UNIT-4

Scattering matrices and

Microwave measurements

By,
Mr. S. Gopala Krishna, Assistant Professor

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Contents:
Part A: Scattering matrix
Significance
Properties
S-matrix calculations for E Plane,H plane ,Magic tee
Circulator and Isolator
Illustrative problems
Part B:Microwave measurements
Description of microwave bench
Power (bolometer)
Attenuation
Frequency
Standing wave and impedance measurements
 Microwave Engineering

Scattering Parameters
For a two-port network, as shown in the following figure, if the power is applied at one
port, as we just discussed, most of the power escapes from the other port, while some of
it reflects back to the same port. In the following figure, if V1 or V2 is applied, then I1 or
I2 current flows respectively.

If the source is applied to the opposite port, another two combinations are to be
considered. So, for a two-port network, 2x2=4 combinations are likely to occur.

The travelling waves with associated powers when scatter out through the ports, the
Microwave junction can be defined by S-Parameters or Scattering Parameters, which
are represented in a matrix form, called as “Scattering Matrix”.

Scattering Matrix
It is a square matrix which gives all the combinations of power relationships between the
various input and output ports of a Microwave junction. The elements of this matrix are
called “Scattering Coefficients” or “Scattering (S) Parameters”.

Consider the following figure.

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 Microwave Engineering

Here, the source is connected through ith line while a1 is the incident wave and b1 is the
reflected wave.

If a relation is given between b1 and a1,

𝑏1 = (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)𝑎1 = 𝑆1𝑖 𝑎1

Where

 S1i = Reflection coefficient of 1st line (where i is the input port and 1 is the output
port)

 1 = Reflection from 1st line

 i = Source connected at ith line

If the impedance matches, then the power gets transferred to the load. Unlikely, if the
load impedance doesn’t match with the characteristic impedance. Then, the reflection
occurs. That means, reflection occurs if

𝑍𝑙 ≠ 𝑍0

However, if this mismatch is there for more than one port, example ‘n’ ports, then i = 1
to n (since i can be any line from 1 to n).

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 Microwave Engineering

Therefore, we have

𝑏1 = 𝑆11 𝑎1 + 𝑆12 𝑎2 + 𝑆13 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑆1𝑛 𝑎𝑛

𝑏2 = 𝑆21 𝑎1 + 𝑆22 𝑎2 + 𝑆23 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑆2𝑛 𝑎𝑛

𝑏𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛1 𝑎1 + 𝑆𝑛2 𝑎2 + 𝑆𝑛3 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑆𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑛

When this whole thing is kept in a matrix form,

𝑏1 𝑎1
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 … 𝑆1𝑛
𝑏2 𝑎2
𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 … 𝑆2𝑛
𝑏3 = [ ] x 𝑎3
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⋮ …
𝑆𝑛1 𝑆𝑛2 𝑆𝑛3 𝑆𝑛𝑛 [𝑎𝑛 ]
[𝑏𝑛 ]

Column matrix [b] Scattering matrix [S] Matrix [a]

The column matrix [b] corresponds to the reflected waves or the output, while the matrix
[a] corresponds to the incident waves or the input. The scattering column matrix [s]
which is of the order of nxn contains the reflection coefficients and transmission
coefficients. Therefore,

[b] = [S] [a]

Properties of [S] Matrix

The scattering matrix is indicated as [S] matrix. There are few standard properties for [S]
matrix. They are –

 [S] is always a square matrix of order (nxn)

[S]nxn

 [S] is a symmetric matrix

i.e., Sij = Sji

 [S] is a unitary matrix

i.e., [S][S]* = I

 The sum of the products of each term of any row or column multiplied by the
complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row or column is zero.
i.e.,
𝑛

∑ 𝑆𝑖𝑘 𝑆𝑖𝑗∗ = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≠ 𝑗

𝑖=𝑗
(𝑘 = 1,2,3, … 𝑛) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑗 = 1,2,3, … . 𝑛)

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 Microwave Engineering

 If the electrical distance between some kth port and the junction is βklk, then the
coefficients of Sij involving k, will be multiplied by the factor e-jβklk

In the next few chapters, we will take a look at different types of Microwave Tee junctions.

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 9. Microwaves ─ E-Plane Tee Microwave Engineering

An E-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple waveguide to the broader

dimension of a rectangular waveguide, which already has two ports. The arms of
rectangular waveguides make two ports called collinear ports i.e., Port1 and Port2, while
the new one, Port3 is called as Side arm or E-arm. This E-plane Tee is also called as
Series Tee.

