ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM ENGINEERING ~ Analysis and Design , Turan Gonenity of 1s for nd to CONTENTS PART I. ELECTRICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS 1 1 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Present Transmission-System-Planning Techniques 6 1.3 Models Used in Transmission System Planning 10 1.4 Transmission Route Identification and Selection 10 1.5 Transmission System Expansion Planning 12 1.5.1 Heuristic Models 12 1.5.2 Single-Stage Optimization Models 12 1.5.3 Time-Phased Optimization Models 15 é 1.6 Transmission System Planning in the Future 16 1.6.1 New Planning Tools 17 1.6.2 Central Role of Computer in Transmission System Planning 18 1.6.3 Systems Approach 18 1.6.4 Data Base Concept 20 1.6.5 Summary 21 References 21 STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES 25 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2 Complex Power in Balanced Transmission Lines 25 2.3 One-Line Diagram 28 xiixiv CONTENTS: 2.4 Per-Unit System 31 2.4.1 Single-Phase System 33 2.4.2 Converting from Per-Unit Values to Physical Values 37 2.4.3 Change of Base 37 2.4.4 Three-Phase Systems 38 2.5 Constant-Impedance Representation of Loads 48 2.6 Three-Winding Transformers 50 2.7 Autotransformers 52 2.8 Delta—Wye and Wye-Delta Transformations 54 2.9 Factors Affecting Line Design 56 2.10 Conductor Size 63 2.11 Transmission Line Constants 66 2.12 Resistance 66 2.13 Inductance and Inductive Reactance 67 2.13.1 Single-Phase Overhead Lincs 67 2.13.2 Three-Phase Overhead Lines 69 2.14 Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance 70 2.14.1 Single-Phase Overhead Lines 70 2.14.2 Three-Phase Overhead Lines 73 2.15 Tables of Line Constants 74 2.16 Equivalent Circuits for Transmission Lines 75 2.17 Short Transmission Lines (Up to 50 mi, or 80 km) 76 2.17.1 Steady-State Power Limit 79 2.17.2 Percent Voltage Regulation 81 2.17.3 Representation of Mutual Impedance of Short Lines 86 Medium-Length Transmission Lines (Up to 150 mi, or 240km) 89 2.19 Long Transmission Lines (Above 150 mi, or 240km) 98 2.19.1 Equivalent Circuit of Long Transmission Line 106 2.19.2 Incident and Reflected Voltages of Long Transmission Line 109 2.19.3 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of Transmission Line 112 Gencral Circuit Constants 116 2.20.1 Determination of A, B, C, and D Constants 117 2.20.2 A, B, C, and D Constants of Transformer 121 2.20.3 Asymmetrical II and T Networks 122 2.20.4 Networks Connected in Series 123 2.20.5 Networks Connected in Parallel 125 2.20.6 Terminated Transmission Line 128 2.20.7 Power Relations Using A, B, C, and D Line Constants 131 2.21 Underground Cable Transmission 138 2.22 Bundled Conductors 146 2.23 Effect of Ground on Capacitance of Three-Phase Lines 150 2.24 Environmental Effects of Overhead Transmission Lines 151 References 152 Problems 154 21 oe 2.21 886 M2 131 CONTENTS XV SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND FAULT ANALYSIS. 163 3.1 Introduction 163 3.2. Symmetrical Components 164 3.3. The Operator a 164 3.4 Resolution of Three-Phase Unbalanced System of Phasors into Its Symmetrical Components 167 3.5 Power in Symmetrical Components 170 3.6 Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines 172 3.6.1 Sequence Impedances of Untransposed Lines 172 3.6.2 Sequence Impedances of Transposed Lines 174 3.6.3 Electromagnetic Unbalances Due to Untransposed Lines 176 3.6.4 Sequence Impedances of Untransposed Line With Overhead Ground Wire 182 3.7. Sequence Capacitances of Transmission Line 184 3.7.1 Three-Phase Transmission Line without Overhead Ground Wire 184 3.7.2 Three-Phase Transmission Line with Overhead Ground Wire 187 3.8 Sequence Impedances of Synchronous Machines 191 3.9 Zero-Sequence Networks 196 3.10 Sequence Impedances of Transformers 198 3.11 Analysis of Unbalanced Faults 206 3.12 Shunt Faults 206 3.12.1 Single Line-to-Ground Fault 206 3.12.2 Line-to-1 Fault 216 3.12.