Computer Networks and the Internet

Introduction to Computer Networks

A computer network, simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and devices

interconnected to facilitate sharing of resources such as printers, information, and electronic documents

Advantages of Computer Networks The advantages of interconnecting computing devices are discussed
in the following subsections:

➔ File Sharing The key benefit of a computer network is that it facilitates its users to share files, and to
access files that are stored on a remote computer.

➔ Resource Sharing Computer networks facilitate the users to share the limited and otherwise
expensive resources among a number of computing devices.

➔ Increased Storage Capacity Attaching a number of computers to the network enables sharing of files.
Files stored on one computer can easily be accessed by another computer. A standalone computer may
have limited storage capacity, but when several computers are connected together, the storage memory
of all these computers can be made available for each computer

➔ Increased Cost Efficiency The software packages available in the market are costly and take time for
installation. Computer networks are a feasible cost-efficient solution as they allow software to be stored
or installed on one computer which can then be shared among other computers connected on the same
network

➔ Load Sharing If one computer is designated to carry out all the jobs, then it is very likely that the
computer will slow down, thereby taking hours to complete all the jobs. Hence, a better option is to
transfer the extra jobs to another machine (connected on the same network) for execution. This greatly
improves the performance of the system

➔ Facilitating Communication Using a network, users can communicate efficiently and easily through
electronic mail (email) and instant messaging, thereby allowing the exchange of important messages in a
speedy manner without wasting paper

However, on the downside, the problems associated with computer networks are as follows:

If the server fails, the application cannot be accessed and can lead to data loss

If the server is hacked, it can lead to misuse of data

When the number of computers and computing devices exceed the permissible number, the
performance and efficiency of the system can decrease considerably

Network management is a difficult and tedious job

Types of Networks These days, different types of networks are widely used, both in homes and in
businesses. These networks are categorized based on their scale and scope, preferences for networking
industries, and their design and Implementation issues.

LAN - Local Area Network

WAN - Wide Area Network

MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

CAN - Campus Area Network or Corporate Area Network

PAN - Personal Area Network

P2P - Peer-to-Peer Network

LAN was first invented for communication between two computers. However, later, with growth in
technology, it was used to connect computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as homes,
schools, computer laboratories, office buildings, or a closely positioned group of buildings. Owing to the
limited scope and cost of operation, LANs are typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single
person or organization. A LAN can be one of two types - wired and wireless. While a wired LAN may use
the ethernet cable to physically connect all computers on the network, the wireless LAN on the other
hand, uses radio waves for communication and eliminates the need for wires.

Tip LANs are the preferred networks because they have higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic
range, and there is no need for leased telecommunications lines.

WANs span a large geographic area such as a city, country, or even intercontinental distances, using a
communication channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air
waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone
companies. It can be created by linking LANs together. WANs generally utilize different and much more
expensive networking equipment than LANs

Tip The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically dispersed collection
of LANs. A LAN can be easily connected to a WAN by using a special network device called ROUTER.

MAN is a network that interconnects computers and other devices in a geographical area or region
larger than that covered by even a large LAN, but smaller than that covered by a WAN. A MAN may
interconnect networks in a city, a campus, or a community to form a single larger network (which may
then be connected to a WAN). It may be formed by interconnecting several LANs by bridging them with
backbone lines with the help of fibre optic cables.

Tip In areas where cabling is not possible to connect all LANs to form a MAN, wireless alternatives such
as microwave, radio, or infrared laser links can be used

MANs use technologies adopted from both LANs and WANs. A MAN can be distinguished from a LAN or
WAN in the following ways:

The size of the network lies in between that of a LAN and a WAN. A MAN typically covers an area of 5-50
square km. Many MANs can cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases they may be as small
as a group of buildings

A MAN (as with a WAN) is usually not owned by a single individual or an organization. It is generally
owned by either a consortium of users or by a network service provider who sells the service to the
users

A MAN is a high-speed network that allows sharing of regional resources

CAN is a computer network created by interconnecting LANs within a limited geographical area. The
network is almost entirely owned by the campus of an enterprise, university, government, military
bases, etc. The size of the area that CANs covers is larger than that of LANs and smaller than that of
MANs or WANs. CAN are typically designed for the particular place that hits the highest point level. For
example, in case of a university having multiple labs, or multiple buildings, it is called the campus are
network and in case of organization with multiple offices or multiple departments in the buildings it is
termed as the corporate area network.

Tip These days, CANs are mostly formed using the wireless communication mediums rather than cables
and wirings because wireless communication has become more economical than the use of long wires
and cables

PAN is a computer network designed for communication between computer devices such as mobile
computers and cellphones that are close to one person. The scope or the reach of a PAN is a few meters
(less than 10 metres). PANs are basically used to communicate with the personal devices themselves or
for connecting to a higher-level network and the Internet. PANs can either be wired with computer
buses such as universal serial bus (USB) and FireWire or be wireless with network technologies such as
infrared and Bluetooth. Bluetooth PANs are also called PICONETS. PANs can be used to transfer files
including e-mails, calendar appointments, digital photos, and music.