As the axis of the side arm is parallel to the electric field, this junction is called E-Plane
Tee junction. This is also called as Voltage or Series junction. The ports 1 and 2 are
180° out of phase with each other. The cross-sectional details of E-plane tee can be
understood by the following figure.

The following figure shows the connection made by the sidearm to the bi-directional
waveguide to form the parallel port.

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 Microwave Engineering

Properties of E-Plane Tee

The properties of E-Plane Tee can be defined by its [S]3x3 matrix.

1) It is a 3x3 matrix as there are 3 possible inputs and 3 possible outputs.

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
[s] = [𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 ] ……………. Equation 1
𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33

2) Scattering coefficients 𝑆13 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆23 are out of phase by 180° with an input at port 3.

𝑆23 = −𝑆13 ……………. Equation 2

3) The port is perfectly matched to the junction.

𝑆33 = 0 ……………. Equation 3

4) From the symmetric property,

𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑗𝑖

𝑆12 = 𝑆21 𝑆23 = 𝑆32 𝑆13 = 𝑆31 ……………. Equation 4

Considering equations 3 & 4, the [S] matrix can be written as,

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
[s] = [𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13 ] ……………. Equation 5
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0

We can say that we have four unknowns, considering the symmetry property.

5) From the Unitary property

[𝑆] [𝑆] ∗ = [𝐼]

∗ ∗ ∗
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 1 0 0
[𝑆12 𝑆22 −𝑆13 ] ∗
[𝑆12 ∗
𝑆22 −𝑆13∗
] = [0 1 0]
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 ∗ ∗
𝑆13 −𝑆13 0 0 0 1

Multiplying we get,

(Noting R as row and C as column)

∗ ∗ ∗
𝑅1 𝐶1 ∶ 𝑆11 𝑆11 + 𝑆12 𝑆12 + 𝑆13 𝑆13 =1

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 Microwave Engineering

|𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 = 1 ……………. Equation 6

𝑅2 𝐶2 ∶ |𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆22 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 = 1 ……………. Equation 7

𝑅3 𝐶3 ∶ |𝑆13 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 = 1 ……. Equation 8

∗
𝑅3 𝐶1 ∶ 𝑆13 𝑆11 ∗
− 𝑆13 𝑆12 =0 ……. Equation 9

Equating the equations 6 & 7, we get

𝑆11 = 𝑆22 ……………. Equation 10

From Equation 8,
1
2|𝑆13 |2 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑆13 = ……………. Equation 11
√2

From Equation 9,
∗ ∗ )
𝑆13 (𝑆11 − 𝑆12 = 0

Or 𝑆11 = 𝑆12 = 𝑆22 ……………. Equation 12

Using the equations 10, 11, and 12 in the equation 6,

We get,
1
|𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆11 |2 + = 1
2

1
2|𝑆11 |2 =
2
1
Or 𝑆11 = ……………. Equation 13
2

Substituting the values from the above equations in [S] matrix,

We get,
1 1 1
2 2 √2
1 1 1
[𝑆] = −
2 2 √2
1 1
− 0
[√2 √2 ]

We know that [b] = [S] [a]

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 Microwave Engineering

1 1 1
2 2 √2
𝑏1 𝑎1
1 1 1
[𝑏2 ] = − [𝑎2 ]
2 2 √2 𝑎3
𝑏3
1 1
− 0
[√2 √2 ]

This is the scattering matrix for E-Plane Tee, which explains its scattering properties.

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 10. Microwaves ─ H-Plane Tee Microwave Engineering

An H-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple waveguide to a rectangular

waveguide which already has two ports. The arms of rectangular waveguides make two
ports called collinear ports i.e., Port1 and Port2, while the new one, Port3 is called as
Side arm or H-arm. This H-plane Tee is also called as Shunt Tee.

As the axis of the side arm is parallel to the magnetic field, this junction is called H-Plane
Tee junction. This is also called as Current junction, as the magnetic field divides itself
into arms. The cross-sectional details of H-plane tee can be understood by the following
figure.

The following figure shows the connection made by the sidearm to the bi-directional
waveguide to form the serial port.

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 Microwave Engineering

Properties of H-Plane Tee

The properties of H-Plane Tee can be defined by its [S]3x3 matrix.

It is a 3x3 matrix as there are 3 possible inputs and 3 possible outputs.