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault 220 3.12.4 Three-Phase Fault 225 References 230 Problems 231 UNDERGROUND CABLES 248 4.1. Introduction 248 4.2. Conductors 249 4.3. Underground Cable Types 249 4.4 Cable Installation Techniques 254 4.5. Electrical Charcteristics of Insulated Cables 257 4.5.1 Electric Stress in Single-Conductor Cable 257 4.5.2, Capacitance of Single-Conductor Cable 262 4.5.3. Dielectric Constant of Cable Insulation 264 4.5.4 Charging Current 264 4.5.5 Determination of Insulation Resistance of Single- Conductor Cable 265 4.5.6 Capacitance of Three-Conductor Belted Cable 268xvi CONTENTS: 4.5.7. Cable Dimensions 275 8 Geometric Factors 276 9 Dielectric Power Factor and Dielectric Loss 281 10 Effective Conductor Resistance 284 11 Direct-Current Resistance 284 4.5.12 Skin Effect 285 4.5.13 Proximity Effect 287 4.6 Sheath Currents in Cables 289 4.7. Positive- and Negative-Sequence Reactances 295 4.7.1. Single-Conductor Cables 295 4.7.2. Three-Conductor Cables 296 4.8 Zero-Sequence Resistance and Reactance 297 4.8.1. Three-Conductor Cables 297 4.8.2 Single-Conductor Cables 302 4.9 Shunt Capacitive Reactance 308 4.10 Current-Carrying Capacity of Cables 311 4.11 Calculation of Impedances of Cables in Parallel 311 4.11.1 Single-Conductor Cables 311 4.11.2 Bundled Single-Conductor Cables 315 4.12 Location of Faults in Underground Cables 320 4.12.1 Fault Location by Using Murray Loop Test 321 4.12.2 Fault Location by Using Varley Loop Test 322 4.12.3 Distribution Cable Checks 325 References 326 Problems 327 5. DIRECT-CURRENT POWER TRANSMISSION 330 5.1 Basic Definitions 330 5.2 Overhead High-Voltage de Transmission 331 5.3 Comparison of Power Transmission Capacity of High-Voltage de and ac Lines 334 5.4 High-Voltage de Transmission Line Insulation 338 5.5 Three-Phase Bridge Converter 342 5.6 Rectification 343 5.7. Per-Unit Systems and Normalizing 354 5.7.1 Alternating-Current System Per-Unit Bases 355 5.7.2 Direct-Current System Per-Unit Bases 356 5.8 Inversion 362 5.9 Multibridge (B-Bridge) Converter Stations 369 5.10 Per-Unit Representation of B-Bridge Converter Stations 373 5.10.1 Alternating-Current System Per-Unit Bases 374 5.10.2 Direct-Current System Per-Unit Bases 376 5.11 Operation of Direct-Current Transmission Link 378 5.12 Stability of Control 383CONTENTS — xvii References 387 Problems 388 6. TRANSMISSION SYSTEM RELIABILITY 394 6.1 Basic Definitions 394 6.2 National Electric Reliability Council 395 6.3 Index of Reliability 399 6.4 Section 209 of PURPA of 1978 402 6.5. Basic Probability Theory 404 6.5.1 Set Theory 406 6.5.2 Probability and Set Theory 409 6.6 Combinational Analysis 415 6.7. Probability Distributions 416 68 Basic Reliability Concepts 420 6.8.1 Series Systems 428 6.8.2 Parallel Systems 431 6.8.3 Combined Series—Parallel Systems 432 6.9. Systems with Repairable Components 433 6.9.1 Repairable Components in Series 433 6.9.2 Repairable Components in Parallel 436 6.10 Reliability Evaluation of Complex Systems 438 6.10.1 Conditional Probability Method 439 6.10.2 Minimal-Cut-Set Method 441 6.11 Markov Processes 443 6.12 Transmission System Reliability Methods 448 6.12.1 Average Interruption Rate Method 448 6.12.2 Frequency and Duration Method 449 Series Systems 450 Parallel Systems 451 6.12.3 Markov Application Method 454 6.12.4 Common-Cause Forced Outages of Transmission Lines 457 References 458 Problems 460 7. TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES AND INSULATION i COORDINATION 473 7.1. Introduetion 473 7.2 Traveling Waves 474 7.2.1 Velocity of Surge Propagation 478 7.2.2 Surge Power Input and Energy Storage 480 7.2.3 Superposition of Forward- and Backward- Traveling Waves 482xvill CONTENTS 7.3. Effects of Line Terminations 483 7.3.1 Line Termination in Resistance 484 7.3.2 Line Termination in Impedance 485 7.3.3 Open-Circuit Line Termination 489 7.3.4 Short-Circuit Line Termination 490 7.3.5 Overhead Line Termination by Transformer 490 7.4 Junction of Two Lines 492 7.5. Junction of Several Lines 495 7.6 ‘Termination in Capacitance and Inductance 497 7.6.1 Termination through Capacitor 497 7.6.2 Termination through Inductor 499 7.7 Bewley Lattice Diagram 499 7.8 Surge Attenuation and Distortion 502 7.9 Traveling Waves on Three-Phase Lines 503 7.10 Lightning and Lightning Surges 507 7.10.1 Lightning 507 7.10.2 Lightning Surges 508 7.10.3 Lightning Performance of Transmission Lines 511 7.11 Switching and Switching Surges 517 7.11.1 Switching 517 7.11.2 Causes of Switching Surge Overvoltages 520 7.11.3 Control of Switching Surges 520 7.12 Overvoltage Protection 524 7.13 Insulation Coordination 527 7.13.1 Basic Definitions 527 7.13.2 Insulation Coordination 527 References 531 Problems 533 8. LIMITING FACTORS FOR EXTRA-HIGH AND ULTRAHIGH- VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION: CORONA, RADIO NOISE, AND AUDIBLE NOISE 538 8.1 Introduction 538 8.2 Corona 539 8.2.1 Nature of Corona 539 8.2.2 Manifestations of Corona 539 8.2.3 Factors Affecting Corona 542 8.2.4 Corona Loss 547 8.3 Radio Noise 552 8.3.1 Radio Interference 553 8.3.2 Television Interference 559 8.4 Audible Noise 559 8.5 Conductor Size Selection 561 References 563 