OFFSHORE EXPORATION

The term "Offshore ", when used in relation to hydrocarbons, refers to operations
undertaken at, or under the, sea in association with an oil , natural gas or condensate
field that is under the seabed , or to activities carried out in relation to such a field.
Offshore is part of the upstream sector of the oil and gas industry while the word
exploration pertaining to the oil and gas industry is the search by petroleum
geologists and geophysicists for deposits of hydrocarbons, particularly petroleum and
natural gas, in the Earth using petroleum geology.
Offshore exploration can therefore be defined as all activities involved in the search
of oil and gas deposits situated at sea some distance from the shore. As a first step, it
is necessary make indirect exploration, which, if it is successful, goes to a direct
exploration, and if that is also successful, ends finally in an exploitation.

1. Indirect methods searching for the resources (oil and gas) offshore using
geophysical methods: Magnetic survey or register, gravimetric survey, and
seismic survey.

A) Magnetic survey or register

Consist in the register of the magnetic fields of the rocks, having the Earth magnetic
field as reference. These fields are registered by a magnetometer installed in a plane
that flies over the interest zone. Sedimentary formations with hydrocarbons don't
manifest magnetics properties.

Figure 1 Gravimetric survey

Registers the variation of rock density, taking as reference the Earth gravitational field

B) seismic survey
Offshore or marine seismic surveys are conducted using specially designed vessels
that tow an energy source and a group of cable-mounted detectors over the survey
area. The energy source used in marine surveys is an “air gun”, which periodically
generates waves that propagate down into the subsurface, where they reflect off rock
layers and return to the surface, where they are received by detectors called
“hydrophones” and recorded in a computerized unit onboard the seismic vessel.
The receiving cables or “streamer cables” towed behind a seismic vessel are about
2.5 miles long.

Figure 2 offshore reflection seismic survey

There are three kinds of seismic models: one more complete and detail than the other
one: 2-D, 3-D, and 4-D seismic.

a) 2-D Seismic
In two dimensions (Figure 3), the sources and receptors of the induced waves are
ubicated in a line, as a result the seismic line covers the structure. The separation of
these lines are ubicated according to the objective and detail level.
 Figure 3 2 D Seismic
b) 3-D Seismic
Surveying in three dimensions (Figure 4), registers the sources and receptors ubicates
across perpendicular lines in each interest area, which results in a seismic data
volume, with bigger density than r2-D seismic, and provides better lubrication of the
structures. This method generates seismic cubes according to the depth and length of
the seismic line
and the width of
the hydrophones
arrangement.
 Figure 4 3-D seismic

C) 4-D Seismic
4-D seismic consists of the repetition of a 3-D seismic survey in exactly the same
original area, after a determined time. In consequence, the time function is added to a
3-D cube. Once that the seismic shows successful results, it is necessary bring an
ocean bed survey to look at topography, in an area of 30 km2, having as objective
establish the substrate conditions for the anchorage or support of the perforation unit.
This is realized by bathymetry and cursory seismic. There must also be a wind,
current, and wave study.

Avoiding Seafloor Hazards

Surveys used in early exploration work can also identify potential hazards to vessels
or seafloor conditions that may be unsafe for the placement of exploration drilling
rigs. “Shallow hazard” surveys look for underwater peaks and valleys (topography)
or man-made dangers like shipwrecks. In the Arctic, special surveys on conditions
such as ice gouges and strudel scours may be conducted to gather data for potential
future oil and gas production activities.

2) Direct means of searching for oil and gas by drilling exploratory well (wild cat
well)

EXPLORATORY DRILLING
While geophysical prospecting is the initial method used to evaluate potential
hydrocarbon sources, the only definitive way to indicate oil and gas presence is by
drilling an exploratory well. At first, one exploratory well is typically drilled on a
particular pad (although a number of exploratory wells may be drilled in a geographic
area to estimate the extent of the resource), but once the company hones in on the best
spots for the resource, then multiple wells may be drilled on the pad during the
subsequent development phase. It is important to note, however, that many
exploratory wells are not successful and thus are never fully developed.
Before drilling an exploratory well, an operator will conduct geologic surveys of an
area to determine the potential for oil or gas deposits and to identify specific targets.
The operator then hires a drilling contractor like Diamond Offshore to drill
exploratory ("wildcat") wells offshore. The oil company chooses the location and
supervises the operation, which may take as little as 15 days or as long as 12 months,
of round-the-clock, seven-days-per-week operation to drill a single well depending on
the complexity of the project.
Offshore rigs are designed for efficiency in living and working, with emphasis on
keeping the rig steady in gulf or ocean waters.

