CHAPTER 2

CONSTRUCTING TRUTH TABLES

If the truth values of the component statements of a compound statement are

not known, then the truth values of the compound statement can be investigated
for all possible truth values of the component statements. We can determine which
truth values of the component statements that would make the compound statements
true and which truth values make it false. The simplest method is by using the truth
tables. We have already used them in defining the truth values of the basic compound
statements.

2.1 Constructing Truth Tables

A simple statement has one of the two possible truth values, true or false, which
we will denote by T and F.

If the compound statement is composed of two component statements, then

there are four possible sets of truth values for the component statements. This is
illustrated in the following table.

P Q Compound Statement
T T
T F
F T
F F

If the compound statement is composed of three component statements, then

there are eight possible sets of truth values for the component statements. This is
illustrated in the following table.

P Q R Compound Statement
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

Example 2.1.1 Find the truth value of the compound statement ∼ (P ∧ Q).

Solution:

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 P Q P ∧Q ∼ (P ∧ Q)
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T

Example 2.1.2 Find the truth value of the compound statement ∼ (P ∧ ∼ Q).

Solution:

P Q ∼Q P∧ ∼ Q ∼ (P ∧ ∼ Q)
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T

Example 2.1.3 Find the truth value of the compound statement (P ∧Q) ⇒ (P ∨Q).

Solution:

P Q P ∧Q P ∨Q (P ∧ Q) ⇒ (P ∨ Q)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T

Example 2.1.4 Find the truth value of the compound statement P ⇒ (Q ∧ R).

Solution:

P Q R Q∧R P ⇒ (Q ∧ R)
T T T T T
T T F F F
T F T F F
T F F F F
F T T T T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T

Example 2.1.5 Find the truth value of the compound statement ∼ [∼ P ⇒ (Q∧R)].

Solution:

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 P Q R ∼P Q∧R ∼ P ⇒ (Q ∧ R) ∼ [∼ P ⇒ (Q ∧ R)]
T T T F T T F
T T F F F T F
T F T F F T F
T F F F F T F
F T T T T T F
F T F T F F T
F F T T F F T
F F F T F F T

Example 2.1.6 Find the truth value of the compound statement (∼ P ∨ R) ⇔∼ Q.

Solution:

P Q R ∼P ∼P ∧R ∼Q (∼ P ∨ R) ⇔∼ Q
T T T F F F T
T T F F F F T
T F T F F T F
T F F F F T F
F T T T T F F
F T F T F F T
F F T T T T T
F F F T F T F

Sample Problem 2.1.6 Find the truth value of the following compound statements.
1. ∼ (P ∧ Q)∨ ∼ (P ⇔ Q).
2. (P ∧ ∼ Q) ⇒ (∼ P ∨ Q).
3. P ⇒ (∼ P ∨ Q).
4. P ⇒ (∼ Q ∨ R).
5. ∼ P ⇒ (Q ∧ R).
6. (P ∧ R) ⇒ (∼ Q ∨ R).
7. [P ∨ (Q ⇒∼ R)] ∧ [(∼ P ∨ R) ⇔∼ Q].
8. (P ⇒ R) ∧ (∼ Q ⇔ R).

2.2 Types of Statements

Let us now classify compound statements according to their truth values. This
will be done by constructing the truth tables and examining their truth values.
There are are three types of compound statements according to their truth values :
a tautology, a contradiction, and an indeterminate statement.

Definition 2.2.1 A tautology is a statement that is always true.

Example 2.2.2 Show that the compound statement P ∨ ∼ P is a tautology.

Solution:

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 P ∼P P∨ ∼ P
T F T
F T T

Therefore, P ∨ ∼ P is a tautology. 

Example 2.2.3 The statement (P ∧ Q) ⇒ (P ∨ Q) is a tautology.

Solution:

P Q P ∧Q P ∨Q (P ∧ Q) ⇒ (P ∨ Q)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T

Therefore, (P ∧ Q) ⇒ (P ∨ Q) is a tautology. 

Definition 2.2.4 A contradiction is a statement that is always false.

Example 2.2.5 Show that the statement (P ∧ ∼ P ) is a contradiction.

Solution:

P ∼P P∧ ∼ P
T F F
F T F

Therefore, P ∧ ∼ P is a contradiction. 

Example 2.2.6 The statement (∼ P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ ∼ Q) is a contradiction.

