetic field, particles tend to resist the
reversal of polarity. Coercivity is the strength with which magnetic particles resist change. More
highly coercive material has a greater resistance to change, so a stronger external field will be
needed to cause changes. High coercivity is generally considered to be desirable (up to a point)
because signals stand out much better against background noise and signals will resist
natural degradation because of age, temperature, and random magnetic influences. As you
might expect, a highly coercive media requires a more powerful field to record new information.
Another advantage of increased coercivity is greater information density for media. The greater
strength of each media particle allows more bits to be packed into less area. The move from 5.25"
to 3.5" floppy disks was possible largely because of a superior (more coercive) magnetic layer.
This coercivity principle also holds true for hard drives. To pack more information onto ever-
smaller platters, the media must be more coercive. Coercivity is a common magnetic
measurement with units in oersteds (pronounced “or-steds”). The coercivity of a typical floppy
disk can range anywhere from 300 to 750 oersteds. By comparison, hard-drive and magneto-
optical (MO) media usually offer coercivities up to 6000 oersteds or higher.
The main premise of magnetic storage is that it is static (once recorded, information is
retained without any electrical energy). Such stored information is presumed to last forever, but in
actuality, magnetic information begins to degrade as soon as it is recorded. A good magnetic
media will reliably remember (or retain) the alignment of its particles over a long period of time.
The ability of a media to retain its magnetic information is known as retentivity. Even the finest,
best-formulated floppy disks degrades eventually (although it could take many years before an
actual data error materializes).
Ultimately, the ideal answer to media degradation is to refresh (or write over) the data and sector
ID information. Data is re-written normally each time a file is saved, but sector IDs are only
written once when the disk is formatted. If a sector ID should fail, you will see the dreaded “Sector
Not Found” disk error and any data stored in the sector cann ot be accessed.
This failure mode also occurs in hard drives. Little can be done to ensure the integrity of floppy
disks, aside from maintaining one or more backups on freshly formatted disks.
However, some commercial software is available for restoring disk data (especially hard drives).
Troubleshooting Floppy Disk Systems

This section of the chapter is concerned with drive problems that cannot be corrected with
cleaning or mechanical adjustments. To perform some of the following tests, you should have a
known-good diskette that has been properly formatted. The disk might contain files, but be certain
that any such files are backed up properly on a hard drive or another floppy disk—if you can’t

afford to lose the files on a disk, don’t use the disk.
Repair vs. Replace

As with so many other PC assemblies, the price of floppy drives has dropped tremendously over
the last few years. Now that the price of a standard 8.89-cm drive is roughly that of two hours of
labor, most technicians ask whether it is better to simply replace a floppy drive outright, rather
than attempt a repair. Ultimately, the decision should depend on volume. Clearly, it makes little
sense for anyone to invest valuable time in repairing a single drive. If a large number of drives are
to be repaired, however, an enterprising technician who chooses to deal in floppy-drive service
can effectively provide rebuilt or refurbished drives to their customers.
Preliminary Testing
Proper testing is essential for any type of drive repair. Most drive-alignment packages, such as
DriveProbe by Accurite Technologies or AlignIt by Landmark Research, measure and display a
drive’s para meters. When floppy drive trouble occurs, running a diagnostic can help
determine whether the drive mechanics or electronics are at fault. Although you can swap a
drive symptomatically, thorough testing is an inexpensive means to verify your suspicions before
spending money to replace sub-assemblies.
Symptom 16-1. The floppy drive is completely dead The disk does not even initialize
when inserted. Begin troubleshooting by inspecting the diskette itself. When a 3.5” disk is
inserted into a drive, a mechanism should pull the disk’s metal shroud away and briefly rotate
the spindle motor to ensure positive engagement. Be sure that the disk is properly inserted into
the floppy-drive assembly. If the diskette does not enter and seat just right within the drive,
disk access will be impossible. Try several different diskettes to ensure that the test diskette is
not defective. It might be necessary to partially disassemble the computer to access the drive
and allow you to see the overall assembly. Free or adjust any jammed assemblies or linkages to
correct disk insertion. If you cannot get diskettes to insert properly, change the floppy drive. 580
Floppy Drives For cleaning and testing your floppy drive, check out AUTOTEST.ZIP, CHKDRV.ZIP,
CLEAN4.ZIP, and DFR.ZIP on the companion CDSymptom 16-2. The floppy drive rotates a disk,
but will not seek to the desired track This type of symptom generally suggests that the head-
positioning stepping motor is inhibited or defective, but all other floppy-drive functions are
working properly. Begin by disassembling your computer and removing the floppy drive.
Symptom 16-1. The floppy drive is completely dead

The disk does not even initialize when inserted. Begin troubleshooting by inspecting the
diskette itself. When a 3.5” disk is inserted into a drive, a mechanism should pull the disk’s
metal shroud away and briefly rotate the spindle motor to ensure positive engagement. Be sure
that the disk is properly inserted into the floppy-drive assembly. If the diskette does not enter
and seat just right within the drive, disk access will be impossible. Try several different
diskettes to ensure that the test diskette is not defective. It might be necessary to partially
disassemble the computer to access the drive and allow you to see the overall assembly. Free or
adjust any jammed assemblies or linkages to correct disk insertion. If you cannot get diskettes to
insert properly, change the floppy drive. 580 Floppy Drives For cleaning and testing your floppy
drive, check out AUTOTEST.ZIP, CHKDRV.ZIP, CLEAN4.ZIP, and DFR.ZIP on the companion
CDSymptom 16-2. The floppy drive rotates a disk, but will not seek to the desired track This
type of symptom generally suggests that the head-positioning stepping motor is inhibited or
defective, but all other floppy-drive functions are working properly. Begin by disassembling your
computer and removing the floppy drive.

Understanding CD Media
CDs are mass-produced by stamping the pattern of pits and lands onto a molded
polycarbonate disc (known as a substrate). This stamping process (much like the stamping used to
produce vinyl records) places the data on the disc. But the disc is not yet readable— several finish
steps must be performed to transform a clear plastic disc into viable, data- carrying media. The
clear polycarbonate disc is given a silvered (reflective) coating so that it will reflect laser light.
Silvering coats all parts of the disc side (pits and lands) equally. After silvering, the disc is coated
with a tough, scratch-resistant lacquer that seals the disc from the element especially oxygen,
which will oxidize and ruin the reflective coating). Finally, a label can be silk-screened onto the
finished disc before it is tested and packaged.
Recordable media appears very similar to “pressed” CD media, but with two important
variations. First, the polycarbonate CD-R substrate is pre-formed with a track spiral into which
data will be written during recording. The substrate is then coated with a greenish translucent
layer, and backed with a reflective layer of gold before protective lacquer is applied over the
gold. These translucent and gold layers allow the recorded pits and lands to be read back after
recording.
CARING FOR COMPACT DISCS

A compact disc is a remarkably reliable long-term storage media (conservative expectations place
the life estimates of a current CD at about 100 years. However, the longevity of a CD is affected
by its storage and handling—a faulty CD can cause file and data errors that you might otherwise
interpret as a defect in the drive itself. Here are some tips to help protect and maintain the disc
itself:
 Don’t bend the disc Polycarbonate is a forgiving material, but you risk cracking or
snapping (and thus ruining) the disc.
 Don’t heat the disk Remember, the disc is plastic. Leaving it by a heater or on the
dashboard of your car might cause it to melt.
 Don’t scratch the disc Laser wavelengths have a tendency to “look past” minor scratches,
but a major scratch can cause problems. Be especially careful of circular scratches (one that
follows the spiral track). A circular scratch can easily wipe out entire segments of data,
which would be unrecoverable.
 Don’t use chemicals on the disc Chemicals containing solvents, such as ammonia, benzene,
acetone, carbon tetrachloride, or chlorinated cleaners, can easily damage the disc’s plastic
surface.
Caring For Recordable CDs

As a rule, recordable CDs are as rugged and reliable as ordinary “pressed” CDs. Still, you should
exercise some rules in the careful handling and storage of recordable media:
 Maintain a comfortable environment Don’t expose recordable discs to sunlight or other
strong light for long periods of time. Also avoid high heat and humidity, which can
damage the physical disc. Always keep blank or recorded media in clean “jewel” cases for
best protection.
148 CD-ROM And CD-R Drives

Eventually, a buildup of excessive dust or fingerprints can interfere with the laser beam enough
to cause disc errors. If this happens, the disc can be cleaned easily using a dry, soft, lint-free cloth.
Hold the disc from its edges and wipe radially (from hub to edge). Do not wipe in a circular
motion. For stubborn stains, moisten the cloth in a bit of fresh isopropyl alcohol (do not use
water). Place the cleaned disc in a caddie or jewel case for transport and storage.

 Don’t write on the disc Don’t use alcohol-based pens to write on discs—the ink might
eventually eat through the top (lacquer) surface and damage your data. Also don’t use ball-
point or other sharp-tipped pens because you might scratch right through the lacquer
surface and damage the reflective gold layer (and ruin your data).
 Don’t use labels on the disc Don’t put labels on discs unless they are expressly designed
for recordable CDs. The glue might eat through the lacquer surface just as some inks do,
and/or the label might unbalance the disc and cause problems in reading it back or
recording subsequent sessions. Never try to remove a label—you might tear off the lacquer
and some of the reflecting surface.
 Watch your media quality Many different brands of recordable CD media are now
available. Quality varies from brand to brand (and even from batch to batch within a given
brand). If you have repeated problems that can be traced to the blank media you are using,
try using a different brand or even a different batch of the same brand.
 Don’t use Kodak Photo CDs Avoid the use of Kodak Photo CDs on everyday CD recorders.
Kodak Photo CDs are designed to be used only with Kodak Photo CD professional
w o r k s t a t i o n s . Although t h e d i s c s a r e i n e x p e n s i v e , t h e y h a v e a protection
bit that prevents them from being written on many CD recorders. When you attempt to
write these discs on the recorders, which recognize the protection bit, you will receive an
error message.
and some of the reflecting surface.
workstations. Although the discs are inexpensive, they have a protection bit that
prevents them from being written on many CD recorders. When you attempt to write these
discs on the recorders, which recognize the protection bit, you will receive
and some of the reflecting surface

workstations. Although the discs are inexpensive, they have a protection bit that prevents
them from being written on many CD recorders. When you attempt to write these discs on
the recorders, which recognize the protection bit, you will receive.
Creating a Bootable CD
With the acceptance of the “El Torito” standard for IDE CD-ROM drives, it is now possible to
boot your PC from a CD and load an operating system without a floppy or hard drive. The problem
is in obtaining bootable CDs to begin with. Many new computers are
Creating A Bootable CD 159

If no SCSI hard drives are in the system, the SCSI adapter’s on-board BIOS ROM can usually be
disabled. Being sold with a “system disc,” which can boot and load an operating system, but it is
rare for users to bring in their bootable CDs with the system when service is required. If you have
a CD-R drive and some readily available software tools, you can actually make a bootable CD
yourself. This part of the chapter covers the procedure used to create a bootable CD. Before you
can create a bootable CD, you will need a system (or access to a system) with the following
hardware and software tools:
 An “El Torito-capable” IDE or SCSI CD-ROM drive (with their standard IDE/SCSI interfaces).
 An “El Torito-capable” motherboard or SCSI adapter BIOS that supports booting from
bootable CDs.
 A hexadecimal editor utility. If you have Norton Utilities (version 8.0 or Windows 95), the
DISKEDIT.EXE utility is preferred.
 A bootable floppy disk (MS-DOS 6.2x or DOS 7.0 of Windows XP/7). You might also use a
bootable hard drive.
 A hard-disk drive with ample speed and space to hold an ISO 9660 image file for the
bootable CD. A SCSI disk is preferred, but a fast EIDE hard drive will also work. At least
650MB of free space should be on the HDD for the image file.
 A CD-R drive (almost always SCSI).
 Any CD-R software that can make an ISO 9660 image file. For example, you could use
Adaptec’s Easy CD Pro for Windows XP/7.
 A blank CD-R disc (you can’t make a multisession CD bootable).
A Keyboard Failure – Symptoms and Troubleshooting

Introduction
Keyboards are the classic input device. By manipulating a matrix of individual electrical switches,
commands, and instructions can be entered into the computer one character at a time. If you’ve
used computers or typewriters to any extent, you already have an excellent grasp of keyboard
handling. However, keyboards are not without their share of drawbacks and limitations. Although
today’s keyboard switches are not mechanically complex, there are a number of important moving
parts. When you multiply this number of moving parts times the 80 to 100+ keys on a typical
keyboard, you are faced with a substantial number of moving parts. A jam or failure in any one of
these many mechanical parts results in a keyboard problem. Most keyboard failures are hardly
catastrophic, but they can certainly be inconvenient. This chapter gives you the information
needed to understand and repair computer keyboards.