Choosing an exploratory Rig

Water depth, weather, seafloor conditions, operational safety and efficiency all
determine what kind of vessels or platforms will be used for drilling, and most
importanly the rigs are usually mobile so they can move, with crew, from one site to
another. Some of these moveable rigs are floating units,

Offshore Rig Basics Use To Drill exploratory wells

Offshore exploration and development wells are often drilled from mobile offshore
drilling units (MODUs, pronounced "moe-dooz"). Depending on the water depth and
remoteness of the location, these "rigs" may be jack-ups (up to 400 feet of water), or
semisubmersibles, or drillships (up to 12,000 feet of water). Jack-ups are bottom-
supported units; semisubmersibles and drillships are floating units ("floaters").
In terms of numbers, jack-up rigs drill most offshore wells. Semisubmersibles run a
distant second, and drillships come in third, though most of the major new discoveries
today are being made by the floaters in deep and ultra-deep water. Oil companies
("operators") select rigs that are specifically suited for a particular job, because each
rig and each well has its own specifications and the rig must be matched to the well.
a) Jack-up rigs
Jack-up rigs are so named because they are self-elevating-with three or four movable
legs that can be extended ("jacked") above or below the drilling deck, or hull. Jack-
ups are towed to the drill site with the hull, which is actually a water-tight barge that
floats on the water's surface, lowered to the water level, and the legs extended above
the hull. When the rig reaches the drill site, the crew jacks the legs downward through
the water and into the sea floor (or onto the sea floor with mat supported jack-ups).
This anchors the rig and holds the drilling deck well above the waves.
Jack-up rigs drill through slots in their hull, or have the ability to extend
("cantilever") the drilling package out over the side of the hull. A cantilevered rig is
very useful for drilling a series of wells over an established production platform,
because the rig can move beside the platform and then extend the drilling package
over the top of the platform to drill a sequence of development wells.
Usually, jack-ups are towed by several towboats to their drilling location. When
distances are long, they are placed on heavy-lift vessels for transport.
The jack-up's deck provides space for drilling equipment, supplies, and living
quarters. Helicopters and supply boats transport workers, equipment, and supplies
from shore to rig.

b) Semisubmersibles
Semisubmersibles do not rest on the sea floor like jack-up rigs. Instead, the working
deck sits atop giant pontoons and hollow columns. These float high in the water when
the rig is moved. At the drill site, the crew pumps seawater into the pontoons and
columns to partially submerge the rig, hence the name semisubmersible. With much
of its bulk below the water's surface, the semisubmersible becomes a stable platform
for drilling, moving only slightly with wind and currents (this is termed wave
transparency). Like jack-ups, most semisubmersibles are towed to the drill site.
Because of their exceptional stability, "semis" are well suited for drilling in rough
waters. Semisubmersibles can drill in water as deep as 10,000 feet. Because semis
lack the legs of a jack-up, they must have a means of maintaining their position over
the well during drilling. This is accomplished using either an eight or 12 point
anchoring (mooring) systems. In deeper waters, some semis employ dynamic
positioning (DP) systems to replace or supplement the mooring system. DP systems
employ computer-controlled motor-driven propellers, called "thrusters," to adjust for
the action of winds and waves. They respond automatically to satellite GPS signals
coordinated with acoustic beacons placed on the sea floor.
C) Drillships
Drillships are specially built seagoing vessels that also drill in waters as deep as
12,000 feet. Drilling equipment is installed on the deck, with the derrick normally
placed in the middle of the ship. The well is drilled through an opening (called a
"moon pool") that extends to the water's surface below the derrick.
Because of their cargo-carrying capacity and exceptional mobility, drillships are
especially useful for drilling exploratory wells. Although they are not as stable as
semisubmersibles in rough water, they can be moved from location to location much
faster. They maintain their position through mooring or dynamic positioning systems.
D) Submersible drilling rig
A submersible drilling rig is a marine vessel design that can be floated to location
and lowered onto the sea floor for offshore drilling activities. The submersible drilling
platform is supported on large pontoon-like structures. These pontoons provide
buoyancy allowing the unit to be towed from location to location. Once on the
location, the pontoon structure is slowly flooded until it rests securely on its anchors,
of which there are usually two per corner. The operating deck is elevated 100 feet
above the pontoons on large steel columns to provide clearance above the waves.
After the well is drilled, the water is pumped out of the buoyancy tanks and the
vessel is re-floated and towed to the next location. Submersibles, as they are known
informally, operate in relatively shallow water, since they must rest on the sea floor.
Other floating vessel types are used in deeper water depths. The term Mobile Offshore
Drilling Unit (MODU) is generally used for all offshore drilling rigs that can be
moved from location to location.
 Figure 5 showing the different types of offshore exploratory rigs

