EI6402 - ELECTRICAL MACHINES

UNIT I D.C. MACHINES

 D.C. Machines:
Machine is a common term to denote the (i) Generator and (ii) Motor.
The machine which is related to the DC supply is known as the DC machine.

(i) DC Generator: A device, which can convert the given Mechanical Energy in
to equivalent Electrical Energy (DC) is called as a generator.

Mechanical energy GENERATOR Electrical energy

(ii) DC Motor: A device, which can convert the given Electrical Energy in to
equivalent Mechanical Energy (rotation), is called as a motor.

Electrical energy MOTOR Mechanical energy

 Principle of operation and construction of motor and

generator
(i) Generator Principle:

Generator Principle: An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy. The energy conversion is based on the principle of the
production of dynamically induced emf, where a conductor cuts magnetic flux,
dynamically induced emf is produced in it according to Faraday’s Laws of
electromagnetic Induction. This emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is
closed. Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are (i) a magnetic
field and (ii) a conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux. The
following figure shows a single-turn rectangular copper coil rotating about its own
axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets. The
two ends of the coil are joined to two slip-rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which are insulated from
each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting brushes (of carbon or copper)
press against the slip-rings. Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil
and to convey it to the external load resistance R. The rotating coil may be called
‘armature’ and the magnets as ‘field magnets’.
As the coil rotates in clock-wise direction and assumes successive positions in the field the,
flux linked with it changes. Hence, an emf is induced in it which is proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkages (e = NdΦ /dt).
When the plane of the coil is at right angles to lines of flux i.e. when it is in position1, then
flux linked with the coil is maximum, but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum. Hence,
there is no induced emf in the coil.

As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence induced
emf in it) increases, till position 3 is reached where θ= 90º, the coil plane is horizontal i.e.
parallel to the lines of flux. The flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate of change of
flux linkages is maximum. Hence, maximum emf is induced in the coil at this position.
a. From 90º to 180º, the flux linked with the coil gradually increases but the rate of change of
flux linkages decreases. Hence, the induced emf decreases gradually till in position 5 of the
coil, it is reduced to zero value.
b. From 180º to 360º, the variations in the magnitude of emf are similar to those in the first
half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position 7 and minimum when in
position 1. But it will be found that the direction of the induced current is the reverse of the
previous direction of flow.
For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip-rings are
replaced by split-rings. The split-rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut into
two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other
insulating material. As before, the coil ends are joined to these segments on which rest the
carbon or copper brushes. It is seen that in the first half revolution current flows along
(ABMLCD) i.e. the brush No.1 in contact with segment ‘a’ acts as the positive end of the
supply and ‘b’ as the negative end. In the next half revolution, the direction of the induced
current in the coil has reversed. But at the same time, the positions of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’
have also reversed with the result that brush No.1 comes in touch with the segment which is
positive i.e. segment ‘b’ in this case. Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from M
to L. The waveform of the current through the external circuit is as shown in below. This
current is unidirectional but not continuous like pure direct current.

 The position of brushes is so arranged that the changeover of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ from
one brush to the other takes place when the plane of the rotating coil is at right angles to
 the plane of the lines of flux. It is so because in that position, the induced emf in the coil
is zero.
 The current induced in the coil sides is alternating as before. It is only due to the
rectifying action of the split-rings (also called commutator) that it becomes unidirectional
in the external circuit.

(ii) Motor Principle:

(iii) Construction of Motor/Generator:

Practical Generator: The actual generator which consists of the following essential
parts:
1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke
2. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes
 3. Pole Coils or Field Coils
4. Armature Core
5. Armature Windings or Conductors
6. Commutator
7. Brushes
8. Bearings.

Yoke: The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose: (i) It provides mechanical support for
the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine. (ii) It carries the magnetic flux
produced by the poles. In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main
consideration, yokes are made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled
steel is employed.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes: The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole
shoes serve two purposes: (i) They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger
cross-section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. (ii) They support the exciting coils
(or field coils) as shown below.
Pole Coils: The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire or strip, are former-
wound for the correct dimension. Then, the former is removed and wound coil is put into
place over the core. When current is passed through these coils, they electromagnetise the
poles which produce the necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.