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
[s] = [𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆23 ] ……………. Equation 1
𝑆31 𝑆32 𝑆33

1) Scattering coefficients 𝑆13 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆23 are equal here as the junction is symmetrical in plane.

2) From the symmetric property,

𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑗𝑖

𝑆12 = 𝑆21 𝑆23 = 𝑆32 = 𝑆13 𝑆13 = 𝑆31

3) The port is perfectly matched

𝑆33 = 0

Now, the [S] matrix can be written as,

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13
[s] = [𝑆12 𝑆22 𝑆13 ] ……………. Equation 2
𝑆13 𝑆13 0

We can say that we have four unknowns, considering the symmetry property.

4) From the Unitary property,

[𝑆] [𝑆] ∗ = [𝐼]

∗ ∗ ∗
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 1 0 0
[𝑆12 𝑆22 𝑆13 ] ∗
[𝑆12 ∗
𝑆22 ∗
𝑆13 ] = [0 1 0]
𝑆13 𝑆13 0 ∗ ∗
𝑆13 𝑆13 0 0 0 1

Multiplying we get,

(Noting R as row and C as column)

∗ ∗ ∗
𝑅1 𝐶1 ∶ 𝑆11 𝑆11 + 𝑆12 𝑆12 + 𝑆13 𝑆13 =1

|𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 = 1 ……………. Equation 3

𝑅2 𝐶2 ∶ |𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆22 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 = 1 ……………. Equation 4

𝑅3 𝐶3 ∶ |𝑆13 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 = 1 ……………. Equation 5

∗
𝑅3 𝐶1 ∶ 𝑆13 𝑆11 ∗
+ 𝑆13 𝑆12 =0 ……………. Equation 6
1
2|𝑆13 |2 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑆13 = ……………. Equation 7
√2

|𝑆11 |2 = |𝑆22 |2

𝑆11 = 𝑆22 ……………. Equation 8

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 Microwave Engineering

From the Equation 6, ∗

𝑆13 (𝑆11 ∗ )
+ 𝑆12 = 0

Since, ∗
𝑆13 ≠ 0, 𝑆11 ∗
+ 𝑆12 ∗
= 0, 𝑜𝑟 𝑆11 ∗
= −𝑆12

Or 𝑆11 = −𝑆12 𝑜𝑟 𝑆12 = −𝑆11 ……………. Equation 9

Using these in equation 3,

1 1 1
|𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆11 |2 + = 1 𝑜𝑟 2|𝑆11 |2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑆11 = ……………. Equation 10
2 2 2

From equation 8 and 9,

1
𝑆12 = − ……………. Equation 11
2

1
𝑆22 = ……………. Equation 12
2

Substituting for 𝑆13 , 𝑆11 , 𝑆12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆22 from equation 7 and 10, 11 and 12 in equation 2,

We get,
1 1 1
−
2 2 √2
1 1 1
[𝑆] = −
2 2 √2
1 1
0
[ √2 √2 ]

We know that [b] = [S] [a]

1 1 1
−
2 2 √2
𝑏1 𝑎1
1 1 1
[𝑏2 ] = − 𝑎
[ 2]
2 2 √2 𝑎3
𝑏3
1 1
0
[ √2 √2 ]

This is the scattering matrix for H-Plane Tee, which explains its scattering properties.

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 11. Microwaves ─ E-H Plane Tee Microwave Engineering

An E-H Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching two simple waveguides one parallel and
the other series, to a rectangular waveguide which already has two ports. This is also
called as Magic Tee, or Hybrid or 3dB coupler.

The arms of rectangular waveguides make two ports called collinear ports i.e., Port 1
and Port 2, while the Port 3 is called as H-Arm or Sum port or Parallel port. Port 4 is
called as E-Arm or Difference port or Series port.

The cross-sectional details of Magic Tee can be understood by the following figure.

The following figure shows the connection made by the side arms to the bi-directional
waveguide to form both parallel and serial ports.

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 Microwave Engineering

Characteristics of E-H Plane Tee

 If a signal of equal phase and magnitude is sent to port 1 and port 2, then the
output at port 4 is zero and the output at port 3 will be the additive of both the
ports 1 and 2.

 If a signal is sent to port 4, (E-arm) then the power is divided between port 1 and
2 equally but in opposite phase, while there would be no output at port 3. Hence,
S34 =0.

 If a signal is fed at port 3, then the power is divided between port 1 and 2 equally,
while there would be no output at port 4. Hence, S43 = 0.

