Mechanics of Solids Lab Manual

MECHANICS OF SOLID LAB
INDEX
S.No. Name of the Experiment Page No.

1 Tension test. 1
2 Bending test on Simply supported beam. 11
3 Bending test on Cantilever beam. 18
4 Torsion test. 25
5 Brinell hardness test 31
6 Rockwell hardness test. 36
7 Spring test. 40
8 Compression test. 46
9 Izod impact test. 50
10 Charpy impact test 56
Page | 1
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Date:
EXPERIMENT – 01
TENSILE TEST ON MILD STEEL
Aim
To conduct tensile test on mild steel specimen and determine the following
1. Yield stress
2. Ultimate stress
3. Breaking stress
4. Percentage elongation
5. Percentage reduction in area
Reference IS 1608 Method for tensile testing of steel products.
Apparatus
Universal testing machine, test specimen, steel rule, vernier calipers, micrometer-graph.
Fig 1.1 Tension test Apparatus on mild steel
System description
The machine consists of a weighing unit and control unit connected with each other by means
of hydraulic pipes. In the weighing unit there are three cross heads (namely top, bottom and
adjustable cross heads). Adjustable cross head can be adjusted in between top and bottom cross
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heads. The bottom cross head and top cross head are one unit and it is connected with the piston,
which moves up and down inside the cylinder.
Theory
A tensile test is generally conducted on a test specimen to obtain the relationship between the
stress and the strain which is an important characteristic of a ductile material. In the test, the uniaxial
load is applied to the specimen and increased gradually. The corresponding deformations are
recorded throughout the loading. Stress-strain diagrams of materials vary widely depending upon
whether the material is ductile or brittle in nature. If the material undergoes a large deformation
before failure, it is referred to as ductile material or else brittle material.
Fig 1.2 Schematic showing typical tensile responses of a mild steel bar under tensile loading
The stress-strain diagram for a mild steel specimen is shown in figure. The diagram begins with a straight
line O to A, in which stress is directly proportional to strain. Point A marks the limit of proportionality
beyond which the curve becomes slightly curved, until point B, the elastic limit of the material. If the
load is increased further, yielding takes place. Point C is the point of sudden large extension, known as
yield point. After the yield point stress is reached, the ductile extensions take place, the strains increasing
at an accelerating rate as represented by C and D. The material becomes perfectly plastic in this region (C
to D), which means that it can deform without an increase in the applied load. If the load is further
increased, the steel begins to strain harden. During strain hardening, the material appears to regain some
of its strength and offers more resistance, thus requiring increased tensile load for further deformation.
The point E is the maximum load or ultimate load up to which the bar extends uniformly over it's parallel
length, but if straining is continued, a local deformation (neck formation) starts at E and after
considerable local extension, the specimen breaks at F called breaking stress.
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Fig 1.3 Schematic showing the necking behavior in a metal
Formulae
A measure of the ductility of a material is the magnitude of the plastic strain at fracture. Ductility
can be specified in terms of either % elongation (% EL) or % reduction in area (% RA)
 (l f − l o ) 
% EL =   x 100 [4]
 lo 
 ( A f − Ao ) 
% RA =   x 100 [5]
 Ao 
Where lo and lf refer to the initial and final specimen lengths, respectively and Ao and Af refer to the
initial and final cross-sectional areas of the specimen.
Young’s modulus= Slope of the stress –strain curve

d
E = Y ................N / mm 2
dX
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π
Original area of the rod (A)= xD 2 …………………..mm2
4
Where
d –Neck diameter of the mild steel rod in millimeters
D-original diameter of the rod in millimeters
Procedure
1. Clean the M.S rod and measure the original length (L) and diameter (d) of the specimen. The
length may either be length of gauge section which is marked in the specimen with a preset
punch or the total length of the specimen.
2. Mark the gauge length to determine the elongation by marking punch marks at 2.5times
diameter distance on the specimen.
3. Fix the extensometer at the center of the specimen and adjust the extensometer reading to
zero position. Also set the Vernier scale on the vertical column on machine on zero position
to take reading in the plastic range.
4. Apply the load gradually and note down the value of load for every five division of increase
in the extensometer reading.
5. Remove the extensometer after 70% of the yield load is applied .Yield load may be calculated
by product of projected yield stress (250 N/mm² in case of steel) and the area of cross section.
6. Note down the load at yield i.e., the short deviation of time when the pointer remains
stationary.
7. Increase the load and note down the ultimate load. At the ultimate load the red pointer will be
left in position and the black point which indicates the instantaneous applied load will move
in to reverse direction.
8. Note down the break point load at which the specimen fails.
9. Measure the distance between the two points A and B. This distance is known as final gauge
length of the specimen.
10. Draw a graph between stress Vs strain by taking stress along Y axis and strain along X axis.
11. Take the slope of straight line portion of the curve which gives Young's Modulus of the
material.
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Tabulation
Table 1.1
Elongation Young’s
Sl. Load (P) Elongation Stress (σ) Strain (ε)
in Modulus (E)
No kN in mm N/mm2
divisions N/mm2
1
2
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
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Graph
The following graph is drawn by taking strain along X-axis and stress along Y - axis.
• Stress Vs Strain
Stres
s
Strain
Observation
1. Material of the specimen =…………………..