Keyboard Cleaning and Maintenance

Keyboards are perhaps the most abused part of any computer, yet they are often ignored until
serious problems develop. With some regular cleaning and maintenance, however, a keyboard can
easily last for the lifetime of a computer. This part of the chapter shows you some practical
techniques for keyboard service.
Correcting Problem Keyboards

Virtually all computer keyboards are open to the air. Over time, everyday dust, pet hair, air vapor,
cigar/cigarette smoke, and debris from hands and ordinary use will settle into the keyboard.
Eventually, accumulations of this foreign matter will cause keys to stick, or will prevent keys
from making proper contact (i.e., a key does not work every time it is pressed).
In either case, keyboard problems will develop. Fortunately, correcting a finicky keyboard is a
relatively straightforward process. Start by removing the key caps of the offending keys. Be
sure to note where each key is placed before starting your disassembly especially if the keyboard
is a DVORAK-type or unusual ergonomic design. To remove a key cap, bend an ordinary paper
clip into the shape of a narrow “U”, and bend-in small tabs at the tip of the “U” shape. Slip the
small tabs under the key cap and pull up gently. Do not struggle with the key cap. If a cap will
not come off, remove one or more adjacent caps. If there is a substantial accumulation of foreign
matter in the keyboard, you should consider removing all of the key caps for a thorough cleaning,
but this requires more time.
Flip the keyboard upside down and rap gently on the case. This will loosen and dislodge any
larger, heavier foreign matter, and allow it to fall out of the keyboard. A soft-bristled brush will
help loosen the debris. Return the keyboard to an upright position. Use a can of compressed air
(available from almost any electronics or photography store) to blow out the remainder of
foreign matter. Because this tends to blow dust and debris in all directions, you might wish to use
the compressed air outside or in an area away from your workbench. A medium- or firm-bristled
brush will help loosen any stubborn debris.
Now that the keyboard is cleaned out, squirt a small amount of good-quality electronics grade
contact cleaner (also available from almost any electronics store) into each key contact, and work
the key to distribute the cleaner evenly. Allow a few minutes for the contact cleaner to dry
completely and test the keyboard again before reinstalling the key caps. If the problems persist,
the keyboard might be damaged or the individual key(s) might simply be worn out beyond
recovery. In such an event, replace the keyboard outright.
Vacuum Cleaners and Keyboards

There is an ongoing debate as to the safety of vacuum cleaners with computer equipment.
The problem is static discharge. Many vacuum cleaners—especially small, inexpensive
models—use cheap plastic and synthetic fabrics in their construction. When a fast air flow passes
over those materials, a static charge is developed (just like combing your hair with a plastic comb).
If the charged vacuum touches the keyboard, a static discharge might have enough potential to
damage the keyboard-controller IC, or even travel back into the motherboard for more serious
damage.
670 Keyboards
Avoid removing the <Space Bar> unless it is absolutely necessary because the space bar is often
much more difficult to replace than ordinary keys. If you do choose to use a vacuum for keyboard
cleaning, take these two steps to prevent damage. First, be sure that the computer is powered

down and disconnect the keyboard from the computer before starting service. If a static discharge
does occur, the most that would be damaged is the keyboard itself. Second, use a vacuum cleaner
that is made for electronics work and certified as “static-safe.” Third, try working on an anti-static
mat which is properly grounded. This will tend to “bleed-off” static charges before they can enter
the keyboard or PC.
Replacing the <Space Bar>

Of all the keys on the keyboard, replacing the <Space Bar> is probably the most difficult.
The <Space Bar> is kept even by a metal wire that is inserted into slots on each leg of the plastic
bar key. However, you have to get the wire into the slots without pressing the wire.
If you push the wire down, you compress the wire and installation becomes impossible. As a
general rule, do not remove the <Space Bar> unless absolutely necessary. If you must remove
the <Space Bar>, remove several surrounding key caps also. This will let you get some tools
under the <Space Bar> wire later on. Once the <Space Bar> is re-inserted, you can easily
replace any of the other key caps.
Preventing the Problems

Keyboard problems do not happen suddenly (unless the keyboard is dropped or physically
abused). The accumulation of dust and debris is a slow process that can take months (sometimes
years) to produce serious, repetitive keyboard problems. By following a regimen of regular
cleaning, you can stop problems before they manifest themselves in your keyboard. In normal
office environments, keyboards should be cleaned once every four months. Keyboards in home
environments should be cleaned every two months. Keyboards in harsh or industrial
environments should be cleaned even more frequently.
Turn your keyboard upside-down and use a soft-bristled brush to clean between the keys. This
prevents debris that might already be on the keys from entering the keyboard. Next, run the long,
thin nozzle of your compressed air can between the key spaces to blow
Keyboard Cleaning and Maintenance 671

Anti-Static Keyboard Mat. Curtis, a division of Rolodex, Secaucus, NJ 07094 out any accumulations
of dust. Because compressed air will tend to blow dust in all directions, you might consider
“blowing down” the keyboard outside, or in an area away from your workbench. Instead of
compressed air, you might use a “static-safe” vacuum cleaner to remove dust and debris.
Dealing with Large Objects

Staples and paper clips pose a clear and present danger to keyboards. Although the odds of a
staple or paper clip finding its way into a keyboard are generally slight, foreign objects can jam
the key or short it out. If the keyboard is moved, the object can wind up in the keyboard’s circuitry
where serious damage can occur. When a foreign object falls into the keyboard, do not move the
keyboard. Power down the PC, then locate the object and find the nearest key. Use a paper clip
bent in a “U” shape with the ends of the “U” angled inward to remove the nearest key cap. Use
a pair of non-conductive tweezers or needle nose pliers to remove the object. Replace the key cap.
Dealing with Spills

Accidental spills are probably the most serious and dangerous keyboard problem. Coffee, soda
pop, and even tap water is highly conductive (even corrosive). Your keyboard will almost
certainly short circuit. Immediately shut down your computer (you might be able to exit your
application using a mouse) and disconnect the keyboard. The popular tactic is to simply let the
liquid dry. The problem with this tactic is that most liquids contain minerals and materials that are
corrosive to metals—your keyboard will never be the same unless the offending liquid is removed

before it dries. Also, liquids tend to turn any dust and smoke film into a sticky glue that will just
jam the keys when dry (not even considering the sticky sugar in most soda pop).
Disassemble the keyboard’s main housings and remove the keyboard printed-circuit assembly. As
quickly as you can after the incident, rinse the assembly thoroughly in clean, room-temperature,
de-mineralized water (available from any pharmacy for contact lens maintenance). You can clean
the plastic housings separately. Do not use tap water. Let the assembly drip dry in air. Do not
attempt to accelerate the drying process with a hair dryer or other such heat source. The de-
mineralized water should dry clean without mineral deposits or any sticky, conductive residue.
Once the assembly is dry, you might wish to squirt a small amount of good-quality, electronics-
grade contact cleaner into each key switch to ensure that no residue is on the contacts. Assuming
that the keyboard’s circuitry was not damaged by the initial spill, you should be able to
reassemble the keyboard and continue using it without problems. If the keyboard behaves
erratically (or not at all), replace the keyboard outright.
Disabling a Keyboard
Keyboards are an essential peripheral for all computers, except servers. In many cases,
network administrators would prefer to restrict direct access to the server, and prevent potential
tampering. Traditional PCs did not allow you disable the keyboard, but newer systems do offer
a CMOS setup entry that can enable or disable the keyboard. When the keyboard is disabled
through CMOS, the PC will boot without suffering “Keyboard not found” errors. Before starting
service on a server, it might be necessary to reattach and reenable the keyboard.
Keyboard Troubleshooting
Although their appearance might seem daunting at first glance, keyboard systems are not
terribly difficult to troubleshoot. This ease is primarily because of the keyboard’s modularity— if
all else fails, it’s a simple matter to replace a keyboard outright. The keyboard’s great weakness,
however, is its vulnerability to the elements. Spills, dust, and any other foreign matter that finds
its way between the key caps can easily ruin a keyboard. The keyboard’s PC board is also a likely
candidate to be damaged by impacts or other physical abuse. The following procedures address
many of the most troublesome keyboard problems.
Symptom 20-1. During initialization, an error message indicates that no keyboard is connected
Check your keyboard cable and see that it is inserted properly and completely into the PC
connector. Remember that you will have to reboot your system to clear this error message. Try
another compatible keyboard. If a new keyboard assembly works properly, there is probably a
wiring fault in the original keyboard. Given the very low price of new keyboards, it is usually most
economical to simply replace a defective keyboard. If you’re working on a file or network server,
see that the CMOS setup has enabled the keyboard.
If a known-good keyboard fails to function, try the original keyboard on a known-good PC to verify
that the keyboard itself is indeed operational. If so, your trouble now lies in the PC. Check the
wiring between the PC keyboard connector and the motherboard. Check the connector pins to be
sure that none of them have been bent or pushed in (resulting in a bad connection).
You might also want to check the soldering connections where the keyboard connector
attaches to the motherboard. Repeated removals and insertions of the keyboard might have
fatigued the solder joints. Reheat any defective solder joints. If the keyboard connector is intact, it
is likely that the keyboard controller IC (KBC) has failed. Try booting the PC with a POST board
installed (as covered in Chapter 15). A KBC failure will usually be indicated by the system stopping
on the appropriate POST code. You can attempt to replace the KBC or replace the motherboard

