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Data is the information expressed in any format. The format of data should be
negotiated ahead by the information creator and receiver. For example, a picture
can be abstracted into infinite pixels and the pixels are expressed in a certain
format, and thus this picture can be stored in the storage medium. Text, number,
picture, audio, and video are common information formats.
Data communication is a process of data exchange between two devices through
a transmission medium, such as the cable.

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A data communication system consists of the message, sender, receiver, medium,
and protocol.
Message:
A message is a data block in communication. The text, number, picture, voice, and
video are coded and transmitted as messages.
Sender:
The sender is a device that sends the message. The sender can be a PC, a
workstation, a server, or a mobile phone.
Receiver:
The receiver is a device that receives the message. The receiver can be a PC, a
workstation, a server, a mobile phone, or a television.
Medium:
The media is a physical channel for the message to be transfered from the sender
to the receiver. The medium can be the twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber, or
radio wave.
Protocol:
The protocol is a group of rules that manages data communication. The protocol is
a group of conventions used between communication devices. Without the
protocol, two devices cannot communicate, although they are physically
connected. A person who speaks only English cannot communicate with a person
who speaks only Chinese.

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Simplex mode:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. One device can only send
messages, and the other one can only receive messages. A keyboard and a monitor
work in simplex mode. A keyboard can only input information, and a monitor can only
receive the output information.
Half-duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, each device can send and receive messages, but a device cannot
send messages and receive messages at the same time. When one device is sending
message, the other one can only receive message, and vice versa. Two interphones
work in half-duplex mode.
Full-duplex mode:
In full-duplex mode, both devices can send and receive messages at the same time. A
telephony network works in full-duplex mode.

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A network is a complex system interconnected formed by interconnected people or things.
Networks exist everywhere in our life, for example, the telephony network and telegraph
network. There are also many network systems in one's body, for example, the nerve system
and the digestive system.

The computer network is a large-scale and powerful system that connects computers and
peripheral devices in different areas through communication lines. In the computer network,
substantive computers can exchange information and share information resources. The
computer network was developed to meet the requirement for exchanging information and
sharing information resources.

In the initial stage of the computer network, each computer is an independent device.
Computers work independently and do not communicate with each another. Combination of
the computing technology and communication technology brings a far-reaching influence to
the organization of the computer system and makes possible the communication among
computers. Computers of different types use the same protocol to communicate, and thus the
computer network comes into being.

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In recent years, the computer network is developing rapidly. The computer communications
network and the Internet have become the basic part of the
society. The computer network is applied to many fields of industry and commerce, including e-
bank, e-commerce, modernized enterprise management,
and information service. Remote education, government routines, and ecommunity cannot
work without the network technology. The saying "network exists everywhere in the world" is
not an exaggerated statement.

The computer network came into being in 1960s. At that time, the network was a host-based
low-speed serial connection providing program running, remote printing, and data service. The
System Network Architecture (SNA) of IBM and X.25 public data network are such kind of
network. In 1960s, the defense department of US funded a packet switching network called
ARPANET, which was the earliest rudiment of the Internet.

In 1970s, the commercial computing mode, which featured personal computers, came forth.
Initially, personal computers were used as independent devices. Because of the complexity of
commercial computing, many terminal devices needed to cooperate, and thus the local area
network (LAN) was developed. The LAN lowers the expense on printers and disks dramatically.

In 1980s and 1990s, to deal with the increasing demand on remote computing, the computer
industry developed many wide area network protocols (including TCP/IP and IPX/SPX). Then the
Internet was expanded fast. Now TCP/IP is extensively used on the Internet.

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The topology defines the organization of devices in a network. A LAN can adopt various
topologies, such as the bus topology and star topology.

In the bus topology, all devices are connected to a linear network medium, which is called the
bus. When a node transmits data in a network adopting the bus topology, the data reaches all
nodes. Each node checks the data. If the data is not sent to this node, the node discards the
data. If the data is sent to this node, the node accepts the data and transfers the data to the
upper layer protocol. A typical bus topology has simple layout of lines. Such layout uses short
network mediums, and thus, the expense on cables is low. However, this topology makes it
difficult to diagnose and isolate faults. Once a fault occurs, the entire network will be affected.
In addition, each device in the LAN sends data to all the other devices, which consumes large
amount of bandwidth, and thus lowering the network performance.