2. Original gauge length of the specimen = ……
3. Original diameter of the specimen =………..
4. Neck diameter of the specimen =……………
5. Initial gauge length of the specimen =………
6. Final length of the specimen =………………
7. Yield Point load =…………………
8. Ultimate load =……………………………….
9. Breaking load =………………………………
Precaution
1. If the strain measuring device is an extensometer it should be removed before necking begins.
2. Measure deflection on scale accurately & carefully
Result Tension test for given specimen was conducted and the results are as follows
1. Yield stress = ……………………. N/mm2

2. Ultimate stress = ………………… N/mm2
3. Breaking stress = ………………… N/mm2
4. Percentage elongation = …………
5. Percentage reduction in area = …….
Inference
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Significance of the test
The stress characteristics of mild steel and for steel can be found with help of this test. The
yield stress of steel is important in design of flexural members. As per IS, the yield stress for mild
steel is 250 N/mm2.
Viva-voce Questions
1) Define the following properties of structural materials

i) Ductility ii) Brittleness iii) Malleability
2) What happens if we unload the specimen after the material has yielded? (Draw sketch of the
curve for unloading).
3) Define proof stress and Secant Modulus. When these are used?
4) How has the surface of the specimen changed at various load levels?
5) Are the Hardness and ductility related in anyway?
6) Which steel have you tested? What is its carbon content?
7) In what region of a stress vs. strain graph do you find Young’s Modulus?
8) Why do you think we remove the extensometer after yielding occurs?
9) What general information is obtained from the tensile test regarding the properties of the
material?
10) Which stress have you calculated Nominal stress (Engineering stress) or true stress?
11) What kind of fracture has occurred and why?
12) Which is the most ductile material? What is its elongation?
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Space for Calculations
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Graph paper to be added
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Date:
EXPERIMENT 2
DEFLECTION TEST ON A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
Aim
To conduct deflection test on a simply supported beam carrying a point load at a distance ‘a’ from
left support.
Apparatus required
1. Deflection beam apparatus

2. Weights
3. Dial gauge
4. Magnetic dial stand
5. Vernier calipers
6. Scale/Steel tape
Theory
When the beam is subjected to load, the beam is deflected from its original position. The deflection
of a member should always be within the specified limits. We can determine the deflection of beams
subject to any type of loading by using standard deflection formulae. The actual deflection of the
member is directly proportional to the load and cube of span (if subjected to point load) and is
inversely proportional to flexural rigidity (EI). Actual deflection so calculated should be less than the
permissible deflection.
Fig 2(a)-1. Deflection apparatus beam set up
Where,
L-Span of the beam
W-Load applied
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a-The distance of the load from left support
As the loading applied is transverse loading as shown in the Fig. 2(a)-2 which is perpendicular to the
plane containing the neutral axis, and hence the member is a beam.
Fig 2(a)-2 Beam carrying the Transverse loading
Fig 2(a)-3 The cross section at XX
Moment of Inertia is calculated about the axis of rotation = I =
Page | 12
Formulae
The general formula for deflection at mid span when load is applied at a distance ‘a’ is given by
Wa (3L2 − 4a 2 )
δ=
48 EI
If load at ‘a’=L/4 from left support and substituting in above equation,
11WL3
Modulus of Elasticity, E = N/mm2
768δ central I
(Deflection at the centre of the beam, span L is in ‘mm’ and W in N)
11L3
Modulus of Elasticity from graph, E = slopeX =……………..N/mm2
768I
Procedure
1. Note the initial reading of the Vernier Scale.

2. Measure the breadth and depth of the given beam using Vernier Caliper.
3. Adjust cast iron blocks along the bed so that they are symmetrical with respect to the length
of the bed.
4. Place the beam on the knife edges on the blocks so as to project equally beyond each knife
edge. See that the load is applied at the centre of the beam.
5. Set the dial gauge below the center of the beam and note down the reference point from the
dial gauge.
6. Measure the effective length of the beam by using scale or steel tape
7. Place the load frame at exact position on the specimen and note down the corresponding
deflection from the corresponding deflection from the dial gauge
8. Similarly note down the dial gauge readings by placing different weights on the load frame.
9. Remove the load gradually and record the dial gauge readings while unloading.
Observations & Tables
Table 2(a)-1 Calculation of width of the beam

S.No. Main scale Vernier scale Width=M.S.R+L.C.xV.C.
reading (M.S.R.) coincidence
in mm (V.C.) div
1
2
3
Average width in mm=
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Table2(a)-2 Calculation of depth of the beam
S.No. Main scale Vernier scale Depth=M.S.R+L.C.xV.C.