Problems 565CONTENTS — xix PART Il. MECHANICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS 567 9. CONSTRUCTION OF OVERHEAD LINES 569 9.1 Introduction 569 9.2 Factors Affecting Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines S71 9.3. Character of Line Route 572 9.4 Right-of-Way 573 9.5 Mechanical Loading 573 9.5.1 Definitions of Stresses 573 9.5.2 Elasticity and Ultimate Strength 575 9.5.3 NESC Loadings 576 9.5.4 Wind Pressure 577 9.6 Required Clearances 578 9.6.1 Horizontal Clearances 578 9.6.2 Vertical Clearances 578 9.6.3 Clearances at Wire Crossings 578 9.6.4 Horizontal Separation of Conductors from Each Other 582 9.7. Type of Supporting Structures 583 9.7.1 Pole Types 583 9.7.2 Soil Types and Pole Setting 589 9.8 Mechanical Calculations 589 9.8.1 Introduction 589 9.8.2 Bending Moment Due to Wind on Conductors 590 9.8.3 Bending Moment Due to Wind on Poles 592 9.8.4 Stress Due to Angle in Line 598 9.8.5 Strength Determination of Angle Pole 599 9.8.6 Permissible Maximum Angle without Guys 600 9.8.7 Guying 601 9.8.8 Calculation of Guy Tension 604 9.9 Grade of Construction 608 9.10 Line Conductors 608 9.11 Insulator Types 609 9.12 Joint Use by Other Utilities 612 9.13 Conductor Vibration 613 9.14 Conductor Motion Caused by Fault Currents 617 References 620 Problems 621 10. SAG AND TENSION ANALYSIS 623 10.1 Introduction 623 10.2 Effect of Change in Temperature 625 10.3 Line Sag and Tension Calculations 626 10.3.1 Supports at Same Level 626 Catenary Method 626 Parabolic Method 634Xx CONTENTS | 10.3.2 Supports at Different Levels: Unsymmetrical Spans 638 | 10.4 Spans of Unequal Length: Ruling Span 640 10.5 Effects of Ice and Wind Loading 641 10.5.1 Effect of Ice 641 10.5.2 Effect of Wind 643 10.6 National Electric Safety Code 647 10.7 Line Location 650 10.7.1 Profile and Plan of Right-of-Way 650 10.7.2 Templates for Locating Structures 651 10.7.3 Supporting Structures 655 References 656 Problems 657 APPENDIXES A. IMPEDANCE TABLES FOR OVERHEAD LINES, TRANSFORMERS, AND UNDERGROUND CABLES 660 B. METHODS FOR ALLOCATING TRANSMISSION LINE FIXED CHARGES AMONG JOINT USERS 704 B.1 Methods for Allocating Demand Costs 704 B.1.1 Energy Method 705 B.1.2 Peak Responsibility Method 705 B.1.3 Maximum-Demand Method 705 i B.1.4 Greene’s Method 706 te B.1.5 Fisenmenger’s Method 706 i i a B.1.6 Phantom Method 708 iil B.1.7 Weighted Peak Method 708 He B.2 Methods for Planning Future Investments 709 References 715 C. CONVERSION FACTORS, PREFIXES, AND THE GREEK ALPHABET 716 C.1 Conversion Factors 716 C2 Prefixes 717 C3 Greek Alphabet Used for Symbols 717 INDEX 719 ROTTER NR660 716 719 ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM ENGINEERINGPART I ELECTRICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSISTRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING 1.1 INTRODUCTION An electrical power system can be considered to consist of a generation system, a transmission system, a subtransmission system, and a distribution system. In general, the generation and transmission systems are referred to as bulk power supply, and the subtransmission and distribution systems are considered to be the final means to transfer the electric power to the ultimate customer. Bulk power transmission is made of a high-voltage network, generally 138-765 kV alternating current, designed to interconnect power plants and electrical utility systems and to transmit power from the plants to major load centers. Table 1.1 gives the standard transmission voltages as dictated by ANSI Standard C-84 of the American National Standards Institute. The subtransmission refers to a lower voltage network, normally 34.5-115kV, interconnecting bulk power and distribution sub- stations. The voltages that are in the range of 345-765 kV are classified as extra-high voltages (EHVs). The EHV systems dictate a very thorough system design, Figure 1.1 shows the critical path of steps in an EHV line design. While, on the contrary, the high-voltage transmission systems up to 230 kV can be built in relatively simple and well-standardized designs, the voltages above 765kV are considered as the ultrahigh voltages (UHVs). Currently, the UHV systems, at 1000-, 1100-, 1500-, and 2250-kV voltage levels, are in the R&D stages. Table 1.2 gives the lengths of the transmis- sion lines installed in the service areas of the regional reliability councils. Figure 1.2 shows the trends in technology and cost of electrical energy (based on 1968 constant dollars). Historically, the decreasing cost of electri-MULL. WL) 17/7 EACCUIL COWE! NeaCAl cl AIDULLUIS.) Axesearcn Institute, Ly /y¥. Useu vy pet 40 it T T 1600 —— - Cost ! = —.. Maximum transmission ! voltage 1 41400 Maximum unit size 1 ' ' cl 1 | —1200 ! =a ! e 4 3 1000 2 \ g \ - z \ z 3 20 \ 800 & g \ . 