Armature Core: It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and
hence cut the magnetic flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, its most important
function is to provide a path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a
N-pole to a S-pole. It is cylindrical or drum-shaped and is built up of usually circular sheet
steel discs or laminations approximately 0.5 mm thick. The slots are either die-cut or punched
on the outer periphery of the disc and the keyway is located on the inner diameter as shown.
In small machines, the armature stampings are keyed directly to the shaft. Usually, these
laminations are perforated for air ducts which permit axial flow of air through the armature
for cooling purposes.

The purpose of using laminations is to reduce the loss due to eddy currents. Thinner the
laminations, greater is the resistance offered to the induced emf, smaller the current and
hence lesser the I2R loss in the core.
Armature Windings: The armature windings are usually former-wound. These are first
wound in the form of flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil
puller. Various conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are
placed in the armature slots which are lined with tough insulating material. This slot
insulation is folded over above the armature conductors placed in the slot and is secured in
place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges.
Commutator: The functions of the commutator are to facilitate collection of current from the
armature conductors, and to convert the alternating current induced in the armature
conductors into unidirectional current in the external load circuit. It is of cylindrical structure
and is built up of wedge-shaped segments of high-conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged
copper. These segments are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica. The number of
segments is equal to the number of armature coils.
Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of a copper lug
or riser. To prevent them from flying out under the action of centrifugal forces, the segments
have V-grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical micanite rings.

Brushes and Bearings: The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator,
are usually made of carbon or graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block. These
brushes are housed in brush-holders, the brush-holder is mounted on a spindle and the
brushes can slide in the rectangular box open at both ends. The brushes are made to bear
down on the commutator by a spring. A flexible copper pigtail mounted at the top of the
brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder.

The number of brushes per spindle depends on the magnitude of the current to be collected
from the commutator. Because of their reliability, ball-bearings are frequently employed,
though for heavy duties, roller bearings are preferable. The ball and rollers are generally
packed in hard oil for quieter operation and for reduced bearing wear, sleeve bearings are
used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed from oil reservoir in the bearing bracket.

Armature Windings: the following terms is used in connection with armature winding: Pole-
pitch: the distance between two adjacent poles. It is equal to the number of armature
conductors (or armature slots) per pole. If there are 48 conductors and 4 poles, the pole pitch
is 48/4 = 12. Conductor: The length of a wire lying in the magnetic field and in which an emf
is induced, is called a conductor (or inductor) as, for example, length AB or CD in the
following figure.

Coil and Winding Element: the two conductors AB and CD along with their end connections
constitute one coil of the armature winding. The coil may be single turn coil or multi-turn
coil. Multi-turn coil may have many conductors per coil side. The group of wires or
conductors constituting a coil side of a multi-turn coil is wrapped with a tape as a unit and is
placed in the armature slot. Since the beginning and the end of each coil must be connected to
a commutator bar, there are as many commutator bars as coils for both the lap and wave
windings. The side of a coil (1-turn or multi-turn) is called a winding element. The number of
winding elements is twice the number of coils.
Coil-span or Coil-pitch (YS): It is the distance, measured in terms of armature slots (or
armature conductors) between two sides of a coil. If the pole span or coil pitch is equal to the
pole pitch. Then winding is called full-pitched. It means that coil span is 180 electrical
degrees. In this case, the coil sides lie under opposite poles, hence the induced emfs in them
are additive. Therefore, maximum emf is induced in the coil as a whole, it being the sum of
the emfs induced in the two coil sides. If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the
winding is fractional-pitched. In this case, there is a phase difference between the emfs. In the
two sides of the coil. Hence, the total emf round the coil which is the vector sum of emfs in
the two coil sides is less in this case as compared to that in the first case.
Back Pitch (YB): The distance, measured in terms of the armature conductors, which a coil
advances on the back of the armature is called back pitch.
Front Pitch (YF): The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on the
front (or commutator end of an armature) is called the front pitch.