 If a signal is fed at one of the collinear ports, then there appears no output at the
other collinear port, as the E-arm produces a phase delay and the H-arm produces
a phase advance. So, S12 = S21 = 0.

Properties of E-H Plane Tee

The properties of E-H Plane Tee can be defined by its [S]4x4 matrix.

1) It is a 4x4 matrix as there are 4 possible inputs and 4 possible outputs.

S11 S12 S13 S14

S21 S22 S23 S24
[s] = ……………. Equation 1
S31 S32 S33 S34
[ S 41 S42 S43 S44 ]

2) As it has H-Plane Tee section

𝑆23 = 𝑆13 ……………. Equation 2

3) As it has E-Plane Tee section

𝑆24 = −𝑆14 ……………. Equation 3

4) The E-Arm port and H-Arm port are so isolated that the other won’t deliver an output,
if an input is applied at one of them. Hence, this can be noted as

𝑆34 = 𝑆43 = 0 ……………. Equation 4

5) From the symmetry property, we have

𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑗𝑖

𝑆12 = 𝑆21 , 𝑆13 = 𝑆31 , 𝑆14 = 𝑆41

𝑆23 = 𝑆32 , 𝑆24 = 𝑆42 , 𝑆34 = 𝑆43 ……………. Equation 5

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 Microwave Engineering

6) If the ports 3 and 4 are perfectly matched to the junction, then

𝑆33 = 𝑆44 = 0 ……………. Equation 6

Substituting all the above equations in equation 1, to obtain the [S] matrix,

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14

𝑆 𝑆22 𝑆13 −𝑆14
[𝑆] = [ 12 ] …………………. Equation 7
𝑆13 𝑆13 0 0
𝑆14 −𝑆14 0 0

7) From Unitary property, [S] [S]* = [I]

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14 𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆13 𝑆14 1 0 0 0
𝑆 𝑆22 𝑆13 −𝑆14 𝑆∗ ∗
𝑆22 ∗
𝑆13 −𝑆14∗ 0 1 0 0
[ 12 ] [ 12 ]= [ ]
𝑆13 𝑆13 0 0 𝑆13 𝑆13 0 0 0 0 1 0
𝑆14 −𝑆14 0 0 𝑆14 −𝑆14 0 0 0 0 0 1

𝑅1 𝐶1 ∶ |𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 + |𝑆14 |2 = 1 ………….. Equation 8

𝑅2 𝐶2 ∶ |𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆22 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 + |𝑆14 |2 = 1 ………….. Equation 9

𝑅3 𝐶3 ∶ |𝑆13 |2 + |𝑆13 |2 = 1 ………….. Equation 10

𝑅4 𝐶4 ∶ |𝑆14 |2 + |𝑆14 |2 = 1 ………….. Equation 11

From the equations 10 and 11, we get

1
𝑆13 = ……………. Equation 12
√2
1
𝑆14 = ………………. Equation 13
√2

Comparing the equations 8 and 9, we have

𝑆11 = 𝑆22 …………………. Equation 14

Using these values from the equations 12 and 13, we get

1 1
|𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆12 |2 + + =1
2 2
|𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆12 |2 = 0

𝑆11 = 𝑆12 = 0 ……………….. Equation 15

From equation 9, we get 𝑆22 = 0 ………………… Equation 16

Now we understand that ports 1 and 2 are perfectly matched to the junction. As this is a
4 port junction, whenever two ports are perfectly matched, the other two ports are also
perfectly matched to the junction.

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 Microwave Engineering

The junction where all the four ports are perfectly matched is called as Magic Tee Junction.

By substituting the equations from 12 to 16, in the [S] matrix of equation 7, we obtain the
scattering matrix of Magic Tee as
0 0 1 1
0 0 2 √2
1 1 1 1
[𝑆] = −
√2 √2 2 √2
1 1 0 0
−
[√2 √2 0 0 ]
We already know that, [b] = [S] [a]

Rewriting the above, we get

0 0 1 1
𝑏1 0 0 2 √2 𝑎1
𝑏2 1 1 1 1 𝑎2
| | = − |𝑎 |
𝑏3 √2 √2 2 3
√2
𝑏4 1 1 𝑎4
− 0 0
[√2 √2 0 0 ]

Applications of E-H Plane Tee

Some of the most common applications of E-H Plane Tee are as follows:

 E-H Plane junction is used to measure the impedance ─ A null detector is connected
to E-Arm port while the Microwave source is connected to H-Arm port. The collinear
ports together with these ports make a bridge and the impedance measurement is
done by balancing the bridge.