in mm (V.C.) div
1
2
3
Average depth in mm=
1. Least count of Dial gauge= ………

2. Least count of vernier calipers=……..
3. Material of the beam =…………...
4. Length of beam =…………………mm
5. Breadth of beam =……………mm
6. Depth of beam =………………mm
7. Moment of Inertia of the beam=…………………....mm4
Table 2(a)-3
Young’s
Load Deflection
Sl. modulus
No Loading Unloading Avg.
W
(δ1) (δ2) (δ) E
Units Kg N mm mm mm m N/mm2
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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Precautions
1. Make sure that the beam and load are placed at desired positions.
2. Measure the dimensions of the beam carefully.
Graph
The following graph is drawn by taking load along Y-axis and deflection along X-axis.
• Load Vs Deflection
Load
Deflection
Result
The deflection test on given simply supported beam is conducted.
The Young’s modulus of the given beam from calculation = …………………… N/mm2.
The Young’s modulus of the given beam from graph = ……………….…….N/mm2

If the Young’s Modulus of the material of the specimen is equal to the standard value
specified for the material, the deflection found to be correct.
Inference
Viva-voce Questions
1) Give assumptions in the theory of simple bending.

2) Is the theory of simple bending applicable to the beams used? Explain.
3) Draw SFD for the beam with given loading.
4) Draw BMD for the beam with given loading.
5) At which section of the beam, maximum bending stresses are induced?
6) At which section of the beam maximum shear stresses are induced?
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Date:
EXPERIMENT 03
DEFLECTION TEST ON A CANTILEVER BEAM
Aim
To conduct deflection test on the cantilever beam carrying a concentrated load at mid span.
Apparatus required
1. Deflection beam apparatus
2. Load frame
3. Weights
4. Dial gauge
5. Magnetic dial stand
6. Vernier Caliper
7. Scale / Steel tape
Theory
When the beam is subjected to load, the beam is deflected from its original position. Due to
the load acting on the beam, it will be subjected to bending moment and the beam bend like arc of
circle. All structural and machine elements whether, cantilever, simple supported, fixed or
continuous undergoes deflection when subject to external loads. The deflection of a member should
always be within the specified limits. We can determine the deflection of beams subject to any type
of loading by using standard deflection formulae. The actual deflection of the member is directly
proportional to the load and span cube (for point load application) and is inversely proportional to
flexural rigidity (EI). Actual deflection so calculated should be less than the permissible deflection.
Fig 2(b)-1. Deflection apparatus beam set up for Cantilever beam
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As the loading applied is transverse loading as shown in Fig.2(b)-2 which is perpendicular to the
plane containing the neutral axis, and hence the member is a beam.
Fig 2(b)-2 The beam carrying transverse loading
Fig 2(b)-3 The cross section at XX
Moment of Inertia is calculated about the axis of rotation = I =
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Formulae
The general formula for deflection at free end when load is acting at a distance L1 is given by
WL13 WL12 ( L − L1 )
δ= +
3EL 2 EL
If load applied at L1= L/2, applying in the above equation,

5WL3
Modulus of Elasticity, E =
48δI
Where
W= applied point load at mid span
L=length of beam
δ=deflection of the beam at dial gauge (free end)
I=Moment of Inertia of the beam
5L3
Modulus of Elasticity from graph, E = slopeX =……………………….N/mm2
48I
Procedure
1. Measure the breadth and depth of the given specimen using vernier calipers.
2. Mark the end of the beam.
3. Fix the beam at one end on the test rig support and other end of the beam is free.
4. Set the dial gauge below the free end of the beam and note down the reference point from the
dial gauge.
5. Measure the effective length of the beam from the free end to fixed end by using scale or
steel tape
6. Place the load frame at exact position on the specimen and note down the corresponding
deflection from the corresponding deflection from the dial gauge
7. Similarly note down the deflections by placing different weights on the load frame.
8. Remove the load gradually and record the dial gauge reading while unloading.
Observations & Tabulation

Table 2(b)-1 Calculation of width
S.No. Main scale Vernier scale Width = M.S.R+L.C.xV.S.C.
in mm (V.S.C.) div
1
2
3
Average width of the beam in mm=
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Table 2(b)-2 Calculation of depth

S.No. Main scale Vernier scale Depth=M.S.R+L.C.xV.S.C.
in mm (V.S.C.) div
1
2
3
Average depth of the beam in mm=
1. Least count of Dial gauge= ………

2. Least count of vernier calipers=……..
3. Material of the beam =…………...
4. Length of beam =……………
5. Breadth of beam =……………mm
6. Depth of beam =………………mm
7. Moment of Inertia of the beam (I) = mm4
Table 2(b)-3 Observations from the test on……………

Young’s
Load Deflection
Sl. modulus
No Loading Unloading Avg.
W
(δ1) (δ2) (δ) E
Units Kg N mm mm mm m N/mm2
1
3
4
5
6
7
Graph
• Load Vs Deflection
Load
Deflection
Page | 21
Precautions
1) Make sure that the beam and load are placed at proper positions.
2) Measure the dimensions of the beam accurately.
3) Note the readings of the Vernier accurately.
Result
The deflection test on given cantilever beam is conducted.
The Young’s modulus of the given beam from calculation = ……………….… N/mm2.
The Young’s modulus of the given beam from graph = ………………..… N/mm2
Inference
If the Young’s Modulus of the material of the specimen is equal to the standard value specified for
the material, the deflection is found to be valid.
Viva-voce Questions
1. Draw deflected shape of the cantilever beam with Point Load at free end.
2. Draw the BMD and for given loading.
3. Draw the BMD if the load is applied at free end.
4. Draw the Free Body Diagram of the cantilever beam.
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Date:
EXPERIMENT 04
TORSION TEST
Aim
To find the Modulus of Rigidity of the given test specimen.
Material and Equipment