Resultant Pitch (YR): It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning
of the next coil to which it is connected.
Commutator Pitch (Yc): It is the distance (measured in commutator bars or segments)
between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected.
Single-layer Winding: It is that winding in which one conductor or one coil side is placed in
each armature slot. Such a winding is not much used.
Two-layer Winding: In this type of winding, there are two conductors or coil sides per slot
arranged in two layers. Usually, one side of every coil lies in the upper half of one slot and
other side lies in the lower half of some other slot. Such windings in which two coil sides
occupy each slot are most commonly used for all medium-sized machines. Sometimes 4 or 6
or 8 coil sides are used in each slot in several layers because it is not practicable to have too
many slots.
Multiplex Winding: In such windings, there are several sets of completely closed and
independent windings. If there is only one set of closed winding, it is called simplex wave
winding. If there are two such windings on the same armature, it is called duplex winding and
so on. The multiplicity affects a number of parallel paths in the armature. For a given number
of armature slots and coils, as the multiplicity increases, the number of parallel paths in the
armature increases thereby increasing the current rating but decreasing the voltage rating.

Lap and Wave Windings: Two types of windings mostly employed are known as Lap
Winding and Wave Winding.
1. Simplex Lap-winding: In lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to a
commutator segment and to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole
and so on, till all the coils have been connected. This type of winding derives its name from
the fact it doubles or laps back with its succeeding coils. Following points regarding simplex
lap winding should be carefully noted:
a) The back and front pitches are odd and of opposite sign. But they cannot be equal. They
differ by 2 or.
b) Resultant pitch YR is even, YR =YB – YF=2.
c) The number of slots for a 2-layer winding is equal to the number of coils. The
number of commutator segments is also the same.

 EMF equation:
Generated EMF Equation of a Generator:

Let Φ = flux/pole in Weber

Z = total number of armature conductors= No. of slots x No. of conductors/slot
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r.p.m.)

E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature

Generated emf (Eg) = emf generated in any one of the parallel paths ( E).
Average emf generated/conductor dΦ/dt; volt

Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution dΦ = ΦP Wb

No. of revolutions/second = N/60. Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
Hence, according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction,
EMF generated/conductor = dΦ/dt = ΦPN/60, volt.
No. of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/A
For a simplex wave-wound generator: A=2
PNZ PNZ
EMF generated/path =  ,volt
60x 2 120
For a simplex lap-wound generator: A=P, No. of conductors (in series) in one path=Z/P
For a simplex lap-wound generator: A=P, No. of conductors (in series) in one path=Z/P
PNZ NZ
EMF generated/path =  ,volt
60xP 60

 Various excitation schemes :

Types of Generators: Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their
fields are excited. Generators may be divided into (a) separately-excited generators and (b)
self-excited generators.
(a) Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an
independent external source of dc current.
(b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current
produced by the generators themselves. There are three types of self-excited generators
named according to the manner in which their field coils (or windings) are connected to the
armature.

(i) Shunt wound: The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature
conductors and have the full voltage of the generator applied across them.
(ii) Series Wound: The field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors. As
they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips. Such
generators are rarely used except for special purposes i.e. as boosters etc.
(iii) Compound Wound: It is a combination of a few series and a few shunt windings and
can be either short-shunt or long-shunt. In a compound generator, the shunt field is stronger
than the series field. When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be
commutatively-compounded. On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the
generator is said to be differentially compounded.
Brush Contact Drop: It is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current
passes from commutator segments to brushes and finally to the external load. Its value
depends on the amount of current and the value of contact resistance. This drop is usually
small and includes brushes of both polarities. However, in practice, the brush contact drop is
assumed to have following constant values for all loads. 0.5 V for metalgraphite brushes. 2 V
for carbon brushes.