600 2 10}— 400 200 r a st ol_==+— ° 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 Year ~ 800 — 700 | 600 | 500 | 400 100 Maximum transmission voltage (kV) Figure 1.2. Historical trends in technology and cost of electrical energy. (From Electric Power Research Institute, 1979. Used by permission. © 1979 Electric Power Research Institute.)| 6 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING. " TABLE 1.1 Standard System Voltages Rating Nominal (kV) Maximum (kV) 34.5 36.5 46 48.3 6 ns 115 121 138 145 161 169 230 242 345 362 jeu 500 550 | 700 765 TABLE 1.2 1980 Regional Transmission Lines in Miles Voltage (kV) | | HVAC HVDC ; Region 230345 500765250 400/450 800 : ECAR 934 9.850796 «1.3870 0 0 ERCOT 0 4.110 0 0 0 0 0 MAAC 4.400 160 1.263 o 0 0 0 i MAIN 258 4.852 o 9 0 0 0 iii’ MARCA (U.S) 6.477 3.504138 0 465 436 0 eh | NPCC (U.S.) 1.557 3,614 5 21 0 0 0 tary SERC 16.434 2 4.363 o 0 0 0 nus SPP 3.057 2.843 1.432 o 0 0 0 i 1 WSCC (U.S.) 27.892 _5.923 551 _0 _0 Ee 844 Vil NERC (U.S.) 61.009 34.858 15.548 1.728 465 436.844 Source: National Electric Reliability Council 10th Annual Review [32] cal energy has been due to the technological advances reflected in terms of economies of scale and operating efficiencies. 1.2 PRESENT TRANSMISSION-SYSTEM-PLANNING TECHNIQUES As aforementioned, the purpose of transmission system planning is to determine the timing and type of new transmission facilities required in order to provide adequate transmission network capability to cope with the future gencrating capacity additions and load-flow requirements. Figure 1.3Load forecast Good system performance (steady-state) Good system performance (contingency) Feedback 800 0 0 : Feedback 0 Design 0 new system 0 configuration 0 844 Planning 844 decision ote 15-20 year expansion pian complete 3 is to ired in ‘ith the a 5 we 13 Figure 1.3. Block diagram of typical transmission system planning process.8 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING. shows a functional block diagram of a typical transmission-system-planning process. This process may be repeated, with diminishing detail, for each year of a long-range (15-20-year) planning horizon. The key objective is to minimize the long-range capital and operating costs involved in providing an adequate level of system reliability, with due consideration of environmental and other relevant issues. Transmission planning may include not only existing but also new service areas. The starting point of the planning Procedure is to develop load forecasts in terms of annual peak demand for the entire system, as well as for each region and cach major present and future substation, and then finding specific alternatives that satisfy the new load conditions. The system performance is tested under steady-state and contingency conditions, ‘The logic diagram for transmission expansion study is shown in Figure 1.4. The main objective is to identify the potential problems, in terms of unacceptable voltage conditions, overloading of facilities, decreasing re- liability, or any failure of the transmission system to meet performance criteria. After this analysis stage, the planner develops alternative plans or scenarios that not only will prevent the foreseen problems but also will best meet the long-term objectives of system reliability and economy. The effectiveness of the alternative plans is determined by load-flow studies under both normal and emergency operations. The load-flow programs now in use by thie utilities allow the calculation of currents, voltages, and real and reactive power flows, taking into account the voltage-regulating capability of generators, transformers, synchronous condensers, specified generation schedules, as well as net interchange among interconnected systems, au- tomatically. By changing the location, size, and number of transmission lines, the planner can achieve to design an economical system that meets the operating and design criteria. After determining the best system configuration from load-flow studies, the planner studies the system behavior under fault conditions. The main objectives of short-circuit studies can be expressed as (1) to determine the current-interrupting capacity of the circuit breaker so that the faulted equipment can be disconnected successfully, therefore clearing the fault from the system, and (2) to