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REVIEW INTERFERENCE AND INTERFEROMETER
Superposition Two-beam Interference
When two or more waves arrive at the Interferenceof the plane wave of same
same point, they superimpose themselves frequency arriving at point P :
on one another. More specifically, the
disturbances of waves are superimposed
when they come together—a phenomenon
called superposition.
Superposition of electromagneticwaves is
expresses in terms of E and B field
δ is the total phase difference between the
vectors.
beam from the point of separation. It can
be due to path length difference,phase shift
at reflecting beam splitters and differing
indecies of refraction in the separate paths.

Interference It depanding on the sign of the cos δ the

interference will be constructive (+) or
 Constructive interference occurs destructive (-). A pattern of alternating
when two identical waves are maxima and minima(fringes) will form at
superimposed in phase. the plane of observation due to varying δ
at different locations of the observation
screen.
 Destructive interference occurs Fring visibility is a measure of fringe
when two identical waves are contrast and is defined as
superimposed exactly out of phase.

Two important cases of superposition :

1. Randomly phased sources of equal
amplitudes when N is a large
number

2. N coherent (sources have constant

phase relationship) sources of the
same type and in phase (αj – αi = 0)

Interferometer
An interferometer is an optical
device which utilizes the effect
of interference. Typically, it is based on
the following operation principle: it starts
with some input beam, splits it into two
separate beams with some kind of beam
splitter (a partially transmissive mirror),
possibly exposes some of these beams to
some external influences (e.g. some length
changes or refractive index changes in a
transparent medium), and recombines the
beams on another beam splitter. The power
or the spatial shape of the resulting beam
can then be used e.g. for a measurement.

Interferometers frequently need to

be made from high quality optical
elements. For example, one often
uses optical flats with a high degree of
surface flatness.

Types of Interferometers
Figure 1: (a) The Michelson
1. Michelson Interferometer
interferometer. The extended light source
The Michelson interferometer (invent is a ground-glass plate that diffuses the
ed by the American physicist Albert A. light from a laser. (b) A planar view of the
Michelson, 1852–1931) is a precision interferometer.
instrument that produces
Because both beams originate from
interference fringes by splitting a light
the same point on the source, they are
beam into two parts and then recombining
coherent and therefore interfere. Notice
them after they have traveled different
from the figure that one beam passes
optical paths. Figure 3.6.13.6.1 depicts the 
through M three times and the other only
interferometer  and the path of a light
once. To ensure that both beams traverse
beam from a single point on the extended
the same thickness of glass, a compensator
source S, which is a ground-glass plate
plate C of transparent glass is placed in the
that diffuses the light from
arm containing M2. This plate is a
monochromatic lamp of wavelength λ0.
duplicate of M (without the silvering) and
The beam strikes the half-silvered mirror
is usually cut from the same piece of glass
M, where half of it is reflected to the side
used to produce M. With the compensator
and half passes through the mirror. The
in place, any phase difference between the
reflected light travels to the movable plane
two beams is due solely to the difference
mirror M1, where it is reflected back
in the distances they travel.
through M to the observer. The transmitted
half of the original beam is reflected back
The path difference of the two
by the stationary mirror M2M2 and then
beams when they recombine
toward the observer by M.
is 2d1−2d22d1−2d2, where d1 is the
distance between M and M1, and d2d2 is
the distance between M and M2. Suppose 2. Sagnac Interferometer
this path difference is an integer number of
wavelengths mλ0. Then, constructive
interference occurs and a bright image of
the point on the source is seen at the
observer. Now the light from any other
point on the source whose two beams have
this same path difference also undergoes
Figure 3: Sagnac Interferometer
constructive interference and produces a
bright image. The collection of these point In the common path interferometer, two
images is a bright fringe corresponding to laser beams travel the same path before
a path difference of mλ0 (Figure 3.6.2). combining. The sagnac interferometer is a
When M1 is moved a distance Δd=λ0/2, type of common path interferometer. It
this path difference changes by λ0, and uses the concept of Sagnac effect to
each fringe moves to the position measure rotation using optical
previously occupied by an adjacent fringe. interferometry.
Consequently, by counting the number
French physicist Georges Sagnac
of fringes m passing a given point as M1 is
discovered the concept of the Sagnac
moved, an observer can measure minute
effect in 1913. He provided the first
displacements that are accurate to a
optical experiment that helped understand
fraction of a wavelength, as shown by the
the state of rotation of a frame of
relation
reference, by making measurements within
λ0 that frame.
∆ d=m
2 The Sagnac interferometer uses counter-
propagating beams in a ring path. This is
realized by either using multiple mirrors or
with an optical fiber. Generally, three or
more mirrors are used, so that the counter-
propagating light beams follow a closed
path such as a triangle or square.
When the interferometer is rotated around
an axis that is perpendicular to the drawing
plane, this causes a relative phase shift of
the counter-propagating beams, which is
Figure 2: Fringes produced with a
termed as the Sagnac effect or the Sagnac
Michelson interferometer.
interference. The shift of the interference
fringes is proportional to the platform's
angular velocity. The sensitivity for
rotations is based on the area covered by
the ring, multiplied by the number of
round trips.
Sagnac interferometers are used in inertial
guidance systems, ring laser or ring laser
gyroscope, and other optical systems.