Torsion testing machine, Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron, steel rule, and Vernier calipers
(or) Micrometer.
Theory
Torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus of Rigidity (ratio of shear
stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be found out
through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation.
T Cθ q
= =
Ip l r
Where, T = Torque applied

C = Modulus of rigidity
l = length of the shaft
q = shear stress
r = distance of element from centre of shaft
= Angle of twist (radians)
I p = Polar moment of inertia.
In the torque equipment (refer figure shown in the next page), one end of the specimen is held
by a fixed support and the other end to a pulley. The pulley provides the necessary torque to twist the
rod by addition of weights (w). The twist meter attached to the rod gives the angle of twist.
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Fig.3.1 Torsion Testing Machine
Page | 26
Procedure
1. Measure the diameter at about three places and find the average value.
2. Select suitable grips to suite the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine by
adjusting the sliding jaw.
3. Choose the appropriate loading range depending upon specimen.
4. Set maximum load pointer to zero.
5. Continue till failure of the specimen.
6. Calculate the value of modules of rigidity C by using Torsion equation.
7. Plot a torque – Twist graph (T V/s θ).
Observation
Diameter of the Specimen, d = ……………………….mm

Gauge length of the Specimen, l =……………………...mm
πd 4
Polar Moment of Inertia, =………………………mm4
32
Tabulation
Table 3.1 Torsion test observations

Angle Angle of Modulus of Shear
S.No. of Twist Twist Torque Rigidity stress
(Deg.) (Radians) N-m N-mm (N/ mm2) (N/ mm2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Graph
1. Torque vs. Angle of Twist. Torque
Angle of twist
Page | 27
Result
Thus the torsion test on given mild steel specimen is done and the value of modulus of rigidity is
calculated.
Rigidity modulus of the specimen calculated= …………………… N/mm2
Rigidity modulus of the specimen from graph= …………………… N/mm2
Inference
Reference
IS 1717: 2012 Metallic Materials — Wire — Simple Torsion Test

When a shaft is subjected to torsion, pure shear stresses are developed in the shaft material.
Hence Modulus of rigidity of the material can be determined.
Viva-voce Questions
1. State the assumptions made in the ‘simple torsion theory’.

2. Sketch the shear stress distribution across the cross section.
3. Why are hollow shafts preferred to solid shafts?
4. Sketch the shear stress distribution across the hollow section.
5. Define Torsional Rigidity.
6. Hollow shaft or solid shaft of the same material Which has the higher Modulus of
Rigidity?
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Space for calculations
Page | 29
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Date:
EXPERIMENT – 05
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
Aim
To find the Brinell Hardness number for the given metal specimen.
Apparatus
Brinell hardness machine, test specimen and Brinell microscope.
Theory
Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and indentation. In
all hardness tests, a definite force is mechanically applied on the test piece for about 15 seconds.
The indenter, which transmits the load to the test piece, varies in size and shape for different
tests. Common indenters are made of hardened steel or diamond.
In Brinell hardness testing, steel balls are used as indenter. Diameter of the indenter and the
applied force depend upon the thickness of the test specimen. For accurate results, depth of
indentation should be less than 1/8th of the thickness of the test pieces.
System description
The machine consists of a lever of a dial indicator an elevating screw, a hand wheel, load
changing lever, load lever, hanging weights, etc. there are two scales on the dial B scale marked
in red color and C scale marked in black color. Each scale is graduated with hundred divisions.
Zero reading in C scale is opposite to 30 numbers in B scale, so that there is a difference between
C and B scales at any point. There are flat and V shape anvils available and they can be used for
plane and cylindrical surface respectively. Anvil is placed on the elevating screw so that the
specimen can be placed. Indenter can be hold in the indenter holder which is just above the
elevating screw.
Fig 4(a)-1 Brinell Indenter
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Fig. 4(a)-2 Brinell Hardness Testing Machine
Formulae
The depth of indentation, t =
The surface area of indentation =
Brinell hardness number = Test load / Surface area of indentation
Where
D – Diameter of indenter in millimeters
d – Diameter of indentation in millimeters
P – Applied test load
Observations and calculations
1. Test piece material