Solution:

P Q ∼P ∼P ∨Q ∼Q P∧ ∼ Q (∼ P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ ∼ Q)
T T F T F F F
T F F F T T F
F T T T F F F
F F T T T F F

Therefore, (∼ P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∧ ∼ Q) is a contradiction. 

Definition 2.2.7 An indeterminate statement is a statement that is sometimes true

and sometimes false.

Example 2.2.8 Show that the statement (P ∧ ∼ Q) is an indeterminate statement.

Solution:

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 P Q ∼Q P∧ ∼ P
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F

Therefore, (P ∧ ∼ Q) is an indeterminate statement. 

Example 2.2.9 The statement (P ∨ Q)∨ ∼ R) is an indeterminate statement.

Solution:

P Q R P ∨Q ∼R (P ∨ Q)∨ ∼ R
T T T T F T
T T F T T T
T F T T F T
T F F T T T
F T T T F T
F T F F T T
F F T F F F
F F F F T T

Therefore, (P ∨ Q)∨ ∼ R) is an indeterminate statement. 

Sample Problem 2.2.10 Determine whether the statement is a tautology or a

contradiction or indeterminate.

1. ∼ (P ∨ Q) ⇒ (P ⇔ Q)
2. ∼ (P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ (P ⇔ Q)
3. P ∨ ∼ (Q ∧ R)
4. P ∧ [(Q ⇒ R)∧ ∼ P ]
5. ∼ (P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ R

2.3 Types of Statement Relations

There are three ways in which two statements can be related with respect to
their truth values. The two statements can have the same truth values; they can
have opposite truth values; or they can have some the same truth values and some
opposite truth values.

Definition 2.3.1 Two statements are called equivalent statements if they have the
same truth values.

Example 2.3.2 Show that P ⇒ Q and ∼ Q ⇒∼ P are equivalent statements.

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Solution:

P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
and

P Q ∼Q ∼P ∼ Q ⇒∼ P
T T F F T
T F T F F
F T F T T
F F T T T

Therefore, P ⇒ Q and ∼ Q ⇒∼ P are equivalent statements. 

Example 2.3.3 Show that (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ) and P ⇔ Q are equivalent

statements.

Solution:

P Q P ⇒Q Q⇒P (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q → P )
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
and

P Q P ⇔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Therefore, (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ) and P ⇔ Q are equivalent statements. 

Example 2.3.4 Show that P ⇒ (Q ∧ R) and (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (P ⇒ R) are equivalent

statements.

Solution:

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 P Q R Q∧R P ⇒ (Q ∧ R)
T T T T T
T T F F F
T F T F F
T F F F F
F T T T T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T
and

P Q R P ⇒Q P ⇒R (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (P ⇒ R)
T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F T F
T F F F F F
F T T T T T
F T F T T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T

Therefore, P ⇒ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (P ⇒ R). 

Definition 2.3.5 Two statements are called contradictory statements if they have
opposite truth values.

Example 2.3.6 Show that P ⇒ Q and P ∧ ∼ Q are contradictory statements.

Solution:

P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
and

P Q ∼Q P∧ ∼ Q
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F
Therefore, P ⇒ Q and P ∧ ∼ Q are contradictory statements. 

Example 2.3.7 Show that (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ) and ∼ (P ⇔ Q) are contradictory

statements.

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Solution:

P Q P ⇒Q Q⇒P (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q → P )
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
and

P Q P ⇔Q ∼ (P ⇔ Q)
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F T F

Therefore, (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ) and ∼ (P ⇔ Q) are contradictory statements. 

Example 2.3.8 The statements ∼ P ∧(Q∧R) and (P ∨ ∼ Q)∨ ∼ R are contradictory.

Solution:

P Q R ∼P Q∧R ∼ P ∧ (Q ∧ R)
T T T F T F
T T F F F F
T F T F F F
T F F F F F
F T T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
F F F T F F
and

P Q R ∼Q P∨ ∼ Q ∼R (P ∨ ∼ Q)∨ ∼ R
T T T F T F T
T T F F T T T
T F T T T F T
T F F T T T T
F T T F F F F
F T F F F T T
F F T T T F T
F F F T T T T

Therefore, the statements ∼ P ∧ (Q ∧ R) and (P ∨ ∼ Q)∨ ∼ R are contradictory. 

Definition 2.3.9 Two statements are called unrelated statements if they are neither
equivalent nor contradictory

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Example 2.3.10 The statements P ⇒ Q and ∼ P ⇒∼ Q are unrelated.