establish the relay requirements and settings to detect the fault and cause the circuit breaker to operate when the current flowing through it exceeds the maximum allowable current. The short-circuit studies can also be used to (1) calculate voltages during faulted conditions that affect insulation coordination and lightning arrester applications; (2) design the grounding systems, and (3) determine the electromechanical forces affecting the facilities of the system. Finally, the planner performs stability studies in order to be sure that the system will remain stable following a severe fault or disturbance. Here, the stability analysis is defined as the transient behavior of the power system following a disturbance. It can be classified as transient stability analysis. The transient stability is defined as the ability of the system to maintain Penne Senning each zis to ng an rental only nning id for tand > new e and igure ms of 1g Te nance ins or 1 best The tudies s now aland lity of ration s, au- ission sts the udies, main re the aulted fault ngs to urrent circuit litions 8; (2) anical sat the e, the stem, alysis. uintain PRESENT TRANSMISSION-SYSTEM-PLANNING TECHNIQUES ‘* Future load forecast ‘© Future generation ‘expansion plans +» Present network Load-fiow study ‘+ Consider all generation and load patterns * Pick out new lines * Correct low voltages and overloads with new sources and circuit additions 9 Feedback Short-circuit analysis Stability study Assure proper network operations under short- circuit conditions Analyze generator stability of system Both fault and stability studies satisfactory ? Planning Decision ‘Add all additions to the network Figure 1.4, Logic diagram for transmission expansion study. synchronous operation following a disturbance, usually a fault condition. Unless the fault condition is cleared rapidly by circuit breakers, the generators, which are connected to each other through a transmission network, will get out with respect to one another, that is, they will not run in synchronism. This situation, in turn, will cause large currents to flow through the network, transferring power from one generator to another in\ 10 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING |! an oscillating way and causing the power system’ to become unstable. | Consequently, the protective relays will detect these excessive amounts of currents and activate circuit breakers all over the network to open, causing a i complete loss of power supply. Usually, the first swing of rotor angles is considered to be an adequate indicator of whether or not the power system remains stable. Therefore, the simulation of the first few seconds following a disturbance is sufficient for transient stability. Whereas steady-state stability : analysis is defined as long-term fluctuations in system frequency and power ‘ transfers resulting in total blackouts,’ in this case, the system is simulated { it from a few seconds to several minutes. i There are various computer programs available for the planner to study the transient and steady-state stabilities of the system. In general, a transient | stability program employs the data, in terms of initial voltages and power | flows, provided by a load-flow program as the input and transforms the system to that needed for the transient stability analysis. Usually, the critical switching time, that is, the time during which a faulted system component must be tripped to assure stability, is used as an indicator of stability margin The critical switching times are calculated for various fault types and locations. The resultant minimum required clearing time is compared to : actual relay and circuit breaker operating time. If the relays and circuit Wel breakers cannot operate rapidly enough to maintain stable operation, the i Planner may consider a change in the network design or a change in the turbine-generator characteristics or perhaps control apparatus. 