outright. If a POST board indicates a fault other than a KBC (such as the programmable interrupt
controller, which manages the KBC’s interrupt), you can attempt to replace that component, or
simply exchange the motherboard anyway.
Symptom 20-2. During initialization, an error message indicates that the keyboard lock is on In
many cases, the detection of a locked keyboard will halt system initialization. Be sure that the
keyboard lock switch is set completely to the “unlocked” position. If the switch is unlocked, but
the system detects it as locked. The switch might be defective. Turn off and unplug the system,
then use a multimeter to measure continuity across the lock switch (you might need to disconnect
the lock switch cable from the motherboard. In one position, the switch should measure as an
open circuit. In the opposing position, the switch should measure as a short circuit. If this is not the
case, the lock switch is probably bad and should be replaced. If the switch measures properly,
there is probably a logic fault on the motherboard (perhaps the keyboard controller). Your best
course is to try another motherboard.
Symptom 20-3. The keyboard is completely dead—no keys appear to function at all other
computer operations are normal. In this symptom, it is assumed that your computer initializes and
boots to its DOS prompt or other operating system as expected, but the keyboard does not
respond when touched. Keyboard-status LEDs might not be working properly. Your first step in
such a situation is to try a known-good keyboard in the system. Notice that you should reboot the
system when a keyboard is replaced.
If a known-good keyboard works, the fault is probably on the keyboard-interface IC. You can
attempt to replace this IC if you wish, but it is often most economical to simply replace the
keyboard outright.
If another keyboard fails to correct the problem, use a multimeter and check the +5-V supply
at the keyboard connector. If the +5-V signal is missing, the female connector might be broken.
Check the connector’s soldering junctions on the motherboard. Reheat any connectors that appear
fatigued or intermittent. Many motherboards also use a “pico-fuse” to protect the +5-V supply
feeding the keyboard connector.
If your +5 V is lost, locate and check the keyboard-connector fuse. If problems continue, replace
the motherboard.
Symptom 20-4. The keyboard is acting erratically One or more keys appear to work
intermittently, or it is inoperative. The computer operates normally and most keys work just fine,
but one or more keys do not respond when pressed. Extra force or repeated strike might be
needed to operate the key. This type of problem can usually range from a minor nuisance to a
major headache. Chances are that your key contacts are dirty. Sooner or later, dust and debris
works into all key switches. Electrical contacts eventually become coated and fail to make contact
reliably. This symptom is typical of older keyboards, or keyboards that have been in service for
prolonged periods of time. In many cases, you need only vacuum the keyboard and clean the
suspect contacts with a good-quality electronic contact cleaner.
Begin by disconnecting the keyboard. Use a static-safe, fine-tipped vacuum to remove any
accumulations of dust or debris that might have accumulated on the keyboard PC board. You
might wish to vacuum your keyboard regularly as preventive maintenance.
Once the keyboard is clean, gently remove the plastic key cap from the offending key(s). The use of
a keycap-removal tool is highly recommended, but you might also use a modified set of
blunt-ended tweezers with their flat ends (just the tips) bent inward. Grasp the key cap and pull
up evenly. You can expect the cap to slide off with little resistance. Do not rip the key cap off—

you stand a good chance of marring the cap and causing permanent key switch damage.
Use a can of good-quality electronics-grade contact cleaner and spray a little bit of cleaner into the
switch assembly. When spraying, attach the long, narrow tube to the spray nozzle—this directs
cleaner into the switch. Work the switch in and out to distribute the cleaner. Repeat this
maintenance once or twice to clean the switch thoroughly. Allow residual cleaner to dry
thoroughly before re-testing the keyboard. Never use harsh cleaners or solvents. Industrial-
strength chemicals can easily ruin plastic components and housings.
Reapply power and retest the system. If the suspect key(s) respond normally again, install the
removed key caps and return the system to service. As a preventive measure, you might wish to go
through the process of cleaning every key.
Membrane keys must be cleaned somewhat differently from mechanical keys. It is necessary
for you to remove the rubber or plastic boot to clean the PC board contacts. Depending on the
design of your particular membrane switch, this might not be an easy task.
A Mouse Failure – Symptoms and Troubleshooting

Introduction
As software packages evolved beyond simple menus and began to make use of the powerful
graphics systems coming into popular use during the mid-1980s (i.e., EGA and VGA graphics),
ever-larger amounts of information were presented in the display. Simple, multi-layered text
menus were aggressively replaced with striking graphic user interfaces (GUIs). System options
and selections were soon represented with symbols (graphic “buttons” or “icons”), instead of plain
text. Using a keyboard to maneuver through such visual software soon became a cumbersome (if
not impossible) chore.
Peripherals designers responded to this situation by developing a family of pointing devices.
Pointing devices use a combination of hardware and software to produce and control a graphical
screen cursor. A software device driver generates the cursor and reports its position. As the
pointing device is moved around, hardware signals from the pointing device are interpreted by the
device driver, which moves the cursor in a similar manner. By positioning the cursor over a
graphic symbol and activating one, two, or three of the buttons on the pointing device, it is
now possible to select (i.e., “click” or “doubleclick”) and manipulate (i.e., “drag”) options in the
application program instead of using a keyboard.
Three factors are needed to make pointing devices work: the physical signal-generating
hardware itself, a software driver (the “device driver”), and the application program must be
written to make use of the device driver. If any of these three items are missing, the pointing
device will not work. This chapter looks at the technology, maintenance, and troubleshooting of
two popular pointing devices: the mouse and the trackball.
The Mouse
Although the development of computer pointing devices has been ongoing since the early 1970s,
the first commercial pointing devices for IBM-compatible systems were widely introduced in
the early 1980s. The device was small enough to be held under your palm, and your fingertips
rested on its button(s). A small, thin cord connected the device to its host computer. The
device’s small size, long tail-like cord, and quick scurrying movements immediately earned it the
label of mouse. Every mouse needs at least one button. By pressing the button, you indicate
that a selection is being made at the current cursor location. Many mouse-compatible
software packages only use a single mouse button even to this day. A two-button mouse is more
popular (reflecting the endurance of the mouse design) because a second button can add more
flexibility to the mouse. For example, one button can work to “select” an item; the second

button can be used to “deselect” that item again or to activate other menus and options.
A few mouse designs use three buttons, but the third button is rarely supported by application
programs, aside from CAD or high-end art applications.
Mouse Gestures
The first mouse “gesture” is called clicking, which is little more than a single momentary press of
the left mouse button (on a two-button mouse). Clicking is the primary means of making a
selection in the particular application program. The second common gesture is doubleclicking,
which is simply two single clicks in immediate succession. A doubleclick also represents selection,
but its exact use depends upon the application program. The third type of mouse gesture is the
drag, where a graphical item can literally be moved around the display. Dragging is almost always
accomplished by pressing the left mouse button over the desired item, then (without releasing
the button) moving the item to its new location. When the item moved to its new position,
releasing the left mouse button will “drop” the item in that location.
It is interesting that pen gestures are interpreted by the computer’s operating system, but mouse
movements and button conditions are handled by the actual application program (such as a
word processor or game). Thus, the same mouse gestures can be made to represent different
actions, depending on which program is executing.
Cleaning a Pointing Device

Pointing devices are perhaps the simplest peripheral available for your computer. Although they
are reasonably forgiving to wear and tear, trackballs and mice can easily be fouled by dust, debris,
and foreign matter introduced from the ball. Contamination of this sort is almost never damaging,
but it can cause some maddening problems when using the pointing device. A regimen of routine
cleaning will help to prevent contamination problems.
You can use pre-fabricated mouse cleaning kits to speed the cleaning process. Turn your small-
computer off before performing any cleaning procedures:
 Remove the ball A ball is held in place by a retaining ring. For a mouse, the retaining
ring is on the bottom. For a trackball, the ring is in the top. Rotate the ring and remove it
gently—the ball will fall out. Place the retaining ring in a safe place.
 Clean the ball Wash the ball in warm, soapy water, then dry it thoroughly with a clean,
lint-free towel. Place the ball in a safe place.
 Blow out the dust Use a can of photography-grade compressed air to blow out any dust or
debris that has accumulated inside the pointing device. You might want to do this in an
open or outdoor area.
 Clean the rollers Notice that the mouse has three rollers: an X roller, a Y roller, and a small
pressure roller that keeps the ball pressed against the X and Y rollers. Use a cotton swab
dipped in isopropyl alcohol to clean off any layers of gunk that might have accumulated on
the rollers.
 Reassemble and test Allow everything to dry completely, then replace the ball and retaining
ring. Then test the pointing device to be sure that it is performing as expected.
Troubleshooting a Pointing Device

The weakest link in a pointing system is the peripheral pointing device itself. Few
peripheral devices are subjected to the wear and general abuse seen by trackballs or mice. They are

dropped, yanked, and moved constantly from place to place. Damage to the device’s PC board,
cabling, and connector is extremely common because of abuse. Accumulations of dust and
debris can easily work into the housing and create havoc with the rubber ball, tracks, and rollers.
Hardware conflicts and driver-configuration issues can also result in limitless problems. This part
of the chapter guides you through some simple troubleshooting techniques for your trackball and
mouse.
Mouse/Trackball Interfaces
From time to time, you might need to check the physical interface on a mouse or trackball.
At its core, the mouse uses a simple serial device—that is, it can pass serial data back and forth
with the host computer using communication protocols managed by the mouse driver. Three
types of mouse interfaces are common in the field: serial mice, bus mice, and PS/2 mice. This part
of the chapter highlights the pinouts for each interface type.
Serial mice A “serial” mouse connects to an existing RS232 serial port at the PC (usually COM1 or
COM2) using a standard DB-9F (9-pin female) or DB-25F (25-pin female) connector. Table
25-1 lists the pinout for a Logitech Type M, V, or W serial mouse connector. Bus mice in
many circumstances, it is not possible to use a serial mouse on an open COM port, and the PC is
not fitted with a PS/2 port. In this case, it might be necessary to use a “bus mouse,” which basically
involves using a stand-alone mouse-controller board (a bus mouse controller) and a mouse fitted
with a bus mouse connector—usually a male sub-miniature “D”-type connector or a miniature
male DIN (circular) connector. Be careful not to mistake the 9-pin DIN connector of a bus mouse
for the 6-pin circular connector of a PS/2 mouse.
Symptoms
Symptom 25-1. The mouse cursor appears, but it only moves erratically as the ball moves (if at
all) This symptom might occur in either the horizontal or vertical axis. This symptom suggests that
an intermittent condition is occurring somewhere in the pointing device. You should not have to
disassemble your computer during this procedure. Start your investigation by powering down the
computer. Check the device’s cable connector at the computer. Be sure that the connector is tight
and inserted properly. If you are in the habit of continually plugging and unplugging the
mouse/trackball, excessive wear can develop in the connector pins over time. If the connector
does not seem to fit tightly in the computer, try a new pointing device.
More likely, the device’s rollers are not turning, or are turning only intermittently. In most cases,
roller stall is caused by a dirty or damaged ball, or an accumulation of dirt blocking one or both
sensors. Clean the ball and blow out any dust or debris that might have settled into the
mouse/trackball housing. Refer to the preceding section on cleaning and attempt to clean the
device thoroughly. Never use harsh solvents or chemicals to clean the housings or ball.
If you have the mouse connected to a standard serial communication port (a COM port), you
should check that no other devices are using the same interrupt (IRQ). For example, COM1 and
COM3 use the same IRQ, while COM2 and COM4 share another IRQ. If you have a mouse on
COM1 and a modem on COM3, there will almost invariably be a hardware conflict. If possible,
switch the mouse (or conflicting device) to another port and try the system again.
Display System failure– Symptoms and Troubleshooting

Introduction
From their humble beginnings as basic monochrome text displays, the monitor has grown to
provide real-time photo-realistic images of unprecedented quality and color.