3. Mach–Zehnder Interferometer 4. Fabry–Pérot Interferometer

Figure 5: Fabry–Pérot interferometer.
Fi
gure 4: Mach–Zehnder interferometer. A Fabry–Pérot
The Mach–Zehnder interferometer interferometer consists of two parallel
was developed by the physicists Ludwig mirrors, allowing for multiple round trips
Mach and Ludwig Zehnder. As shown in of light. (A monolithic version of this can
Figure 1, it uses two separate beam be a glass plate with reflective coatings on
splitters (BS) to split and recombine the both sides.) For high mirror reflectivities,
beams, and has two outputs, which can e.g. such a device can have very sharp
be sent to photodetectors. The optical path resonances (a high finesse), i.e. exhibit a
lengths in the two arms may be nearly high transmission only for optical
identical (as in the figure), or may be frequencies which closely match certain
different (e.g. with an extra delay line). values. Based on these sharp features,
The distribution of optical powers at the distances (or changes of distances) can be
two outputs depends on the precise measured with a resolution far better than
difference in optical arm lengths and on the wavelength. Similarly, resonance
the wavelength (or optical frequency). frequencies can be defined very precisely.

If the interferometer is well A modified version is the Fizeau

aligned, the path length difference can be interferometer, which is used for
adjusted (e.g. by slightly moving one of characterizing optical surfaces.
the mirrors) so that for a particular optical Another special kind of Fabry–
frequency the total power goes into one of Pérot interferometer, used for dispersion
the outputs. For misaligned beams (e.g. compensation, is the Gires–Tournois
with one mirror being slightly tilted), there interferometer.
will be some fringe patterns in both
outputs, and variations of the path length For more details, see the articles
difference affect mainly the shapes of on Fabry–Pérot interferometers.
these interference patterns, whereas the
5. Common-path Interferometers
distribution of total powers on the outputs
may not change very much.
 Common-path  When a light source with low
interferometers use a common beam path optical bandwidth is used (perhaps
but e.g. different polarization states for even a single-frequency laser), the
the two beams. This has the advantage that detector signal varies periodically
fluctuations of the geometric path length when the difference in arm lengths is
do not affect the interferometer output, changed. Such a signal makes it
whereas the interferometer can be a possible to do measurements with a
sensitive detector for birefringence. The depth resolution well below the
Sagnac interferometer (see above) is wavelength, but there is an ambiguity.
another example; here, the interfering For example, a monotonic increase or
beams have opposite propagation decrease of the arm length difference
directions. leads to the same variation of the
detected signal. This problem may be
6. Fiber Interferometers solved by modulating the arm length
All the interferometer types difference e.g. with a vibrating mirror
discussed above can also be implemented (or with an optical modulator) and by
with optical fibers. Instead of beam monitoring the resulting modulation on
splitters, one then uses fiber couplers. the detector in addition to the average
signal power. Simultaneous operation
A potential difficulty is that the of an interferometer with two
polarization state of light may change wavelengths is another way of
during propagation in the fiber. This often removing the ambiguity.
requires one to include a fiber polarization
controller (which may occasionally have to  If the detector is a kind
be readjusted) or to use polarization- of camera (e.g. a CCD chip) and the
maintaining fibers. surfaces monitored are fairly smooth,
the phase profile (and thus the profile
Also note that temperature changes of optical path length) can be
in the fibers (as well as bending) can affect reconstructed by recording several
the optical phase shifts. This can be a images with different overall phase
problem if different fibers belong to shifts (phase-shifting interferometry).
different interferometer arms. However, A phase-unwrapping algorithm can be
there are also fiber interferometers where used to retrieve unambiguously surface
one fiber serves for both arms, e.g. using maps extending over more than a
two different polarization directions in the wavelength. However, such methods
same fiber. may not work for rough surfaces or for
surfaces with steep steps.
Physical Principles of Interferometers
 A white light interferometer uses
There are also substantially a broadband light source (e.g.,
different principles of using a superluminescent diode), so that
interferometers. For example, Michelson interference fringes are observed only
interferometers are used in very different in a narrow range around the point of
ways, using different types of light sources zero arm length difference. In that
and photodetectors:
 way, the above-mentioned ambiguity is
effectively removed.

 A wavelength-tunable laser can
be used to record the detector signal
for different optical frequencies. From
such signals, the arm length difference
can be unambiguously retrieved. This
works also with two-dimensional
detectors (e.g. CCD cameras).

 If one of the mirrors is

intentionally tilted, an interference
fringe pattern is obtained. Any change
in arm length difference will then
move the fringe pattern. This method
makes it possible to measure phase
changes sensitively and also to
measure position-dependent phase
changes, e.g. in some optical element.

Another class of interferometric

methods is named spectral phase
interferometry. Here, interference in
the spectral domain is exploited. The
spectral modulation period is
essentially determined by a time delay.