Solution:

P Q P ⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
and

P Q ∼P ∼Q ∼ P ⇒∼ Q
T T F F T
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T T T
Therefore, the statements P ⇒ Q and ∼ P ⇒∼ Q are unrelated. 

Example 2.3.11 The statements ∼ P ⇒ (Q∧R) and (∼ P ⇒ Q)∧R are unrelated.

Solution:

P Q R ∼P Q∧R ∼ P ⇒ (Q ∧ R)
T T T F T T
T T F F F T
T F T F F T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
F F F T F F
and

P Q R ∼Q P ⇒∼ Q (P ⇒∼ Q) ∧ R
T T T F F F
T T F F F F
T F T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F T T
F T F F T F
F F T T T T
F F F T T F
Therefore, the statements ∼ P ⇒ (Q ∧ R) and (∼ P ⇒ Q) ∧ R are unrelated. 

Sample Problem 2.3.12 Determine whether the pairs of statements are equivalent
or contradictory or unrelated.

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 1. P ⇒∼ Q and Q ⇒∼ P .
2. (P ∧ Q) ⇒ R and (P ⇒ R) ∨ (Q ⇒ R).
3. (P ⇒ Q) ⇒ R and (P ∧ ∼ R) ⇒∼ Q.

2.4 Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive

In this section, we will define the related implications of a given implication and
investigate their relationships. Using the truth tables, we will verify which pairs of
implication statements are equivalent and unrelated.

Implication : P ⇒ Q.

Converse : Q ⇒ P .

Inverse : ∼ P ⇒ ∼ Q.

Contrapositive : ∼ Q ⇒ ∼ P .

Example 2.4.1 Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following
implications.
1. Let x be a real number. If x = 0, then x2 = 0.
2. Let n be an integer. If n is even, then n + 1 is odd.
3. Let a and b be real numbers. If a < b, then a + 1 < b + 1.

Solution: 1. Let x be a real number. If x = 0, then x2 = 0.

Converse: Let x be a real number. If x2 = 0, then x = 0.
Inverse: Let x be a real number. If x 6= 0, then x2 6= 0.
Contrapositive: Let x be a real number. If x2 6= 0, then x 6= 0.

2. Let n be an integer. If n is even, then n + 1 is odd.

Converse: Let n be an integer. If n + 1 is odd, then n is even.
Inverse: Let n be an integer. If n is not even, then n + 1 is not odd.
Contrapositive: Let n be an integer. If n + 1 is not odd, then n is not even.

3. Let a and b be real numbers. If a < b, then a + 1 < b + 1.

Converse: Let a and b be real numbers. If a + 1 < b + 1, then a < b.
Inverse: Let a and b be real numbers. If a ≮ b, then a + 1 ≮ b + 1.
Contrapositive: Let a and b be real numbers. If a + 1 ≮ b + 1, then a ≮ b. 

The relationships between an implication, its converse, its inverse and its contrapositive
are shown in the following truth tables.

Implication Converse Inverse Contrapositive

P Q ∼P ∼Q P ⇒Q Q⇒P ∼ P ⇒∼ Q ∼ Q ⇒∼ P
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

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 Based on the above truth tables we see that:

1. An implication and its contrapositive are equivalent statements.

2. An implication and its converse are unrelated statements.
3. An implication and its inverse are unrelated statements.
4. The converse and inverse of an implication are equivalent statements.

Sample Problem 2.4.2 Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the
following implication.
1. Let x be a real number. If x > 1, then x2 > 1.
2. Let n be an integer. If n is even, then n2 + 1 is odd.
3. Let a and b be nonnegative real numbers. If a ≥ b, then a2 ≥ b2 .
4. If n is a prime number, then n is a natural number.
5. If x is a rational number, then x is a real number.

2.5 Logically Equivalent Statements

In this section, we will list nine equivalence rules that will guide us on equivalence
relations of statements. We will use the truth tables to prove these equivalence rules.

Notations : The symbol ≡ will be read ”is equivalent to”. Hence, if ”P is

equivalent to Q”, then we write P ≡ Q.

1. Idempotent Equivalences
1a. P ∨ P ≡ P 1b. P ∧ P ≡ P .

Proof :

P P ∨P
T T
F F
and

P P ∧P
T T
F F

Therefore, P ∨ P ≡ P and P ∧ P ≡ P . 