ARTIC OFFSHORE
The readily accessible source of conventional oil and gas are depleting as global
demand is rising for energy and a multitude of other petroleum base products. The oil
and gas industry must explore in even more promote and challenging region to meet
these needs. Such regions include offshore Alaska, Canada , Russia , Greenland and
Norway , areas where terrain and whether conditions can be some of the most extreme
on earth.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION
For near shore, shallow water locations, drilling typically occurs during the winter. In
deeper water, heavy ice condition means Arctic exploration must be conducted mostly
during the summer and autumn " open water season" even then, whether and ice
conditions are constantly being monitored for operational safety. Much of the
equipments used in conventional but has modified for Arctic conditions. Extra staff is
required to limite the impact of the operations on the sensitive environment. For
example marine mammals observers and environmental scientist are employed to
monitor and safeguard the wild life, seismic
Figure 6 below shows the different type Arctic offshore exploratory rigs
 Figure 6 exploration rigs in Arctic conditions

Surveying the Arctic Seafloor

In addition to the conventional seafloor surveys to avoid hazards for exploration
drilling activities and vessels, arctic operations must identify ice-related conditions
such as ice gouge marks and strudel scours for potential future production activities,
such as pipeline installation. Ice gouges are formed by “ice keels” (the undersides of
ice ridges) hitting the seafloor. Strudel scours are formed during the spring melt, when
rivers overflow existing ice. Cracks and seal breathing holes allow the water to flow
through the ice, causing a circular draining action that can scour the seafloor.
Helicopters first check for the drain locations, and then bottom surveys determine
whether the drains resulted in scours. Because weather conditions change these
formations from year to year, the surveys must be conducted annually to calculate
how deep pipelines must be buried to protect them

Exploration and Appraisal Wells

Oil and gas wells are drilled for two general purposes: to explore for hydrocarbons
and to produce them. Exploration wells are drilled to determine whether enough
hydrocarbons exist for a sound economic investment in production operations.
Additional appraisal wells may be drilled around the site to determine the size of the
reservoir, and how the quality and quantity of the hydrocarbons may vary throughout
the field. These wells have a relatively short life cycle as the time required for drilling,
evaluating and abandoning them is typically on the order of days or months.
Production wells are usually drilled to last for years, and even decades, until the
reservoir is depleted.
Drilling
Offshore wells are drilled in much the same way as their onshore counterparts-with
several allowances for the offshore environment. A conduit made from lengths of steel
pipe permits drilling fluids to move between the rig-at the water's surface-and the sea
floor. This conduit is called a "riser." The riser is fitted with ball-and-slip joints that
permit the long string of riser pipe to move up and down and bend slightly with the
wave-induced movement of the rig.
The well is drilled using a length of slender steel pipes and other tools that,
connected, comprise a "drill string." At the bottom of the string of pipes is a hole-
boring device called a "drill bit." Heavy sections of pipe, called "drill collars," add
weight and stability to the drill bit. Each ordinary pipe in the string is about 30 feet
long and weighs about 600 pounds; drill collars can weigh 4,000 Pounds or more per
30-foot length.
As drilling proceeds, and the well gets deeper, the drilling crew adds new sections of
drill pipe to the ever-lengthening drill string. Hydraulic devices keep constant tension
on the drill string to prevent the motion of the rig and riser from being transmitted to
the drill bit.
The drill string is lowered through the riser to the sea floor, passing through a system
of safety valves called a "blowout preventer" (BOP, pronounced "B.O.P."). This stack
of multiple safety valves is designed to contain any natural pressures that the drillers
might encounter beneath the Earth's surface. Its purpose is to prevent a possible
"blowout"-an uncontrolled eruption of oil, gas or wellbore fluids due to excessive
natural pressure.
During drilling, measurements will be taken in the well to characterize the subsurface
thickness and depth of formations, the mineralogy, and the types of fluids present.
Drill cuttings - rock fragments generated by the drill bit – are examined to help
determine if oil and gas are present and if so, in what quantity. Models based on this
combined data can help establish a reliable prediction for hydrocarbon presence on a
basin-wide scale. If the resource appears promising, the operator will proceed with
completing and flow testing the well, and will likely drill, complete, and flow test
additional exploratory wells to evaluate a particular geographic area.