Monitors have allowed real-time video playback, stunning graphics, and information filled
illustrations to replace the generic “command line” user interface of just a few years ago. In effect,
monitors have become our “virtual window” into the modern computer.
With many millions of computers now in service, the economical maintenance and repair of
computer monitors represents a serious challenge to technicians and hobbyists alike. Fortunately,
the basic principles and operations of a computer monitor have changed very little since the days
of “terminal displays.” This chapter explains the basic concepts behind today’s computer monitors,
and provides a cross-section of troubleshooting procedures.
Pixels and Resolution

The picture element (or pixel) is the very smallest point that can be controlled on a CRT.
For monochrome displays, a pixel can simply be turned on or off. For a color display, a pixel could
assume any of a number of different colors. Pixels are combined in the form of an array (rows and
columns). The size of the pixel array defines the display’s resolution. Thus, resolution is the total
number of pixels in width by the total number of pixels in height. For example, a typical EGA
resolution is 640 pixels wide by 350 pixels high (a total of 224,000 pixels), and a typical VGA
resolution is 640 pixels wide by 480 pixels high (a total of 307,200 pixels). Typical Super VGA
(SVGA) resolution is 800 pixels wide by 600 pixels high. Resolution is important for computer
monitors because higher resolutions allow finer image detail.
Troubleshooting a CRT
In spite of its age, the Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) continues to play an important role in modern
computer monitors. There are some very important reasons for this longevity.
First, the CRT is relatively inexpensive to make, and it requires only simple circuitry. Second, the
CRT is extremely reliable. Typical working lives can extend to 10 years or longer. This
combination of low-cost, ease of operation, and long-term reliability has allowed the CRT to keep
pace with today’s personal computers. However, CRTs are certainly not perfect devices—the
delicate assemblies within the CRT used to generate and direct electron beams can eventually
open, short-circuit, or wear out. Like most classic vacuum tubes, CRT failures often occur slowly
over a period of weeks or months. This part of the chapter shows you the assemblies in a typical
color CRT, explains the faults that often occur, and offer some alternatives for dealing with CRT
problems.
Inside The CRT

Before reading about CRT problems, you should have an understanding of the color CRT itself.
Figure 27-11 shows a cross-section of a typical color CRT. To produce an image, electron beams
are generated, concentrated, and directed across a phosphor-coated face.
When electron beams (which are invisible) strike phosphor, light is liberated—this is the light you
see from the CRT. The color of light is determined by the particular phosphor chemistry. Notice
that there are three electron “guns” in the color CRT: a beam for red, a beam for green, and a beam
for blue.
Electron beams start with a heater wire. When energized, the heater becomes extremely hot (this is
the glow you see in the CRT neck). The heat from a heater warms its corresponding cathode, and a
barium tip on the cathode begins “boiling off” electrons. Ordinarily, electrons would simply
boil off into a big, clumsy cloud. But because electrons are negatively charged, they will be
attracted to any large positive potential. A moderate positive potential (+500 V or so) on the
screen grid starts accelerating the electrons down the CRT’s neck, while the control grid voltage

limits the electrons—effectively forcing the unruly cloud into a beam. Once electrons pass the
screen grid, a high positive potential on the CRT anode (anywhere from 15 to 30 kV) rockets the
electrons toward the CRT face.
The beam is still rather wide, so a focus grid applies another potential that concentrates the beam.
All this is very effective at generating narrow, high-velocity electron beams. But unless you
want to watch a big, bright spot in the middle of the CRT, there has to be some method of tracing
the beams around the CRT face. Beam tracing is accomplished through the use of deflection
magnets placed around the CRT neck—these magnets (actually electromagnets) are heavy coils
of wire where the CRT funnel meets the neck. Four electromagnets are in this “deflection
assembly”: two opposing electromagnets direct the beam in the vertical direction, and another
set of opposing magnets direct the beam in the horizontal direction.
Using electrical signals from the monitor’s raster circuits, an electron beam can trace across the
entire CRT face. Another element of the CRT that you should understand is called the shadow
mask. A shadow mask is basically a thin metal sheet with a series of small holes punched into it.
Some CRTs use a mask of rectangular openings referred to as an aperture grille or slot mask. Both
types of mask perform the same purpose—to ensure that electron beams strike only the color
phosphors of the intended pixel. This is a vital element of a color monitor.
In a monochrome monitor, the CRT is coated with a single homogeneous layer of phosphor— if
stray electrons strike nearby phosphor particles, a letter or line might simply appear to be a bit
out of focus. For a color CRT, however, stray electrons can cause incorrect colors to appear
on nearby pixels. Masks help to preserve color purity. Color purity is also aided by a purity
magnet, which helps correct fine beam positioning. A convergence magnet helps ensure that all
three electron beams meet (or converge) at the shadow mask.
Of course, grids, heaters, and cathodes are all located inside the glass CRT vessel. Electrical
connections are made through a circular arrangement of sealed pins in the neck. Table 27-2
explains the designations for each pin. Remember that the high-voltage anode is attached directly
to the CRT in the top right part of the glass funnel. Also remember that some CRT designs might
use additional pins.
Identifying CRT Problems

CRTs enjoy a long, reliable working life because there are really no moving parts—merely a set of
stationary metal elements. However, the arrangement of grids and cathodes are located in very
close proximity to one another. Physical shocks can dislodge elements and cause sudden short
circuits. Eventually, regular use will alter the physical dimensions of cathodes and grids (resulting
in the development of a slower, more gradual short-circuit).
The stress of regular wear can also cause open circuits in the heater, cathode, or grid.
When considering a CRT replacement, you should remember that the CRT is typically the most
expensive part of the monitor. For larger monitors, the CRT becomes an even larger percentage of
the monitor’s overall cost. In many cases, the cost for a replacement CRT approaches the original
cost of the entire monitor. As a consequence, you should carefully evaluate the economics of
replacing the CRT versus buying a new monitor outright.
Symptom 27-1. Heater opens in the CRT

Each time the heater runs, it expands. When the CRT turns off, the heater cools and contracts
again. This regular thermal expansion and contraction might eventually fatigue the heater and
cause it to open. You will see this as a complete loss of the corresponding color. Because heaters

are all tied together electrically, there is no way to measure a particular heater directly, but you
might see only two glowing heaters in the CRT neck, instead of three. An open heater cannot be
recovered, and the only available alternative is to replace the CRT itself.
Symptom 27-2. Heater shorts to a cathode in the CRT

This is not as strange as it might seem at first. To heat a cathode effectively, the heater must be
extremely close to the cathode—especially to the barium element that actually liberates the
electrons.
Over time, the heater might develop accumulations of corrosion, which might eventually cause
the heater to contact the cathode. In theory, this should never happen because the inert low-
pressure gasses inside the CRT should prevent this. But in actuality, some small amount of oxygen
will still be present in the CRT, and oxidation might occur. A shorted heater will cause the electron
gun to fire at full power—in effect, the electron gun will be stuck “on.” The image will appear
saturated with the color of the defective electron gun.
For example, if the blue heater shorts to the cathode, the image will appear to be saturated with
blue. You will also likely see visible retrace lines in the image. You can verify this problem by
removing all power from the monitor, removing the video drive board from the CRT’s neck, and
measuring the resistance between a heater wire and the suspect cathode. For the CRT pinout
listed in Table 27-2, you could check the blue cathode by measuring resistance between the KB
and H1 (or H2) pins. Ideally, an infinite resistance should be between the heaters and cathodes. If
there is measurable resistance (or a direct short- circuit), you have found the problem. If the
resistance measures infinity, as expected, you might have a defect on the video drive board.
Symptom 27-3. Cathode shorts to the control grid in the CRT

A cathode can also short- circuit to the control grid. Often, corrosion flakes off the cathode and
contacts the control grid. When this happens, the control grid loses its effectiveness, and the
corresponding color will appear saturated. This symptom will appear very much like a heater
short. Fortunately, you should be able to verify this problem with your meter by measuring
resistance between the control grid and the suspect cathode. Ideally, an infinite resistance should
be between the control grid and all cathodes. If you read a measurable resistance (or a direct short-
circuit), chances are good that you’re facing a cathode-to-control grid short.
Symptom 27-4. One or more colors appear weak

This is a common symptom in many older CRTs. Over time, the barium emitter in your cathodes
will wear out or develop a layer of ions (referred to as cathode poisoning), which inhibit the release
of electrons.
In either case, the afflicted cathode will lose efficiency, resulting in weakened screen colors.
Typically, you might expect all three cathodes to degrade evenly over time—and they will—but
by the time the problem becomes serious enough for service, you will usually notice one
color weaker than the others. Try increasing the gain of the afflicted signal on the video drive
board. If the cathode is indeed afflicted, increasing signal gain should not have a substantial effect
on the color brightness, and you should consider replacing the CRT.
Symptom 27-5. CRT phosphors appear aged or worn Phosphors are specially formulated chemicals
that glow in a particular color when excited by a high-energy electron beam. Typically,
phosphors will last for the lifetime of the monitor, but age and normal use will eventually reduce
the sensitivity of the phosphors—for old CRTs, you might see this as dull, low-contrast colors.
Perhaps a more dramatic problem occurs with “phosphor burn,” which occurs when a monitor is

left on displaying the same image for a very long period of time. If you turn the monitor off, you
can see the latent image burned onto the CRT as a dark shadow. In both cases, there is no way to
rejuvenate phosphors, so the CRT will have to be replaced. You can advise customers to prolong
the life of their CRT by keeping the brightness at a minimum and using a screen-saver utility, if
an image will sit unchanging for a long time.
Symptom 27-6. The CRT suffers from bad cutoff (a.k.a. bad gamma) On a CRT, color linearity is
a function of the cathode’s ability to adjust the level of electron emission—in other words, beam
intensity must be linear across the entire range of the
924 Monitor Troubleshooting

Video signal (e.g., 0 to 20 V or 0 to 50 V). As cathodes age, however, they tend to become non-
linear. When this happens, images tend to be too “black and white,” rather than display a smooth
transition of colors. Technicians often refer to this as a “gassy” CRT, which is actually a CRT
gamma problem. In addition to cathode wear, control grid failure can adversely affect beam
intensity. Symptom 27-7. The control grid in the CRT is open The control grid is used to limit the
beam intensity produced by a cathode by applying a potential on the grid. Occasionally, you will
find that a control grid might open. In that case, there is no longer a potential available to
control the beam intensity, and the beam will fire at full intensity. At first glance, you might think
this is a cathode-to-control grid short or a heater-to-cathode short. But if you can’t find a short
with your multimeter, the control grid is probably open, and the CRT will have to be replaced.
Symptom 27-8. The CRT screen grid is open The screen grid plays an important role in image
brightness by accelerating the electron beam toward the CRT phosphors. If the screen grid
opens, no potential will be available to begin accelerating the beam. This will result in a very dark
image—even with the screen voltage at maximum. You might think this is a control-to-screen grid
short, but if you can’t find the short with your multimeter, the screen grid is probably open, and
the CRT will have to be replaced.
Symptom 27-9. The CRT focus grid is open A focus grid assembly concentrates electron beams
into narrow pinpoints by the time the beam reaches the shadow mask.
Typically, a focus control is located around the flyback transformer. If the focus grid fails, the
image will appear highly distorted, and the focus adjustment will have no effect. When a focus grid
fails, the entire CRT will have to be replaced.
Symptom 27-10. The control grid shorts to the screen grid in the CRT The same flakes of oxidation
that can short a cathode to the control grid can also short the control grid to the screen grid. The
screen grid starts accelerating the electrons toward the CRT face. If the screen grid is shorted, it
will reduce the energy imparted to the electrons— in effect, a shorted screen grid will
significantly reduce the overall image brightness (even with the brightness at maximum). In
extreme cases, the image might disappear entirely. You can measure the screen grid voltage at
G2, which typically runs from 250 to 750 V in normal operation. If the voltage is low (even with
the screen grid control at maximum), power down the monitor, remove the video drive board
from the monitor’s neck, restart the monitor, and measure the screen voltage again. If the screen
voltage returns to normal, you can be confident that the screen grid is shorted. If screen voltage
remains low, you might have a fault in the screen voltage circuit. You can also verify a short
between the control and screen grids by powering down the monitor and measuring resistance
between the G1 and G2 pins on the CRT neck. Ideally, it should be an infinite resistance.