 E-H Plane Tee is used as a duplexer ─ A duplexer is a circuit which works as both
the transmitter and the receiver, using a single antenna for both purposes. Port 1
and 2 are used as receiver and transmitter where they are isolated and hence will
not interfere. Antenna is connected to E-Arm port. A matched load is connected to
H-Arm port, which provides no reflections. Now, there exists transmission or
reception without any problem.

 E-H Plane Tee is used as a mixer ─ E-Arm port is connected with antenna and the
H-Arm port is connected with local oscillator. Port 2 has a matched load which has
no reflections and port 1 has the mixer circuit, which gets half of the signal power
and half of the oscillator power to produce IF frequency.

In addition to the above applications, an E-H Plane Tee junction is also used as Microwave
bridge, Microwave discriminator, etc.

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Circulator
Circulator is a multiport device in which RF signal travels from one port to the next
in one direction (either clockwise or anti-clockwise) only. Based on number of ports,
there are two types of circulator viz. 3-port circulator and 4-port circulator.

The figure-1 depicts 3-port RF circulator application note. The signal to be transmitted travels from port-1
to port-2 and signal received at antenna travels from port-2 to port-3 as shown.
3 Port Circulator S-Matrix |

The 3 port circulator is formed by a 120 degree H-plane waveguide or by using

strip line symmetrical Y junction with a central ferrite disc. 3-port circulator S-
matrix can be expressed as follows.
[S] =
|0 0 S13|
|S21 0 0 |
|0 S32 0 |

The figure-2 depicts S matrix of perfectly matched, lossless, non-reciprocal 3 port

circulator.
The 4 port circulator can be made using two magic-T and a non reciprocal 180
degree phase shifter. It can also be made using a combination of two 3-dB side hole
directional couplers with two non reciprocal phase shifters. The figure-3 depicts S
matrix of perfectly matched, lossless, non-reciprocal 4 port circulator.
Isolator
An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in one direction only. Due
to internal behavior, the propagation in one direction is allowed while the other direction is blocked. The non-
reciprocity observed in these devices usually comes from the interaction between the propagating wave and the
material, which can be different with respect to the direction of propagation.
It is used to shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of conditions on its output side; for example, to
prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched load.
An isolator is a non-reciprocal device, with a non-symmetric scattering matrix. An ideal
isolator transmits all the power entering port 1 to port 2, while absorbing all the power
entering port 2, so that to within a phase-factor its S-matrix is

To achieve non-reciprocity, an isolator must necessarily incorporate a non-reciprocal

material. At microwave frequencies, this material is usually a ferrite which is biased by a
static magnetic field[1] but can be a self-biasied material.[2] The ferrite is positioned
within the isolator such that the microwave signal presents it with a rotating magnetic
field, with the rotation axis aligned with the direction of the static bias field. The
behaviour of the ferrite depends on the sense of rotation with respect to the bias field,
and hence is different for microwave signals travelling in opposite directions. Depending
on the exact operating conditions, the signal travelling in one direction may either be
phase-shifted, displaced from the ferrite or absorbed.
Description of microwave bench
Among the Microwave measurement devices, a setup of Microwave bench, which consists of
Microwave devices has a prominent place. This whole setup, with few alternations, is able to measure
many values like guide wavelength, free space wavelength, cut-off wavelength, impedance, frequency,
VSWR, Klystron characteristics, Gunn diode characteristics, power measurements, etc.
The output produced by microwaves, in determining power is generally of a little value. They vary with
the position in a transmission line. There should be an equipment to measure the Microwave power,
which in general will be a Microwave bench setup.

Microwave BenchGeneral Measurement Set up

This setup is a combination of different parts which can be observed in detail. The following figure clearly explains the
setup.
Signal Generator
As the name implies, it generates a microwave signal, in the order of a few milliwatts. This uses
velocity modulation technique to transfer continuous wave beam into milliwatt power.
A Gunn diode oscillator or a Reflex Klystron tube could be an example for this microwave
signal generator.

Precision Attenuator
This is the attenuator which selects the desired frequency and confines the output around 0 to
50db. This is variable and can be adjusted according to the requirement.

Variable Attenuator
This attenuator sets the amount of attenuation. It can be understood as a fine adjustment of
values, where the readings are checked against the values of Precision Attenuator.
Isolator
This removes the signal that is not required to reach the detector mount. Isolator allows the signal
to pass through the waveguide only in one direction.