Tip These days, PANs are also used to enable wearable computer devices to communicate with other
nearby computers and exchange digital information using the electrical conductivity of the human body
as a data network. For example, two people can wear business-card-sized transmitters and receivers to
exchange information by shaking hands. We all know that human body is a good conductor of electricity.
When two people shake hands, an electric field passes tiny currents and the electric circuit becomes
complete, thereby enabling each person’s data, such as e-mail addresses and phone numbers, to be
transferred to the other person’s laptop computer or a similar device

P2P is a type of network in which each computer has the same capabilities and responsibilities. This is in
contrast to a client-server or master-slave architecture in which some computers have higher
capabilities (called server) than the other (clients). Though P2P networks are simple, they may give low
performance under heavy loads.

Tip These networks are widely used on the Internet to share files, printers, and other devices among
different users. To exchange files users must first download a P2P networking program (Gnutella, Kazaa,
BitTorrent, Skype)

Physical Components of a Network The three primary physical components of a network include the
following: 1. Connecting Media - includes both wired and wireless media through which the signals are
sent from one computer to another. 2. Connecting Devices - includes different devices such as switches,
routers, hubs, bridges, which are used to connect the computers. 3. Network Topologies - defines the
layout of the network

Wired Media Computers and other computing devices can be connected by different kinds of media
such as twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fibres
Twisted-pair Wires Consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs, are the most widely used for
telecommunication.

Tip They are cheap and easy to install and use. However, these cables easily pick up noise signals, and
thus become prone to error when their length extends beyond 100 meters

Coaxial Cables Are a highly preferred connecting medium for cable television systems and for connecting
the computers within an office building or within short distances to form a network.

Tip The coaxial cable is highly resistant to signal interference and can support greater cable lengths
between network devices than twisted-pair cables. However, the downside of this cable is that it is
difficult to install

Fibre Optic Cables Constructed in several layers. The core is the actual glass, or fibre conductor, which is
covered with a refractive coating called cladding the causes the light to travel in a controlled path along
the entire length of the glass core. The next layer is a protective covering or an insulating jacket made of
teflon or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to protect the core and coating from any kind of damage. It also
prevents light from escaping the assembly. Optical fibre cables carry data as pulses of light. They
transmit light that can travel over extended distances. Fibre optic cables are not affected by
electromagnetic radiation and are thus best suited for certain environments that contain large amounts
of electrical interference. The transmission speed of an optical fibre cable is hundreds of times more
than that of coaxial cables, and thousands of times more than that of twisted-pair wires. This capacity
has helped broaden communication possibilities by including services.

Tip These days, the trend is moving towards using coloured light rather than white light. Initially, only
one message could be carried in a stream of white light impulses, but with this technology, multiple
signals can be carried simultaneously.

Wireless Media The wireless technologies that connect computers and other devices to form a network
include terrestrial microwave, communication satellites, cellular systems, and infrared systems.

Terrestrial Microwaves Terrestrial microwaves use earth-based transmitters and receivers. Microwave
antennas are usually placed on the top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks, and resemble
satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use the low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to
the line-of-sight. Two relay stations are separated by approximately 40km

Satellite Communication In satellite communication, signals are transferred between the sender and
receiver using a satellite that is stationed in space, typically 35,400 km (for geosynchronous satellites)
above the equator. In this process, the signal, which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves, is
sent towards the satellite. The satellite amplifies the received signal and transmits it back to the
receiver’s antenna present on the earth’s surface. This means that all the transfer of signal happens in
space. Satellites can be used to relay voice, data, and TV signals.

Infrared Communication Infrared light is widely used by TV and video cassette recorder (VCR) remote
controls. In computers, infrared technology enables computing devices to communicate via short-range
wireless signals. Infrared signals are used to transfer digital data. Infrared communication has become
an alternative to cables and provides a point-to-point, low-cost way to connect computers with each
other or with other devices and appliances. Moreover, cellular phones are also equipped with infrared
ports to enable them to be connected to a computer for dial-up networking connections.

