IMOmath - General Properties of Polynomials
IMOmath - General Properties of Polynomials
General Properties of Polynomials
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Polynomials (Table of contents)
General Properties of Polynomials
A monomial in variable x is an expression of the form cxk , where c is a constant and k a
nonnegative integer. Constant c can be e.g. an integer, rational, real or complex number.
A polynomial in x is a sum of finitely many monomials in x. In other words, it is an expression
of the form
n
P (x) = an x + an−1 + ⋯ + a1 x + a0 . (∗)
If only two or three of the above summands are nonzero, P is said to be a binomial and
trinomial, respectively.
Example
3
P (x) = x (x + 1) + (1 − x )
2 2
= 2x
4
+ x
3
− 2x
2
+ 1 is a polynomial with integer
coefficients of degree 4.
Q(x) = 0x
2
− √2x + 3 is a linear polynomial with real coefficients.
−− −−−−−
, S (x) and T (x) are not polynomials.
2 1
R(x) = √x = |x| = = √2x + 1
x
Any two polynomials can be added, subtracted or multiplied, and the result will be a polynomial
too:
n m
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A(x) + x + ⋯ + , B(x) = b + b x + ⋯ + b 1/6
7/16/2016 IMOmath: General Properties of Polynomials
n m
A(x) = a0 + a1 x + ⋯ + an x , B(x) = b0 + b1 x + ⋯ + bm x
The behavior of the degrees of the polynomials under these operations is clear:
Theorem 1.1
The conventional equality deg 0 = −∞ actually arose from these properties of degrees, as
else the equality (b) would not be always true.
Unlike a sum, difference and product, a quotient of two polynomials is not necessarily a
polynomial. Instead, like integers, they can be divided with a residue.
Theorem 1.2
Hide proof
Example
The quotient upon division of A(x) = x
3
+ x
2
− 1 by B(x) = x
2
− x − 3 is x + 2
with the residue 5x + 5 , as
3 2
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7/16/2016 IMOmath: General Properties of Polynomials
3 2
x + x − 1 5x + 5
= x + 2 + .
2 2
x − x − 3 x − x − 3
Theorem 1.3 (Bezout’s theorem)
Hide proof
Example
Polynomial x2 − 2x − 1 has two real roots: x1,2 = 1 ± √2 .
Polynomial x2 − 2x + 2 has no real roots, but it has two complex roots: x1,2 = 1 ± i .
More generally, the following simple statement holds.
Theorem 1.4
Problem 1
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7/16/2016 IMOmath: General Properties of Polynomials
For which n is the polynomial xn + x − 1 divisible by (a) x2 − x + 1 , (b) x3 − x + 1 ?
Hide solution
1±i√3
(a) The zeros of polynomial x2 − x + 1 are ϵ1,2 = . If x2 − x + 1 divides
2
ϵ
n
i
= 1 − ϵi = ϵ
−1
i
. Since ϵk = 1 if and only if 6 ∣ k , the answer is n = 6i − 1 .
such n .
Every nonconstant polynomial with complex coefficients has a complex root. This result is
called the fundamental theorem of algebra and we will prove it later. For now, we are going to
take it for granted and explore some of its consequences.
The following statement is analogous to the unique factorization theorem in arithmetics.
Theorem 1.5
Hide proof
First we show the uniqueness. Suppose that
Comparing the leading coefficients yields c = d . We may assume w.l.o.g. that there are
no i, j for which xi = yj (otherwise the factor x − xi can be canceled on both sides).
Then P (x1 ) = 0 . On the other hand, P (x1 ) = d(x1 − y1 ) ⋯ (x1 − yn ) ≠ 0 , a
contradiction.
assumption there exist complex numbers x2 , … , xn for which
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(x) = c(x − ) ⋯ (x − ) 4/6
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Corollary
Grouping equal factors yields the canonical representation:
α1 α2 αk
P (x) = c(x − a1 ) (x − a2 ) ⋯ (x − ak ) ,
Theorem 1.6
Theorem 1.7
If a polynomial P is divisible by two coprime polynomials Q and R , then it is divisible by
Q ⋅ R.
Remark: This can be shown without using the existence of roots. By the Euclidean algorithm
applied on polynomials there exist polynomials K and L such that K Q + LR = 1 . Now if
P = QS = RT for some polynomials R, S , then R(K T − LS ) = K QS − LRS = S ,
and therefore R ∣ S and QR ∣ QS = P .
If polynomial P (x) = x
n
+ ⋯ + a1 x + a0 with real coefficients has a complex zero ξ , then
¯¯ ¯¯¯¯¯ ¯¯ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
P ( ξ) = ξ
n
+ ⋯ + a1 ξ + a0 = P (ξ) = 0 . Thus:
Theorem 1.8
¯¯
If ξ is a zero of a real polynomial P (x) , then so is ξ .
complex zeros:
¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯
¯
P (x) = (x − r 1 ) ⋯ (x − r k )(x − ξ1 )(x − ξ1 ) ⋯ (x − ξl )(x − ξl ),
Theorem 1.9
A real polynomial P (x) has a unique factorization (up to the order) of the form
2 2
P (x) = (x − r 1 ) ⋯ (x − r k )(x − p1 x + q1 ) ⋯ (x − pl x + ql ),
It follows that a real polynomial of an odd degree always has an odd number of zeros (and at
least one).
Polynomials (Table of contents)
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