Example 2.5.1
1. ∼ P ∨ ∼ P ≡ ∼ P .
2. (∼ P ∨ Q) ∧ (∼ P ∨ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∨ Q.
3. (P ∧ ∼ Q) ∨ (P ∧ ∼ Q) ≡ P ∧ ∼ Q.

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2. Commutative Equivalences
2a. P ∨ Q ≡ Q ∨ P 2b. P ∧ Q ≡ Q ∧ P .

Proof :

P Q P ∨Q Q∨P
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F F
and

P Q Q∧P Q∧P
T T T T
T F T F
F T T F
F F F F

Therefore, P ∨ Q ≡ Q ∨ P and P ∧ Q ≡ Q ∧ P . 

Example 2.5.2
1. ∼ (P ∨ ∼ Q) ≡ ∼ (∼ Q ∨ P ).
2. (∼ P ∨ Q) ∧ R ≡ (Q ∨ ∼ P ) ∧ R.
3. (∼ P ∨ Q) ∧ R ≡ R ∧ (∼ P ∨ Q).

3. Associative Equivalences
3a. (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R) 3b. (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R).

Proof :

P Q R P ∨Q (P ∨ Q) ∨ R Q∨R P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T T T
T F F T T F T
F T T T T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F T T T
F F F F F F F
and

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 P Q R P ∧Q (P ∧ Q) ∧ R Q∧R P ∧ (Q ∧ R)
T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F
T F T F F F F
T F F F F F F
F T T F F T F
F T F F F F F
F F T F F F F
F F F F F F F

Therefore, (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R) and (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R). 

Example 2.5.3
1. (P ∨ ∼ Q)∨ ∼ R ≡ P ∨ (∼ Q ∨ ∼ R).
2. (P ∧ ∼ Q)∧ ∼ R ≡ P ∧ (∼ Q ∧ ∼ R).

4. Distributive Equivalences
4a. P ∨(Q∧R) ≡ (P ∨Q)∧(P ∨R) 4b. P ∧(Q∨R) ≡ (P ∧Q)∨(P ∧R).

Proof :

P Q R Q∧R P ∨ (Q ∧ R) P ∨Q P ∨R (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
T T T T T T T T
T T F F T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T T T T
F T T T T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F F F T F
F F F F F F F F
and

P Q R Q∨R P ∧ (Q ∨ R) P ∧Q P ∧R (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T F T
T F T T T F T T
T F F F F F F F
F T T T F F F F
F T F T F F F F
F F T T F F F F
F F F F F F F F

Therefore, (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R) and (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R). 

5. Double Negation Equivalence

5a. ∼ (∼ P ) ≡ P .

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Proof :

P ∼P ∼ (∼ P )
T F T
F T F

Therefore, ∼ (∼ P ) ≡ P . 

Example 2.5.4
1. ∼ [∼ (P ∨ ∼ Q)] ≡ P ∨ ∼ Q.
2. ∼ [∼ (∼ P ∧ ∼ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∧ ∼ Q.

6. DeMorgan’s Equivalences
6a. ∼ (P ∨ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∧ ∼ Q 6b. ∼ (P ∧ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∨ ∼ Q.

Proof :

P Q P ∨Q ∼ (P ∨ Q) ∼P ∼Q ∼P ∧∼Q
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T
and

P Q P ∧Q ∼ (P ∧ Q) ∼P ∼Q ∼P ∨∼Q
T T T F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T F T T F T
F F F T T T T

Therefore, ∼ (P ∨ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∧ ∼ Q and ∼ (P ∧ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∨ ∼ Q. 

Example 2.5.5
1. ∼ (P ∨ ∼ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∧ Q.
2. ∼ (P ∧ ∼ Q) ≡ ∼ P ∨ Q.

7. Conditional Equivalence
7a. P ⇒ Q ≡ ∼ P ∨ Q.

Proof :

P Q P ⇒Q ∼P ∼P ∨Q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

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Therefore, P ⇒ Q ≡ ∼ P ∨ Q. 

8. Contrapositive Equivalence
8a. P ⇒ Q ≡ ∼ Q ⇒∼ P .

Proof :

P Q P ⇒Q ∼Q ∼P ∼ Q ⇒∼ P
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

Therefore, P ⇒ Q ≡ ∼ Q ⇒∼ P . 

9. Biconditional Equivalence
9a. P ⇔ Q ≡ (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ).

Proof :

P Q P ⇔Q P ⇒Q Q⇒P (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P )
T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

Therefore, P ⇔ Q ≡ (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ). 

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