Frequency Meter
This is the device which measures the frequency of the signal. With this frequency meter, the signal
can be adjusted to its resonance frequency. It also gives provision to couple the signal to waveguide.

Crystal Detector
A crystal detector probe and crystal detector mount are indicated in the above figure, where the
detector is connected through a probe to the mount. This is used to demodulate the signals.

Standing Wave Indicator

The standing wave voltmeter provides the reading of standing wave ratio in dB. The waveguide is
slotted by some gap to adjust the clock cycles of the signal. Signals transmitted by waveguide are
forwarded through BNC cable to VSWR or CRO to measure its characteristics.

A microwave bench set up in real-time application would look as follows:

Klystron tube
rectangular waveguide
Isolator
Frequency meter
attenuator
Slotted line
Detector mount
Slotted Line
In a microwave transmission line or waveguide, the electromagnetic field is considered as the sum of
incident wave from the generator and the reflected wave to the generator. The reflections indicate a
mismatch or a discontinuity. The magnitude and phase of the reflected wave depends upon the
amplitude and phase of the reflecting impedance.
The standing waves obtained are measured to know the transmission line imperfections which is
necessary to have a knowledge on impedance mismatch for effective
transmission. This slotted line helps in measuring the standing wave ratio of a microwave device.

Construction
The slotted line consists of a slotted section of a transmission line, where the measurement has to be
done. It has a travelling probe carriage, to let the probe get connected wherever necessary, and the
facility for attaching and detecting the instrument.
In a waveguide, a slot is made at the center of the broad side, axially. A movable probe connected to
a crystal detector is inserted into the slot of the waveguide.
Operation
The output of the crystal detector is proportional to the square of the input voltage applied. The
movable probe permits convenient and accurate measurement at its position. But, as the probe
is moved along, its output is proportional to the standing wave pattern, which is formed
inside the waveguide. A variable attenuator is employed here to obtain accurate results.
The output VSWR can be obtained by
VSWR = Vmax/Vmin
Where, V is the output voltage.
The following figure shows the different parts of a slotted line labelled.

The parts labelled in the above figure indicate the following.

1. Launcher – Invites the signal.
2. Smaller section of the waveguide.
3. Isolator – Prevents reflections to the source.
4. Rotary variable attenuator – For fine adjustments.
5. Slotted section – To measure the signal.
6. Probe depth adjustment.
7. Tuning adjustments – To obtain accuracy.
8. Crystal detector – Detects the signal.
9. Matched load – Absorbs the power exited.
10.Short circuit – Provision to get replaced by a load.
11.Rotary knob – To adjust while measuring.
12.Vernier gauge – For accurate results.
In order to obtain a low frequency modulated signal on an oscilloscope, a slotted line with a tunable
detector is employed. A slotted line carriage with a tunable detector can be used to measure the
following.
 VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)

 Standing wave pattern

 Impedance

 Reflection coefficient

 Return loss

 Frequency of the generator used

TunableDetector
The tunable detector is a detector mount which is used to detect the low frequency square wave
modulated microwave signals. The following figure gives an idea of a tunable detector mount.
The following image represents the practical application of this device. It is terminated at the
end and has an opening at the other end just as the above one.
To provide a match between the Microwave transmission system and the detector mount, a tunable stub is
often used. There are three different types of tunable stubs.
 Tunable waveguide detector
 Tunable co-axial detector
 Tunable probe detector

Also, there are fixed stubs like –

 Fixed broad band tuned probe
 Fixed waveguide matched detector mount

The detector mount is the final stage on a Microwave bench which is terminated at the end.
To provide a match between the Microwave transmission system and the detector mount, a tunable stub is
often used. There are three different types of tunable stubs.
 Tunable waveguide detector
 Tunable co-axial detector
 Tunable probe detector

Also, there are fixed stubs like –

 Fixed broad band tuned probe
 Fixed waveguide matched detector mount

The detector mount is the final stage on a Microwave bench which is terminated at the end.
There are various ways for frequency measurements:

Wave meter method.

Slotted line method.

Down conversion method.

Typically constructed from cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable
short circuit termination.
Shorting plunger is used to change the resonance frequency of cavity
by changing cavity length.

•TE011 mode is used because of its higher

Q & absence of axial current.