2. Diameter of Ball
3. Load application time
4. Least count of Brinell Microscope
Page | 32
Tabulation
Table 4(a)-1
Dia of Mean
Load applied Brinell
S. Material of Load (P) Ball dia (D) Trial Indentation Brinell
‘P’ Hardness
No. specimen Kg in mm No ‘Di or d’ Hardness
in Kg f. Number
(mm) Number
1
1 Mild steel 2
3
1
2 Al
2
3
1
3
High Carbon 2
Steel
3
1
4 Brass
2
3
2
5. Copper
3
Page | 33
Procedure
1. Select the proper size of ball and insert ball of dia “D” in the ball holder of the m/c
2. Make the test specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
3. Mount the test specimen surface at right angles to the axis of the ball indenter plunger.
4. Make contact between the specimen surface and the ball by rotating the jack adjusting
wheel.
5. Apply the load by shifting the “load-lever” and wait for minimum 15 seconds. The load will
be applied gradually.
6. Release the load by shifting the “load-lever”.
7. Remove the specimen from support table and mark the indentation so made.
8. View the indentation through microscope and measure the diameter‘d’ by micrometer fitted
on microscope.
9. Repeat the entire operation, three times at other positions of test piece.
10. Calculate the value of BHN.
Precautions
1. The surface of the test specimen should be clean.
2. The testing machine should be protected throughout the test from shock and vibration.
3. The test should be carried out at room temperature.
4. The diameter of each indentation should be measured in two directions at right angles and
mean of the diameter should be taken for calculation.
Result The given materials were tested and their Brinell hardness numbers are
1. Mild steel =……………………………BHN

2. High carbon steel =……………………BHN
3. Brass =…………………………………BHN
4. Copper =……………………………….BHN
5. Aluminum =……………………………BHN
Inference
Page | 34
Brinell hardness test is best for measuring hardness of grey iron castings consisting of soft flake
graphite, iron and hard iron carbide. Brinell hardness tests are conducted on structural steel, other
rolled sections, steel cast iron, and aluminum castings and in most of forgings.
Reference
IS 1789-1961 Method for Brinell Hardness test for grey cast iron.
IS 3054-1965 Method for Brinell Hardness test for Copper and Copper alloys.
IS 15002005 method for Brinell hardness test for metallic materials
Viva-voce Questions
1. Derive the expression for Brinell Hardness Number.

2. Mention the classification of Hardness tests and mention the scales used.
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Date:
EXPERIMENT – 6
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
Aim
To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given specimen.
Apparatus
Rockwell hardness testing machine, penetrator and test specimen.
Theory
The hardness of a material is resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or resistance to
abrasion. The general method of judging the hardness is measuring the resistance of a material to
indentation. Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or diamond indenters are generally used
for indentation. In this tests, a load is applied by pressing the indenter at right angles to the
surface being tested. The hardness of the material depends on the resistance which it exerts
during a small amount of yielding or deformation. The resistance depends on friction, elasticity,
viscosity and the intensity and distribution of plastic strain produced by a given tool during
indentation. Various scales in Rockwell hardness test are given below-
Table 4(b)-1.
Type of Initial Major Pointer
Scale indenter Color load load position Kind of material.
(Dimensions) (Kgf) (Kgf). on dial.
Much harder such as
A Cone, 1200 Black 10 50 0 carburized steels, cemented
carbides.
Ball, 1.588 Soft steels, copper, brass,
B Red 10 90 30
mm grey cast iron.
C Cone, 1200 Black 10 140 0 Hard steels, Ti, W, Va, etc.
Fig.4(b)-1 Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine

Page | 36
Procedure
1. Select the proper size of ball and insert ball of diameter “D” in the ball holder of the m/c
2. Make the test specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
3. Mount the test specimen surface at right angles to the axis of the ball indenter plunger.
4. Place the specimen on platform of a machine. Using the elevating screw raise the platform
and bring the specimen just in contact with the ball. Apply an initial load until the small
pointer shows red mark.
5. Release the operating valve to apply additional load. Immediately after the additional load
applied, bring back operating valve to its position.
6. Read the position of the pointer on the relevant scale of graduation, which gives the Rockwell
hardness number.
7. Repeat the procedure three times on the specimen selecting different points for indentation.
Precautions
1. Indentation should not be made nearer to the edge of a specimen to avoid unnecessary
concentration of stresses. In such case distance from the edge to the center of indentation
should be greater than 2.5 times diameter of indentation.
2. Rapid rate of applying load should be avoided. Load applied on the ball may rise a little
because of its sudden action. Also rapidly applied load will restrict plastic flow of a
material, which produces effect on size of indentation.
3. After applying major load, wait for some time to allow the needle to come to rest.
4. Test specimen should not be subjected to any heating or cold working.
5. Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 8 times the depth of indentation to
avoid the deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen.
Tabulation
Table 4(b)-2
Sl Trial
Load in Rockwell
No. Material Indenter Number
Kgf Hardness
Scale
Number (HRC)
1 2 3
Observations
1. Material of test piece

2. Hardness of scale used
3. Minor load
4. Major load
Page | 37
Result
Rockwell Hardness number of the specimen was found for the given material as follows
1. Copper = ……………………….. HRC