In the star topology, devices are connected to a central control point. A device communicates
with another device through the point-to-point connection between it and the hub or switch.
The start topology is easy to design and install, because network mediums connect the hub or
switch and workstations. The star topology is easy to maintain, because the network can be
easily modified and network faults can be easily be located. The star topology is extensively
used in LAN construction. Of course the star topology has its weakness. Once the central
control device becomes faulty, the single point failure may be occur. In addition, a network
medium can connect only one device, so large amount of network mediums are needed and
the LAN installation cost increases.

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These topologies are logical structures and are not necessarily related to the physical
structure of devices. For example, logical bus and ring topologies usually adopt the
physical star structure. A WAN usually adopts the star, tree, full-meshed, or half-meshed
topology.

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The Internet is a large network formed by networks and devices. Based on the covered
geographic scope, networks are classified into LAN, WAN, and
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) whose size is between the LAN and WAN.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is formed by connected communication devices in a small area. A LAN covers a room, a
building, or an industry garden. A LAN covers several
kilometers. It is a combination of computers, printers, modems, and other devices
interconnected through various mediums within several kilometers.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN covers a larger geographic scope, such as a state or a continent. It provides the data
communication service in a large area and is used to connect LANs. The China Packet Network
(CHINAPAC), China Data Digital Network (CHINADDN), China Education and Research network
(CERnet), CHINANET, and abuilding China Next Generation Internet (CNGI) are all WANs. A
WAN connects LANs that are far from each other.

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A LAN is formed by interconnected communication devices in a small area, such as a room, a
building, and an industry garden. In general, a LAN covers several kilometers. The LAN is featured
by short distance, low delay, high data transmission speed, and high reliability.

Common LANs are Ethernet and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). They are different in
topology, transmission speed, and data format. Ethernet is the most widely used LAN.

The following network devices are used in LAN construction: Cables: A LAN is extended by cables.
Various cables are used in LANs, for example, the fiber, twisted pair, and coaxial cable. Network
Interface Card (NIC): An NIC is inserted in the main board slot of a computer. It transforms the
data to the format that other network devices can identify and transmits the data through the
network medium.

Hub: A hub is a shared device that provides many network interfaces to connect computers in
the network. The hub is called a shared device because all its interfaces share a bus. At a
moment, only one user can transmit data, and so the data amount and speed of each user
(interface) depends on the number of active users (interfaces).

Switch: also called a switched hub. A switch also provides many interfaces to connect network
nodes but its performance is much higher than that of a shared hub. It can be considered to have
many buses so that devices connected to each interface can independently transmit data without
affecting other devices. For users, the interfaces are independent of each other and have fixed
bandwidth. In addition, a switch has some functions that a hub lacks, such as data filtering,
network segmentation, and broadcast control.

Router: A router is a computer device used to connect networks. A router works at the third

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layer (network layer) of the OSI model and is used to route, store, and forward packets
between networks. Generally, a router supports two or more network protocols so that it
can connect networks of different types. A router can also run dynamic routing protocols
to dynamically route packets.
ATM switch: used to connect ATM networks.

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A WAN covers a larger geographic scope, such as a state or a continent. The China Packet Network
(CHINAPAC), China Data Digital Network (CHINADDN), China Education and Research network (CERnet),
CHINANET, and a in building China Next Generation Internet (CNGI) are all WANs.

A WAN connects LANs that are far from each other. It consists of the end system (users on two ends)
and the communication system (the link between two ends).
The communication system is the key of the WAN and it falls into the following types:
Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN): a dial-up connection mode. The ISDN BRI provides 2B+D data
channels. Each B channel provides the speed of 64 kbps and the highest speed can be 128 kbps. The
ISDN PRI has two standards: the European standard (30B+D) and the North America standard (23B+D).
The ISDN uses the data transmission mode, which features fast connection and high reliability. Two
devices in the ISDN can identify the number of each other. The call cost of the ISND is higher than that of
the ordinary telephony network, but the double-channel structure supports two independent lines. The
ISND is applicable to individual subscribers or small offices.