•TM010 mode is excited in cavity

through coupling hole by magnetic
field coupling.
Possible oscillation due to plunger can be avoided by placing a block
of polytron at its back.
Different plunger position results in different cavity resonant
frequencies which can be calibrated by observing dip in power meter
which connected by means of waveguide.
For Q ranging from 1000-50,000 the accuracy of wavemeter is 1% to
0.005%.
Since power is absorbed in wavemeter at resonance this is called as
absorption type wavemeter.
Since distance between two minima dmin = λg/2 frequency can be
determined from relations:
λg
= d min ⇒ λ g = 2.d min
2
For waveguide:
λ0 λ0
λg = ⇒ λg =
  λ0   2   λ0  2 
1 −  λ   1 −  2a  
  c
    

λ0
For coaxial line: λg =
εr
Accurate measurement using heterodyne converter.
Unknown frequency fx is down converted by mixing it with known fa
(fx – fa = fIF) & is then amplified & measured by counter.
fa is obtained by = Local oscillator frequency X f1
Convenient frequency & is then passed through harmonic generator to
give series of harmonics of f1.

Appropriate harmonics are then selected by tuning cavity such that fa

can be added with fIF and displays unknown frequency fx.

Typical value for f1 = 100 to 500 MHz for a range of fx up to 20 GHz.

Microwave power is average power & inside a waveguide it is
invariant with measurement position.

Following are the techniques used for power measurement:

Measurement of low microwave power (0.01 mW-10mW): Bolometer
Technique.
Measurement of medium microwave power (10 mW-1W):
Calorimetric Technique.
Measurement of high microwave power (> 10 W): Calorimetric Watt
meter.
Bolometer & thermocouples whose resistance changes with applied
power are used measuring low microwave power.
Bolometer: Simple temperature sensitive device whose resistance
varies with temperature.
◦ Barremeter and Thermistor.
Barremeter have positive temperature coefficient & its resistance
increases with increase in temperature.
Consists of short platinum wire mounted in a cartridge like an
ordinary fuse.
Bolometer is at one arm & initially bridge is balanced by adjusting R5
which varies with DC power applied.
Let E1 be voltage of battery at balance, with microwave power applied
bolometer heats up & changes its resistance. Hence bridge becomes
unbalanced.
New power E2 is proportional to microwave power & detector ‘G’ can
be directly calibrated in terms of microwave power.
R6 & R7 are used for temperature compensation.
R6 & R3 are identical and close to bolometer elements.
If temp. is changed and R3 is reduced then it will not be termed as
microwave power change since R6 will reduce.
Thus more current will flow through R6 and hence lesser amount
through bridge and R3 hence bridge will be restored for balanced
condition.
Barremeter and Thermistor have limited power handling capability to
10 mW.
Power measuring capability can be increased by using directional
couplers.
20 dB directional coupler power + 10 dB attenuator power = 30 dB
down power received by bolometer. This method extends its range by
1000 times.
Principle: Temp. rise in special load is monitored which is
proportional to power responsible for its rise.
Water is used as a special load knowing its mass, specific heat and
temp. rise and known rate of fluid flow the power can be measured.
I/p load & I/p temp. gauge are closely placed so that temp. gauge will
sense change in temp. making bridge unbalanced.
Signal due to imbalance is then amplified & is given to comparison
load resistor placed near to comparison gauge.
Heat generated is transferred to comparison gauge making bridge
rebalanced.
For efficient and quick heat exchange components are immersed in
oil.
Power measurement accuracy is ± 5%.
To maintain constant temp. streams are passed through parallel flow
heat exchanger.
1200 Hz source and meter are separated by means of transformer.
Dry type or flow type.
Dry type: Consists of coaxial cable filled with dielectric having high
hysteresis loss.
Flow type: Circulating water, oil or any liquid which is good absorber
of microwaves.
Fluid changes its temp. when it passes through load because of
absorption of microwave power.
Exact power is measured by using eq’n P = RK ρ (T2 − T1 )
where P = Power measured 4 .18
R = Rate of flow (cm3/s) & (T2-T1) = Temp. diff. in 0C
K = Specific heat in cal/g & ρ = Specific gravity in g/cm3
 Ratio of input power to output power expressed in dBs.
Pin
Attenuatio n = 10 log
Pout
The amount of attenuation can be measured by two methods:
1. Power ratio method.
2. RF substitution method.
Measures the input power and output power with and without the
device whose attenuation is to be measured.

Set up 1

Set up 2
Measured attenuation corresponds to two power positions on power
meter with square law crystal detector chars.
Results will not be accurate if attenuation of n/w is large and if input
power is low.
Attenuation at single power position is measured.
Set up 1: Includes network whose attenuation is to be measured.