Tip Infrared signals can only be transmitted within small distances (not more than 10 meters face-to-
face) without any object in the line of transmission

Networking Devices Computer networking devices are communication devices that enable the users to
create a network. These devices that enable the users to create a network. These devices are also
known as network equipment, intermediate systems (IS) or interworking unit (IWU)

Hub Is a device to which different devices are connected so that they can communicate with each other.
Every computer on the network is directly connected with the hub. When data packets arrive at a hub, it
broadcasts them to all the devices connected to it. Hence, every device picks the message but only the
destined device processes the packet and all other computers just discard them. A hub is not an
intelligent device; its main function is to amplify the signal and broadcast them to all the devices
connected to it

Repeater Network repeaters are electronic devices that regenerate incoming electrical, wireless, or
optical signals. Without a repeater, the data can only span a limited distance before the quality of the
signal degrades. Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity by removing unwanted noise from
incoming signal, restoring the weak/distorted signal, thereby extending the distance over which data
can safely travel. A repeater connects two segments of the network cable. It regenerates the signals
before sending it to the other segments, but this regeneration requires a small amount of time. This can
cause a propagation delay, which can affect network communication, especially when there are several
repeaters in a row. To avoid such a long delay, many network architectures limit the number of
repeaters that can be used in a row

Switch A switch is a device that can be used in all places where a hub is used. However, it is much better
than the hub because a switch table stores the address of every computer or device connected to it and
sends the data only to the destined device rather than broadcast the data to all the device connected to
it. Therefore, the switch is considered to be an intelligent device as it selects the devices among many
devices connected to it to forward the data

Bridge A bridge is a device that connects two or more LANs. When a bridge receives data from one LAN
to forward it to another LAN, it first regenerates (or amplifies) the signals and then forwards the data to
the other LAN. Amplification ensures that the devices on the network receive accurate information.
Otherwise, the signals become weaker as they travel, and a 1 sent by the transmitting device may be
interpreted as a 0 by the receiving device

Router A router is an intelligent device that routes data to destination computers. It is basically used to
connect two logically and physically different networks, two LANs, two WANs, and a LAN with WAN. The
routers use special software known as routing table that stores the addresses of devices connected to
the network

Gateway A gateway is a very complicated networking device that is basically used to connect two or
more dissimilar networks that use entirely different protocols (a set of rules that must be followed to
exchange information). For example, if you know only English but want to talk to a person who knows
only French, then you need a translator to facilitate your communication
Network Interface Card One can use the phone service through a telephone device. Similarly, one can
use the network services through a network interface card (NIC), also known as the network adapter or
the LAN card. That is, no computer can communicate to other devices without a properly installed and
configured LAN card. The communication cables that connect different devices to form a network are
connected via this card. NIC are available in two varieties - wired and wireless. While most modern
desktop computers use a wired NIC, the laptops, on the other hand, come with both wired and wireless
LAN cards. However, if your computer does not have an NIC, then you may use a USB-based adaptor
that can be plugged into the USB port of the computer. This is a portable adaptor and is again in two
varieties - wired and wireless

Internet’

The Internet The internet is the world’s most popular computer network. It began as an academic
research project in 1969, and became a global commercial network in the 1990s. Today it is used by 4
billion out of the 7 billion people around the world. The internet is notable for its decentralization. No
one owns the internet or controls who can connect to it. Instead, thousands of different organizations
operate their own networks and negotiate voluntary interconnection agreements. Most people access
internet content using a web browser. Indeed, the web has become so popular that many people
incorrectly treat the internet and the web as synonymous. But in reality, the web is just one of many
internet applications. Other popular Internet applications include email and BitTorrent

Where is the Internet? The internet has three basic parts:

● The LAST MILE is the part of the internet that connects homes and small businesses to the internet.
The last mile also includes the towers that allow people to access the internet with their cell phones.
Wireless internet service accounts for a large and growing share of all internet usage.

● DATA CENTERS are rooms full of servers that store user data and host online apps and content. Some
are owned by large companies such as Google and Facebook. Others are commercial facilities that
provide service to many smaller websites. Data centers have very fast internet connections, allowing
them to serve many users simultaneously. Data centers can be located anywhere in the world, but they
are often located in remote areas where land and electricity are cheap. For example, Google, Facebook,
and Microsoft have all constructed vast data centers in Iowa.

● The BACKBONE consists of long-distance networks — mostly on fiber optic cables — that carry data
between data centers and consumers. The backbone market is highly competitive. Backbone providers
frequently connect their networks together at internet exchange points, usually located in major cities

Internet Access To gain access to the internet, the user has to register or subscribe to any Internet
Service Provider (ISP).

Types of Internet Connection:

● Dial-up

● Cable Internet
● Digital Subscriber Line

● Satellite Internet

● Fixed Wireless Internet

● Fiber Internet

● Cellular Internet

Dial-up Refers to connecting a device to a network via a modem and a public telephone network. Dial-up
access is really just like a phone connection, except that the parties at the two ends are computer
devices rather than people. Because dial-up access uses normal telephone lines, the quality of the
connection is not always good and data rates are limited. In the past, the maximum data rate with dial-
up access was 56 Kbps (56,000 bits per second).