Leased Line: called DDN in China. It is a point-to-point connection that transmits data at the speed of 64
kbps to 2.048 Mbps. The leased line guarantees data transmission and provides constant bandwidth, but
the cost is high and the point-to-point structure is not very flexible.

X.25: a WAN type that appeared early and is still in extensive use at present. It transmits data at the
speed of 9600 bit/s to 2 Mbps. X.25 adopts the redundant mode and is fault tolerant, so it features high
reliability. But the transmission speed is low and the delay is high.

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Frame Relay: a new technology developed on the basis of X.25. The transmission
speed is between 64 kbps and 2.048 Mbps. The Frame Relay is
flexible. It implements point-to-multipoint connection. In addition, FR can transmit
data at a speed that exceeds the Committed Information Rate (CIR) when large
amount of data needs to be transmitted, and it allows certain burst traffic. For
these reasons, FR is a good choice for business subscribers.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM): a cell exchange network that features high
speed, low delay, and guaranteed transmission quality. Most of ATM network use
fibers as the connection medium. The fiber provides a high speed of over 1 gigabit,
but the cost is also high. ATM is also a WAN protocol.

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The WAN operates in a scope larger than that of the LAN. In the WAN, access is implemented
through various serial connections. Generally, enterprise networks are connected to the local ISP
through the WAN lines. The WAN provides fulltime and part-time connections. In the WAN, serial
interfaces can work at different speeds.

The following devices are used in the WAN:

Router: In the WAN, messages are sent to the destination according to the address. The process of
looking for the transmission path is called routing. A router establishes routes between WANs and
LANS according to the addresses and sends the data to the destination.

Modem: As the device used to transform signals between the end system and communication
system, a modem is the indispensable device in a WAN. Modems are classified into synchronous
modem and asynchronous modem. The synchronous modem is connected to the synchronous
serial interface and is applied to the leased line, Frame Relay, and X.25. The asynchronous modem
is connected to the asynchronous serial interface and is applied to the PSTN.

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ARPAnet solves the problem of network robustness. That is, once a device fault or link fault occurs,
data transmission must be ensured between any two nodes if the two nodes are physically
connected. For the high ability of self-healing, ARPAnet meets the requirement in wars. It comes
of the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).

In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) established the NSFnet. NSF established a WAN
consisting of regional networks and connected these regional networks to the super computer
center. In June 1990, the NFSnet took the place of the ARPAnet and became the backbone
network of the Internet. Owing to the NSFnet, the Internet is open to the public, while it was only
used by computer science researchers and governments before.

The second leap of the Internet was attributed to the commercialization in early of the 1990s. As
soon as commercial organizations entered the world of Internet, they found the great potential of
Internet in communications, information searching, and customer service. Then numerous
enterprises in the world swarmed into the Internet, which resulted in a new leap of the Internet.
In 1995, NSFnet came to an end and it was replaced by a new Internet backbone network
operated by multiple private companies.

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Currently, the Internet is not a simple hierarchy, instead, it is formed by many WANs and
LANs connected by connecting devices and exchange devices. End users are connected to
the Internet through the service provided by Internet service providers (ISPs). ISPs are
classified into international service providers, national service providers, regional ISPs, and
local ISPs.

International service provider

An international service provider connects networks of different countries.

National service provider (NSP)

A national service provider operates on backbone networks that are built and maintained by
professional companies. These backbone networks are connected by complicated switching
devices (usually operated by the third party) so that end users can be connected to the
backbone network. The switching devices are called network access points (NAPs). NAPs
transmit data at a high speed.

Regional ISP
A regional ISP is a small ISP connected to one or more NSPs. Regional ISPs transmit data at
a lower speed.

Local ISP
A local ISP provides service for end users. A local ISP is connected to a regional ISP or an
NSP. Most end users are connected to local ISPs.

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NAP
An NAP connects backbone networks. It is usually a complicated switching workstation
operated by the third party.

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A network protocol is a set of formats and conventions stipulated and observed by communication
parties so that devices in different computer networks can communicate. A network protocol is
the standardized description of a series of rules and conventions. It defines how network devices
exchange information. Network protocols are basis of the computer network. Only the devices
that comply with related network protocols (laws for interconnected devices in the network) can
communicate with each other. Any device that does not comply with the network protocol cannot
communicate with other devices.