2. Brass = ……………………….. HRC
3. Aluminum = ……………………….. HRC
Inference
The Rockwell test is rapid and simple in operation and may be used on thinner specimens, and
very soft to very hard materials. It is essentially used to determine the hardness of finished parts
(bearings, valves, nuts, bolts, gears, etc.) cutting tools and forming tools, small castings and
forging, sheet metal, large diameter wire, electrical contacts, plastic sheets or parts and case
hardened parts etc.
Reference
IS 5652-1 (1993) Rockwell (A scale) hardness test for Hard Metals.
IS 1586-2000 Method for Rockwell Hardness Test for Metallic material (Scales
A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,K scales).
Viva-voce Questions
1) What is Hardness?
2) State the difference between Rockwell and Brinell Hardness tests. Can they be related to
any other property of the material?
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Date:
EXPERIMENT 07
SPRING TESTING
Aim
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material of given close coiled helical the spring.
Apparatus
1. Spring testing machine
2. Screw gauge
3. Vernier caliper
4. Close coil helical spring.
Theory
Spring is an elastic member, which deflects, or distorts under the action of load and
regains its original shape after the load is removed. Springs May be made of carbon steel, silicon
steel, manganese steel or completely alloyed steels. It is essential to know the rigidity modulus of
the springs because it is used as energy absorbing device. The helical spring are made up of a
wire coiled in the form of a helix and is primarily intended to store strain energy due to axial
tensile or compressive load.
Formulae
Where
W – Applied load in Newton’s
δ Deflection of spring in millimeters
C – Rigidity modulus or shear modulus of spring in N/mm2
D – Mean Diameter of spring in millimeters
n – Number of turns of coil in the spring.
d – Diameter of spring wire in millimeters.
Page | 40
Fig 5.1 Closely coiled helical spring

Tabulation
Table 5.1
Applied Deflection of the Spring Stiffness of Rigidity

Sl in mm the Spring
Load Modulus
No (K=W/δ)
W(N) loading unloading Avg (δ) (N/mm) G (N/mm2)
Procedure
1. By using Vernier caliper measure the diameter of the wire of the spring and also the diameter
of spring coil.
2. Count the number of turns.
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3. Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by a suitable weight and
note the corresponding axial deflection in compression.
4. Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings.
5. Plot a graph between load and deflection. The slope of the graph gives the stiffness of the
spring.
Observations
1. Least count of the screw gauge =...................
2. Diameter of the spring wire (d) =..........................mm
3. Least count of the Vernier calipers =...................
4. Outer to Outer Diameter of the spring coil (D0)=.............................mm
5. Mean coil diameter (D) =. D0 – 0.5 d – 0.5 d = .....................................mm
6. Mean coil radius (R) =........................................mm
7. Number of turns in the coil (n) =....................
Graph
· Load Vs Deflection
Load
Result Deflection
Rigidity modulus of the spring from calculation= ………………………… N/mm2

Rigidity modulus of the spring from graph = …………………………… N/mm2
Inference
If the value of Rigidity Modulus found using the test is in agreement with the standard value,
then the test conducted is correct. Rigidity modulus is the property of material representing the
torsional characteristics of the spring material.
Page | 42
Viva-voce Questions
1. Mention the classification of types of springs and give at least one example for each.
2. What are the assumptions made in the derivation of deflection equation for a close coiled
helical spring?
3. Distinguish between close coiled and open coiled springs.
4. Define Modulus of Rigidity and state the relationship between E, K, G and µ .
5. Derive the formula used in the test procedure.
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Date:
EXPERIMENT 08
COMPRESSION TEST
Aim
To determine the compressive strength of a given brick.
Apparatus
Vernier calipers Scale, Compression testing machine.
Theory
Bricks are used in construction of either load bearing walls or in partition walls of framed
structure as shown in the Fig.6-1. In load bearing walls total weight from slab and upper floor
comes directly through brick wall and then it is transferred to the foundation. In this case the
bricks are loaded with compressive nature of force on other hand in framed structure bricks are
used only for construction of partition walls, in which layer comes directly on the lower layers of
wall. However in any case the bricks in actual practice are to be tested for their compressive
strength.
Fig 6.1 Burnt clay brick
Procedure
A. Preparation of test specimen
1) Remove unevenness observed in the bed faces to provide two smooth and parallel faces
by grinding.
2) Immerse in water at room temperature for 24 hours.
3) Remove the specimen and drain out any surplus moisture at room temperature.
4) Fill the frog (if provided) and all voids in the bed face with cement mortar (1 cement, 1
clean course sand of grade 3mm and down).
Page | 46
5) Store under the damp jute bags for 24 hours followed by immersion in clean water for 3
days.
6) Remove, and wipe out any traces of moisture.
B. Test Procedure
1) Measure the length and breadth of the specimen at the center of the brick.
2) Place the specimen with flat faces horizontal, and mortar filled face facing upwards
between two 3-plywood sheets each of 3mm thickness and carefully centered between
plates of the testing machine.
3) Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 (140kgf/cm2) per minute till failure
occurs and note the maximum load at failure.
4) The load at failure shall be maximum load at which the specimen fails to produce any
further increase in the indicator reading on the testing machine.
5) Calculate the compressive strength.
6) Repeat the test procedure for minimum of 3 bricks and report the average.
Formula
Tabulation
Compressive Average
Identification Area Height Load (N) Strength (stress) Compressive
S.N
Mark A=L X B (H) (P) P/A Strength
(N/mm2 ) N/mm2
1
Precautions
1. Measure the dimensions of Brick accurately. .