Arctic offshore drilling

Drilling Bottom founded or floating rigs are generally used for offshore exploration in
the Arctic, but they are modified so they can operate safely in extreme conditions.
These drill rigs are constructed with specific types of steel that will not become brittle
in low temperatures. Special structural additions are made to reinforce the rig’s
integrity so that it can resist heavy ice and weather conditions. The rig’s work areas
are either fully or partially enclosed, and they are heated to ensure worker safety and
comfort. The blowout preventer (the BOP, or well control equipment) is placed below
the well’s mud line rather than on the drill rig at the surface to protect it from the ice.
Ice breaking vessels support floating operations to improve efficiency, lengthen the
short drilling season and to escort the rigs to different locations. Upgraded radar
systems are used to monitor ice movements, while satellites and other weather
tracking systems are used for forecasting.

Drilling safely
Exploration wells also require additional devices to control and monitor the
hydrocarbons. One key mechanism, called a “blowout preventer” (BOP), is
installed on the top of the casing, or “wellhead.” The BOP monitors the balance of
the well pressure, which is what prevents the hydrocarbons from flowing out of the
reservoir during drilling.

Well abandonment
Most exploration wells are abandoned. This is typically because they do not contain
oil or gas or they may not be designed for production operations. When a prospective
site turns out to be void of oil or gas or contains too little to be worth developing, it is
labeled as a “dry hole” and abandoned. Plugs are installed in the wellbore at
various depths to seal it off and to ensure there is no seepage. After the well has been
plugged, the equipment and debris are removed from the site.

Glossary
 Blow Out Preventer (BOP) – a series of large valves placed at or near the
surface of an oil or gas well to prevent the uncontrolled release of
hydrocarbons
 Dry Hole – a well that has been drilled but does not contain enough
hydrocarbons to be developed for extraction.
 Gravimeter (Gravity survey) – a device used to explore for petroleum by
“weighing” the rocks under the surface. It can detect impermeable rocks that
seal reservoirs, the porous materials in which petroleum can lie, and
formations like salt-domes that can trap hydrocarbons.
 Hydrocarbons – organic chemical compounds of hydrogen and carbon atoms
forming the basis of all petroleum products. They may exist as gases, liquids
or solids. An example of each is methane, hexane and asphalt. For this
document the terms “hydrocarbons,” “petroleum” and “oil and gas” are
interchangeable.
  Hydrophone – the recording device used to measure the sound waves in
seismic surveys.
 Magnetic Survey – an exploration method which measures the magnetic
properties of subsurface rocks that may reveal the characteristics of petroleum
reservoirs.
 Petroleum – a substance occurring naturally in the earth in solid, liquid, or
gaseous state and composed mainly of mixtures of chemical compounds of
carbon and hydrogen, with or without other nonmetallic elements such as
sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen. In some cases, especially in the measurement of
oil and gas, petroleum refers only to oil — a liquid hydrocarbon — and does
not include natural gas or gas liquids such as propane and butane. For this
document the terms “hydrocarbons,” “petroleum” and “oil and gas” are
interchangeable
 Rig (Drill) – the derrick or mast, draw works and equipment used in drilling
oil wells
 Seismic Survey – an exploration tool which sends pulses of sound into the
seafloor to identify sub-surface rock characteristics and the possible presence
of hydrocarbons.
 Well Abandonment – the process of capping an exploration well that has
been evaluated, or a production well which has been determined to contain
insufficient amounts of hydrocarbons for production.
 Well Log – data collected from recording devices lowered into a well to
evaluate the rock and fluid properties. The findings are evaluated to help make
future decisions about drilling operations.
 Wildcat Well – an exploratory well drilled in an area where no oil or gas
production exist

SOURCES
 Baker, Ron, A Primer of Offshore Operations, University of Texas at
Austin, 1998
 Natural Gas Supply Association
 O&G%2520offshore%2520exploration_1414488520_2.pdf
 The Learning Space (http://openlearn.open.ac.uk)