What is a protocol? Take the telegraph for example. Before sending a telegraph, the two parties
must define the transmission format of the telegraph, for example, what signal indicates the start,
what signal indicates the end, how to handle errors, and how to express the name and address of
the sender. The predefined format and convention is a protocol.

Network protocols include the Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), Internetwork
Packet eXchange/Sequenced Packet eXchange (Novell
IPX/SPX), and IBM System Network Architecture (SNA). The most widely used protocol is the
TCP/IP stack, which has become the standard protocol of the Internet.

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A standard is a set of rules and processes that are widely used or defined by the government.
A standard describes stipulations in a protocol and sets the simplest performance set for
guaranteeing network communications. IEEE 802.X is the dominant LAN standard.

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Many international standardization organizations made great contributions to development of
the computer network. They unify network standards so that
devices of different vendors can communicate with each other. Till now, the following
standardization organizations have made contributions to development of the computer
network.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

ISO stipulates standards for large-scale networks, including the Internet. The ISP brings forward
the OSI model that describes the working mechanism of network. The OSI model is a
comprehensible and clear hierarchical model of the computer network.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics (IEEE)

IEEE defines standards for network hardware so that hardware devices of different vendors can
communicate with each other. The IEEE LAN standard is
the dominant standard for LANs. IEEE defines the 802.X protocol suite. 802.3 is the standard
for the Ethernet; 802.4 is the standard for the token bus network; 802.5 is the standard for
token ring; 802.11 the standard fro the wireless local area network (WLAN).

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American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ANSI is an organization formed by companies, governments, and other members
voluntarily. The ANSI defines the standard for the fiber distribution data interface.
Electronic Industries Association/Telecomm Industries Association (EIA/TIA)
They define the standards for network cables, for example, RS232, CAT5, HSSI,
and V.24. They also define the standard for cabling, for example, EIA/TIA 568B.

International Telecomm Union (ITU)

They define the standard for the telecom network working as the WAN, for
example, X.25 and Frame Relay.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

Founded at the end of 1985, the IETF is responsible for researching and
establishing technical specifications related to the Internet. Now IETF has
become the most authoritative research institute in the global Internet field.

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IETF produces two types of files: Internet drafts and RFCs.

RFCs, which are used as standards, fall into the following types:
Proposals, namely, the recommended solutions Accepted standards that are used by all users
and cannot be changed Optimal practices, a kind of introduction IETF standards are called
RFCs, which are a series of files published by IETF.
In the past, RFC stood for Request for Comments. Now RFC is only a name without any special
meaning. Currently, RFCs are formal files. There are about 3700 RFC files. The first one is RFC
1 Host Software, which was published on April 7th, 1969.
Many Internet-related protocols, such as IP, OSPF, BGP, and MPLS, are defined by RFCs.

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A complete IP network consists of the backbone network, MAN, and access network.

Backbone network: a network connecting networks of different countries and cities.

MAN: the network between the backbone network and access network. It connects networks of
different areas in the same city. A MAN consists of the core layer, convergence layer, and access
layer.
Access network: layer-2 network under the access control policy. The access network is
responsible for access of end users. Users can connect to the Internet through xDSL and Ethernet.

The target networks of the IP MAN are:

• IP MAN
The IP MAN is a layer-3 routing network consisting of access control points (the BRAS and service
router) and the upstream routers.
The IP MAN consists of the core layer, convergence layer, and service access control layer.
• Broadband access network
The broadband access network is the layer-2 access network under the access control point.
The broadband access network consists of the layer-2 convergence network and the last-mile
access network.
The service plane logically falls into the access network plane for the public and the access
network plane for key customers.

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The MAN is the network between the backbone network and the access network.
The MAN connects networks of different areas in the same city.

The MAN provides the following services:

• Internet access for end users
Two access methods are provided: dial-up access and leased line access.
In dial-up access, users have different service attributes. In leased line access,
users in a group have the same service attributes. ADSL and LAN are extensively
used for Internet access. ADSL and LAN both support dial-up access and leased
line access.
• VPN service
To meet the increasing requirement of enterprises, a hot service Virtual Private
Network (VPN) is developed. A VPN is a virtual communications network
established in the public network based on the Internet Service Provider (ISP)
and Network Service Provider (NSP).