1.3 MODELS USED IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING ion system planning and design were rather 1 intuitive and based substantially on the planner’s past experience. Today. it the planner has numerous analysis and synthesis tools at his disposal. These i tools can be used for design and planning activities, such as (1) transmission i route identification and selection, (2) transmission network expansion plan- ning, (3) network analysis, and (4) reliability analysis. The first two of these ity will be discussed in this chapter. ii In the past, the tansmi i 1.4 TRANSMISSION ROUTE IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION Figure 1.5 shows a typical transmission route (corridor) selection procedure The restricting factors affecting the process are safety, engineering and "The IEEE has redefined steady-state stability to include the manifestation formerly included in both steady-state and dynamic stability. The purpose of this change is to bring American Practice into agreement with international practice. Therefore, dynamic stability is no longer found in the [EEE publications unless the reviewers happened to overlook the old usage.able. ts of ing a es is stem inga bility ower lated study asient yower s the ritical onent argin. 5 and ed to circuit a, the in the G rather Today, These aission 1 plan- f these STION zedure. ng and cluded in American 10 longer asage. TRANSMISSION ROUTE IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION 11 Possible transmission routes Considerations. Satety Engineering System planning institutional Economics Aesthetics Unsuitable transmission routes Routes held for later evaluation Candidate transmission routes Proposed transmission routes Figure 1.5. Transmission route selection procedure. technology, system planning, institutional, economics, environmental, and aesthetics. Today, the planner selects the appropriate transmission route based on his knowledge of the system, results of the system analysis, and available rights of way. However, recently, two computer programs, Power and Transthetics, have been developed to aid the planner in transmission route identification and selection [1-3]. The Power computer program can be used to locate not only transmission line corridors but also other types of corridors. Whereas the transthetics computer program is specifically de- signed for electrical utilities for the purpose of identifying and selecting potential transmission line corridors and purchasing the necessary rights of way.12 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM PLANNING 1.5 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM EXPANSION PLANNING Today, the system planner, as mentioned in Section 1.2, mostly uses tools such as load-flow, stability, and short-circuit programs in analyzing the performance of specific transmission system alternatives. However, some utilities also employ the use of so-called automatic expansion models to determine the optimum system. Here, the optimality claim is in the mathe- matical sense; that is, the optimum system is the one that minimizes an objective function (performance function) subject to restrictions. In general, the automatic expansion models can be classified into three basic groups: 1. Heuristic models 2. Single-stage optimization models. 3. Time-phased optimization models. 1.5.1 Heuristic Models The primary advantage of the heuristic models is interactive planning; that is, the system planner can observe the expansion process and direct its direction as it is desired. According to Meckiff et al. [4], the characteristics of the heuristic models are (1) simple model and logic, (2) user interaction, and (3) families of feasible, near optimal plans. Whereas the characteristics of the mathematical programming models are (1) no user interaction, (2) fixed model by program formulation, (3) detailed logic or restriction set definition, and (4) single “global” solution. The heuristic models can be considered to be custom-made, contrary to mathematical models. Some help to simulate the way a system planner employs analytical tools such as load-flow programs [5, 6] and reliability analysis [6] involving simulations of the planning process through automated design logic. The classical paper by Garver [7] describes a method that unites heuristic logic for circuit selection with optimization techniques. The proposed method is to determine the most direct route transmission network from the generation to load without causing any circuit overloads. In heuristic approach, the best circuit addition or exchange is given to the planner by the computer program automatically at each stage of the synthesis process. The planner may select to accept it or modify it as he desires. Further information on heuristic models is given in Baldwin et al. [8-11]. 1.5.2 Single-Stage Optimization Models The single-stage or single-state (or so-called static) optimization models can be used for determining the optimum network expansion from one stage to the next. But they do not give the timing of the expansion. Therefore, even though they provide an optimum solution for year-by-year expansion, they | | |