Troubleshooting a Color Monitor

Any chapter about monitor troubleshooting must start with a reminder of the dangers
involved. Computer monitors use very high voltages for proper operation. Potentially lethal shock
hazards exist within the monitor assembly—both from ordinary ac line voltage, as well as from
the CRT anode voltage developed by the flyback transformer. You must use extreme caution
whenever a monitor’s outer housings are removed. If you are uncomfortable with the idea of
working around high voltages, defer your troubleshooting to an experienced technician.
Symptom 27-35. The image appears to flip or scroll vertically A synchronization problem is in
your vertical raster circuit. Begin by checking the video cable to be sure that it is installed and
connected securely. Cables that behave intermittently (or that appear frayed or nicked) should be
replaced. If the cable is intact, suspect that the problem is in your vertical circuit. If a vertical-sync
(or “vertical hold”) adjustment is on the raster board, adjust it in small increments until the image
snaps back into sync. If no such adjustment is on your particular monitor, try resoldering all of
the connections in the vertical-processing circuit. If the problem persists, replace the vertical
oscillator IC or replace the entire raster board.
Symptom 27-36. The image appears to shake or oscillate in size This might occur in bursts, but it
typically occurs constantly. In most cases, this is caused by a fault in the power supply—
usually the 135-V (B+) output. Try measuring your power-supply outputs with an oscilloscope and
see if an output is varying along with the screen-size changes. If you locate such an output, the
filtering portion of that output might be malfunctioning.
Track the output back into the supply and replace any defective components. If you are unable
to isolate a faulty component, replace the power supply. If the power supply is integrated onto the
raster board, you might have to replace the raster board entirely.
If the outputs from your power supply appear to be stable, you should suspect that a weak
capacitor is in your horizontal circuit. Try resoldering the FBT, HOT, and other horizontal circuit
components to eliminate the possibility of a soldering problem. If the problem remains, you will
have to systematically replace the capacitors in the horizontal circuit. If you do not have the time
or inclination to replace individual components, replace the raster board outright.
Here’s an unusual problem. The shaking you see might be related to a problem in the degaussing
coil located around the CRT funnel. Ordinarily, the degaussing coil should unleash the most of its
energy in the initial moments after monitor power is turned on. Thermistors (or posistors) in
the power supply quickly diminish coil voltage—effectively cutting off the degaussing coil’s
operation. A fault in the degaussing-coil circuit (in the power supply) might continue to allow
enough power to the coil to affect the image’s stability.
Try disconnecting the degaussing coil. If the problem remains, the degaussing coil is probably
operating properly. If the problem disappears, a fault is in the degaussing-coil circuit.
Symptom 27-27. The fine detail of high-resolution graphic images appears a bit fuzzy At best, this
kind of symptom might not appear noticeable without careful inspection, but it might signal a
serious problem in the video amplifier circuit.
High resolutions demand high bandwidth—a video amplifier must respond quickly to the rapid
variations between pixels. If a weakness in the video amplifier(s) occurs, it can limit bandwidth
and degrade video performance at high resolutions. The problem will likely disappear at lower
resolutions.
The particular problem with this symptom is that it is almost impossible to isolate a defective

component—the video amplifier board is working. As a result, your best course of action is to
first check all connectors for secure installation. Nicked or frayed video cables can also
contribute to the problem. If the problem remains, replace the video amplifier board.
Symptom 27-28. The display changes color, flickers, or cuts out when the video cable is moved
Check the video cable’s connection to the video adapter at the PC—a loose connection will almost
certainly result in such intermittent problems. If the connection is secure, an intermittent
connection is in the video cable. Before replacing the cable, check its connections within the
monitor itself. If connections are intact, replace the intermittent video cable outright. Do not
bother cutting or splicing the cable—any breaks in the signal shielding will cause crosstalk, which
will result in color bleeding.
Symptom 27-29. The image expands in the horizontal direction when the monitor gets warm
One or more components in the horizontal retrace circuit are weak—and changing value a bit
once the monitor gets warm. Turn off and unplug the monitor. You should inspect any capacitors
located around the Horizontal Output Transistor (HOT). The problem is that thermal problems,
such as this, can be extremely difficult to isolate because you can’t measure capacitor values while
the monitor is running; after the monitor is turned off, the parts will cool too quickly to catch a
thermal problem.
It is often most effective to simply replace several of the key capacitors around the HOT outright.
If you don’t want to bother with individual components, replace the raster board.
Symptom 27-30. The image shrinks in the horizontal direction when the monitor gets warm This is
another thermal-related problem that indicates either a weakness in one or more components
or a mild soldering-related problem. Turn off and unplug the monitor. Start by checking for a poor
solder connection—especially around the horizontal deflection yoke wiring, the Horizontal
Output Transistor (HOT), and the flyback transformer. If nothing appears obvious, consider
resoldering all of the components in the HOT area of the raster board. If problems continue,
suspect that a failure is in the HOT itself. Semiconductors rarely become marginal—they either
work or they don’t. Still, semiconductor junctions can become unstable when temperatures
change, and result in circuit characteristic changes. You could also try replacing the HOT
outright. It is also possible that one or more mid- range power-supply outputs (i.e., 12 or 20 V) are
sagging when the monitor warms up. Use a voltmeter and measure the outputs from your power
supply. If the 12- or 20-V outputs appear to drop a little once the monitor has been running for a
bit, you should troubleshoot the power supply.
934 Monitor Troubleshooting

Symptom 27-31. High-voltage fails after the monitor is warm A large number of possible causes
are behind this problem, but no matter what permutation you find, you will likely be dealing with
soldering problems or thermal-related failures. Turn off and unplug the monitor. Inspect the
HOT’s heatsink assembly—a bad solder connection might be on the heatsink ground. An open
solder connection might be on one or more of the flyback transformer pins. If you cannot locate a
faulty soldering connection, you might simply choose to re-solder all of the connections in the
flyback area.
If the problem persists, suspect that either your HOT or flyback transformer is failing under load
(after the monitor warms up). One possible means of isolating the problem is to measure
pulses from the HOT output with your oscilloscope. If the pulses stop at the same time your high-
voltage fails, you can suspect that the problem is with your HOT or other horizontal components.
Try replacing the HOT. If high-voltage fails but the HOT pulses remain, your flyback transformer has

likely failed. Replace the flyback transformer.
If you do not have an oscilloscope, try replacing the HOT first because that is the least-
expensive part, then replace the flyback transformer, if necessary.
In the unlikely event that both a new HOT and flyback transformer do not correct the problem,
carefully inspect the capacitors in the HOT circuit. One or more might be failing. Unfortunately, it
is very difficult to identify a marginal capacitor (especially one that is suffering from a thermal
failure). You might try replacing the major capacitors in the HOT circuit or replace the raster board
entirely.
Symptom 27-32. The image blooms intermittently The amount of high voltage driving the CRT is
varying intermittently. Because high voltage is related to the HOT circuit and flyback transformer,
concentrate your search in those two areas of the raster board.
Examine the soldering of your HOT and FBT connections—especially the ground connections, if
you can identify them. You might try resoldering all of the connections in those areas (remember
to turn off and unplug the monitor before soldering). A ground problem might also be on the video
amplifier board, which allows all three color signals to vary in amplitude. If this happens, the
overall brightness of the image changes, and the image might grow or shrink a bit in response.
Try resoldering connections on the video amplifier board.
If the problem remains (even after soldering), your FBT might be failing—probably because
of an age-related internal short. High-end test equipment, such as Sencore’s monitor test
station provides the instrumentation to test a flyback transformer. If you do not have access to such
dedicated test equipment, however, try replacing the FBT assembly.
If you do not have the time or inclination to deal with component replacement, replace the raster
board outright. In the unlikely event that your problem persists, suspect a fault in the CRT itself. If
you have access to a CRT tester/rejuvenator, you can check the CRT’s operation.
Some weaknesses in the CRT might be corrected (at least temporarily) by rejuvenation. If the fault
cannot be corrected, you might have to replace the CRT.
Symptom 27-33. The image appears out of focus Before suspecting a component failure, try
adjusting the focus control. In most cases, the focus control is located adjacent to the flyback
transformer. Remember that the focus control should be adjusted with brightness and contrast set
to optimum values—excessively bright images might lose focus naturally. If the focus control is
unable to restore a proper image, check the CRT focus voltage. You can find the focus voltage off
a flyback transformer tap. If the focus voltage is low (often combined with a dim image), you might
have a failing FBT.
It is possible to test the FBT if you have the specialized test instrumentation; otherwise, you
should just replace the FBT outright. If you lack the time or inclination to replace the FBT, you can
simply replace the raster board.
If a new FBT does not resolve your focus problem, suspect that a fault is in the CRT— probably in
the focus grid. You can use a CRT tester/rejuvenator to examine the CRT, and it might be possible
to restore normal operation (at least temporarily). If you do not have such equipment, you will
simply have to try a new CRT. Symptom 27-34. The image appears to flip or scroll horizontally A
synchronization problem is in your horizontal raster circuit. Begin by checking the video cable to
be sure that it is installed and connected securely. Cables that behave intermittently (or that

appear frayed or nicked) should be replaced. If the cable is intact, suspect a problem in your
horizontal circuit. If a horizontal- sync (or “horizontal hold”) adjustment is on the raster board,
adjust it in small increments until the image snaps back into sync. If no such adjustment is on
your particular monitor, try resoldering all of the connections in the horizontal-processing
circuit. If the problem persists, replace the horizontal oscillator IC or replace the entire raster
board.
If the monitor appears to be totally dead, then make sure that the monitor is plugged in and turned
on, and see if it has power.
Check for a power-on indicator on the front of the monitor, and check to see if the monitor warms
up.
Select the appropriate general failure troubleshooting procedure outlined below, based on
whether or not the monitor appears to have power.
Symptom Remedy
The monitor Make sure that the electrical outlet is working, by trying another
appears not to be appliance in the socket and seeing if it works. If the socket does not
working at all. work, you will need to consult an electrician to have it fixed.
Check any power protection devices that the monitor might be plugged
There are no
into, to ensure that they are working. Troubleshoot any problems here.
indications that Make sure the power cable is connected securely and is undamaged. Try
the monitor has replacing the cable with another one.
any power If the monitor has a switch to select between 110 volt and
220 volt operation, make sure it is set to the correct value. This switch
will normally be on the outside of the monitor at the back, near where the
power cord connects.
The display The fan on the graphics card may need to be cleaned or it may be failing.