Based on the network layers, VPNs are divided into layer-2 VPN (L2VPN), layer-3
VPN (L3VPN), and Virtual Private Data Network (VPDN). VPDN is the access
service provided for enterprises and mobile staff of small ISPs through the dial-up
function of the public network and access network.

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Common Internet access modes are ADSL, Ethernet, and leased line. Generally, families use ADSL
access mode; communities use Ethernet access mode; corporate users use leased line access mode.
End users connect to the access network through layer-2 devices such as the broadband DSLAM
and LAN switch.
The access network does not control user access. It simply establishes the layer- 2 connection to
relay user information to upper layer devices. The access network is the combination of all access
devices. access users connect to the access layer through the Broadband Remote Access
Server (BRAS).

The convergence router or switch is located in the convergence layer to converge BRAS nodes to
the MAN devices and implement routing and forwarding.
The process for an end user to access the Internet is as follows:
1. The user initiates an access request. The layer-2 device in the access network establishes a layer-
2 connection and relays the access request to the BRAS.
2. The BRAS authenticates the user and assigns an IP address to the user.
3. After authentication, the BRAS routes the user packet to the convergence device, which then
forwards the packet. Then the user can access the Internet.

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VPN services are classified into L3VPN, L2VPN, and VPDN. Here we introduce the most widely used
type in the MAN, namely, L3VPN. The L3VPN falls into the IPSec VPN, GRE VPN, and BGP/MPLS VPN.

The BGP/MPLS VPN model consists of the CE, PE, and P.

Customer Edge (CE): The CE device has interfaces directly connected to the service provider's network.
A CE device can be a router, a switch, or a host.

Provider Edge (PE): The PE device is directly connected to the CE device. In an MPLS network, the PE is
exclusively responsible for processing the VPN service.
P (Provider): The P device is a backbone router in the service provider's network. The P device is not
directly connected to the CE. The P device forwards MPLS packets, but does not maintain the VPN
information.

In the BGP/MPLS VPN shown in the figure, corporate users A, B, and C can communicate like in a LAN.

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Generally, the performance of the backbone network is measured by the following factors:
Reliability:
Stable operation of backbone devices is the key of network stability. In network design, you need to
design a proper network architecture and establish a reliable backup policy to ensure the self-
healing ability of the network.
Flexibility and scalability:
The network should be expanded and upgraded smoothly for future service development. High
flexibility and scalability minimizes the affect of adjustment in network architecture and devices.
Flattened network:
Reduce the network layers and hop count to facilitate network management.
QoS planning:
Nowadays, the IP network carries not only simple Internet access service, but also VoIP, video, and
key customer services that requires high service quality. Therefore, support for QoS is the premise
for transformation from the IP network to the telecom network. Rational QoS planning is the key
for this transformation.
Operability and manageability:
Services in the network can be monitored in a centralized manner and managed based on their
weights. Bandwidth is allocated to services uniformly. Thus, the entire network is manageable.

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Plane hierarchical structure
The plane hierarchical structure is widely used in the traditional backbone network. At present,
most carriers in China still use this structure. The plane
hierarchical structure consists of the core backbone layer, core convergence layer, and core
access layer. The core backbone layer is divided into areas based on regions. Full connections or
half-connections are established between areas to enhance the robustness of the network. The
core convergence layer adopts the dual-home networking. Packets from the core convergence
layer are forwarded to the core backbone devices in the local area or other areas through two
channels.

Plane and space hierarchical structure

This structure is divided into planes to carry different services. Normally, the service on one plane
is not affected by the service on another plane. When a
fault occurs to a plane, another plane becomes the backup of the faulty one. In network design,
all planes are designed to carry all services. The plane and space hierarchical structure features
clear architecture, high backup capability, and high security, and so it can meet the requirement
for carrying multiple services.

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1. What parts does the data communication system consist of?
The data communication system consists of the message, sender, receiver, medium, and
protocol.
2. What types are networks divided into?
Networks are divided into three types: LAN, MAN, and WAN. The type of a network is
determined by the size, owner, covered scope, and physical structure of the network.
3. List some standardization organization.
ISO, ITU-T, IETF, IEEE
4. What parts does a typical IP network consist of?
An IP network consists of the backbone network, MAN, and access network.

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