2. The range of the gauge fitted on the machine should not be more than double the breaking
load of specimen for reliable results.
Result
The average compressive strength of brick sample is found to be…………..
Inference
Page | 47
Reference
IS 3495 Method of tests of burnt clay building bricks
Part I – Determination of compressive strength
For load bearing walls, compressive strength of brick is the criterion to decide the thickness of
the wall.
Viva-voce Questions
1. Why Bricks tested for compressive strength?

2. Define frog?
3. Why do you sprinkle water on bricks before actual use?
4. Write the maximum and minimum limits of compressive strength of bricks?
5. What are the classifications of bricks as per IS 1077? And classify the brick you tested as
per the code.
6. Compression tests are generally performed on brittles materials-why?
7. Which will have a higher strength a small specimen or a full size member made of the
same material?
8. What is column action? How does the h/d ratio of specimen affect the test result?
9. How do ductile and brittle materials differ in their behavior in compression test?
10. What are bi-modulus materials? Give examples.
11. Are the compressive strength and the specific gravity related? If so, what trends do
the data indicate.
Page | 48
Space for calculation
Page | 49
Date:
EXPERIMENT 9
IZOD IMPACT TEST
Aim
To determine the Impact toughness (strain energy) of a given specimen through Izod Impact test.
Apparatus
Izod impact testing machine, test specimen of mild steel, Aluminum, Vernier calipers, steel rule
and specimen setting fixture.
Theory
In manufacturing locomotive wheels, connecting rods etc. the components are subjected to
impact (shock) loads. These loads are applied suddenly. The stress induced in these components
is more than stress produced due to gradually applied loads. Therefore, impact tests are
performed to assess shock absorbing capacity of materials subjected to suddenly applied loads.
These capabilities are expressed as (i) rupture energy (ii) Modulus of rupture (iii) Notch impact
strength.
Two types of notch impact tests are used

1. Charpy test
2. Izod test
In Charpy test, the specimen is placed as ‘cantilever beam’. The specimens have V-shaped
notch of 450 or a U-shaped notch. The notch is located on tension side of specimen during impact
loading. Depth of notch is generally taken as t/5 to t/3, where ‘t’ is thickness of the specimen.
Impact Strength The resistance of material to fracture under suddenly applied loads is known as
Impact Strength.
Specification of M/c and Specimen details
• Impact capacity 300joule

• Least count of capacity (dial) scale = 2 joule
• Weight of striking hammer = 18.7 kg
• Swing diameter of hammer = 1600mm
• Angle of hammer before striking = 900/1350
• Distance between supports = 40mm.
• Striking velocity of hammer = 5.6m/sec.
• Specimen size = 75 X10 X 10 mm
Page | 50
• Type of notch = V-notch
• Angle of notch = 450
• Depth of notch = 2mm.
Fig 7(a)-1 Izod Impact testing machine
Fig 7(a)-2 Specimen position in Izod Impact testing
Page | 51
Fig 7(a)-3 Specimen dimensions in Izod Impact testing
Fig 7(a)-4 Specimen showing the equivalent load in Izod Impact testing
The accompanying moment as shown in the Fig. 7(a)-4 will produce bending stress. Tensile
stress on the striking face and compressive stress on the non-striking face.
Procedure
1. With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, place the test specimen in
impact testing machine’s anvil in such a way that the notch face the hammer and is half
inside and half above the top surface of the anvil. The notch is on the tension face. For a
standard test, the energy is set to 168 J.
2. Bring the striking hammer to position of Initial energy, and lock it at this position.
3. Note down the initial energy.
Page | 52
4. Release the hammer by trigger, it will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through
its momentum, the total energy is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to
swing. At its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving,
while the pendulum falls back. Note the indicator reading at the top most final position.
5. Again bring back the hammer to its initial position and lock it.
6. Remove the broken specimen by loosening the clamping screw.
Tabulation
Area of cross- section of specimen (A) _________
Material Residual
Initial Energy Absorbed Energy Impact Energy
S.No. (E1) Energy (E2) E3=(E1-E2) I = E2/A
In Joule In Joule in Joule In Joule/mm2
Calculations
1. Modulus of rupture = Rupture/Effective volume of specimen
2. Notch impact strength = Absorbed energy/ Effective cross section area.
Precaution
1. Do not stand in front of the swinging hammer or releasing hammer.
2. The specimen should be prepared in standard dimensions.
3. Bring the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum.
4. Hold the specimen (lzod test) firmly.
Result
S.No. Material Energy Absorbed J/mm2
Inference
Page | 53
The test is conducted using different material specimens. The softer materials undergo large
deformation and hence work done is more. As a result, the energy absorbed is higher for soft
materials than other materials.
Page | 54
Impact test is very useful in testing materials, which have not been properly heat-treated. Heat
treatment gives poor impact or Izod values. Wrought iron has very high impact value.
Reference
IS 1598 Method for Izod Impact test (V – Notch) for steel.
Viva-voce Questions
1. Why do we conduct Izod impact test on metals?