makes a squealing The fan on most cards is not replaceable.

or other loud
noise
The screen is Check that the monitor is turned on. Most have a light to indicate
black and p o w e r a n d a n o t h e r t o i n d i c a t e t h a t i t i s receiving a
completely blank signal from the PC.
Check that the video cable's connectors are securely and properly
fastened to the graphics card and on some models to the monitor.
Check that no pins are bent or missing from the connector.
Unplug the PC and make sure the graphics card is securely and properly
installed into its slot.
The display The resolution is not set correctly in Windows. Go into the display
doesn't fit settings in the Control Panel, and change the resolution settings.
properly on my The monitor may have controls that allow you to adjust the size and
monitor position of the display. Use the monitor's controls to move or resize the
OR display.
The text or You may need to install a different or updated driver for your graphics
resolution is the card and/or monitor.
wrong size
The display Reset the display's refresh rate in the Windows Control Panel. Do not use
seems to flicker a refresh rate that is not supported by your monitor or damage may
result.
The colors don't The color depth is not set correctly in Windows. Go into the display
look right settings in the Control Panel, and change the resolution settings.
You may need to install a different or updated driver for your graphics
The display The color depth and/or resolution is not set correctly in Windows. Go
is into the display settings in the Control Panel, and change the resolution
completely settings.
unreadable
Replacing a Graphics card

Once the graphics card is suspected to be defective, it is always better to replace the card with an
identical one. The procedure for replacing a graphics card is given below:
1. Unplug the PC
2. Remove the cover
3. Identify the slot where the graphics card is mounted. In most cases it will the larger
(AGP) slot closest to the CPU.
4. Replace the graphics card as shown in the figure. Align the card over the slot with the
video connection facing toward the outside of the PC
5. Set the card into the slot and press down firmly. Make sure the mounting bracket is
properly aligned with any slot that might be present. It may be necessary to gently rock the
card from end to end to secure it in the slot. The gold contacts at the bottom of the card
should nearly or completely disappear into the slot. The card should be level and straight.

6. Secure the graphics adapter mounting bracket to the case with a screw as shown in the
figure
7. Replace the cover

8. Connect the video connector from your monitor to the connector on the graphics card
9. Plug in the PC
Follow the manufacturer's instructions for installing the software. Windows will detect the
graphics adapter and start the hardware wizard; simply follow the prompts.
After everything is working, you can go back into the Windows Control Panel and reset the
resolution and refresh as recommended by the manufacturer of the monitor.
Windows Display Properties
Microsoft Windows has a built in feature allowing you a wide range of control over the visual
display. This feature is called the Display Properties Panel. Once you have learned how to manage
the Display Properties Panel, you will be able to shrink or enlarge text, modify system colors
and fonts, or even change the resolution of the display itself. Let's start by familiarizing ourselves
with the ways to actually summon up the panel.
Opening the Display Properties Panel

There are two basic ways to open the panel. The first is to click on the start button, then select
Settings > Control Panel. When the control panel window opens on the screen, find and then

double-click the "Display" button.

The second, faster way to open the panel is to right mouse click on any empty portion of the
desktop and then select "Properties" from the drop-down menu.
The Layout of the Panel

When you have successfully opened the display properties panel, you should see a variety of
options on the panel and six "tabs" across the top: background, screen saver, appearance, effects,
web & settings. (for windows ME. The number and name of the tabs may vary slightly with
other versions of windows.)
Background
In the background tab, which is the default when you first open the panel, you have the ability to
set a background image or pattern for the windows desktop. You may select an image from the list
on the left or, if you have a favorite image which does not appear on the list, you may select an
image from anywhere else in storage by using the "browse" feature. Once you have selected an
image, you can use the pull-down menu on the right to select whether you would prefer for it to
float in the center of the display, be stretched so as to fill the entire display, or be tiled to cover the
display area. If you would rather have your desktop background be a solid color than an image,
select "none" from the list. You will soon learn how to change the color.

Screen Saver
This tab allows you to select what your computer will do when it has been idle for a certain
amount of time. You can choose from the list of installed screensavers in the pull-down menu.
Each screensaver has its own settings menu which you should feel free to explore and experiment
with, but generally you do not need to change the settings.
The preview button will allow you to see how your screen saver looks without waiting for it to
turn on. The second line of controls for the screen saver allow you to set the wait time before the
screen saver is activated and allows you to specify whether or not a password will be required
to re-activate the computer from screen saver mode. Chances are the "password protected"

checkbox will be empty when you open the panel, if you check it then the button labeled
"Change" will no longer be grayed out and can be used to set the password. For most computers,
screen saver passwords are not necessary unless security is a large concern. If you do choose to
set a screen saver password, it is recommended that you choose a reasonably long wait period
(15 minutes or more). If you have a monitor with energy saving features then there will be a
second section of the screen saver tab with options specific to your monitor. Generally, there is
no reason to change these options.
Appearance
The appearance tab provides significant control for Windows users looking for large text, high
contrast or other accessibility fixes. In this tab you can choose from a large number of pre-defined
schemes as well as changing the size and color of many windows features individually. The top
portion of the panel consists of a mock-display (preview) showing the way in which Windows will
appear if the changes are applied.
The first actual option on this tab is the pull-down menu labeled "schemes". There are many,
many schemes to choose from, but let's focus on a few that are particularly useful from an
accessibility perspective. First, you will notice near the top of the list several different high
contrast color schemes, all available in normal, large and extra-large size. Also, if you need large
font and buttons but prefer the standard Windows colors, you will find a set of schemes at the
bottom of the list called Windows Standard in normal, large and extra-large. Once you have
chosen a base scheme (or opted to continue using the current one), you can tweak each
individual feature of the windows display using the controls below the "schemes" menu.
Immediately below the "schemes" drop-down menu is another menu labeled "item". In this menu
you will find all of the customizable appearance features of the windows desktop.
If you select an item, you will notice that some of the other menus and options will become
available. These are the individual features that can be modified for each desktop item: Size,
color, color 2, font, font size, font color and bold/italic.

Each of these features can be modified through a drop-down menu, by typing in a new value,
or by clicking on the color box to open the Windows color picker.
Changes will be reflected as you make them in the preview window at the top of the panel and can
always be reverted to the original settings by clicking the "cancel" button. You can tweak the
items as much as you want, and when you are content with them, simply click the "apply" button.
If you are particularly fond of the scheme you have created, or if you want to keep this scheme
available but switch back and forth with one or more others, you can save your work by
clicking the "save as" button immediately next to the "schemes" pull-down menu.
You will be prompted to give your new scheme a name and then, after you have saved it, it will
appear in the "schemes" pull-down menu alongside all the pre-defined ones. If you ever feel
that you've gotten in over your head in the Appearance tab, remember that you can always call
up the "Windows Standard" scheme to get out of trouble.
Effects
Of the options in the Effects tab, there is only one that are of particular importance. In the lower
portion of the panel there will be several checkboxes. The third should say "Use large icons".
Checking this box will enlarge the icons on the Windows desktop. Note that, if you feel so inclined,
you can create a very similar effect by modifying the “icon” item in the Appearance tab.
Web
The Web tab contains allows you to install and manage "active desktop" items, such as animated
backgrounds and real-time stock tickers. The use of these features is beyond the scope of this
tutorial, but keep in mind that active desktop items are rarely accessible.

Settings
The Settings tab allows you to change features related directly to the performance of the actual
monitor and video card hardware. The top portion of the panel should be a preview window.
Immediately below the preview window there will be a short blurb describing what particular
monitor and video card is being used. Below that, there will be a "colors" pull-down menu, a
"screen area" slide bar and an "advanced" button. The only option in the settings tab of particular
use from an accessibility standpoint is the "screen area" option, often referred to as the
resolution. Lowering the screen area will cause the screen to be broken up into fewer
individual pixels. This has the result of making every feature, from text to buttons to menus to
icons, appear larger. The side effect is that to those accustomed to using a higher resolution, the
display will appear blocky. Most modern computers use resolutions of 1024x768 or 1200x1024,
however it is common for people with vision impairments to prefer to use a computer running at
640x480 or 800x600. In order to change the resolution, simply slide to pointer in the "screen area"
option box until the desired resolution is displayed and then click the apply button to test the
resolution. A dialog box will appear explaining that the screen will now go dark and attempt to
resize itself. The dialog box will further explain that if the resolution change is unsuccessful then
the original resolution will be restored after 15 seconds. You should press to "ok" button to
dismiss the dialog box. If the resolution change is successful then you can press either "ok" to keep
the new resolution or "cancel" to revert to your original resolution(note that even if the change is
successful, the original resolution will return after fifteen seconds if you click neither button). If
the change is unsuccessful and the display either remains dark or appears garbled, simply sit
tight and wait for fifteen seconds. As long as you do not press any buttons on the keyboard or
mouse the original display settings will return.

Sound Failure Symptoms

Sound is an area of the PC that has been largely overlooked in early systems. Aside from a simple,
oscillator-driven speaker, the early PCs were mute. Driven largely by the demand for better PC
games, designers developed stand-alone sound boards that could read sound data recorded in
separate files, then reconstruct those files into basic sound, music, and speech. Since the
beginning of the decade, those early sound boards have blossomed into an array of powerful,
high-fidelity sound products, capable of duplicating voice, orchestral soundtracks, and real-life
sounds with uncanny realism. Not only have sound products helped the game industry to mature,
but they have been instrumental in the development of multimedia technology (the integration of
sound and picture), as well as Internet Web phones and other communication tools. This
chapter is intended to explain the essential ideas and operations of a contemporary sound board,
and show you how to isolate a defective sound board when problems arise.
Understanding Sound Boards

Before you attempt to troubleshoot a problem with a sound board, you should have an
understanding of how the board works and what it must accomplish. This type of background
helps you when recommending a sound board to a customer or choosing a compatible card as
a replacement. If you already have a strong background in digital sound concepts and software,
feel free to skip directly to the troubleshooting portion of this chapter.
The Recording Process

All sound starts as pressure variations traveling through the air. Sound can come from almost
anywhere—a barking dog, a laughing child, a fire engine’s siren, a person speaking. You get the
idea. The process of recording sound to a hard drive requires sound to be carried through
several manipulations. First, sound must be translated from pressure variations in the air to
analog electrical signals.
This is accomplished by a microphone. These analog signals are amplified by the sound

card, then digitized (converted to a series of representative digital words each taken at a fixed
time interval). The resulting stream of data is processed and organized through the use of
software, which places the data (as well as any overhead or housekeeping data) into a standard
file format. The file is saved to the drive of choice (typically, a hard drive).
The Playback Process

Simply speaking, the playback process is virtually the reverse of recording. A software
application opens a sound file on the hard drive, then passes the digital data back to the sound
card. Data is translated back into equivalent analog levels—ideally, the reconstructed shape of the
analog signal closely mimics the original digitized signal. The analog signal is amplified, then
passed to a speaker. If the sound was recorded in stereo, the data is divided into two channels that
are separately converted back to analog signals, amplified, and sent to their corresponding
speakers. Speakers convert the analog signal back into traveling pressure waves that you can
hear.
The Concept of “Sampling”

To appreciate the intricacies of a sound card’s operation, you must understand the concept of
digitization (otherwise known as sampling). In principle, sampling is a very straightforward
concept; an analog signal is measured periodically, and its voltage at each point.
Time is converted to a digital number. The device that performs this conversion is known as an
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC). It sounds simple enough in principle, but it has some important
wrinkles.
The problem with sampling is that a digitizer circuit has to capture enough points of an analog
waveform to reproduce it faithfully. The example illustrates the importance of sampling rate.
Waveforms A and B represent the same original signal. Waveform A is sampled at a relatively
slow rate—only a few samples are taken. The problem comes when the signal is reconstructed
with a Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC). As you see, there are not enough sample points to
reconstruct the original signal. As a result, some of the information in the original signal is lost.
This form of distortion is known as aliasing.
Waveform B is the same signal, but it is sampled at a much higher rate. When that data is
reconstructed, the resulting signal is a much more faithful reproduction of the original.
As a rule, a signal should be sampled at least twice as fast as the highest frequency contained in
the signal—this is known as Nyquist’s Sampling Theorem. The lowest standard sampling rate
used with today’s sound boards is 11kHz—this allows fair reproduction of normal speech and
vocalization (up to about 5.5kHz). However, most low- end sound boards can digitize signals up
to 22 kHz. Unfortunately, the human range of hearing is about 22 kHz. To capture sounds
reasonably well throughout the entire range of hearing, you would need a sampling rate of
44kHz—often known as CD-quality sampling because it is the same rate used to record audio on
CDs. The disadvantage to high sampling rates is disk space (and sound file size). Each sample is
a piece of data, so the more samples taken each second, the larger and faster a file grows. If 8
bits are used for each sample, 256 discrete levels can be supported. But the most popular
configuration is 16-bit conversion, which allows a sample to be represented by one of 65,536
levels. At that level of resolution, samples form a very close replica of the original signal. Many
of today’s sound boards are 16-bit.

Troubleshooting a Sound Board

Traditionally, sound boards use many of the same chipsets and basic components, but
because each board is designed a bit differently, it is very difficult for commercial diagnostic
products to identify failed IC functions. For the most part, commercial and shareware diagnostics
can only identify whether a brand-compatible board is responding or not. As a result, this chapter
will take the sub-assembly replacement approach. When a sound board is judged to be
defective, it should be replaced outright. This part of the chapter reviews the problems and
solutions for sound boards under both DOS and Windows. The following tips might help you
nail down a sound problem most efficiently:
 Check to see that your speakers are connected, powered, and turned on.
 Check that the speaker volume and sound card master volume are turned up.
 Check to see that the mixer volume and master volume are set properly.
 Be sure that the music or sound file(s) are installed properly.
 Check that all sound card and multimedia drivers are installed.
 Be sure that the drivers are up to date.
 Check for resource conflicts between the sound card and other devices in
the system.
 Be sure that the sound card is selected and configured properly (especially for DOS apps).
 The sound device should be enabled and configured under CMOS (for sound functions
incorporated on the motherboard).
Sound device is not configured properly If you cannot play any .WAV files in Windows XP/7 (or if
.WAV files are not played at the proper volume), you might not have a sound device selected or the
sound device that you have selected might not be configured properly. To select and configure a
sound device in Windows XP/7:\
 Open the Control panel and doubleclick the Multimedia icon.
 In the Playback area under the Audio tab, click the playback device that you want to use in
the Preferred device list, then move the Volume slider to the value you want (usually 50 to
75% volume is adequate).
 In the Recording area under the Audio tab, click the playback device that you want to use in
the preferred device list, then move the Volume slider to the value you want.
 Be sure that the speakers are properly connected to the sound card and that the
speakers are turned on.
Symptoms
Symptom 41-1. A noticeable buzz or hum is being produced in one or both speakers Low-cost
speakers use unshielded cables. Unfortunately, strong signals from ac cords and other signal-
carrying conductors can easily induce interference in the speaker wires. Try rerouting speaker
cables clear of other cables in the system. If problems persist, try using higher-quality speakers
with shielded cables and enclosures. In most cases, that should resolve everyday noise
problems. If the noise continues, regardless of what you do, the fault might be in the sound-
board amplifier. Try moving the sound board to another bus slot away from other boards or the
power supply. If that does not resolve the problem, try a new sound board.
Symptom 41-2. No sound is produced by the speaker(s) The lack of sound from a sound board can
be caused by any one of a wide range of potential problems. If the sound board works with some
applications, but not with others, it is likely that the problem is caused by an improperly installed
or configured application. See that the offending application is set up properly (and be sure it is
even capable of using the sound card). Also check that the proper sound driver files (if any) are

loaded into CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC. BAT, as required. In many cases, one or two sound-
related environment variables that are set in AUTOEXEC.BAT. Be sure that your startup files are
configured properly.
Check your speakers next. See that they are turned on and set to a normal volume level.
The speakers should be receiving adequate power and should be plugged properly into the correct
output jack—if speakers have been plugged into the wrong jack, no sound will be heard
Multimedia properties media dialog
Multimedia volume control applet produced.
If the cable is broken or questionable, try a new set of speakers. Also see that the master volume
control on the sound board is turned up most (or all) of the way.
If problems continue, a resource conflict might be occurring between the sound board and another
device in the system. Examine the IRQ, DMA, and I/O settings of each device in the system. Be

sure that no two devices are using the same resources. You might like to use the PC Configuration
Form at the end of this book to record your settings. If problems persist, and no conflict is
present, try another sound board.
Symptom 41-3. CD audio will not play through the sound card
This problem can occur under both DOS and Windows. First, be sure that the sound board is
actually capable of playing CD audio (older boards might not be compatible). If the sound card
is playing sound files, but is not playing CD audio, check several things. First, open the PC and be
sure that the CD-audio cable (a thin, 4-wire cable) is attached from the CD-ROM drive to the sound
board. If this cable is broken, disconnected, or absent, CD audio will not be passed to the sound
board. If the cable is intact, be sure that the CD audio player is configured properly for the sound
board you are using, and check the startup files to see that any drivers and environment
variables needed by CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT are available. If CD audio fails to play
under Windows, be sure that an MCI (Multimedia Control Interface) CD Audio driver is included in
the Drivers dialog box under Windows Control panel.
Symptom 41-4. An error, such as “No interrupt vector available” appears

The DOS interrupt vectors used by the sound board’s setup drivers (usually INT 80h to Beha)
are being used by one or more other drivers in the system. As a consequence, there is a
software conflict. Try disabling other drivers in the system one at a time until you see the conflict
disappear. Once you have isolated the offending driver(s), you can leave them disabled, or (if
possible) alter their command-line settings so that they no longer conflict with the sound board’s
software.
Symptom 41-5. It has no MIDI output

Be sure that the file you are trying to play is a valid MIDI file (usually with a .MID extension). In
most cases, you will find that the MIDI mapper under Windows is not set up properly for the
sound board. Load the Windows MIDI mapper applet from the Control panel, and set it
properly to accommodate your sound board.
Symptom 41-6. Sound play is jerky

Choppy or jerky sound playback is typically the result of a hard drive problem—more specifically,
the drive cannot read the sound file to a buffer fast enough. In most cases, the reason for this
slow drive performance is excessive disk fragmentation. Under DOS, the sound file(s) might be
highly fragmented.
Under Windows, the permanent or temporary swap files might be highly fragmented. In either
case, use a reliable DOS defragmenter, such as PC Tools or Norton Utilities (leave Windows before
defragmenting the disk), and defragment the disk thoroughly.
Symptom 41-7. An error, such as “Out of environment space” appears

The system is out of environment space. You will need to increase the system’s environment
space by adding the following line to your CONFIG.SYS file: shell=c:.com /E:512 /P
Troubleshooting a Sound Board 1207

This command line sets the environment space to 512 bytes. If you still encounter the error
message, change the E entry to 1024.
Symptom 41-8. Regular “clicks,” “stutters,” or “hiccups” occur during the playback of speech
This might also be heard as a “garbled” sound in speech or sound effects. In virtually all
cases, the system CPU is simply not fast enough to permit buffering without dropping sound data.
Systems with i286 and slower i386 CPUs typically suffer with this kind of problem. This is often

compounded by insufficient memory (especially under Windows), which automatically resorts to

virtual memory. Because virtual memory is delivered by the hard drive and the hard drive is much
slower than RAM anyway, the hard drive simply can’t provide data fast enough. Unfortunately, little
can be done in this kind of situation (aside from adding RAM, upgrading the CPU, or changing the
motherboard). If it is possible to shut off various sound features (i.e., music, voice, effects, etc.), try
shutting down any extra sound features that you can live without. Be sure that no TSRs or other
applications are running in the background.
Symptom 41-9. The joystick is not working or is not working properly on all systems
This problem only applies to sound boards with a multi-function MIDI/joystick port being used in
the joystick mode. Chances are that the joystick is conflicting with another joystick port in the
system. Disable the original joystick port or the new joystick port—only one joystick port (game
adapter) can be active at any one time in the system.
Because joystick performance depends on CPU speed, the CPU might actually be too fast for the
joystick port. Disable the joystick port or try slowing the CPU down.
Symptom 41-10. The sound board is installed and everything works properly, but now the printer
does not seem to work
An interrupt conflict is between the sound board and an IRQ line used by the printer. Although
parallel printers are often polled, they can also be driven by an IRQ line (IRQ5 or IRQ7). If the
sound board is using either one of these interrupts, try changing to an alternative IRQ line. When
changing an IRQ line, be sure to reflect the changes in any sound board files called by CONFIG.SYS
or AUTOEXEC.BAT.
Symptom 41-11. The following error message appears: “Error MMSYSTEM 337:
The specified MIDI device is already in use” This problem often occurs with high-end sound
boards, such as the Creative Labs AWE64. This error is often caused by having the sound board’s
mixer display on with the wavetable synthesizer selected (i.e., the LED display in the Creative
Mixer turned on and Creative Wave Synthesizer selected as the MIDI playback device). You
can usually correct the problem by turning the mixer display off.
Symptom 41-12. The following error message appears: “Error:

Wave device already in use when trying to play wave files while a MIDI file is playing” This
problem often occurs with high-end sound boards, such as the Creative Labs AWE64, and it is
usually the result of a device configuration problem. If “full-duplex” is turned on and you try to play
a .WAV file and a MIDI file at the same time with the wavetable synthesizer (e.g., the Creative
Wave Synthesizer) selected as the MIDI play- 1208 SOUND BOARDS back device, an error will
occur. To resolve this problem, you need to turn off the full-duplex mode:
 Hold down <Alt>key and doubleclick on My computer.
 Select the Device manager tab. A listing for Sound, video, game controllers should be included
in the Device manager, doubleclick on the listing to expand it.
 You should now see a listing for the sound board (e.g., Creative AWE32 16-Bit Audio).
Doubleclick on the listing, then select the Settings tab. Un-check the box labeled Allow full-
duplex operation. Click OK until you are back to the Control panel.
 Now try to play a .WAV and MIDI file at the same time.
Symptom 41-13. You hear “pops” and “clicks” when recording sound under Windows XP/7
Cache is insufficient to adequately support the recording process (or cache is improperly
configured). Try the following procedure to alter the way cache is allocated:
 Open Notepad and load SYSTEM.INI

 Locate the area of SYSTEM.INI labeled [vcache].

 Add the following line [vcache]: maxfilecache=204
 Save your changes to the SYSTEM.INI file
 From the desktop, right-click on My computer, then select Properties
 Select the Performance page, then click on File system
 Find the slider marked Read-ahead optimization, then pull the slider to None
 Save your changes and restart Windows XP/7.
Symptom 41-14. You notice high frequency distortion in one or possibly in both channels
In many cases, the AT bus clock is set faster than 8MHz and data is being randomly lost. This
problem usually occurs in very fast systems using an ISA sound board. Enter the system’s
CMOS setup and check the AT bus clock under the Advanced chipset setup area. See that the bus
clock is set as close as possible to 8MHz. If the bus clock is derived as a divisor of the CPU clock,
you might see an entry, such as /4. Be sure that divisor results in a clock speed as close to 8MHz
as possible. If problems still persist, try increasing the divisor to drop the bus speed below
8MHz (this might have an adverse effect on other ISA peripherals).
Symptom 41-15. You hear “pops” and “clicks” when playing back prerecorded files under
Windows XP/7
An excessive processing load is on the system, which is often caused by virtual memory
and/or 32-bit access. Start by disabling virtual memory: Open the Control panel and doubleclick
on the System icon. Select the Performance page and click on Virtual memory. Set the swap file
to None and save your changes. Try the file playback again. If problems persist, try disabling 32-bit
file access.
If that still does not resolve the problem, try disabling 32-bit disk access.
Symptom 41-16. “Pops” and “clicks” are audible on new recordings only, pre-existing files sound
clean This is often caused by issues with software caching.
Troubleshooting a Sound Board 1209

If you are using DOS or Windows 3.1, disable SmartDrive from both CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT, then restart the computer for your changes to take effect. If problems continue
(or you are using Windows XP/7), an excessive processing load on the system might be caused by
virtual memory or 32-bit access. Follow the recommendations under Symptom 41-15.
Symptom 41-17. “Pops” and “clicks” occur when playing back or recording any sound file in most
cases, there is a wiring problem with the speaker system. Check all of your cabling between the
sound board and speakers. If the speakers are powered by ac, be sure that the power jack is
inserted properly. If the speakers are powered by battery, be sure that the batteries are fresh.
Check for loose connections. If you cannot resolve the problem, try some new speakers. If the
problem persists, replace the sound board.
Symptom 41-18. The sound board plays back fine, but it will not record The board probably
records fine in DOS, but not in Windows. If the sound board is using 16-bit DMA transfer (typical
under Windows), two DMA channels are in use. Chances are that one of those two DMA channels
are conflicting with another device in the system.
Determine the DMA channels being used under Windows, then check other devices for DMA
conflicts. If you are using Windows XP/7, check the Device manager and look for entries marked
with a yellow icon.

Symptom 41-19. A DMA error is produced when using a sound board with an Adaptec 2842
controller in the system This is a known problem with the Digital Audio Labs “DOC” product and
the Adaptec 2842. You will need to alter the controller’s FIFO buffer. Go in the controller’s Setup
by hitting <Ctrl>+<A> Open prompted during system startup. Select the Advanced Configuration
option, then select the FIFO threshold—chances are that it will be set to 100%. Try setting the FIFO
threshold to 0% and see if this makes a difference.
Symptom 41-20. A DMA error is produced when using a sound board with an Adaptec 1542
controller in the system This is a known problem with the Digital Audio Labs “DOC” sound product
and the Adaptec 1542. The problem can usually be resolved by rearranging the DMA channels.
Place the Adaptec controller on DMA 7, then place the sound board on DMA 5 for playback and
DMA 6 for recording.
Symptom 41-21. The sound card will not play or record—the system just locks up when either is
attempted The board will probably not play in either DOS or Windows, but might run fine on
other systems. This is a problem that has been identified with some sound boards and ATI
video boards. ATI video boards use unusual address ranges, which sometimes overlap the I/O
address used by the sound board. Change the sound board to another I/O address.
Symptom 41-22. The sound card will record, but will not playback Assuming that the sound
board and its drivers are installed and configured properly, chances are that a playback oscillator
on the sound board has failed. Try replacing the sound board outright.\
1210 Sound Boards

Symptom 41-23. The sound application or editor produces a significant number of DMA errors
This type of problem is known to occur frequently when using the standard VGA driver that
accompanies Windows—the driver is poorly written and cannot keep up with screen draws. Try
updating your video driver to a later, more efficient version. If the driver is known to contain bugs,
try using a generic video driver that is written for the video board’s chipset.
Symptom 41-24. The sound board will not record in DOS

Several possible problems can account for this behavior. First, suspect a hardware conflict
between the sound board and other devices in the system. Be sure that the IRQs, DMA channels,
and I/O port addresses used by the sound board are not used by other devices.
If the hardware setup appears correct, suspect a problem between DOS drivers. Try a clean boot of
the system (with no CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC.BAT). If sound can be run properly now, there
is a driver conflict. Examine your entries in CONFIG.SYS or AUTOEXEC. BAT for possible conflicts
or for older drivers that might still be loading to support hardware that is no longer in the system.
Finally, suspect the hard-drive controller. Try setting up a RAM drive with RAMDRIVE. SYS. You
can install a RAMdrive on your system by adding the line: device=c:.sys /e 8000
The 8000 is for 8MB worth of RAM—be sure that enough RAM is in the PC. Once the RAMdrive is
setup, try recording and playing from the RAMdrive (you might have to specify a new path in the
sound-recorder program). If that works, the hard-drive controller might simply be too slow to
support the sound board, and you might need to consider upgrading the drive system.
Symptom 41-25. When recording sound, the system locks up if a key other than the recorder’s
“hot-keys” are pushed This is a frequent problem under Windows 3.1x. The system sounds
(generated under Windows) might be interfering with the sound recorder. Try turning off
system sounds. Go to the Main icon, choose the Control panel, then select Sounds. A box will appear
in the lower left corner marked Enable system sounds. Click on this box to remove the check mark,

then click OK.
Symptom 41-26. After the sound-board driver is loaded, Windows locks up when starting or
exiting In virtually all cases, you have a hardware conflict between the sound board and another
device in the system. Be sure that the IRQs, DMA channels, and I/O port addressed used by the
sound board are not used by other devices.
Symptom 41-27. When using Windows sound-editing software, the sound board refuses to enter
the “digital” mode—always switching back to the analog mode Generally speaking, this is a
software-configuration issue. Be sure that your editing (or other sound) software is set for the
correct type of sound board (i.e., an AWE32 instead of a Sound Blaster 16/Pro). If problems
persist, the issue is with your sound drivers. Check the [drivers] section of the Windows
SYSTEM.INI file for your TROUBLESHOOTING A SOUND
A Device Conflicts in Device Manager

Introduction
The incredible acceptance and popularity of the PC largely results from the use of an “open
architecture.” An open architecture allows any manufacturer to develop new devices (e.g., video
boards, modems, sound boards, etc.) that will work in conjunction with the PC. When a new
expansion board is added to the PC, the board uses of various system resources in order to
obtain CPU time and transfer data across the expansion bus. Ultimately, each board that is added
to the system requires unique resources. No two devices can use the same resources—
otherwise, a hardware conflict will result. Low-level software (such as device drivers and TSRs)
that uses system resources can also conflict with one another during normal operation. This
chapter explains system resources, then shows you how to detect and correct conflicts that can
arise in both hardware and software.
Understanding System Resources

The key to understanding and eliminating conflicts is to understand the importance of each system
resource that is available to you. PCs provide three types of resources: interrupts, DMA channels,
and I/O areas. Many controllers and network devices also utilize BIOS, which requires memory
space. Do not underestimate the importance of these areas— conflicts can occur anywhere, and
carry dire consequences for a system.
Interrupts
An interrupt is probably the most well-known and understood type of resource. Interrupts are
used to demand attention from the CPU. This allows a device or sub-system to work in the
background until a particular event occurs that requires system processing. Such an event
might include receiving a character at the serial port, striking a key on the keyboard, or any
number of other real-world situations. An interrupt is invoked by asserting a logic level on one of
the physical interrupt request (IRQ) lines that are accessible through any of the motherboard’s
expansion bus slots. AT-compatible PCs provide 16 IRQ lines (noted IRQ 0 to IRQ 15). Table 10-
1 illustrates the IRQ assignments for classic XT and current AT systems.
These lines run from pins on the expansion bus connector or key ICs on the motherboard to
Programmable Interrupt Controllers (PICs) on the motherboard. The output signals generated by a
PIC triggers the CPU interrupt. Keep in mind that Table 10-1 covers hardware interrupts only.
There are also a proliferation of processor and software-generated interrupts.

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COM 226 – COMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING

Introduction – The Process of Fault diagnosis

Define Your Symptoms

Identify and Isolate

AYOADE O.B. Page 1 of 68

Parts Are Always Changing

The Booting Process

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Creating a DOS Boot Disk

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Process of Fault Diagnosis

POST – Power On Self-Test

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BIOS – Basic Input Output System

Power-On Self-Test (POST)

BIOS Startup Screen

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Fault Report Forms

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overall performance of a new system before making a purchase decision.

Avoiding Benchmark Problems

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ServerBench: ServerBench i s the latest version of Ziff-Davis’ standard benchmark for

Troubleshooting BIOS Beep Codes - AMI BIOS

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Beep Explanation Diagnosis Troubleshooting steps

AYOADE O.B. Page 10 of 68

8 Beeps Display memory read/write This is usually caused by a Troubleshoot the

Continuous Memory or video problem This is usually caused by a Troubleshoot the

AYOADE O.B. Page 11 of 68

Troubleshooting BIOS Beep Codes - Award BIOS

Beep Explanation Diagnosis Troubleshooting steps

1 Long, then 3 Video

AYOADE O.B. Page 12 of 68

Hardware Diagnostic Utility

AYOADE O.B. Page 13 of 68

Memory Package Styles and Structures

Add-On Memory Devices

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The 30- 748 Memory Troubleshooting

Memory Speed and Wait States

AYOADE O.B. Page 15 of 68

A Hard Drive Failure

Platters and Media

AYOADE O.B. Page 16 of 68

Smart Command Set

Drive Testing and Troubleshooting

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HDD-Controller Bios Error Codes

Troubleshooting “DOS Compatibility Mode” Problems

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Symptoms and Solutions

Drive Testing and Troubleshooting 623

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Symptom 17-1. The hard drive is completely dead

Test 624 Hard Drive

Symptom 17-3. One or more sub-directories appear lost or damaged

AYOADE O.B. Page 20 of 68

Symptom 17-4. Errors occur during drive reads or writes