Cable Internet Cable is one of the most common types of internet connections, and you'll often find it
bundled in with home phone service and TV packages. That makes sense, because cable internet uses
the same coaxial connections as cable TV. How it works is your internet service provider, or ISP, will send
a technician to your residence to ensure that your home has the right wiring for the job. Then, they'll
use coaxial cables to connect that wiring with a modem or wireless gateway. At the other end of that
connection is a neighborhood node that services all the homes in the area. That's where your
connectivity comes from. With a cable connection, your internet speeds will vary based on your area,
the internet plan you select, and other factors. Average download speeds can range from 10 to 500
megabits per second.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) DSL refers to a digital subscriber line, and you'll often find it available in
areas where you might not have access to cable or fiber internet. With DSL, your connection to the
internet runs through your phone lines. Unlike dial-up, however, where it would disrupt your connection
with a call, with DSL, you can use your internet without having to worry about an incoming call
disrupting your connection.

Two primary types of DSL connections

Symmetric Symmetric offers equal upload and download speeds.

Asymmetric Asymmetric offers higher download speeds and lower upload speeds

Satellite Internet Satellite internet is one of the most widely available types of internet, because it
doesn't rely on ground-laid infrastructure like cables, cellular towers or line-of-sight antenna
connections. Instead, you'll use a special dish to connect with satellites orbiting far overhead. If you have
a clear view of the sky, there's a pretty good chance that there's a satellite provider capable of delivering
an internet connection to your home. To set it up, your provider will come out to install a satellite dish
either on the roof of your home or in the ground facing southward. It's best suited for those living in
rural areas without access to other options, especially since bad weather and other obstructions could
affect your service in ways that you can't control. On average, today's satellite internet providers offer
speeds that typically vary from 12 to 100 Mbps. In most cases, that makes it a suitable option for smaller
households who want to stream video, play games and upload files online. Satellite service tends to be a
bit on the expensive side, but that's because it often reaches areas where it doesn't have to compete
with other technologies

Fixed Wireless Internet Another option for rural communities is fixed wireless internet. How it works is
you install an antenna on your roof. The antenna picks up a signal transmitted from a wireless hub to
give you an internet connection. Fixed wireless connections work best for communities that lack the
resources needed for DSL. To receive the strongest signal, you'll want to place your antenna in an area
with a clear view of the sky. If there are hills, trees or other obstacles nearby, it can distort your
connection. Fixed wireless internet speeds range from 5 to 50 Mbps, but there are many variables that
can affect the quality of the incoming signal, so your mileage may vary. That said, many providers offer
gracious data caps, allowing you to access the internet as much as you need.

Fiber Internet Like the name suggests, fiber refers to an internet connection that comes to your home
via fiber-optic cable, which uses pulses of light along thin strands -- or fibers -- of glass or plastic to
transmit data. It's the fastest of traditional internet connections, with download speeds as fast as 2
gigabits (2,000 Mbps). That's fast enough to download a two-hour movie in HD in less than a minute.
Fiber internet is much, much faster than cable internet because of those fiber-optic cables. With cable
internet, your internet traffic travels along copper cables, which results in distortion and slower speeds.
Fiber-optic cables, on the other hand, reduce distortion, which is why you'll be able to download games,
stream movies and more in the blink of an eye. There are only two real disadvantages to fiber internet.
One, it can be expensive, and two, it isn't available everywhere. Laying enough fiber-optic cables into
the ground to connect entire cities and regions is a huge logistical challenge, and with lots of
competition and red tape to cut through, it's been slow going for any of the major service providers to
expand coverage to underserved areas.

Cellular Internet Another option is to draw internet service over the air, from a cellular connection. With
this option, your cell phone carrier connects your router or hotspot to the cellular tower nearest you,
just like it does with your phone. The speeds can vary based on where you live and how close you are to
a tower. If you're living in a city or another area with strong cellular infrastructure, then you might be
able to connect over 5G. You'll also find cellular internet plans that use LTE, the previous generation of
technology. Another option is to use your phone as a hotspot, which means it'll take the incoming
cellular signal and rebroadcast it out as a Wi-Fi signal that other devices can use to access the internet
without wires. Just be aware that your download speeds will vary depending on your carrier, your
location and other factors like network congestion. That's why it's a good idea to check with your
provider for a better sense of the speeds you'll receive, and to see if they have any dedicated cellular
internet plans that you might be able to bundle with your phone service at a discount

CHOOSING INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP) Below are some things to consider when choosing
Internet Service Provider (ISP): ● Speed ● Price ● Ease of Installation ● Service Record ● Technical
Support ● Contract Terms

INTERNET REQUIREMENTS ● Computer with modem/router/network card (NIC). ● Internet account with
ISP. ● Application software: ○ Web browser (ex. Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, etc.) ○ Email client (MS
Outlook) ○ Plugins software (Adobe Reader, Flash Player) ● Optional: Speaker, Printer, Webcam