Set up 1

Set up 2: Network is replaced by precision attenuator.

Set up 2
Mismatched load, leads to reflected waves resulting in standing
waves.
Vmax 1 + ρ
Ratio of max. to min. voltage gives the VSWR. S = =
Vmin 1 − ρ
Preflcetd
Where ρ = reflection coefficient =
Pincident
S varied from 1 to ∞ as ρ varies from 0 to ∞
Adjusting attenuator to give adequate reading on meter.
Probe of slotted line is moved to get max. reading where attenuation
is adjusted to get full meter reading & it is noted down.
Then probe of slotted line is moved to get min. reading & ratio of max
to min reading is taken.
Full scale deflection corresponds to VSWR of 1.
 Double minimum method is used.
Probe is moved to a point where power is twice the min. and denoted
by d1.
Probe is then again moved for twice the power point on other side of
min. say d2.
2 Pmin α V x2
2
1 V min
= 2 ⇒ V x2 = 2 .V min
2
⇒ Vx = 2V min
2 Vx
λc = 2 a & λo = c f
λo λg
λg = ⇒ VSWR =
2 π ( d 2 − d1 )
1 −  o 
λ
 λc 
It can be measured by using any of the following method:

Using magic T
Using slotted line
Using reflectometer
Incident and reflected waves are due to mismatch of load under test
whose impedance is to be measured giving standing waves.
Set up 1: With ZL giving Vmax and Vmin is shown:

Set up 2: ZL is replaced & shift in Vmax and Vmin is measured.

If minimum shifted to left then impedance is inductive.
If minimum shifted to right then impedance is capacitive.
Both impedance and reflection coefficient can be obtained in
magnitude and phase.
Gives only magnitude of impedance but not phase angle.
Employs two directional couplers to sample Pi and Pr from load.
The magnitude of reflection coefficient is given from
Pr
ρ =
Pi
Knowing reflection coefficient VSWR and reflection coefficient can
be calculated from
1+ ρ z − zg
S= &ρ =
1− ρ z + zg
Where Zg = Known impedance & Z = Unknown impedance.
Due to directional coupler there will be no interference between
forward and reverse waves.
Ans:
Given: f = 10GHz ;a = 4cm; b = 2.5cm
For TE10 mode, λC=2a = 2x4 = 8cm
c 3 × 1010
λO = ⇒ 9
= 3 cm ⇒ λO = 3 cm
f 10 ×10
Also given d2-d1 = 1 mm

λo 3
We know λ g = ⇒ λg = ⇒ λ g = 3.236 cm
1 −  o 
λ
2
( 8)
1− 3
2

 λc 
Ans:
For double minimum method VSWR is given by;
λg
VSWR =
π (d 2 − d1 )

3 . 236
VSWR =
(
π 1 × 10 −1 )
VSWR = 10 . 3
Ans:
Pi
Given: = 3 mW ⇒ Pi = 3×100 mW ⇒ Pi = 300 mW
100
Pr
= 0.1 mW ⇒ Pr = 0.1×100 mW ⇒ Pr = 10 mW
100
Reflection coefficient
Pr 10
ρ= ⇒ρ= ⇒ ρ = 0.033 ⇒ ρ = 0.1816
Pi 300

VSWRs = 1 + ρ = 1 + 0.1816 ⇒ VSWRs = 1.44

1− ρ 1 − 0.1816
Ans:
We know that,
Pr
Reflection coefficient ρ =
Pi
0.15
⇒ρ=
2.5
⇒ ρ = 0.06 ⇒ ρ = 0.244

Now VSWR = 1 + ρ = 1 + 0.244 ⇒ VSWRs = 1.64

1− ρ 1 − 0.244
Ans:
We know that,
1+ ρ
Now VSWR = = 2 ⇒ (1 + ρ ) = 2(1 − ρ )
1− ρ
⇒ (1 + ρ ) = 2 − 2 ρ
⇒ 3ρ = 1 Hence ρ = 0 .333

Now Coupling Factor C = 10 log

Pi
= 30
Pf
Pi Pi
⇒ = 10 ⇒ Pf = 3
3

Pf 10
 Pi
Given 3
= 4.5mW or Pi = 4.5W
10
Pr 103
Reflection coefficient ρ =
Pi 103
Pr
⇒ρ=
Pi
Pr
⇒ρ = 2

Pi
⇒ Pr = ρ 2 × Pi
⇒ Pr = (0.333) × 4.5 = 0.499W
2

⇒ Pr ≅ 0.5 W