2. What the impact test signifies the character of material?
3. What is the difference between Izod, Charpy and Victor’s impact tests?
Page | 55
Date:
EXPERIMENT 10
CHARPY IMPACT TEST-
Aim
To study the Impact testing M/c, and perform the charpy impact test.
Apparatus Impact testing M/c, charpy test specimens of mild steel, Aluminum, Vernier
calipers, specimen setting fixture.
Theory Same as experiment 7(a)
Mounting of specimen
Specimen is tested as a beam supported at each end (Fig.7b). Hammer is allowed to hit then
specimen at the opposite face behind the notch.
Fig 7(b)-1 Izod / Charpy testing machine
Procedure
1. Lift the hammer to an appropriate knife edge position and note the energy stored in the
hammer. For the standard charpy test the energy stored should be 300J
2. Place the test specimen on the m/c supports. The notch is on the tension face.
Page | 56
3. Release the hammer. The hammer will break the piece and shoot up the other side of the
specimen.
4. Note the energy indicated on the scale by the hammer.
5. Impact strength of the test specimen is the difference of the initial energy stored in
hammer and the residual energy.
Tabulation
Area of cross- section of specimen (A) _________
Material Residual
Initial Energy Absorbed Energy Impact Energy
S.No. (E1) Energy (E2) E3=(E1-E2) I = E2/A
In Joule In Joule in Joule In Joule/mm2
Calculations
1. Modulus of rupture = Rupture/Effective volume of specimen
2. Notch impact strength = Absorbed energy/ Effective cross section area.
Precautions
1. Do not stand in front of swinging hammer or releasing hammer.

2. The specimen should be prepared in standard dimensions.
3. Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum.
4. Place the specimen in proper position.
Result
S.No. Material Energy Absorbed J/mm2
Inference
Page | 57
The test is conducted using different material specimens. The softer materials undergo large
deformation and hence work done is more. As a result, the energy absorbed is higher for soft
materials than other materials.
Impact test is very useful in testing materials, which have not been properly heat-treated. Heat
treatment gives poor impact or Izod values. Wrought iron has very high impact value.
Reference
IS 1499 Method for Charpy Impact test (U – Notch) for steel.

IS 1757 Method for Charpy impact test (V notch) for metallic material
Viva-voce Questions
1. What do you mean by modulus of toughness or “Toughness Index” of a material?

2. Why notch is provided in the specimen for impact test?
3. What is the reason for placing the notch on tension side?
4. Does the specimen break into two parts? If not why?
5. How is impact strength denoted, if test is conducted with a non-standard machine?
6. Can impact test conducted with different dimensions be compared?
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MECHANICS OF SOLID LAB

S.No. Name of the Experiment Page No.

2 Bending test on Simply supported beam. 11

3 Bending test on Cantilever beam. 18

5 Brinell hardness test 31

6 Rockwell hardness test. 36

9 Izod impact test. 50

10 Charpy impact test 56

Reference IS 1608 Method for tensile testing of steel products.

Fig 1.1 Tension test Apparatus on mild steel

Fig 1.3 Schematic showing the necking behavior in a metal

Young’s modulus= Slope of the stress –strain curve

1. Material of the specimen =…………………..

1. Yield stress = ……………………. N/mm2

1) Define the following properties of structural materials

Space for Calculations

Graph paper to be added

DEFLECTION TEST ON A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

1. Deflection beam apparatus

Fig 2(a)-1. Deflection apparatus beam set up

Fig 2(a)-2 Beam carrying the Transverse loading

Fig 2(a)-3 The cross section at XX

Moment of Inertia is calculated about the axis of rotation = I =

(Deflection at the centre of the beam, span L is in ‘mm’ and W in N)

1. Note the initial reading of the Vernier Scale.

Table 2(a)-1 Calculation of width of the beam

Table2(a)-2 Calculation of depth of the beam

S.No. Main scale Vernier scale Depth=M.S.R+L.C.xV.C.

Average depth in mm=

1. Least count of Dial gauge= ………

The deflection test on given simply supported beam is conducted.

Significance of the test

1) Give assumptions in the theory of simple bending.

Fig 2(b)-1. Deflection apparatus beam set up for Cantilever beam

Fig 2(b)-2 The beam carrying transverse loading

Fig 2(b)-3 The cross section at XX

Moment of Inertia is calculated about the axis of rotation = I =

If load applied at L1= L/2, applying in the above equation,

Observations & Tabulation

Table 2(b)-2 Calculation of depth

1. Least count of Dial gauge= ………

Table 2(b)-3 Observations from the test on……………

The deflection test on given cantilever beam is conducted.

Significance of the test

Space for Calculations

Material and Equipment

Where, T = Torque applied

Fig.3.1 Torsion Testing Machine

Diameter of the Specimen, d = ……………………….mm

Table 3.1 Torsion test observations

Significance of the test

1. State the assumptions made in the ‘simple torsion theory’.

Fig 4(a)-1 Brinell Indenter

Fig. 4(a)-2 Brinell Hardness Testing Machine

The depth of indentation, t =

The surface area of indentation =

Brinell hardness number = Test load / Surface area of indentation

Observations and calculations

1. Test piece material