Total Loss in a DC Generator: The various losses occurring in a generator can be divided as
follows:
(a) Copper Losses
i) Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra; where Ra = resistance of armature and interpoles and series
field winding etc. This loss is about 30 to 40% of full-load losses.
ii) Field copper loss: In the case of shunt generators, it is practically constant and Ish 2Rsh (or
VIsh). In the case of series generator, it is = Ise2Rse; where Rse is resistance of the series
field winding. This loss is about 20 to 30% of F.L. losses.
iii) The loss due to brush contact resistance. It is usually included in the armature copper loss.
(b) Magnetic Losses (also known as iron or core losses): Due to the rotation of the iron core
of the armature in the magnetic flux of the field poles, there are some losses taking place
continuously in the core and are known as Iron Losses or Core Losses. Iron losses consist of
(i) Hysteresis loss and (ii) Eddy Current loss. i) Hysteresis Loss (Wh): This loss is due to the
reversal of magnetisation of the armature core. The loss depends upon the volume and grade
of iron, maximum value of flux density Bmax and frequency of magnetic reversals. For
normal flux densities (i.e. up to 1.5 Wb/m2), hysteresis loss is given by Steinmetz formula.
According to this formula: Wh = ηB max1.6 f V (watt), where Bmax = maximum flux density,
V = volume of thecore in m3, η = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient. Value of η for: Good
dynamo sheet steel=502 J/m3, Silicon steel=191 J/m3, Hard Cast steel=7040 J/m3, Caststeel=
750−3000 J/m3 and Cast iron =2700−4000 J/m3.
For reducing the hysteresis loss, those metals are chosen for the armature core which have a
low hysteresis coefficient.
Generally, special silicon steels such as alloys are used which not only have a low hysteresis
coefficient but which also possess high electrical resistivity.
ii) Eddy Current Loss (We): When the armature core rotates, it also cuts the magnetic flux.
Hence, an emf is induced in the body of the core according to the laws of electromagnetic
induction. This emf though small, sets up large current in the body of the core due to its small
resistance. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to the flow of this
current is known as eddy current loss. This loss would be considerable if solid iron core were
used. In order to reduce this loss and the consequent heating of the core to a small value, the
core is built up of thin laminations, which are stacked and then riveted at right angles to the
path of the eddy currents. These core laminations are insulated from each other by a thin
coating of varnish. Eddy current loss
(We) is given by the following relation: We  KB2 max f 2 t 2 v 2 ; watt ; where Bmax=maximum
flux density, f=frequency of magnetic reversals, t=thickness of each lamination and V =
volume of armature core.

(c) Mechanical Losses: These consist of: i) Friction loss at bearings and commutator.
(ii) air-friction or windage loss of rotating armature. Mechanical losses are about 10 to 20%
of F.L. Losses.

The total losses in a dc generator are summarized below:

Magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as Stray Losses Wstray = WIron+ Wmech.
Field Cu loss is constant for shunt and compound generators. Hence, stray losses and shunt
Cu loss are constant in their case. These losses are together known as standing or constant
losses Wc. Hence, for shunt and compound generators:
Total loss=armature copper loss+Wc =Ia2Ra+Wc=(I+Ish)2Ra + Wc
Armature Cu loss Ia2Ra is known as variable loss because it varies with the load current.
Total loss = variable loss + constant losses (Wc)
Various power stages in the case of a dc generator are shown below :
Following are the three generator efficiencies:
i. Mechanical Efficiency:
ηm=total power generated in armature/mechanical input power
ii. Electrical Efficiency:
ηe=output electrical power/ total power generated in armature
iii. Overall or Commercial Efficiency
ηc = output electrical power / mechanical input power

It is obvious that overall efficiency ηc = ηm . ηe. For good generators, its value may be as
high as 95%.

Condition for Maximum Efficiency: Generator output = VI

Generator input=output +losses=VI + Ia2Ra+Wc=VI+(I + Ish)2Ra+Wc (Since, Ia = I + Ish)
However, if Ish is negligible as compared to load current, then Ia = I (approx.)
Now, efficiency is maximum when denominator is minimum i.e. when I2 Ra = Wc.
 Characteristics of Generator:
 Characteristics of Motor:
iii. Compound Motor Characteristic:
This motor has both series and shunt winding.
 Torque equation:
Armature torque:

Shaft Torque:

 Starting of Motors:
 Speed control of D.C. Motor:
 Braking of D.C. Motor: