Transport II

Lecture Notes (2014)

T. K. Nguyen

Chemical and Materials Engineering

Cal Poly Pomona
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Heat Transfer

1.1 Introduction 1-1

1.2 Importance of Thermodynamic 1-2
1.3 Dilemma in the Study of Heat Transfer 1-2
Example 1.3-1: Final temperature in a oil bath 1-3
Example 1.3-2: Time to melt a slab of ice 1-6
1.4 Reason for Studying Heat Transfer 1-7
1.5 Modes of Heat Transfer 1-7
1.6 Nanoscale Origin of Heat Conduction 1-9
1.7 Thermal Conductivity 1-10

Chapter 2: Constitutive Relation Between q and T

2.1 Conduction 2-1

2.2 Convection 2-4
2.3 Thermal Radiation 2-7
2.4 Energy Balance 2-9
Example 2.4-1 Cylinder and piston system 2-10
First Law as a Rate Equation 2-11
Example 2.4-2 Uniform heat generation in an electrical wire 2-12
Example 2.4-3 One-dimensional steady state conduction 2-14
Example 2.4-4 Radiation heat transfer with a plate 2-15
2.5 Temperature of a Focal Plane Array 2-17
2.6 Examples in Conduction, Convection, and Radiations 2-23
Example 2.6-1 Baseplate heater 2-23
Example 2.6-2 Heating of silicon wafer 2-24
Example 2.6-3 Reacting spherical canister 2-25
Example 2.6-4 Heat dissipiatation in electronic devices 2-26
Example 2.6-5 Heat dissipiatation in computers 2-27

Chapter 3: Conduction Differential Equation

3.1 Derivation 3-1

Example 3.1-1 Equation for one-dimensional conduction 3-6
Example 3.1-2 Heat transfer across a wall 3-9
Example 3.1-3 Heat transfer in a quarter cylinder 3-12
Example 3.1-4 Differential equation for a quarter cylinder 3-13
3.2 Boundary and Initial Conditions 3-15
Example 3.2-1 Heat transfer through a slab 3-18
Example 3.2-2 Temperature distribution along a plate 3-21
Example 3.2-3 Temperature gradient at a surface 3-22

i
Chapter 4: Analysis of 1-Dimensional Conduction

4.1 Steady State, Constant Properties, No Heat Generation 4-1

4.2 Cartesian System, Isothermal Surfaces 4-1
4.3 Radial System, Isothermal Surfaces 4-2
4.4 Spherical System, Isothermal Surfaces 4-4
4.5 Electrical and Thermal Analogy 4-6
Example 4.5-1 Thermal circuit for multi-layered wall 4-8
Example 4.5-2 Thermal circuit for composite cylinders 4-9
Example 4.5-3 Thermal circuit for wall with radiation 4-10
4.6 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 4-11
Example 4.6-1 Thermal circuit for multi-layered wall 4-13
4.7 Systems with Heat Sources 4-15
Example 4.7-1 Rectangular plate with heat generation 4-15
Example 4.7-2 Temperature distribution in a solid cylinder 4-19
Example 4.7-3 Maximum temperature in a copper wire 4-23
Example 4.7-4 Heat transfer with a strip heater 4-25
Example 4.7-5 Heat transfer through a teacup 4-26
Example 4.7-6 Evaporation time in an IC engine 4-27

Chapter 5: Analysis of Fins and “Extended Surfaces”

5.1 Introduction 5-1

5.2 Heat Transfer for Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area 5-4
Example 5.2-1 Heat transfer from a long cylindrical fin 5-4
Example 5.2-2 Heat transfer from a finite cylindrical fin 5-5
Example 5.2-3 Heat transfer from two sides of a fin 5-7
5.3 Fin Performance 5-9
Example 5.3-1 Efficiency of a rectangular fin 5-10
Example 5.3-2 Efficiency of a triangular fin 5-12
Example 5.3-3 Heat transfer from a stack of fins 5-14

Chapter 6: Two Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

6.1 The Energy Balance Method 6-1

Example 6.1-1 Steady-state conduction in a column 6-1
Example 6.1-2 Steady-state conduction 6-5
6.2 Partial Differential Equation Solver Software 6-7
Example 6.2-1 Steady-state conduction using COMSOL 6-8

ii
Chapter 7: Unsteady-State Conduction

7.1 Introduction 7-1

7.2 The Lumped Capacitance Method 7-2
Example 7.2-1 Heat leaving a sphere by radiation 7-3
Human Body Temperature Regulation 7-6
Example 7.2-2 Heat loss from a body 7-6
Review: First Order Linear Ordinary Differential Equations 7-7
Example 7.2-3 Superheated liquid droplets 7-8
7.3 Differential Energy Balance 7-11
Review: The Newton-Raphson Method 7-14
Example 7.3-1 Cell damage in living tissue 7-18
7.4 Approximate Solutions 7-21
Total Energy Transfer 7-21
Example 7.4-1 Heat transfer in a slab 7-26
Example 7.4-2 Heat transfer in a semi-infinite medium 7-28
Example 7.4-3 Heat transfer through one surface of a slab 7-29
Example 7.4-4 Heat loss to a copper block 7-30
Example 7.4-5 Heat transfer in a finite cylinder 7-31

Chapter 8: Convective Heat Transfer

8.1 Introduction 8-1

8.2 Boundary Layer Concept 8-1
8.3 Correlations for Heat Convection 8-7
External Forced Convection Flow 8-8
Internal Forced Convection Flow 8-10
External Free Convection Flow 8-11
8.4 Correlations for Boiling and Condensation 8-12
Film Boiling 8-12
Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate 8-13
Film Condensation on Radial Systems 8-14
8.5 Examples of Convection Systems 8-15
Example 8.5-1 Water evaporating from a lake 8-15
Example 8.5-2 Heat loss from a scuba diver 8-16
Example 8.5-3 Heat loss from a cylinder 8-18
Example 8.5-4 Free convection from a horizontal plate 8-20

iii
Chapter 9: Heat Exchangers

9.1 Introduction 9-1

9.2 Heat Exchanger types 9-4
9.3 Analysis of Heat Exchangers 9-9
Example 9.3-1: Different exchanger configurations 9-17
Example 9.3-2: Length of tube in heat exchanger 9-19
Example 9.3-3: Heat transfer rate for a counter flow exchanger 9-20
9.4 The Effectiveness-NTU Method 9-22
Example 9.4-1: Effectiveness-NTU relation for exchanger 9-26
Example 9.4-2: Counter-flow heat exchange in whales 9-29
Example 9.4-3: LMTD and Effectiveness-NTU method 9-31

Chapter 10: Radiation Heat Transfer

10.1 Introduction 10-1

10.2 Blackbody Radiation 10-2
10.3 Radiation Intensity 10-5
Emissive Power 10-5
Irradiation and Radiosity 10-6
Example 10.3-1 Irradiation and radiant energy on a surface 10-7
Example 10.3-2 Irradiation received by a detector 10-8
Example 10.3-3 Total irradiation at the earth’s surface 10-9
Example 10.3-4 Solid angle for irradiation 10-10
Example 10.3-5 Solar irradiation at the earth’s surface 10-11
Example 10.3-6 Estimation of the earth’s surface temperature 10-12

Appendix

A. Previous Exams (2008)

B. Previous Exams (2009)

C. Previous Exams (2010)

D. Previous Exams (2011)

E. Previous Exams (2012)

iv
Chapter 1
Introduction to Heat Transfer

1. 1 Definition of heat transfer

Heat transfer is the science which seeks to predict the rate of energy transfer between
material bodies as a result of a temperature difference.

 Definition of 'heat'
Heat is energy in transit solely as a result of a temperature difference.

 Definition of 'temperature'
Temperature is a measure of the mean kinetic energy of molecules. Absolute zero
(0oK) is a state of complete motionless of molecules.

 'Rate'
'Rate' implies an element of speed, how fast an event happens, and time.

 'System'
A system is any designated region of a continuum of fixed mass. The boundaries
of a system may be deformable but they always enclose the same mass. In
thermodynamics, the universe can be divided into two parts. One part is the system, the
other part is the rest of the universe called the surroundings.

Surroundings

Boundary
System

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of the "universe", showing a system and the surroundings.

 'Control volume'
A 'control volume' is also any designated region of a continuum except that it may
permit matter to cross its boundaries. If the boundaries of a control volume are such that
matter may not enter or leave the control volume, the control volume is identical to a
system. In these respects, a 'system' is a subset of a 'control volume'.

 'Equilibrium'
'Equilibrium' means that there are no spatial differences in the variables that
describe the condition of the system, also called the 'state' of a system, such as its
pressure, temperature, volume, and mass (P, T, V, m), and that any changes which occur
do so infinitesimally slowly.
1-1
1.2 Importance of Thermodynamics in the Study of Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics is the science which seeks to predict the amount of energy needed to
bring about a change of state of a system from one equilibrium state to another. While
thermodynamics tells us nothing about the mechanisms of energy transfer, rates of change, and
time associated with a system changing from one equilibrium state to another, it is still the lynch-
pin that allow us to answer these questions.

Heat transfer analysis is based on the laws of thermodynamics. Because heat is

transferred only when a temperature difference exists, and thus when a system or control volume
is not in equilibrium, we have to acknowledge that there is an inherent dilemma in the
application of the laws of thermodynamics to systems or control volumes that are not in
equilibrium. Heat transfer is an essentially non-equilibrium science since it involves the rate
processes.

1.3 Inherent Dilemma in the Study of Heat Transfer

The laws of thermodynamics are applicable only to equilibrium states which means that
the state does not really change significantly with time, differences in variables between the state
of a system and its surroundings are of infinitesimal magnitude and that within the system itself
there are no spatial variations of the variables that determine its state. Heat transfer concerns
processes associated with differences, time and rate - aspects which are excluded from
thermodynamics analysis. So how can we study a system which is experiencing a change of state
when we can rigorously define nothing about the system during the change?

This problem is resolved by assuming that states can still be specified for a system which
is not in equilibrium provided that the rate of change of the state is not too fast, or that
differences in state variables within a system are not too large. Just what constitute 'too fast' and
'too large' is a matter of experience. For the vast majority of engineering processes of practical
importance, this assumption is an excellent one.

The standard practice is to assume that the state of a system can be assigned specific
values of such quantities like T, P, V at any time and location even when it is known that these
quantities are changing or not uniform over the whole of the system, then to proceed with
applying the laws of thermodynamics to the system under these conditions of inherent
nonequilibrium, and to compare the results of the analyses with observed behavior. Fortunately,
differences are small enough for most engineering problems as to make worthwhile our study of
heat transfer. Heat transfer relies explicitly on the validity of the laws of thermodynamics, makes
intimate use of these laws, and assumes that they are applicable to a high degree of
approximation for systems that are not in equilibrium.

The following example illustrates the information that thermodynamics can provide about
the change of state of system when a constraint is removed. The example is of a hot bearing
being dropped into a cold oil bath. The constraint that is being removed to allow the change of
state of the bearing and oil to occur is the physical separation of the bearing from the oil bath.
Removal of the constraint occurs when the bearing is dropped into the oil. The problem is to
compute the final temperature of the bearing and oil given information about the initial
temperature of the oil and bearing, their heat capacities, and masses.
1-2
Example 1.3-1

A bearing with mass mb, heat capacity Cb, at an initial temperature Tbi is dropped into the oil bath
with mass mo, heat capacity Co, at an initial temperature Toi. Compute the heat exchanged
between the bearing and oil and the final equilibrium temperature Tbf in terms of mb, Cb, Tbi, mo,
Co, and Toi.

mb, Cb, Tbi

mb, Cb, Tbf

mo, Co, Toi < Tbi mo, Co, Tof

Solution

1. Compute the heat exchanged between the bearing and oil

Apply the first law of thermodynamics to bearing

Qb = Wb + dEb

where
Qb = heat transfer between the bearing and the oil
Wb = work exchanged between the bearing and the oil
dEb = accumulated energy of the bearing

Work is defined as any other transfer of energy except the energy transfer due to a difference in
temperature betweens the objects. Work is done on a system whenever a piston is pushed, a
liquid within a container is stirred, or a current is run through a resistor. In each case, the
system's energy will increase, and usually its temperature too. However the system is not being
heated since the flow of energy is not a spontaneous one caused by a difference in temperature.
Notice that both heat and work refer to energy in transit. The total energy inside a system can be
defined but not heat or work. It is only meaningful to specify how much heat entered a system, or
how much work was done on a system.

The usual sign convention for the first law of thermodynamics is as follows:

The flow of heat into a system is a positive flow, while a flow of work into a system is
a negative flow.

Thus, if 10 J of heat Q flow into a system, it is regarded as Q = +10 J, while if 10 J of work

W flow into a system, it is regarded as W = -10 J.

The sign convention for heat flow stated above has been universally used; unfortunately,
the sign convention for work flow has not been universally accepted. In the U. S. the convention
1-3
for work as stated above has been in widespread use while in Europe the opposite convention for
work has been more commonly used [1].

f
The symbol 'd' means an exact differential quantity where 
i
dE = Ef – Ei. Energy is a
state function. Heat and work are path functions and the differentials of heat and work, Q and
f
W, respectively, are nonexact differentials so that 
i
Q  Qf – Qi.

There are various forms of energy that matter may possess, in particular, kinetic energy
KE, potential energy PE, internal energy U, electrical energy EE, and magnetic energy ME. Only
kinetic, potential, and internal energies will mostly be considered in this text. A system possesses
kinetic energy by virtue of its velocity, a system possesses potential energy by virtue of its height
above a reference plane, and a system possesses internal energy by virtue of the random thermal
motion of the atoms and molecules of which it is composed.

For this example, the kinetic and potential energies will be considered to be zero

dEb = dUb

Since there is no work done on the rigid bearing

Qb = dUb

From the thermodynamic postulate, the state of a pure, homogeneous system is known if any two
of the independent variables are known. The internal energy U can then be expressed in terms of
the independent variables T and V as,

Ub = Ub(Tb, Vb)

From the chain rule of calculus

U b U b
dUb = dTb + dVb
Tb V Vb T

The second term is zero since dVb = 0 for a rigid bearing. From the definition of the heat capacity
at constant volume

U b
Cvb =
Tb V

and the fact that heat capacity at constant volume is almost the same as heat capacity at constant
pressure for a solid Cvb  Cpb .

dUb = CpbdTb

Return to the first law on the bearing

1-4
 Qb = CpbdTb

f f
i
Q =
b 
i
C pb dTb
f
Since the differential Qb is nonexact, the integral from state i to state f, denoted i
Q ,
b
f
depends on the path connecting state i to state f. Defining Qb = 
i
Q and assuming that Cpb is a
b
constant, it follows that

Qb = Cpb(Tbf - Tbi)

Let Cpb = mbcpb

where cpb is the specific heat or heat capacity per unit mass of the bearing

then

Qb = mbcpb(Tbf - Tbi)

Similarly for a system consisting of the oil only

Qo = mocpo(Tof – Toi)

2. Compute the final equilibrium temperature Tbf

Apply the first law to the composite system of bearing and oil, assuming no heat loss to the
surroundings

Q = W + dU

Since Q = W = 0

dU = dUo + dUb = 0

mocpodTo + mbcpbdTb = 0

Tof Tbf
Toi
mo cob dTo + Tbi
mb c pb dTb = 0

mb c pb
Let =
mo c po

1-5
Since the composite system of bearing and oil is in equilibrium Tbf = Tof = Tf

Solve for Tf gives

Toi  Tbi
Tf =
1

If one is interested in knowing the time it takes for the temperature of the bearing to reach the
final equilibrium temperature Tf or the temperature of the bearing Tb at any intervening time, the
answers can be obtained from the study of heat transfer not from thermodynamics.

Example 1.3-2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A slab of ice in a thin-walled container 20 mm thick and 400 mm on each side is placed on a
well-insulated pad. At its top surface, the ice is exposed to ambient air for which T = 25oC and
the convection coefficient is 25 W/m2oK. The density and latent heat of fusion of ice are 920
kg/m3 and 334 kJ/kg, respectively. Neglecting heat transfer from the sides and assuming the ice-
water mixture remains at 0oC, how long (in sec) will it take to completely melt the ice?

Solution -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The rate of heat transfer, q, to the slab of ice is given by

q = hA(T  T)

In this equation h is the heat transfer coefficient and A is the top surface of the ice. The energy
required to melt the ice is ALhfusion where L is the thickness of the ice slab. The time to melt
the ice is then:

 ALh fusion  Lh fusion (920)(0.02)(334000)

t= = = = 9833 s
hA(T  T ) 25h (25)(25)

1-6
Chapter 1
1.4 Reason for Studying Heat Transfer

To precisely describe the way in which the dissimilarity between two temperatures governs the
flow of heat between them

Applications:
 Generation of electrical power
 Cooling of engines and electronic equipment
 Refrigeration
 Control of pollution generation from combustion of fossil fuels
 Biological systems
Efficient heat transfer from the human body to its ambient maintains the average body
temperature at 37oC. The human body constantly generates heat from the conversion of nutrients
chemical bond to thermal energy. The heat is removed from the body by the three modes of heat
transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Hyperthermia is the process when the body
temperature increases above normal due to insufficient heat removal. On the other hand,
hypothermia is the process when the body temperature decreases below normal because heat loss
from the body is higher than the heat generated.

1.5 Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction
Conduction refers to energy transfer by molecular interactions. Energy carriers on
the molecular level are 'electrons' and 'phonons' where the latter is a quantized lattice vibration.
The interaction is a nearest-neighbor process that extends only a few molecular dimensions.
Energy transport over a distance is by a staged transfer through molecular distances.

Convection
Convection refers to energy transport over macroscopic distances by bulk
movement of matter. Once matter reaches its destination, energy dissipated by conduction. In
general, the total heat transfer is a superposition of energy transport by molecular interactions
and by the bulk motion of the fluid.

Radiation
Radiation refers to energy transfer by propagation of electromagnetic waves. Energy
is absorbed or emitted by electrons changing their energy levels as a result of the temperature of
the body. A packet of energy emitted this way is called a 'photon' which has an energy (E) given
by Planck's Law,

E= h

where h = 6.62510-34 Js/(molecule) is 'Planck's constant" and  is the frequency of the

electromagnetic wave.

1-7
Unlike conduction and convection, radiation heat transfer does not require any matter in the
region over which the temperature difference exists to promote the transport of heat. The
following figure gives an analogy to show the differences between the three modes of heat
transfer.
Figure 1.5-1 Three modes of heat transfer.

Each mode of heat transfer has a different constitutive equation that relates the energy flux q" to
temperature (T) as expressed in general form

q"  f(T)

where the function f(T) is different for the three modes of heat transfer. For conduction,

T
q"n 
n

In this expression, n is direction (e.g., x, y, or z) in which energy flux is transported. The symbol
q"n means the heat flux in the n direction. Written as an equality, the above equation is

T
q"n =  kn
n

This equation is called Fourier’s Law of conduction which serves as the defining equation for the
thermal conductivity, kn, in the n direction. The units of kn in SI system are W/moK. The explicit
assumption is that each direction {e.g., for a Cartesian coordinate system (n = x, y, or z)} can
potentially have its own unique thermal conductivity (i.e., kx, ky, kz). Such a material is termed
orthotropic as a special case of an anisotropic material. Certain selected woods and
semiconductor materials (e.g., silicon in very thin film form for material thickness on the order
of micrometers) are anisotropic. When all components of the thermal conductivity are the same,

1-8
(kx = ky = kz = k) the material is termed isotropic. In this text, most of the materials we consider
will be isotropic.

For convection f(T) = T and q"  T, writing the above equation as an equality,

q" = h(T  T)

This equation is known as Newton’s law of cooling where the proportionality constant is the heat
transfer coefficient h. The units of h are W/m2oK. This equation is technically only useful when
the heat transfer coefficient is independent of temperature. In reality, this situation is rarely
realized. Still, computing the heat transfer coefficient continues to be the most important
parameter in convection heat transfer analysis.

Finally, for radiation q"  T4 . This equation is known as Planck radiation equation and

q" = T4

where  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4 is Stefan-Boltzmann constant. An additional discussion of these

three laws follows in the next few pages.

1.6 Nanoscale Origin of Heat Conduction

Valence Electron
Bounded (and Hole)
Molecule

Free electron lm = molecular spacing

Lattice Vibration
(Phonon Transport)

Figure 1.6-1 Mechanism of heat conduction in solids.

Heat transfer by conduction is essentially the energy carried by electrons and lattice vibration
called phonons. Conduction transport is the act of carrier collisions. The distance a carrier moves
before encountering or collision with another carrier is called the mean free path. The mean free
paths of phonon and electron are denoted as p and e, respectively. More collisions or shorter
mean free paths between carriers result in higher transport in that medium. Classical mechanics
description of conduction is valid as long as the carrier ‘s mean free path is greater than
deBroglie wavelength defined by

h
p =
(2 mk BT )1/ 2

1-9
where h = 6.62510-34 Js/(molecule) is Planck's constant, kB = 1.3802510-23 J/(moleculeoK) is
Boltzmann constant and m is the mass of the molecule.

1.7 Thermal Conductivity

In this section, a scale analysis for molecular heat flux will be presented so that the thermal
conductivity of solids can be derived in terms of the carriers’ mean free paths and other
properties. The one-dimensional heat flux due to electrons as the energy carries is considered
first.

is the mean free path of electrons

ee = distance before collision

energy is
Collision Collision
energy is

x0 x
Figure 1.7-1 Electron energy as a function of distance.

At location x0, the energy of electrons are the energy they have after their previous collisions at
locations at (x0  e) and (x0 + e). The flux of energy transported, q"e, is proportional to the
electron energy and the electron flux:

Energy Electron
q"e ~  (1.7-1)
Electron Area  Time

Let ne be the electron number density (electrons/volume) and ue the mean electron speed, the
electron flux at any location is given by

neue = ne ue x0 e
= ne ue x0  e
(1.7-2)

The above relations come from the fact that electron flux is a constant at any location therefore
there must be no net flux of electrons at x0. Let ee be the energy of the electron, the energy

1-10
transported from locations (x0  e) and (x0 + e) are neue ee x0 e
and neue ee x0  e
, respectively.
The net energy transported across x = x0 is then

q"e ~ neue  ee  ee  (1.7-3)

 x0 e x0  e 

The negative sign for the second term on the RHS is due the transport in the negative direction.
Expanding the electron energy ee(x) using Taylor series and retaining only the first order terms
gives

dee
ee(x) = ee(x0) + (x  x0) + … (1.7-4)
dx x  x0

Let x = (x0  e) and x = (x0 + e) we have

dee dee
ee x0 e
= ee(x0) + ( x0  e  x0)  ee(x0) + (  e) (1.7-5a)
dx x  x0 dx

dee dee
ee x0  e
= ee(x0) + ( x0 + e  x0)  ee(x0) + ( e) (1.7-5b)
dx x  x0 dx

Substituting Eqs. (1.7-5a,b) into Eq. (1.7-3) we have

 de de 
q"e ~ neue  ee ( x0 )  e ( e )  ee ( x0 )  e (e ) 
 dx dx 

dee
q"e ~  2neue e (1.7-6)
dx

The electron energy gradient can be rewritten as

dee de dT
= e (1.7-7)
dx dT dx

Since the solid is incompressible we have

dee e
= e  Cve (1.7-8)
dT x v

The above equation defines the heat capacity per electron which is a constant independent of
temperature

3
Cve = kB  f(T) (1.7-9)
2

1-11
The heat capacity can also be defined in mass unit so that

Cve = Cveme (1.7-10)

In this equation, Cve is the heat capacity per unit mass and me mass of the electron. The energy
flux is then

dee dT
q"e ~  2neue e = q"e =  2neue eCveme (1.7-11)
dx dx

In terms of the electron density defined as e = neme, Eq. (1.7-11) may be written as

dT
q"e ~  2 e ue eCve
dx

This equation may be expressed in terms of an equality using a proportional constant C.

dT
q"e =  Ce ue eCve (1.7-12)
dx

Taking into account of the distribution of molecular speeds about the mean, the constant C is
1
given3 as C = . Therefore
3

1 dT
q"e =  e ue eCve (1.7-13)
3 dx

The Fourier’s law for 1 dimension is written as

dT
q"e =  ke (1.7-14)
dx

In this equation, ke is the thermal conductivity contribution due to the flow of free electrons.
Comparing Eq. (1.7-3) and Eq. (1.7-4) we have

1
ke = e ue eCve (1.7-15)
3

Similar arguments for phonons as the heat carrier give a similar formula for thermal
conductivity, kp, contribution due to lattice vibrational waves and molecular collisions.

1
kp = p up pCvp (1.7-16)
3

3 Kruger, p. 19

1-12
In this equation up is the speed of sound in the solid state and Cvp the lattice heat capacity which
is a function of temperature. In general

q" = q"e + q"p, or k = ke + kp.

The thermal conductivity k has two contributions ke and kp.The contribution ke is due to the flow
of free electrons and the contribution kp is due to lattice vibrational waves (energy quanta =
phonon) and molecular collisions. For pure metals, the contribution due to electron flow is
dominant (ke  kp), for alloys the two contributions are comparable (ke  kp), and for non metals
the phonon contribution is more important (ke  kp). If e and p are much smaller than the
characteristic dimension L of the system, k = (ke + kp) is called the bulk thermal conductiviy.

Diamond has the highest known thermal conductivity for a solid with k > 1500 W/mK. In some
device like the heat pipe the thermal conductivity can approach infinity. Figure 1.7-2 shows a
schematic of a heat pipe for a horizontal position4. In this configuration, the heat pipe is a hollow
cylinder with a layer of wicking material covering the inside surface with a hollow core in the
center. Heat transfers along the pipe by the movement of a condensable fluid contained in the
pipe where the liquid permeates the wicking materials by capillary action. Liquid is vaporized in
the evaporator end of the pipe where heat is added. The vapor then moves to the condenser end
where heat is removed. The condensed liquid flows back to the evaporator section by capillary
action.
Heat rejection
Heat Addition
Evaporator Insulation

Condenser

Vapor

Wick

Figure 1.7-2 Basic heat pipe configuration in horizontal position.

Materials at the nanoscale, 1 to 100 nanometer (1 nanometer = 10-9 m) length scale, have
properties (i.e. chemical, electrical, magnetic, mechanical, and optical) very different from the
bulk materials. In fact, nanoparticles possess enhanced performance properties compared to bulk
materials when they are used in similar applications5.

Figure 1.7-3 The four allotropes of carbon6.

4 To be determined
5 Mansoori, A. G., Principles of Nanotechnology, Word Scientific, 2005, pg. 2.
6 Mansoori, A. G., Principles of Nanotechnology, Word Scientific, 2005, pg. 15.

1-13
Carbon nanotube shown in Figure 1.7-3 is an allotrope of carbon beside graphite, diamond, and
fullerene. Fullerene or Buckminsterfullerene is nanostructure of 60 carbon atoms (C60). Other
fullerenes with larger number of carbon atoms (C76, C80, C240, etc.) also exist. Fullerenes were
discovered by Kroto and collaborators using laser to evaporate graphite.

Carbon nanotubes were discovered by Iijima during the synthesis of fullerenes using an electric
arc-evaporation reactor to vaporize carbon graphite under an inert atmosphere. The nanotubes
produced by Iijima appeared to made up of a perfect network of hexagonal graphite rolled up to
form a hollow tube. The nanotube diameter range is from one to several nanometers. The
diameter range is much smaller than the nanotube length range, which is from one to a few
micrometers.

Carbon nanotubes and fullerenes have unusual photochemical, electronic, thermal and
mechanical properties. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) could behave metallic, semi-
methallic, or semi-conductive one-dimensional objects, and their longitudinal thermal
conductivity could exceed the in-plane thermal conductivity of graphite. The thermal
conductivity of nanotube could exceed 2000 W/mK.

The temperature dependent of bulk thermal conductivity is shown in Figure 1.7-4 for various
metallic and nonmetallic solids7. When e and p are comparable to the characteristic dimension
L of the system, we must account for the distribution of heat carriers by applying the Boltzman
Tranport Equation. This approach to heat transfer is beyond the scope of this text. In the
following we will assume bulk properties.

Figure 1.7-4 The temperature dependence of k for various solids.

7 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002, pg. 56

1-14
Chapter 2
Constitutive relation between q and T

2.1 Conduction

Fourier's law (1822), developed from observed phenomena, states that the rate of heat transfer in
T
the 'n' direction is proportional to the temperature gradient
n

T
qn 
n

where n is the direction of heat transfer and n is the rate of change of distance in the
direction n.

n is the unit normal vector, and t is the unit tangential vector with the following properties,

n= 1; t= 1; nt = 0; nn = 1; tt = 1

qn
qn

T
n

qt

T
qn = C , where C = - Akn
n

T
qn = - knA
n

where

2-1
 kn = thermal conductivity in 'n' direction, W/mK
A = area of surface perpendicular to n through which qn flows

The minus is a sign convention so that qn is positive in the direction it transfers. In this text, we
will usually consider the isotropic materials where the thermal conductivity k is independent of
direction. For one dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction only, the heat transfer rate is then

dT
qx = - kA
dx

or in terms of the heat flux q "x

dT
q "x = - k
dx

The thermal conductivity k has two contributions ke and kL.

k = ke + kL

The contribution ke is due to the flow of free electrons and the contribution kL is due to lattice
vibrational waves (energy quanta = phonon) and molecular collisions.

Pure metals ke  kL

Alloys ke  kL

Non metals ke  kL

Diamond has the highest known thermal conductivity for a solid with k > 1500 W/mK. In some
device like the heat pipe the thermal conductivity can approach infinity. Figure 2.1 shows a
schematic of a heat pipe for a horizontal position [1]. In this configuration, the heat pipe is a
hollow cylinder with a layer of wicking material covering the inside surface with a hollow core
in the center. Heat transfers along the pipe by the movement of a condensable fluid contained in
the pipe where the liquid permeates the wicking materials by capillary action. Liquid is
vaporized in the evaporator end of the pipe where heat is added. The vapor then moves to the
condenser end where heat is removed. The condensed liquid flows back to the evaporator section
by capillary action.

2-2
 Figure 2.1-1 Basic heat pipe configuration in horizontal position.

The temperature dependent of thermal conductivity is shown in Figure 2.2 for various metallic
and nonmetallic solids [2].

Figure 2.1-2 The temperature dependence of k for various solids.

2-3
2.2 Convection

Convection refers to energy transport over macroscopic distances by bulk

movement of matter. Once matter reaches its destination, energy dissipated by conduction. In
general, the total heat transfer is a superposition of energy transport by molecular interactions
and by the bulk motion of the fluid. Convection occurs between a solid surface and a fluid when
the two are at different temperature. Convection heat transfer is usually classified as forced
convection or free convection. Forced convection occurs when the flow is caused by an external
means, such as a fan or blower, a compressor, a pump, or atmospheric winds. Free convection
occurs when the flow is caused only by the density differences due to temperature variation in
the fluid. It should be note that free convection also exists in forced convection, however the
contribution of free convection in this situation is negligible. Convection can occur with or
without a phase change. When there is no change in phase, the energy that is being transfer is the
sensible energy of the fluid. When a phase change occurs such as boiling or condensation there is
an additional heat exchange due to the latent heat of the fluid from the change in physical
molecular bonds.

Boundary Layer Concept

Consider a flow over a flat plate where the free stream velocity is u. The fluid flow can
be divided into two regions: a velocity boundary layer region next to the solid surface in which
momentum transfer exists and a region outside the boundary layer in which momentum transfer
is negligible.

Figure 2.2.-1 Velocity boundary layer on a flat plate [2].

A thermal boundary layer also exists when the fluid flows over a surface if the fluid free
stream temperature T is not the same as the surface temperatures Ts. Heat transfer is significant
within the thermal boundary layer region.

Figure 2.2-2 Thermal boundary layer on an isothermal flat plate [2].

Let (x) be the thickness of the velocity boundary layer and t(x) be the thickness of the
thermal boundary layer. (x) is typically defined as the normal distance from the surface to the
2-4
location where the velocity in the x-direction u = 0.99u. Similarly t(x) is defined as the normal
distance from the surface to the location where [(Ts – T)/(Ts - T)] = 0.99. T is the temperature of
the fluid that varies between T and Ts. In general the velocity boundary layer thickness will not
be the same as the thermal boundary layer thickness.

Constitutive Equation

Newton (1701)

dT
 (Ts - T)
dt

The symbol  means 'proportional to'.

From the first law of thermodynamics

Q = W + dU

Consider the energy flow due to the temperature difference only: W = 0, then

Q = dU

Divide the above expression by dt

Q dU
=
dt dt

dU dT
Since dU = CpdT ; so = Cp
dt dt

Q dT
or = Cp
dt dt

Q
is the rate of heat transfer q, therefore
dt

dT
q = Cp  (Ts - T)
dt

The proportional sign can be removed by the use of C, proportionality constant

q = C(Ts - T)

where C is defined as

C = h As

2-5
where is As the surface area exposed to fluid and h is the average heat transfer coefficient with
unit of W/m2K.

q = h As(Ts - T)

In terms of the heat flux q" defined as the heat transfer rate per unit area q" = q/As

q" = h (Ts - T)

This formula is really useful only if the heat transfer coefficient is h constant. Table 2.1 shows
representative values of the heat transfer coefficient h .

Table 2.2-1 Representative values of h

Type of convection h (W/m2K.)

Free convection in gas 2 – 25
Free convection in liquid 50 – 1,000
Forced convection in gas 25 – 250
Forced convection in liquid 50 – 20,000
Boiling and condensation 2,500 – 100,000

It should be noted that the heat transfer coefficient h is not a fluid property whereas the thermal
conductivity k is a fluid property. h depends on parameters external to the fluid,

h = f ( u, kfluid, fluid, fluid, Ts, Cp,fluid + others)

2-6
Chapter 2
2.3 Thermal Radiation

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter entirely because of its temperature. The
mechanism of emission is electrons changing energy states with the frequency  determined by a
materials temperature. Thermal radiation exists in a vacuum. It may be view as the propagation
of electromagnetic wave with the wavelength  confined from 0.1 m to 100 m. The
wavelength is related to the frequency by

c
=


where c is the speed of light in the medium. In the visible part of the spectrum, which extends
from 0.4 m (violet) to 0.7 m (red), the various wavelengths are associated with the color of the
light. There is no thermal radiation if the matter is at 0oK. Figure 2.5 shows the emissive power
E,b of a blackbody as a function of temperature and wavelength [2]. The surface emissive power
is the rate at which energy is released per unit area. A blackbody is an ideal surface that absorbs
all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction. It is also an ideal emitter with
radiation-emitted independent of direction.

Figure 2.3-1 Spectral blackbody emissive power1.

1 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002, pg. 714

2-7
 The total emissive power of a blackbody is the rate of thermal radiation energy emitted
over the entire spectrum at a given temperature,


Eb =  E
0
,b d

From experiments, the blackbody (total) emissive power is given by

Eb = T4

where  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4 is Stefan-Boltzmann constant. The emissive power of a real

surface is less than that of a blackbody or

E = Eb

where  is the "emissivity" of the real surface with value between 0 and 1: 0    1. In general
the emissivity depends on the temperature, the wavelength, and the surface finish of the
materials,

 = f (T, , surface finish, …)

Radiation exchange between two surfaces

Consisder two infinite flat plates facing each other with the left surface 1 at temperature T1 and
the right surface 2 at temperature T2.

T1 T2

a) If surfaces 1 and 2 are ideal emitters (1 = 2 = 1)

q1-2 = AEb1 - AEb2

where
Eb1 = total radiation flux leaving surface 1
Eb2 = total radiation flux leaving surface 2

q1-2 = A(Eb1 - Eb2) = A(T14 - T24)

b) If surfaces 1 and 2 are not ideal emitters

q1-2 = A(T14 - T24)

2-8
  1 2
=
1   2  1

The rate at which radiant energy is absorbed per unit area may be determined from the
surface absorptivity . A surface is called a gray surface if the absorptivity is equal to the
emissivity. In a special case where a small gray surface at Ts is completely enclosed within
another surface at Tsur, the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the surface is

q = A(Ts4 – Tsur4)

Figure 2.3-2 Radiation exchange a surface enclosed within the surroundings2.

2.4 Energy Balance

Energy balance is the cornerstone of heat transfer analysis. The first law of
thermodynamics is the conservation of energy, which states that energy is neither created nor
destroyed. The first law can be written for a system as

Q = W + dE

where
Q = heat transfer between the system and the surroundings
W = work exchanged between the system and the surroundings
dE = accumulated energy of the system

The first law postulates the existence of a "function of state" called the accumulated energy such
that for an adiabatic system (Q = 0) the work output is balanced by a reduction in the
accumulated energy:

dE = - W

While Q and W are not themselves a "function of state", the difference Q - W is a function
of state.

2 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002, pg. 9

2-9
A quantity is a function of state when the difference in its values between two states only
depends on the initial and final states and not on the paths connecting these two states. The
accumulated energy E is a state function so that,

E (T2 , P2 ,...)  E (T1 , P1 ,...)a = E (T2 , P2 ,...)  E (T1 , P1 ,...)b

The differential of E is an exact differential for which the integral from state 1 to state 2 is
simply the difference E (T2 , P2 ,...)  E (T1 , P1 ,...) .

2
 dE
2
= E 1 = E (T2 , P2 ,...)  E (T1 , P1 ,...)
1

Heat and work are path functions and the differentials of heat and work, Q and W,
2 2
respectively, are nonexact differentials so that  Q 
1
Q2 – Q1 and  W 
1
W2 – W1. The
following example will show that work is path dependent.

Example 2.4-1

A gas is contained within a cylinder and piston system shown. Assuming a 'simple' system
(expansion and compression work only), calculate the work done by the system in transforming
from state P1, V1 to state P2, V2.

P2 Path a

Path b

P1

V1 V2
Solution

1. Compute the work using path a with constant volume followed by constant pressure

2 P2 ,V2 P2 ,V1 P2 ,V2

 W =
1 P1 ,V1
PdV = 
P1 ,V1
PdV + P2 ,V1
PdV = 0 + P2(V2 – V1) = Wa

2. Compute the work using path b with constant pressure followed by constant volume

2-10
 2 P2 ,V2 P1 ,V2 P2 ,V2
 W = 
1 P1 ,V1
PdV = 
P1 ,V1
PdV + 
P1 ,V2
PdV = P1(V2 – V1) + 0 = Wb

Clearly Wa  Wb

It should be noted that a constant pressure process makes W a function of state.

PdV = d(PV) – VdP

2 2 2
 W =  d (PV ) –  VdP
1 1 1

2 2
 d (PV ) is a function of state while  VdP is not a function of state. For constant P
1 1

2 2
 W =  d (PV ) = PV 1 = P2V2 – P1V1 = P1 or 2 (V2 – V1)
2
1 1

A function of state is one whose integral of a differential of itself recovers the original function,
for example

 dU = U ;  dP = P ;  d (PV ) = PV
First law as a rate equation

Apply the first law to the system shown over time interval t

Q = W + E (2.4-5)

Divide the above equation by t

Q W E
= + (2.4-6)
t t t

2-11
We are departing from the classical thermodynamic view that deals with equilibrium because
time is not a relevant parameter for equilibrium systems. Take the limit of Eq. (2.4-6) as t  0

limit Q limit W limit E

= +
t  0 t t  0 t t  0 t

Q W dE
= + (2.4-7)
t t dt

dE
q = W + (2.4-8)
dt

where q = net heat input plus heat generated (W)

q = qin – qout + qgen (2.4-9)

W = net work output (W)

dE
= accumulated energy change (W)
dt

A control volume must be defined to apply Eqs. (2.4-8) and (2.4-9).

Example 2.4-2

A metallic wire of electrical resistance , diameter D, and length L is heated by passing an

electrical current i through the wire to induce a uniform heat generation qgen. The ambient air
around the wire is at a temperature T with an average heat transfer coefficient h . Assuming the
wire temperature is uniform, obtain an expression for the unsteady-state wire temperature Tw(t).

For  = 510-3 /m, D = 0.020 m, L = 0.50 m, i = 100 A, T = 25oC, h = 25 W/m2K, wire

density  = 8900 kg/m3, and wire specific heat cp = 380 J/kgK, plot Tw(t).

Solution

The control volume is the wire with diameter D and length L. The internal electrical energy
generation within the wire is

qgen = i2L

Apply the first law with no work to the wire,

2-12
 dE
= qin – qout + qgen
dt

qin = 0, qout = h DL(Tw – T)

Neglecting kinetic and potential energies

D 2
dE = dU = mcpdTw = LcpdTw
4

dE D 2
= Lcp dTw
dt 4 dt

The first law becomes

D 2
Lcp dTw = – h DL(Tw – T) + i2L
4 dt

This equation can be integrated using the initial condition at t = 0, Tw = T to obtain

i 2    3
1  exp  4h t   , i  = 100  5  10 = 31.83oC
2 2
Tw = T +
h D   c D   h D 25    0.02
  p 

4h 4  25
= = 1.478 10-3s-1 = 5.32 hr-1
c p D 8900  380  0.02

Tw = 25oC + 31.83oC 1  exp 5.32t 

60

55

50

45
Tw(C)

40

35

30

25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t(hr)

2-13
Example 2.4-3

A large slab with thermal conductivity k and thickness L is maintained at temperatures T1 and T2
at the two surfaces. Determine the heat flux through this material at steady-state condition.
y

T1

dx T2

Solution

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction normal to the slab with x = 0 at the left surface
where the temperature is T1. Since the temperature varies across the slab or the x-direction, a
differential control volume with the same cross-sectional area A as that of the slab and a
thickness dx will be considered. An energy balance (first law) is then applied to this differential
control volume

dE
= qin – qout + qgen
dt

For steady state with no heat generation

q "x  q "x
qin = qout  A q "
x x = Aq "
x x  dx  x  dx x
=0
dx

In the limit when dx approaches zero

q "x  q "x dq "x dT

x  dx x
= = 0  q "x = - k = constant
dx dx dx

If the thermal conductivity k is a constant,

dT T T
= 2 1 = constant
dx L0

T1  T2
Therefore the heat flux q "x through the slab is simply: q "x = k = constant
L

2-14
Chapter 2
Example 2.4-4

A horizontal copper plate is coated on the top surface such that it absorbs 90% of a solar
radiation flux of 1000 W/m2. The bottom surface of the plate is well insulated and the plate is
thin (0.005 m thick) so that the temperature of the plate might be assumed to be uniform at any
time. The plate is initially at 300oK and is suddenly exposed to ambient air at 295oK with an
average heat transfer coefficient h = 25 W/m2K. The emissivity of the top surface is 0.30. For
copper: density  = 8900 kg/m3, specific heat cp = 380 J/kgK, plot Tw(t).

a) Determine the temperature of the plate when steady-state conditions are reached.

b) Neglecting radiation loss, determine the time for the plate temperature to reach 320oK.

Solution

The control volume is the plate with area A and thickness L. Apply the first law with no work to
the plate,

dE
= qin – qout + qgen
dt

qin = 0.91000 W/m2A = 900A; qout = h A(T – T) + AT4; qgen = 0

a) Steady-state temperature of the plate

T is the uniform plate temperature and the surrounding temperature Tsur for radiation energy
exchange with the plate is assumed to be at 0oK. Neglecting kinetic and potential energies

dE = dU = mcpdT = LAcpdT = 0 at steady-state

The energy equation becomes

qin = qout  900A = h A(T – T) + AT4

or

900 + h T = h T + T4 = T( h + T3)

2-15
Since  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4 the above equation is rearranged to

8275
T=
25  1.7018 T 3

The steady-state temperature can be solved iteratively by direct substitution with the first guess
neglecting heat loss by radiation

8275
T= = 331oK
25
8275
T= = 323.03oK
25  1.7018  3313

8275
T= = 323.58oK
25  1.7018  323.033

8275
T= 8
= 323.54oK
25  1.701  323.58 3

b) Time for the plate temperature to reach 320oK

The unsteady-state energy balance is

dE
= qin – qout + qgen
dt

Neglecting heat loss by radiation

dT
LAcp = 900A – h A(T – T)
dt

dT
0.0058900380 = 900 – 25(T – 295) = 8275 – 25T
dt

t T dT T dT  331  300 
t=  dt
0
= 16910 
300 8275  25T
= 676.4 
300 331  T
= 676.4 ln 
 331  T 


when T = 320oK, t = 701 s

2-16
2.5 Engineering Application: Temperature of a Focal Plane Array

2.5 A) Background Information3

Today, many of the everyday conveniences we are accustomed to depend on satellites. These
satellites are responsible for communication, weather prediction, research and defense. In order
to function properly, electronic components on satellites must operate within a strictly defined
temperature range. This is especially true of infrared focal plane arrays (IRFPA). IRFPA’S are
an arrangement of Infrared sensors arranged in rows on a plane, hence the name. The following
diagram (Fig. 2.5-1) depicts an actual IRFPA.

Figure 2.5-1: Focal plane array

Figur
Infrared focal plane arrays are used to obtain IR signatures given off by differences in
temperature observed on or above the earth’s surface. If the operating temperature is exceeded,
the infrared sensors cannot effectively differentiate between the source of the temperature
difference and its surroundings. Assuming the proper operational temperature is maintained, the
IR signature is converted to an electronic signal that is then amplified and processed, resulting in
useful data. This is depicted in the following schematic (Fig. 2.5-2).

•FPA INFRARED ENERGY

ELECTRIC SIGNALS

Figure 2.5-2 Operational principle of focal plane array.

IRFPA’s are used for weather prediction and defense purposes primarily. Northrop Grumman,
the exclusive contractor for the IR components on defense satellites is involved in developing a
passive cooling system for satellites that will be cost effective, light weight and have all the
necessary properties to operate effectively in outer-space.
2.5 B) Temperature of a Focal plane Array
Since the temperature of the focal plane array is a critical factor in its operation, we want to
predict its temperature during various conditions. For a surface in the high orbit above the earth,

3Excerpt from Development of a Thermal Coating for Passive Cooling of Ingrared Focal Plane Arrays, Report to
Northrop Grumman, 2002, pg. 7

2-17
the solar energy flux arrives at the surface is about 1350 W/m2 if the sun ray is normal to surface
as shown in Figure 2.5-3(A).
z

solar flux
(C)


x
(A) (B)

y
Figure 2.5-3 Orientation of the surface with respect to sunlight.

During normal operation, the focal plane array is oriented so that its surface makes an angle  of
3 degree with the light ray as shown in Figure 2.5-3(B). In general a plane can be oriented with
two different angles with respect to the xy-surface as shown in Figure 2.5-3(C). If the focal plane
is only rotated about the x or y-axis with an angle , the energy flux received by the focal plane
array is (1350 sin ). However not all the energy arrived at the surface will be absorbed by the
plane as shown in Figure 2.5-4.

Incident radiation Reflected radiation

Absorbed radiation
Figure 2.5-4 Fate of radiation incident upon a surface.

The amount of energy absorbed (qabsorbed) is given by

qabsorbed = A(1350 sin ) (2.5-1)

In this equation A is the surface area of the plane array and  is the absorptivity for solar
radiation. In general the absorpbtivity depends on the temperature, the wavelength, and the
surface finish of the materials.
The plane itself radiates energy to the surrounding, which is mostly dark empty space, by the
following equation

q = A(Ts4 – Tsur4) (2.5-2)

In this equation  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4 is Stefan-Boltzmann constant, Tsur is the surrounding

background temperature (2.73oK), and  is the "emissivity" of the real surface with value
between 0 and 1: 0    1. Similarly to the absorptivity, the emissivity depends on the

2-18
temperature, the wavelength, and the surface finish of the materials. At steady state operation,
the energy absorbed by the focal plane array is equal to the energy emitted

qabsorbed = q  A(1350 sin ) = A(Ts4 – Tsur4)

The temperature of the focal plane array (Ts) is then given by

1/ 4
 1350 sin  4
Ts =   Tsur 
  

Figure 2.5-5 shows the effects of the absorptivity and emissivity on the temperature of the focal
plane array. The temperature increases with absorptivity and decreases with emissivity where the
lowest curve has the highest emissivity.

220
emissivity = .7
emissivity = .8
emissivity = .9

200

180
Temperature (K)

160

140

120

100
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Absorptivity

Figure 2.5-5 Dependence of surface temperature on absorptivity and emissivity.

For normal operation of the focal plane array, its surface temperature should be less than 150oK.
The solar radiation arrived at the surface of the plane array is in the visible range that has
different wavelength than the infrared radiation leaving the surface (Figure 2.5-6). Therefore it is
possible to manufacture coating materials with low solar absorptivity and high infrared
emissivity. The coating material can be applied to the surface of the plane array to keep its
temperature below 150oK. A typical material developed by Northrop Grumman possesses a solar

2-19
absorptivity of about 0.15 and an infrared emissivity of about 0.9. This coating may be used as a
passive cooling system if it can last in the high earth orbit for the duration of the satellites’ life.

Figure 2.5-6 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation4.

We now want to determine the temperature of the focal plane array when it at a random
orientation toward the sun. This happens during the initial period when the satellite is first in
orbit and twice per year at the equinox when the sun crosses the equator. We need to determine
randomly the angles the plane array makes with the y-axis (y-angle) and with the x-axis (x-angle)
as show in Figure 2.5-7. We arbitrarily assign a value of less than  for both the x-angle and y-
angle in order for the plane array to face the sun.

y-angle
x-angle x

y
Figure 2.5-7 Orientation of the plane array with respect to the xy-surface

When the plane array faces the sun it will receive solar energy that will cause a rise in
temperature. The following Matlab program may be used to predict the temperature during the
period the plane array is at a random orientation toward the sun. An emissivity of 0.9 is assumed

4 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002,pg. 702

2-20
for the calculation. The temperature for the normal operation is also calculated for comparison.
Figure 2.5-8 shows the results from the calculation.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
% Temperature at a random orientation and at normal operational orientation
%
theta=3*pi/180;Tsur=2.73;
flux=1350;con=5.67e-8;
ntry=1000;ein=0;nhit=0;
absor=.1:.02:1;
for i=1:ntry;
xangle=rand;
yangle=rand;
if yangle<.5 & xangle<.5,
ein=flux*sin(xangle*2*pi)*sin(yangle*2*pi) + ein;
nhit=nhit+1;
end
end
ein=ein/ntry;
emiss=.9;
Ts=(ein*absor/(con*emiss)+Tsur^4).^.25;
Ts3=(flux*sin(theta)*absor/(con*emiss)+Tsur^4).^.25;
plot(absor,Ts,absor,Ts3,'--');grid on
xlabel('Absorptivity');ylabel('Temperature (K)')
legend('Random position','3 degree')
fprintf('nhit = %g\n',nhit)

>> arrayr
nhit = 215
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2-21
 220
Random position
3 degree

200

180
Temperature (K)

160

140

120

100
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Absorptivity

Figure 2.5-8 Temperature of the plane array at random and 3 degree orientations.

2-22
Chapter 2

2.6 Examples in Conduction, Convection, and Radiations

Example 2.6-1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A vacuum system, as used in sputtering electrically conducting thin films on microcircuits, is

comprised of a baseplate maintained by an electrical heater at 300oK and a shroud
within the enclosure maintained at 77oK by a liquid nitrogen coolant loop. The
baseplate, insulated on the lower side, is 0.3 m in diameter and has an emissivity of
0.25
(a) How much electrical power must be provided to the baseplate heater?
(b) At what rate must liquid nitrogen be supplied to the shroud if its heat of vaporization
is 125 kJ/kg?
(c) To reduce the liquid nitrogen consumption, it is proposed to bond a thin sheet of
aluminum foil ( = 0.09) to the baseplate. Will this have the desired effect?5

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(a) How much electrical power must be provided to the baseplate heater?

At steady state, the power supplied to the baseplate heater, E in , is equal to rate of radiation
energy transferred to the shroud, E . out

E in = E out = Ap(Tp4  Tsh4) = (0.25)(5.6710-8)( 0.32/4)(3004  774) = 8.12 W

(b) At what rate must liquid nitrogen be supplied to the shroud if its heat of vaporization
is 125 kJ/kg?

The heat transfer to the shroud is removed by liquid nitrogen through the latent heat, hfg,
therefore the rate of liquid nitrogen, m , supplied to the shroud is given by

m = E in /hfg = 8.12/125 = 0.0649 g/s = 0.234 kg/hr

5 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer by Incropera and DeWitt.

2-23
(c) To reduce the liquid nitrogen consumption, it is proposed to bond a thin sheet of
aluminum foil ( = 0.09) to the baseplate. Will this have the desired effect?

The rate of heat transfer by radiation to the shroud is then

E out = 0.09Ap(Tp4  Tsh4) = (0.09/0.25)(8.12) = 2.92 W

This will reduce liquid nitrogen consumption.

Example 2.6-26 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In the thermal processing of semiconductor materials, annealing is accomplished by heating a

silicon wafer according to a temperature-time recipe and then maintaining a fixed elevated
temperature for a prescribed period of time. For the process tool arrangement shown as
follows, the wafer is in an evacuated chamber whose walls are maintained at 27oC and within
which heating lamps maintain a radiant flux qs" at its upper surface. The wafer is 0.78 mm
thick, has a thermal conductivity of 30 W/mK, and an emissivity that equals its absorptivity
to the radiant flux ( = l = 0.65). For qs" = 3.0105 W/m2, the temperature on its lower
surface is measured by a radiation thermometer and found to have a value of Tw,l = 997oC. To
avoid warping the wafer and inducing slip planes in the crystal structure, the temperature
difference across the thickness of the wafer must be less than 2oC. Is this condition being
met?

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Perform an energy balance on the upper surface of the wafer we have

qin = qout

k Tw,u  (997  273) 

(0.65)(3.0105) =  (Tw,u4  3004) +
7.8  104

(0.65)(3.0105) = (0.65) (5.6710-8)(Tw,u4  3004) + (30/7.810-4)( Tw,u  1270)

Tw,u4  3004 + 1.04361012( Tw,u  1270)  5.2911012 = 0

6 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer by Incropera and DeWitt.

2-24
The nonlinear algebraic equation can be solved by the following Matlab statements:

>> fu=('x^4-300^4+1.0436e12*(x-1270)-5.2910e12');
>> Twu = fsolve(fu,1000,optimset('Display','off'))

Twu =

1.2726e+003

Therefore Tw,u = 1272.6oK = 999.6oC

The difference in temperature is T = 999.6oC  997oC = 2.6 oC

Since T > 2oC, the condition is not met.

Example 2.6-37 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A spherical stainless steel (AISI 302) canister is used to store reacting chemicals that provide
for a uniform heat flux qi" to its inner surface. The canister is suddenly submerged in a
liquid bath of temperature T < Ti, where Ti is the initial temperature of the canister
wall.
(a) Assuming negligible temperature gradient in the canister wall and a constant heat flux
qi" , develop an equation that governs the variation of the wall temperature with time
during the transient process. What is the initial rate of change of the wall temperature
if qi" = 105 W/m2?
(b) What is the steady-state temperature of the wall?

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(a) Performing an energy balance on the spherical stainless steel canister we have

dE
= qin  qout
dt

4 dT
(ro3  ri3)Cp = 4ri2qi”  4ro2h(T  T)
3 dt

7 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer by Incropera and DeWitt.

2-25
 dT
Solving for gives
dt

dT 3
= [ri2qi”  ro2h(T  T)]
dt  C p ( ro3  ri3 )

For stainless steel (AISI 302),  = 8055 kg/m3, Cp = 510 J/kgoK, the initial rate of change of
the wall temperature is

dT 3 0.52  105  0.62  500  (500  300) 

= =  0.088 oK/s
dt i (8055)(510)(0.63  0.53 )

(b) What is the steady-state temperature of the wall?

At steady state qin = qout

4ri2qi”  4ro2h(T  T)

2
qi " ri 2 105  0.5  o
T = T + = 300 +   = 439 K
h ro2 500  0.6 

Example 2.6-48 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Electronic power devices are mounted to a heat sink having an exposed surface area of 0.045
m2 and an emissivity of 0.80. When the devices dissipate a total power of 20 W and the air
and surroundings are at 27oC, the average sink temperature is 42oC. What average
temperature will the heat sink reach when the devices dissipate 30 W for the same
environmental condition?

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Perform an energy balance on the heat sink we have

qin = qout

20 = A (Ts4  Tsur4) + Ah(Ts  T)

20 = (0.045)(0.8)(5.6710-8)(3154  3004) + 0.045h(42  27)

8 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer by Incropera and DeWitt.

2-26
 20 = 0.675h + 3.563  h = 24.4 W/m2oK

When the devices dissipate 30 W for the same environmental condition we have

30 = A (Ts4  Tsur4) + Ah(Ts  T)

30 = (0.045)(0.8)(5.6710-8)(Ts4  3004) + (0.045)(24.4)(Ts  300)

2.04110-9 (Ts4  3004) + 1.098(Ts  300)  30 = 0

The nonlinear algebraic equation can be solved by the following Matlab statements:

>> fu=('2.041e-9*(x^4-300^4)+1.098*(x-300)-30');
>> Ts = fsolve(fu,300,optimset('Display','off'))

Ts =

322.3170

The average temperature of the heat sink is 322.3oK = 49oC

Example 2.6-59 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A computer consists of an array of five printed circuit boards (PCBs), each dissipating Pb =
20 W power. Cooling of the electronic components on a board is provided by the
forced flow of air, equally distributed in passages formed by adjoining boards, and
the convection coefficient associated with heat transfer from the components to the
air is approximately h = 200 W/m2K. Air enters the computer console at a
temperature of Ti = 20oC, and flow is driven by a fan whose power consumption is Pf
= 25 W.
(a) If the temperature rise of the air flow, (To  Ti), is not to exceed 15oC, what is the
minimum allowable volumetric flow rate of the air? The density and specific heat of
the air may be approximate as  = 1.161 kg/m3 and Cp = 1007 J/kgK, respectively.
(b) The component that is most susceptible to thermal failure dissipates 1 W/cm2 of
surface area. To minimize the potential for thermal failure, where should the
component be installed on a PCB? What is its surface temperature at this location?

9 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer by Incropera and DeWitt.

2-27
Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(a) If the temperature rise of the air flow, (To  Ti), is not to exceed 15oC, what is the
minimum allowable volumetric flow rate of the air?

5Pb  Pf
m Cp(To  Ti) = 5Pb + Pf  m =
C p (To  Ti )

5  20  25
m = = 8.2810-3 kg/s
(1007)(15)

The minimum allowable volumetric flow rate, V , of the air is then

m
V = = 8.2810-3/1.161 = 7.1310-3 m3/s


(b) The component that is most susceptible to thermal failure dissipates 1 W/cm2 of
surface area. To minimize the potential for thermal failure, where should the component be
installed on a PCB? What is its surface temperature at this location?

The component should be mounted at the bottom of one of the PCBs where the air is coolest.

q" = h(Ts  Ti)

104 W/m 2
Ts = Ti + q"/h = 20 + = 70oC
200W/m  K
2 o

2-28
Chapter 3
Conduction Differential Equation

3.1 Derivation

This section presents the derivation of the differential equation that must be solved to
determine the temperature distribution in a solid. Then, the heat transfer rate can be determined.
The differential equation can be derived by applying an energy balance on a "tiny" or
"differential" element.

Figure 3.1 Illustration of a differential element in Cartesian coordinates.

Apply the first law to a 3-D control volume in Cartesian coordinates with the following
assumptions:

 No movable surfaces ( W = 0)
 Negligible kinetic and potential energies
 Isotropic solid (kx = ky = kz = k)
 Cp = Cv (specific heat at constant P and V equal)
 Properties independent of temperature

dE
= Vcp dT = qin – qout + qgen
dt dt

where V = volume of the control volume

Since T(x, y, x, t) is a function of more than one independent variable, the derivative dT
dt
is a total derivative with respect to time which can be obtained from the chain rule of calculus as
follow

3-1
 T T T T
dT = dx + dy + dz + dt
x y , z ,t y x , z ,t
z x , y ,t t x, y ,z

Divide the above equation by dt

dT T dx T dy T dz T
= + + +
dt x y , z ,t dt y x , z ,t
dt z x , y ,t dt t x, y ,z

where

dx
= vx = velocity in the x-direction
dt

dy
= vy = velocity in the y-direction
dt

dz
= vz = velocity in the z-direction
dt

dT T T T T T
= vx + vy + vz + = vT +
dt x y , z ,t y x , z ,t
z x , y ,t t x, y ,z t

For a solid vx = vy = vz = 0; v = 0

dT T
=
dt t

The energy balance becomes

Vcp T = q = qin – qout + qgen

t

The control volume is defined as V = xyz, so

cpxyz T = qin – qout + qgen

t

qgen = q  V = q  xyz

qin – qout + qgen = [qx + qy + qz ] – [qx+x + qy+y + qz+z ] + q  xyz

The energy equation becomes

3-2
 cpxyz T = [qx – qx+x] + [qy – qy+y] + [qz – qz+z ] + q  xyz
t

Divide the equation by xyz and take the limit as xyz 0

In the limiting process of making x, y, z 0

x dx
y dy
z dz

lim
x  0  T q x  q x  x 1 q y  q y  y 1 q  q z  z 1 
 c
 p t    z  q 
y  0  x yz y xz z xy 
z  0

This limit process produces partial derivatives

limit  q x  q x  x  q x
=–

x  0  x 
 x

limit  q y  q y  y  q y
  =–
y  0  y  y

limit  q  q q z
z  z 
=–
z

z  0  z   z

From Fourier's law

qx = – kdydz T
x

3-3
 limit  q x  q x  x 1  q x 1   T  1   T 
    kdydz  k 
Δx  0  x yz 
= = =
x dydz x  x  dydz x  x 

Similarly

limit  q y  q y  y 1    T 
k 
Δy  0  xz  y  y
=
y 

limit  q z  q z  z 1    T 
k 
Δz  0  z xy  z  z 
=

Therefore the energy equation for heat conduction in a solid becomes

cp T =   k T  +   k T  +   k T  + q 

t x  x  y  y  z  z 

The gradient of a scalar s is defined as a vector in the direction in which s increases most rapidly
with distance. The gradient operator in the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system is given as

  
= i+ j+ k
x y z
where i, j, and k are the unit vectors in the x, y, and z-direction respectively. In terms of the
gradient operator, the conduction differential equation becomes,

cp T = (kT) + q 

t

The gradient operator can be derived for any coordinate system: rectangular, cylindrical,
spherical, bispherical, or other [1].

3-4
 z z

r
T(r,,z) T(r,
, )
r
y  y
 
r sin()

x x
Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates

The temperature gradient in cylindrical coordinates is

T 1 T T
T = i +j +k
r r  z

The gradient denotes a change with respect to distance. The length increment in the  direction is
r not . Similarly, the temperature gradient in spherical coordinates is

T 1 T 1 T
T = i +j +k
r r  r sin( ) 

It should be noted that the length increment in the  direction for spherical coordinates is
rsin().

3-5
Special cases of the heat conduction equation

cp T = (kT) + q 

t

 k is independent of T

(kT) = kT = k2T

cp T = k2T + q 

t

 steady state and k is independent of T

q 
2T + =0
k

 steady state, no heat generation, and k is independent of T

2T = 0

The general heat conduction equation cp T = (kT) + q  can be simplified for each
t
particular case as shown in the following example.

Example 3.1-1

Derive a differential equation for temperature for the one dimensional heat transfer in rectangular
coordinate system. The system is at steady state with no heat generation, however the thermal
conductivity is dependent on temperature.

Solution

The general heat conduction equation is

cp T = (kT) + q 

t

Since cp T = 0 for steady state and q  = 0 for no heat generation, the heat conduction equation
t
becomes

(kT) = 0

For 1-dimensional heat transfer in Cartesian coordinate

3-6
  d   dT  d  dT  d  dT 
i  k i = k  ii = k  =0
 dx   dx  dx  dx  dx  dx 

Apply the product rule of differentiation

d  dT  d 2T dk dT
k  =k 2 + =0
dx  dx  dx dx dx

dk
From the chain rule dk = dT
dT

dk dk dT
=
dx dT dx

The 1-dimensional heat transfer equation becomes

2
d 2T dk  dT 
k 2 +   =0
dx dT  dx 

The above equation can be solved for T(x) once k(x) and the boundary conditions are given.
___________________________________________________________________________

The calculation of 1-dimensional heat transfer rate qx depends on whether T(x) is known or
unknown once the thermal conductivity k(T) is given as a function of temperature.

 If T(x) is known, qx can be determined from Fourier's law directly,

qx = – kA dT
dx

 If T(x) is unknown or difficult to evaluate, qx can be determined from the direct

integration of Fourier's law,

qx = – kA dT
dx

x2 qx T2
x1 A
dx = –  kdT
T1

For the special case of steady state with no heat generation, qx is a constant and can be moved
out of the integral sign.

3-7
 x2 1 T2
qx  dx = –  k (T )dT
x1 A T1

T2

qx =–
 T1
k (T )dT
x2 1
 x1 A
dx

The fact that qx is a constant can be derived from an energy balance around a differential control
volume Adx,

T1

T2

dx

x1 x2

dE
= qin – qout + qgen
dt

For steady state with no heat generation

qin = qout

qx x = qx x  dx

qx x  dx
 qx x
=0
dx

In the limit when dx approaches zero

qx  qx dq x dT
x  dx x
= = 0  q x = – kA = constant
dx dx dx

3-8
Chapter 3
Example 3.1-2

The temperature distribution across a wall 0.40 m thick at a certain instant of time is given as

T(x) = 300 + 100x + 150x2

where T is in degree Celsius and x is the distance in meter from the left side of the wall. Heat is
generated uniformly in the wall at 2000 W/m3. The thermal conductivity of the wall is a function
of temperature,

k(T) = 20 + 0.02T

where T is in degree Celsius and k is in W/mK. Properties of the wall are known: density  =
1900 kg/m3, specific heat cp = 8 J/kgK.
1) Determine the rate of heat transfer at x = 0 and x = 0.40 m.
2) Determine the rate of change of energy accumulated in the wall.
3) Determine the rate of temperature change at x = 0 and x = 0.40 m.

0.4 m

Solution

1) Since T(x) is known, the heat transfer rate can be determined directly from Fourier's
law,

qx = – kA dT = – kA(100 + 300x)
dx

At x = 0, T = 300oC, k = 26 W/mK

qx(x = 0) = – 26 W/mK  1 m2  100 oC/m = – 2600 W

Heat is leaving the wall at x = 0.

At x = 0.40 m, T = 364oC, k = 27.28 W/mK

3-9
 qx(x = 0.40 m) = – 27.28 W/mK  1 m2  220 oC/m = – 6002 W

Heat is entering the wall at x = 0.40 m

2) The rate of change of energy accumulated in the wall may be determined from the
energy with the system as the wall,

dE
= qin – qout + qgen
dt
where

qin = 6002 W; qout = 2600 W; and

qgen = AL q = 1 m2  0.40m  2000 W/m3 = 800 W

The rate of change of accumulated energy is

dE
= 6002 W – 2600 W + 800 W = 4202 W
dt

3) The rate of temperature change at any position in the wall can be determined from the
heat conduction equation

cp T =   k T  + q 
t x  x 

T = 1   T  + q 
k 
t c p x  x  c p

2
  T  k  T + k T = k  T + k  T 
2 2

k =  
x  x  x 2 x x x 2 T  x 

T  2T
T(x) = 300 + 100x + 150x2  = 100 + 300x  = 300 oC/m2
x x 2

k
k(T) = 20 + 0.02T  = 0.02 W/m
T

At x = 0, T = 300oC, k = 26 W/mK, cp = 15,200 J/m3K

  T  = 26 W/mK  300 oC/m2 + 0.02 W/mK2  (100 oC/m)2 = 8,000 W/m3

k 
x  x 
3
T = 8,000W/m 2,000W/m3
+ = 0.658 oC/s
t 15,200 J/m  K 15,200 J/m  K
3 3

3-10
At x = 0.40 m, T = 364oC, k = 27.28 W/mK cp = 15,200 J/m3K

  T  = 27.28 W/mK  300 oC/m2 + 0.02 W/mK2  (220 oC/m)2 = 9,152 W/m3
k 
x  x 
3
T = 9,152W/m 2,000W/m3
+ = 0.734 oC/s
t 15,200 J/m 3
 K 15,200 J/m 3
 K

Example 3.1-3

The quarter cylindrical system shown has negligible temperature variation in the r and z
directions. r2 – r1 is small compare to r1 and the length in the z direction, normal to the page, is L.
The cylindrical surfaces at r2 and r1 are insulated and T2 is greater than T1. For steady-state
conditions with no heat generation and constant properties, determine the temperature
distribution T() and the heat transfer rate q.

T2 r2
insulated boundary
r1


T1 x

Solution

1) T() may be determined from the energy equation

cp T = (kT) + q 

t
For steady state with no heat generation and constant k

2T = 0

The Laplacian 2T is given in cylindrical coordinate as

1   T  1  2T  2T
2T = r  + + =0
r r  r  r 2  2 z 2

Since temperature is a function of  only

3-11
  2T d 2T
= =0
 2 d 2

Integrate the above equation twice to obtain

T = C1 + C2

where the two constants of integration C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary

conditions:  = 0, T = T1;  = , T = T2
2

2
C1 = (T2 T1)


C2 = T 1

The temperature distribution is then

2
T = (T2 T1)  + T1


r


2) The heat transfer rate q may be determined from Fourier's law in the  direction

q = – kA dT
ds

where A = rL, ds = r d, and r = (r1 + r2)/2

dT = dT d
ds d ds

since d =  dT
1 1 dT
=
ds r ds r d

3-12
 L dT
q = – k r
r d

2 2
From the temperature profile T = (T2 T1)  + T1  dT = (T2 T1)
 d 

Therefore

L 2 4 Lk ( r2  r1 )
q = – k (T2 T1) r = – (T2 T1)
r   r2  r1

Example 3.1-4

The quarter cylindrical system shown has negligible temperature variation in the r and z
directions. r2 – r1 is small compare to r1 and the length in the z direction, normal to the page, is L.
The cylindrical surfaces at r2 and r1 are insulated and T2 is greater than T1. For steady-state
conditions with no heat generation and constant properties, derive the energy equation by
applying the first law to a differential element.

r2 r
r1


Solution

The control volume has an area r r  with a unit distance in the direction normal to the
page. Apply the first law to the control volume at steady state

dE
= qin – qout + qgen = 0
dt
where

qin = q ; qout = q; and qgen = 0

q – q = 0

Divide by  and take the limit as   0

3-13
 lim  q  q    dq
  =– =0
  0    d 

From the Fourier's law

q = – kA dT
ds

where A = rL, ds = r d, and r = (r1 + r2)/2

dT = dT d
ds d ds

since d =  dT
1 1 dT
=
ds r ds r d

L
q = – k r dT
r d

From the energy balance

dq
=0
d

or

d  L dT 
d   k r r d  = 0
 

Finally

2
d  dT  = d T =0
 
d  d  d 2

3-14
Chapter 3
3.2 Boundary and Initial Conditions

The temperature distribution for heat conduction in a medium may be obtained from the
differential energy equation and the boundary and/or initial conditions. Since the differential
energy equation is second order in the spatial coordinate, two boundary conditions are required
for each coordinate. However only one initial condition is required since the energy equation is
first order in time.

Boundary Control volume at boundary

Solid system

n+ (Unit normal)
n-
As


Control volume

Figure 3.2 Illustration of a control volume at boundary.

Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the control volume at boundary shown

dE
= Vcp dT = qin – qout + qgen
dt dt

where

V = As = 0 since  = 0

qgen = q  V = 0

Therefore

qin – qout = 
As
q  ndA = 0

q q
qn = + q qn = - q
n n

3-15
A boundary cannot store heat because its volume is zero.

Typical Boundary Conditions Encountered

 Constant temperature

Gradient or ‘slope’ at x = 0

T(x,y,x,t)

at x = 0, T = Tw or T(0, y, z, t) = Tw

 Imposed heat flux

Gradient or ‘slope’ at x = 0

q” q o”

T(x,y,x,t)

Apply qin – qout = 0 to the boundary

qin" = qo" = input flux to the surface (a known value)

T
"
qout = q" = – k
x x 0

T qo"
= –
x x 0 k

3-16
 Gradient or ‘slope’ at x = 0

q” q o”

T(x,y,x,t)

T
If qin" = 0 then qout
"
= q " + qo" = – k + qo" = 0 , or
x x 0

T qo"
=
x x 0 k

Be careful of signs when writing boundary conditions

 Establish directions of fluxes from information given

 Write balance statement for boundary

qin" – qout
"
=0

 Choose sign in Fourier's law to make flux direction consistent with assumed
direction

q”

T(x,y,x,t)

Negative slope

x (Positive direction)
T
q" = – k
x x 0

3-17
Example 3.2-1

A 1-m thick slab is maintained at constant temperatures T1 and T2 at its two surfaces. If T1 =
400oK, T2 = 600oK, and the thermal conductivity k of the slab is 100 W/mK, determine the
dT
temperature gradient and the heat flux q "x for the three cases (a), (b), and (c) shown.
dx

(a) (b) (c)

T2 T2 T2

T1 T1
T1

1m 1m 1m

x x x
Solution

dT T2  T1 600  400
a) = = = 200 oK/m
dx L 1.0

dT
q "x = – k = – 100 W/mK  200 oK/m = – 20,000 W/m2
dx

Heat is transferred in the negative x direction

dT T1  T2 400  600
b) = = = – 200 oK/m
dx L 1.0

dT
q "x = – k = – 100 W/mK  (– 200 oK/m) = + 20,000 W/m2
dx

Heat is transferred in the positive x direction

dT T2  T1 600  400
c) = = = 200 oK/m
dx L 1.0

dT
q "x = – k = – 100 W/mK  200 oK/m = – 20,000 W/m2
dx

Heat is transferred in the negative x direction

3-18
 Two surface rubbing against each other

 Convection at a surface, T is known

T
q" = – k
x x 0

qc" = h(T – Tw)

T (known)
Temperature distribution
q” qc"
T(x,y,x,t)
Tw

From the energy balance: qin" – qout

"
=0

T
h(T – Tw) + k =0
x x 0

T h
=– (T – Tw)
x x 0 k

3-19
  Convection and Radiation

Heat transfers from the fluid to the solid surface by convection from the bulk fluid
temperature T and by radiation from the surroundings at Tsur.

T (known)
Temperature distribution
q” qc"
T(x,y,x,t) qrad"

Tw
x

From the energy balance: qc" + q rad

"
– q" = 0

T
q" = – k
x x 0

qc" = h(T – Tw)

"
q rad = (T4 – Tsur4)

 is a view factor that depends on emissivity only. This factor will be discussed in later chapter.
Substitute the above terms into the energy equation and solve for the temperature gradient in the
solid,

T h 
=– (T – Tw) – (T4 – Tsur4)
x x 0 k k

References:

1. Moon, P. and Spencer, D. E., Field Theory Handbook, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1971.

2. Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley &
Son, 1996.

3-20
Example 3.2-21

A thin flat plate of length L = 0.8 m, thickness t = 5 mm, and width w >> L is thermally joined to
two large heat sinks that are maintained at a temperature of 60oC and 0oC, respectively.

L
x
60C 0C

The bottom of the plate is well insulated, while the net heat flux q" to the top surface is known to
have a uniform value of 4000 W/m2. The thermal conductivity of the plate is 100 W/moK.
Determine the temperature distribution along the plate.

Solution

t
x
Making an energy balance on the control volume wtdx, we have

dT dT
 kwt + kwt + q"wdx = 0
dx x dx x  dx

In the limit as dx  0, we have

d 2T q"
2
+ =0
dx kt

Integrating this equation we obtain

dT q"
= x + C1
dx kt

q" 2 4000
T= x + C1x + C2 =  x2 + C1x + C2 =  4,000x2 + C1x + C2
2kt (2)(.005)(100)

At x = 0, T = 60oC  C2 = 60oC

At x = 0.8 m, T = 0oC  0 =  4,000(0.8)2 + C1(0.8) + 60  C1 = 3,125 oC/m

1 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

3-21
The temperature distribution along the plate is then

T =  4,000x2 + 3,125x + 60

In this equation T is in oC and x is in m.

Example 3.2-32

In the two-dimensional body illustrated, the gradient at surface A is found to be T/y = 40 K/m.
What are T/y and T/x at surface B?

Insulation Surface B
80oC

0.6 m

y
Surface A
20oC

x
1.0 m

Solution

The temperature along the y-direction of surface B is constant, therefore T/y = 0 at surface B.

Since T/y = 40 K/m > 0, the rate of heat leaving the body at surface A per m depth is given by

qout =  k(1)(1) T/y|A

For steady state, the rate of heat entering the body at surface B must be equal to the rate of heat
leaving the body at surface A.

qin =  k(1)(0,6)T/x|B =  k(1)(1) T/y|A

Hence

T/y|A = (0.6) T/x|B => T/x|B = 40/0.6 = 66.7 K/m

2 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

3-22
Chapter 4

Analysis of 1-Dimensional Conduction

4.1 Steady state, constant properties, and no heat generation

From the general heat conduction equation

cp T = (kT) + q 

t

For steady state ( T = 0) with no heat generation ( q  = 0) and constant k

t

2T = 0

4.2 Cartesian system, isothermal surfaces

T1
T1 T(x) = ?
T2

T2

L L

x x

For 1-dimensional conduction in Cartesian coordinate system 2T = 0 becomes

d 2T
=0
dx 2

The two boundary conditions required to determine the temperature profile T(x) are

x = 0, T = T1

x = 0, T = T2

Integrate the 1-dimensional conduction equation twice to obtain

T = C1x + C2

4-1
Apply the boundary conditions to obtain
1
C1 = (T2 T1)
L

C2 = T 1

The temperature distribution is then

x
T = (T2 T1) + T1
L

The heat transfer rate may be determined from Fourier's law

qx = – kA dT
dx

where dT = (T T ) 1 , therefore
2 1
dx L

kA T  T2
qx = (T1 T2) = 1
L L
 kA 

The heat transfer rate is proportional to the thermal conductivity k, the area of heat transfer A, the
temperature difference (T1 T2), and inversely proportional to the thickness of the system L.

4.3 Radial system, isothermal surfaces

r2 r

T(r) = ?

r1

The Laplacian 2T is given in cylindrical coordinate as

4-2
 1   T  1  2T  2T
2T = r  + 2 + =0
r r  r  r  2 z 2

For heat transfer in the radial direction only 2T = 0 becomes

1 d  dT 
r  =0
r dr  dr 

Integrate the 1-dimensional conduction equation twice to obtain

T = C1ln r + C2

Apply the boundary conditions

r = r1, T = T1

r = r2, T = T2

to obtain
1
C1 = (T1 T2)
ln( r1 / r2 )

ln( r2 )
C2 =  (T1 T2) + T2
ln( r1 / r2 )

Therefore

ln( r / r2 )
T = (T1 T2) + T2
ln( r1 / r2 )

The heat transfer rate in the radial direction is given as

qr = – kA dT
dr

1
where A = 2rL, and dT = T1  T2 , therefore
dr ln( r1 / r2 ) r

1
qr = – k2rL T1  T2 = k2 r2  r1 L T1  T2
ln( r1 / r2 ) r ln( r2 / r1 ) r2  r1

4-3
 qr = T1  T2 , or q /L = T1  T2
r
 ln( r2 / r1 )   ln( r2 / r1 ) 
 2Lk   2k 

The heat transfer rate qr is proportional to the thermal conductivity k, the area of heat transfer A =
2 r2  r1 L, the temperature difference (T1 T2), and inversely proportional to the thickness of
ln( r2 / r1 )
the system r2 r1. Since the area for heat transfer depends on the radial distance, the area based
on the log mean average distance is used for the calculation of the heat transfer rate. The log
mean average distance rln is defined as,

rln = r2  r1 = r1  r2
ln( r2 / r1 ) ln( r1 / r2 )

4.4 Spherical system, isothermal surfaces

z

r2

r T(r,  )
T(r) = ?

r1 r
y

For heat transfer in the radial direction only

1 d  2 dT 
2T = r  =0
r 2 dr  dr 

Integrate the 1-dimensional conduction equation twice to obtain

C1
T= + C2
r

Apply the boundary conditions

4-4
 r = r1, T = T1

r = r2, T = T2

to obtain
r1 r2
C1 = (T1 T2)
r2  r1

T1  T2
C2 = T 2  r1
r2  r1

Therefore

T1  T2  r2 
T= r1 1 + T2
r2  r1  r 

The heat transfer rate in the radial direction is given as

qr = – kA dT
dr

T  T2 r2
where A = 4r2, and dT = – 1 r1 2 , therefore
dr r2  r1 r

 T T r  T  T 
qr = – k[4r2]   1 2 r1 22  = k[4r1r2]  1 2 
 r2  r1 r   r2  r1 

T1  T2
qr =
 r2  r1 
 4kr r 
 1 2

The heat transfer rate qr is proportional to the thermal conductivity k, the area of heat transfer A =
4r1r2, the temperature difference (T1 T2), and inversely proportional to the thickness of the
system r2 r1. Since the area for heat transfer depends on the radial distance, the area based on
the geometric average distance is used for the calculation of the heat transfer rate. The geometric
average distance rave is defined as,

rave = [r1r2]1/2

4-5
4.5 Electrical and Thermal Analogy

There is an analogy between the heat conduction and the electric current flow. For 1-dimensional
conduction in Cartesian coordinate system the flow of heat is given by

kA T  T2
qx = (T1 T2) = 1
L L
 kA 

ie

V1 V2
T1 V1
R

T2 V2 qx
k = thermal e = electrical
conductivity conductivity
L L T1 T2

x x
R

The thermal resistance is defined as the ratio of a driving potential for heat transfer T1 T2 to the
rate of heat transfer qx

T1  T2 L
R= =
qx kA

When a potential V1 V2 is applied across a conductor of thickness L with an electrical

conductivity e and a cross section A, an electric current flow ie is given as

V1  V2 V  V2
ie = = 1
Re  L 
 A 
 e 

where the electrical resistance is defined as

V1  V2 L
Re = =
ie eA

The thermal resistance is then the distance of heat transfer divided by the thermal conductivity
and the area of heat transfer.

4-6
Coordinate Thermal resistance Distance of heat transfer Area of heat transfer
Cartesian L L A
kA
Cylindrical r2  r1 r2 r1
2 r2  r1 L
k 2 ( r2  r1 ) L ln( r2 / r1 )
ln( r2 / r1 )
Spherical r2  r1 r2 r1 4r1r2
k 4r2 r1

A thermal resistance for heat transfer by convection can also be defined. From Newton's
law of cooling

A
qc
Ts

T , h

Ts  T
qc = hA(Ts T) =
1
hA

The thermal resistance for convection is then

1
Rcon =
hA

For a system with more than one thermal resistance, they can be combined into an equivalent
resistance according to the rules of series and parallel resistances.

Req, series = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + …

1
Req, parallel =
1 1 1
   ...
R1 R2 R3

4-7
Example 4.5-1

Determine the equivalent thermal circuit for the following multi-layered wall.

T1 T2 T3
Living room Outdoor
T o, ho
Ti ,hi
ka kb

La Lb

Calculate (a) the heat loss, q, given Ti, To, hi, ho, ka, kb; (b) the temperatures T1, T2, and T3.

Solution

Use electrical analogy

a)
T i To

Ri Ra Rb Ro

indoor wall a wall b outdoor

Ti  To
q=
Ri  Ra  R b  R o

where

1 L L 1
Ri = , R a = a , Rb = b , Ro =
hi A ka A kb A ho A

b) With q known, the temperature T1 is determined from

Ti  T1
q=
Ri
T1 = Ti  qRi

Similarly

T2 = T1  qRa

T3 = T2  qRb
In general, an interface temperature Tj can be determined from

4-8
 q
i j

Tj = Ti  qRib

Example 4.5-2

Determine the equivalent thermal circuit for the following composite cylinder that is long.

To, ho
Ti, hi
r3
r2
r1
a
b

Calculate the heat loss, q, given Ti, To, hi, ho, ka, kb (Ti > To).

Solution

Use electrical analogy

Ti To

Ri Ra Rb Ro

Ti  To
q=
Ri  Ra  R b  Ro

where

1 ln( r2 / r1 ) ln( r3 / r2 ) 1
Ri = , Ra = , Rb = , Ro =
hi Ai 2Lk a 2Lk b ho Ao

Ai = 2r1L, Ao = 2r3L

Example 4.3

4-9
Determine the equivalent thermal circuit for the following multi-layered wall. There is radiation
heat exchange from the outside surface to the surrounding at temperature To.

T1 T2 T3

Ti, hi To, ho
ka kb
qr

La Lb

Calculate the heat loss, q, given Ti, To, hi, ho, ka, kb.

Solution

Use electrical analogy

Rr

Ti
To

Ri Ra Rb
Rc
The radiation heat exchange between the outer surface and the surroundings is given by

qr = hrA(T3  To)

where the heat transfer coefficient associated with radiation is defined as

hr  (T3 + To)( T32 + To2 )

The heat transfer rate is then

Ti  To
q=
R i  R a  R b  Req

where
1 1 1
Req = , Rr = , and Rc =
1 1 hr A ho A

Rr Rc

4-10
Chapter 4
4.6 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The heat transfer rate in general may be obtained from the driving force over the
resistance for heat transfer

T
q=
R eq

where Req is a combination (series/parallel) of resistances. The heat transfer rate may also be
expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient

q = UAT

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2) defined as

1
UA = UiAi = UoAo =
R eq

The overall heat transfer coefficient U is match with any area A for heat transfer. For a composite
cylinder the heat transfer rate is given as

To, ho
Ti, hi
r3
r2
r1
a
b

Ti To

Ri Ra Rb Ro

q= 1 (Ti To)
1 ln( r2 / r1 ) ln( r3 / r2 ) 1
  
Ai hi 2Lk a 2Lk b Ao ho

4-11
where
Ai = 2r1L, Ao = 2r3L

The inside area Ai can be factored out from the expression for the heat transfer rate

q = Ai 1 (Ti To)
1 Ai ln( r2 / r1 ) Ai ln( r3 / r2 ) Ai 1
  
hi 2Lk a 2Lk b Ao ho

In terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inside area

q = AiUi(Ti To)

Therefore

Ui = 1
1 Ai ln( r2 / r1 ) Ai ln( r3 / r2 ) Ai 1
  
hi 2Lk a 2Lk b Ao ho

The outside area Ao can also be factored out from the expression for the heat transfer rate

q = Ao 1 (Ti To)
Ao 1 Ao ln( r2 / r1 ) Ao ln( r3 / r2 ) 1
  
Ai hi 2Lk a 2Lk b ho

In terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside area

q = AoUo(Ti To)

Therefore

Uo = 1
Ao 1 Ao ln( r2 / r1 ) Ao ln( r3 / r2 ) 1
  
Ai hi 2Lk a 2Lk b ho

Since

q = AiUi(Ti To) = AoUo(Ti To)

AiUi = AoUo

However Ui  Uo

4-12
Example 4.6-1

A spherical aluminum tank, inside radius R1 = 3 m, and wall thickness l1 = 4 mm, contains
liquid-vapor oxygen at 1 atm pressure and 90.18 K. Heat of evaporation of oxygen is 2.123105
J/kg. Under steady state, at the liquid gas surface, the heat flowing (leak) into the tank causes
boil off at a rate M g . In order to prevent the pressure of the tank from rising, the gas resulting
from boil off is vented through a safety valve as shown in Figure 4.6-1. An evacuated air gap,
extending to location r = R2 = 3.1 m, is placed where the combined conduction-radiation effect
for this gap is represented by a conductivity ka = 0.004 W/mK. A layer of insulation with ki =
0.033 W/mK and thickness l2 = 10 cm is added. The outside surface temperature is kept constant
at T2 = 283.15 K. Neglect the heat resistance through the aluminum.

Figure E 4.6-1. Liquid oxygen in a spherical container1

(a) Determine the rate of heat leak Qk,2-1 in W.

(b) Determine the amount of boil off M g in kg/s.
(c) Determine the temperature at the inner surface of the insulation.

Solution

(a) Determine the rate of heat leak Qk,2-1 in W

The inside radius of the air layer is Ri,air = R1 + l1 = 3.000 + 0.004 = 3.004 m. The thermal
resistance through the air layer, Rt,air, is given by

R2  Ri ,air .096
Rt,air = = = 0.2051 K/W
(4 ka )( Ri ,air R2 ) (0.004)(4 )(3.004  3.1)

The outside radius of the insulation layer is Ro,ins. = R2 + l2 = 3.1 + 0.1 = 3.2 m. The thermal
resistance through the insulation layer, Rt,insulation, is given by

1 Kaviany, Principles of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

4-13
 Ro ,ins.  R2 .10
Rt,insulation = = = 0.0243 K/W
(4 k1 )( R2 Ro ,ins. ) (0.033)(4 )(3.1  3.2)

The rate of heat leak is the heat transfer to the liquid oxygen

T2  T1 283.15  90.18
Qk,2-1 = = = 841 W
Rt ,air  Rt ,insulation .2051  .0243

(b) Determine the amount of boil off M g in kg/s.

For steady state, the heat transfer to the inside wall will boil the liquid oxygen off at a rate M g .
The vapor oxygen is then vented off the container.

841
M g = = 3.9610-3 kg/s
2.123  105

(c) Determine the temperature at the inner surface (r = R2) of the insulation using the thermal
resistance concept through the insulation layer.

The thermal resistance through the insulation layer, Rt,insulation, is given by

Ro ,ins.  R2 .10
Rt,insulation = = = 0.0243 K/W
(4 k1 )( R2 Ro ,ins. ) (0.033)(4 )(3.1  3.2)

The rate of heat transfer through the insulation layter can also be evaluated using the thermal
resistance concept through the insulation layer.

T2  T
Qk,2-1 =
Rt ,insulation

T2  T
841 =
Rt ,insulation

T = 283.15  (841)(0.0243) = 262.71 K

4-14
4.7 Systems that contain heat sources.

We now want to consider the situations for which thermal energy is being generated within the
medium. The temperature and the heat flux within this medium can not be obtained using the
concept of thermal resistance. The differential energy equation must first be solved for the
temperature distribution within the medium and then the heat flux can be obtained from Fourier’s
law.

To, ho
Ti, hi
r3
r2
r1
a
b
Figure 4.7-1 A composite cylinder system with heat generation within material a.

Figure 4.7-1 shows a composite cylinder system with heat generation within material a. The
temperature within this material must be obtained by integrating the differential energy equation.
However the temperature and heat flux within material b can still be obtained by using the
thermal resistance since there is no heat generated within this material.

Example 4.7-1

Determine the steady state temperature distribution of a rectangular plate with uniform heat
generation and surface temperature maintained at Tw on both sides. The thickness of the plate is
2L.
x

Temperature distribution T(x)

Tw Tw

2L
Figure 4.7-2 A rectangular plate with uniform heat generation q .

Solution

4-15
The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction normal to the plate with x = 0 at the left surface
where the temperature is Tw. The steady state heat conduction equation with constant thermal
conductivity is given as

q
2T + =0
k

For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x direction

d 2T q 
2
+ =0
dx k

The above equation is integrated twice to obtain

q 2
T= x + C1x + C2
2k

From the boundary conditions

a) x = 0, T = Tw ; b) x = 2L, T = Tw

the two constants of integration are obtained as

qL
C1 = ; C2 = T w
k

The temperature distribution is then

q 2 qL q   x2 

T= x + x + Tw =  Lx   + Tw
2k k k  2

The heat flow at x = 0 is determined as

dT
qo =  kA
dx x 0

dT q qL
= x+
dx k k

dT qL qL
=  qo =  kA =  LA q
dx x 0 k k

The system is at steady state and is symmetrical with respect to the plane at the center of the
plate. Therefore half of the energy generated within the plate must leave the surface at x = 0. The

4-16
heat flow is in the negative x direction. We can verify the heat flow at x = 2L to be LA q by
using Fourier’s law again

dT
q2L =  kA
dx x 2 L

dT q qL dT qL

= x+  =
dx k k dx x 2 L k

 qL 
q2L =  kA    = LA q
 k 

In solving the differential equation for the temperature distribution, if you can find a symmetry
plane, the integration will generally simpler. For this problem, the temperature is symmetric with
dT
respect to the plane at the center of the plate where = 0. The system is equivalent to a plate
dx
of half the thickness with one side (left side) insulated.
x x

Temperature distribution T(x)

Tw Tw Tw

2L L
Figure 4.7-3 The plate with thickness 2L is symmetric with respect to a plane at the center.

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction normal to the plate with x = 0 at the left surface
dT
where = 0. For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x direction
dx

d 2T q 
2
+ =0
dx k

The above equation is first integrated to obtain

dT q
= x + C1
dx k

4-17
 dT
The boundary condition at x = 0, = 0 can be applied to yield C1 = 0
dx

The resulting equation is then integrated again

q 2
T= x + C2
2k

From the boundary condition x =L, T = Tw

q 2
C2 = Tw + L
2k

The temperature distribution is then

q 2
T=
2k
 
L  x 2 + Tw

If the system does not have a symmetry plane as shown in Figure 4.7-4, there will be no
simplification of the integration process.
x
Temperature distribution T(x)

Tw2

Tw

2L
Figure 4.7-4 A plate with thickness 2L without symmetry at the center.

4-18
Chapter 4
Example 4.7-2

Determine the steady state temperature distribution of a solid cylinder of length L with uniform
heat generation. The cylinder is in a convective environment with heat transfer coefficient h and
fluid temperature T.
R

Temperature
distribution T(r)

r
h, Th L

Figure 4.7-5 A solid cylinder with uniform heat generation q .

Solution

The r-coordinate is at the center of the cylinder where the temperature is a maximum. The steady
state heat conduction equation with constant thermal conductivity in cylindrical coordinate is
given as

q
2T + =0
k

1   T  1  2T  2T q
r  + 2 + + =0
r r  r  r  2 z 2 k

For one-dimensional heat transfer in the r direction

1 d  dT  q 
r  + =0
r dr  dr  k

The above equation is integrated to obtain

4-19
 dT q 2
r = r + C1
dr 2k

dT
The boundary condition at r = 0, = 0 can be applied to yield C1 = 0
dr

The resulting equation is then integrated again

q 2
T= r + C2
4k

From the condition at the surface r = R, T = Ts.

q 2
C2 = Ts + R
4k

It should be noted that the condition at the surface r = R is not an actual boundary condition since
Ts is unknown. We will need to solve for Ts in terms of the known parameters latter. The
temperature distribution is then

qR 2  r2 
T= 1  2  + Ts
4k  R 

Ts can be solved from the energy balance for steady state system that requires all the energy
generated within the cylinder must leave the system by convection (neglecting radiation)

qR
q R2L = h(2RL)(Ts  T)  Ts = T +
2h

The final temperature distribution is then

qR 2  r2  qR
T  T = 1  2  + (E-1)
4k  R  2h

We now want to put the equations in dimensionless form so that the independent and dependent
variables are of order one (scaling). We first rearrange equation (E-1) as

qR  hR  r2  
T  T =  1  2   2
 (E-2)
4h  k  R  

r hR
Using the dimensionless quantities defined as  = and Bi = , equation (E-2) becomes
R k

4-20
 qR
T  T = [Bi(1  2) +2] (E-3)
4h

At the center of the cylinder (r = 0 or  = 0), we have

qR
T c  T = (Bi +2) (E-4)
4h

In this equation, Tc is the temperature at the center of the cylinder. Dividing equation (E-3) by
equation (E-4) we obtain

T  T Bi (1   2 )  2
= = (E-5)
Tc  T Bi  2

 is the dimensionless temperature that ranges from unity at the center of the wire to zero in the
bulk air. In this equation the maximum values of the independent variable, , and of dependent
variable, , are 1. Therefore they are of order 1. The temperature profile in the cylinder can be
plotted at various values of the Biot number, Bi, by the following Matlab statements

ena=0:.02:1;enas=ena.*ena;
Bi=.01; Theta1=(Bi*(1-enas)+2)./(Bi+2);
Bi=.1; Theta2=(Bi*(1-enas)+2)./(Bi+2);
Bi=1; Theta3=(Bi*(1-enas)+2)./(Bi+2);
Bi=10; Theta4=(Bi*(1-enas)+2)./(Bi+2);
Bi=100;Theta5=(Bi*(1-enas)+2)./(Bi+2);
Theta=[Theta1; Theta2; Theta3; Theta4; Theta5];
plot(ena,Theta)
grid on; xlabel('r/R'); ylabel('Theta')

4-21
 1 Bi=.01

Bi=0.1
0.9

0.8

0.7 Bi=1

0.6
Theta

0.5

0.4
Bi=10

0.3

0.2
Bi=100
0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
r/R

Figure 1.5-2 Temperature profile in a solid cylinder at various Bi number.

Figure 1.5-2 shows the dimensionless temperature profile for several values of Bi. For Bi << 1,
the wire is almost isothermal and the main temperature drop is in the air. The resistance by heat
conduction in the cylinder is so much smaller than the resistance by heat convection in the air.
For Bi >> 1, the external temperature drop is negligible and the temperature at the cylinder
surface is very close to the ambient value. The resistance by conduction in the cylinder is so
much larger than the resistance by heat convection in the air. Thus, the Bi number represents the
ratio of the heat transfer resistance within the cylinder to that within the surrounding air.

T  T Bi (1   2 )  2
= = (E-5)
Tc  T Bi  2

From equation (E-5), for Bi << 1

T  T
 1  T  Tc
Tc  T

At  = 1 and for Bi >> 1

T  T
 0  T  T
Tc  T

4-22
Example 4.7-3

A bare copper wire, 0.4 cm in diameter, has its outer surface maintained at 25oC. It has an
electrical resistance of 1.7310-4 ohm/m (per meter of wire length). If the centerline temperature
is not to exceed 110oC, what is the maximum current it will carry?
R

Temperature
distribution T(r)

r
Ts L

Figure 4.7-6 A copper wire with uniform heat generation q by electrical current.

Solution

The r-coordinate is at the center of the cylinder where the temperature is a maximum. The steady
state heat conduction equation with constant thermal conductivity in cylindrical coordinate is
given as

1   T  1  2T  2T q
r  + 2 + + =0
r r  r  r  2 z 2 k

For one-dimensional heat transfer in the r direction

1 d  dT  q 
r  + =0
r dr  dr  k

The above equation is integrated to obtain

dT q 2
r = r + C1
dr 2k

dT
The boundary condition at r = 0, = 0 can be applied to yield C1 = 0
dr

4-23
The resulting equation is then integrated again

q 2
T= r + C2
4k

From the boundary condition at the surface r = R, T = Ts.

q 2
C2 = Ts + R
4k

The temperature distribution is then

qR 2  r2  qR 2  r2 
T= 1  2  + Ts = 1  2  + 25oC
4k  R  4k  R 

The heat generation per unit volume q can be solved from the requirement that the centerline
temperature of the wire is not to exceed 110oC.

qR 2
110 = + 25oC
4k

The thermal conductivity of copper at an average temperature 0.5(110 + 25) = 67.5oC is k = 398
W/moK.

4  85  k 4  85  398
q = 2
= = 3.3831010 W/m3
R 0.002 2

The heat generated per meter of wire is then

I2Re = q R2

where Re is the electrical resistance per meter of wire length, Re = 1.7310-4 ohm/m

qR 2 3.383  1010    0.002

I2 = = 4
= 2.457109 A2
Re 1.73  10

The maximum current the wire can carry is then

I = 4.96104 A

4-24
Example 4.7-4

The air inside a chamber at T,i = 50oC is heated convectively with hi = 25 W/m2K by a 0.25-m-
thick wall having a thermal conductivity of 5 W/mK and a uniform heat generation of 1500
W/m3. To prevent any heat generated within the wall from being lost to the outside of the
chamber at T,o = 15oC with ho = 10 W/m2K, a very thin electrical strip heater is placed on the
outer wall to provide a uniform heat flux, qo" .

Strip heater
Wall

Outside chamber Inside chamber

x
0 L

(a) If no heat generated within the wall is lost to the outside of the chamber, determine the
temperature at the wall boundary T(L).
(b) If the heat generation in the wall were switched off while the heat flux to the strip heater
remained constant at 600 W/m2, what would be the steady-state temperature, T(0), of the
outer wall surface?

Solution

(a) If no heat generated within the wall is lost to the outside of the chamber, determine the
temperature at the wall boundary T(L).

For steady state, the rate of heat transfer generated within the wall is equal to the rate of heat
transfer to the air

(1500)(.25)
1500LA = hiA(TL  T,i)  TL = + 50 = 65oC
25

(b) If the heat generation in the wall were switched off while the heat flux to the strip heater
remained constant at 600 W/m2, what would be the steady-state temperature, T(0), of the
outer wall surface?

The heat generated by the strip heater is transferred to both the inside and outside chamber air

To  T ,i T T T  50 T  15 1
600 = + o  ,o = o + o = (To  50) + 10To  150
L 1 1 .25 1 1 .09
 
k w hi ho 5 25 10

50  0.09(600  150)
(0.09)(600) = 1.9 To  50  (0.09)(150)  To = = 61.8oC
1.9

4-25
Example 4.7-5

A teacup is filled with water having temperature Tw = 90oC. The cup is made of porcelain with k
= 1.5 W/mK. The cup wall inside radius is R and its thickness is L = 3 mm as shown in Figure 4.
The water is assumed to be well mixed and at a uniform temperature. The ambient air is
otherwise quiescent with a temperature Tf, = 20oC, and adjacent to the cup the air undergoes a
thermobuoyant motion resulting a surface-convection resistance AkuRku = 10-3 K/(W/m2) where
Aku is the outside surface area of the cup (contacting with the air). Since L << R, you can assume
the outside surface area is the same as the inside surface area (you can approximate the wall as a
slab). Determine the cup outside surface temperature.2

Solution

The cup outside surface temperature, T, can be obtained by equating the heat transfer from the
liquid to the outside surface and from the outside surface to the air. The thermal resistance for
heat transfer through the wall is given by

L 3  103
Rcond = =
kA 1.5A

The thermal resistance for heat transfer from the cup outside surface to the air is given by

Aku Rku 103

Rconv = =
A A

Equating the heat transfer from the liquid to the outside surface and from the outside surface to
the air, we obtain

90  T T  20 1.5  90  T  T  20
=  =
Rcond Rconv 3  103 103

135  60
135  1.5T = 3T  30  T = = 43.3oC
4.5

2 Kaviany, Principles of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

4-26
Example 4.7-6

In IC (internal combustion) engines, during injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder, it is possible
for the injected fuel droplets to form a thin liquid film over the piston as shown in Figure 1. The
heat transferred from the gas above the film and from the piston beneath the film causes surface
evaporation. The liquid-gas interface is at the boiling Tlg, corresponding to the vapor pressure.
The heat transfer from the piston side is by conduction through the piston and then by conduction
through the thin liquid film. The surface-convection heat transfer from the gas side to the surface
of the thin liquid film is 13,500W.
Data:
Heat of evaporation of fuel = 3.027105 J/kg, thermal conductivity of fuel, kf = 0.083 W/mK, Tlg
= 398.9 K, liquid fuel density l = 900 kg/m3, thermal conductivity of piston ks = 236 W/mK,
temperature of piston at distance L = 3 mm from the surface is T1 = 500 K. Piston diameter D =
12 cm, thickness of liquid film Lf = 0.05 mm.

Liquid film
Lf

Piston
L
T1
Cylinder

Figure 1. An IC engine, showing liquid film formation on top of the piston3.

(a) Estimate the time it will take for the liquid film to evaporate completely assuming the thermal
resistance to the liquid film remain constant at the initial value.
(b) Estimate the time it will take for the liquid film to evaporate completely if the thermal
resistance to the liquid film is not a constant.

Solution

(a) Since the liquid at the gas interface is at the boiling point, it will evaporate with heat input.
Let m be the rate of evaporation of the liquid film in kg/s, we have

500  398.9
13,500 + = 3.027105 m
L Lf

ks A k f A

In this equation A is the area for heat transfer given by

3 Kaviany, Principles of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

4-27
 D 2  (0.12) 2
A= = = 1.13110-2 m2
4 4

Hence

(1.131  10 2 )(101.1)
13,500 
3  10 3 5  10 5

m = 236 0.083 = 5.0710-2 kg/s
3.027  10 5

The time it will take for the liquid film to evaporate completely is

l L f A (900)(5  10 5 )(1.131  10 2 )
t= = = 0.010 s
m 5.07  10 2

(b) Since Lf is changing with time, the thermal resistance to the liquid film will decrease resulting
in a shorter time for the liquid film to evaporate completely. The following equation may be
solved for the evaporation time

d (  l L f A) 500  398.9
 3.027105 = 13,500 +
dt L Lf

ks A k f A

dL f 13,500 (101.1)
 (3.027105)(900) = +
dt A 3  10 3 Lf

236 0.083

dL f 3.711  10 7
 = 4.38110-3 +
dt 1.271  10 5  12.048L f

5105 dL f
t= 0
33.711  10 7
=  f (L f )dL f
4.381  10 
1.271  10 5  12.048L f

Lf 0 2.510-5 5.010-5
f(Lf) 2.9785101 1.7974102 2.0061102

Integrating the equation with three points Simpson’s rule yields

2.5  10 5
t= (2.9785101 + 41.7974102 + 2.0061102) = 7.911310-3 s
3

4-28
Chapter 5
Analysis of Fins and "Extended Surfaces"

5.1 Introduction

Consider the area A on the surface shown in Figure 5.1 where heat is being transfer from the
surface at a fixed temperature Ts to the surrounding fluid at a temperature T with a heat transfer
coefficient h. The heat transfer rate may be increased by increasing the convection coefficient h,
reducing the fluid temperature T, or adding materials to the area A.

As Plate As

A
A
L
Surface

Figure 5.1 Use of extended surface or fin to enhance heat transfer.

Look on the plane side-view of the surface and the surface with fin. The heat transfer rate
without the fin from area A to the surrounding fluid is

qc = hA(Ts  T)

With the fin attached to the area A, the heat transfer to the surrounding fluid must first be
transferred by conduction from area A to the fin

T As
qf =  kA
x x 0
= 
0
h(T ( x )  T )dAs

where dAs = Pdx and P = perimeter of the fin.

T(x) T i
h T i
Ts Ts
A qc A

x x
dx dAs = Pdx

5-1
For the extended surface to enhance the heat transfer rate, the ratio of heat transfer with and
without the fin must be greater than one

T
k As
q
f  f =
x x 0
=
 0
h(T ( x )  T )dAs
qc h(Ts  T ) h(Ts  T )

f is called the fin effectiveness. For the fin to be cost effective, the fin effectiveness should be
greater than 2. The temperature profile along the fin must be determined before the fin
effectiveness can be calculated. Consider the extended surface of Figure 5.1. To simplify the
analysis, we will assume one-dimensional heat transfer in the x direction, steady state, no heat
generation, no radiation, constant heat transfer coefficient, and constant physical properties.

L qc

qx qx+x
W
x x qc
x
Figure 5.2 Plane fin with length L, width W, and thickness .

An energy balance will be applied to a differential control volume, xW, shown in Figure 5.2.
The thickness  of the plane fin is much smaller than the length and width of the fin. Since
temperature is dependent on x, a differential distance along x must be chosen. The surface area of
the control volume is

As = 2xW + 2x  2xW since  << W

From the energy balance applied to the control volume xLW

qx – (qx+x + qc) = 0

Divide the equation by x and take the limit as x 0

limit  q x  q x  x qc 
   =0
Δx  0  x x 

limit  q x  q x  x  limit  qc 

  – =0
Δx  0  x  Δx  0  x 

dq x dqc
– – =0
dx dx

dqc = hdAs(T(x)  T)

5-2
The energy equation becomes

dq x dA
– – h s (T(x)  T) = 0
dx dx

From the Fourier's law

dT
qx = – kA
dx

where A is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction. The energy equation becomes

d  dT  dAs
dx kA dx  – h dx (T(x)  T) = 0

dAs
since As = Px, =P
dx

For constant k and A, the energy equation becomes a second order ordinary differential equation
(ODE) with constant coefficients.

d 2T hP
2
– (T(x)  T) = 0
dx kA

The above equation is a non-homogeneous ODE which can be made homogeneous by

introducing a new variable  = T(x)  T

d 2 hP
2
–  =0
dx kA

hP
Let m2 = , the solution to the homogenous ODE has two forms
kA

1)  = C1e-mx + C2emx

2)  = B1sinh(mx) + B2cosh(mx)

The first exponential form (1) is more convenient if the domain of x is infinite: 0  x   while
the second form using hyperbolic functions (2) is more convenient if the domain of x is finite: 0
 x  L. The constants of integration C1, C2, B1, and B2 are to be determined from the two
boundary conditions.

5-3
5.2 Heat Transfer for Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area

Example 5.2-1

A long cylindrical fin is in a convection environment with a heat transfer coefficient h and an
ambient temperature T. Determine the temperature profile along the fin and the heat dissipated
by the fin if the base temperature of the fin is To.

T(x) T

To
A
L

x
dx
Figure 5.3 A long cylindrical fin with base temperature To.
Solution

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along the fin with x = 0 at the base or left surface
where the temperature is To. Since this is a long cylinder L  , the exponential form of the
temperature profile is more convenient.

 = C1e-mx + C2emx

The two boundary conditions required solving for C1 and C2 are

a) x = 0, T = To   = o = To  T

b) x ∞, T  T   = 0

From (b), C2 = 0 or else  is infinite, therefore

 = C1e-mx

From the first boundary condition (a): o = C1, therefore

 = oe-mx

The rate of heat transfer qf from the fin to the surrounding fluid can be obtain from the
temperature distribution  . Since the fin is at steady state, the heat transfer rate qf is also the rate
of heat transfer from the wall to the base of the fin as shown in Figure 5.4. Therefore

dT As
qf =  kA
dx x 0
= 
0
h(T ( x )  T )dAs

5-4
 T
Heat out

To
Heat in

L
x
dx
Figure 5.4 A long cylindrical fin at steady state.

d 
qf =  kA
dx x 0
=  hPdx
0

d
The rate of heat transfer into the fin is  kA and the rate of heat transfer out of the fin is
dx x 0
 d
 hPdx . It is usually easier to evaluate qf from the first expression  kA dx
0
x 0
.

d
 = oe-mx  =  mo  qf = kA mo
dx x 0

m= hP / kA  qf = hPkA o


We can also determine qf from the expression  hPdx
0

exp( mx )
0hPdx = hPo 0exp( mx )dx = hPo   m  = hPo hp / kA
qf =
  1
0

qf = hPkA o

Example 5.2-2

A cylindrical fin with length L is in a convection environment with a heat transfer coefficient h
and an ambient temperature T. Determine the temperature profile along the fin and the heat
dissipated by the fin if the base temperature of the fin is To and the end of the fin is insulated.
T(x) T

To
A
L

x
dx
Figure 5.3 A cylindrical fin with insulated tip and base temperature To.

5-5
Solution

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along the fin with x = 0 at the base or left surface
where the temperature is To. Since this is a finite cylinder with length L, the hyperbolic form of
the temperature profile is more convenient.

 = B1sinh(mx) + B2cosh(mx)

The two boundary conditions required solving for B1 and B2 are

a) x = 0, T = To   = o = To  T

dT d
b) x =L, = =0
dx xL dx xL

From the first boundary condition: o = B2

d
From the second boundary condition: = mB1cosh(mx) + mB2sinh(mx) = 0
dx xL

sinh(mL) sinh(mL)
B1 =  B2 =  o
cosh(mL) cosh(mL)

Therefore

sinh(mL)
 = osinh(mx) + ocosh(mx)
cosh(mL)

cosh(mL) cosh(mx )  sinh(mL) sinh(mx ) cosh[(m( L  x )]

 = o = o
cosh(mL) cosh(mL)

The heat dissipated by the fin qf is evaluated from

d
qf =  kA
dx x 0

d sinh[(m( L  0)] sinh(mL)

=  mo =  mo =  mo tanh(mL)
dx x 0 cosh(mL) cosh(mL)

qf = kA mo tanh(mL) = hPkA o tanh(mL)

With the base temperature of the fin at To, any boundary condition at the tip can be used to solve
for the two constants of integration.

5-6
Example 5.2-3

A cylindrical fin with length 2L is in a convection environment with a heat transfer coefficient h
and an ambient temperature T. Determine the temperature profile along the fin and the heat
dissipated by the fin if both side of the fin is at temperature To.
T(x) T

To To

A
2L

x
dx
Figure 5.4 A cylindrical fin with two ends at temperature To.

Solution

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along the fin with x = 0 at the base or left surface.
dT d
The surface at x = L is a plane of symmetry therefore = = 0. The problem is
dx x  L dx x  L
similar to the case of insulated tip.

cosh[(m( L  x )]
 = o
cosh(mL)

 is plotted in Figure 5.5 for the case where o = 100oC, m = 3 cm-1, and L = 1 cm.
100

90

80

70

60
Theta(C)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
x(cm)

Figure 5.5 A cylindrical fin with two ends at the same temperature.

The Matlab program used for the plot is listed in Table 5.1.

5-7
Table 5.1 _______
% Fin with both sides at the same temperature
theta0=100;
m=3;L=1;
x=0:.02:2;
theta=theta0*cosh(m*(L-x))/cosh(m*L);
plot(x,theta)
xlabel('x(cm)');ylabel('Theta(C)');
grid

The heat dissipation for the fin in this case is simply

qf = 2 hPkA o tanh(mL)

T(x) T

To Convecting
tip
A
L

x
dx
Figure 5.6 A cylindrical fin with convection heat transfer at the tip.

The formula for heat dissipation of a fin with insulated tip can be used for a fin with convective
heat transfer at the tip if L is replaced by the corrected length Lc.

qf = hPkA o tanh(mLc)

where Lc = L + D/4. The corrected lengths Lc for different fin geometries are listed in Table 5.2

Table 5.2 Corrected length Lc for different fin geometries

Fin geometry Lc
Cylindrical fin with diameter D L + D/4
Square fin with side  L + /2
Rectangular fin with thickness t L + t/2
Annular fin of rectangular profile with thickness t L + t/2
Fin of triangular profile with base thickness t L

5-8
Chapter 5
5.3 Fin Performance

As Plate As

Ab
Ab
L
Surface

Figure 5.3-1 Use of extended surface or fin to enhance heat transfer.

Consider the area Ab on the surface shown in Figure 5.3-1 where heat is being transfer from the
surface at a fixed temperature Ts to the surrounding fluid at a temperature T with a heat transfer
coefficient h. The heat transfer rate may be increased by adding fin to the area Ab. Let qf denotes
the rate of heat transfer from area Ab with a fin that might or might not have a uniform cross-
sectional area. Ab is the cross-sectional area at the base of the fin. The heat transfer rate from area
Ab without a fin is

qc = h Ab(Ts  T) = h Abo

The fin performance is measured by fin effectiveness defined as

qf
f = qf/qc =
hAb o

The use of fins may be justified if f > 2.

As = Af As = Af

To To
qmax
qf
L L

To To

T T

x x
Figure 5.3-2 qf is a maximum if T(x) = To along the fin.

The fin performance is also measured a fin efficiency f defined as the ratio qf/qmax.

5-9
 qf
f =
qmax

qmax is the maximum possible heat transfer of a fin when the temperature T(x) along the fin
remains constant at the base temperature To. This condition can only occur when the thermal
conductivity of the fin k approach infinity. qmax can be evaluated from the heat leaving the fin
surface Af.

Af Af
qmax = 0
h(T ( x )  T )dA f = h(To  T)  dAf = hoAf
0

qf
f =
h o Af

From the definition of the fin efficiency: 0 < f < 1. A good fin design should have f > 0.8.
After f is known for any fin geometry, then the heat dissipation by the fin qf is simply
determined from

qf = f qmax = f hoAf

Example 5.3-1

A rectangular fin with length L, width W, and thickness t << W is in a convection environment
with a heat transfer coefficient h and an ambient temperature T. Determine the fin efficiency if
the base temperature of the fin is To and the end of the fin is insulated.
Af
t
To
qf W
L
Figure 5.3-3 A rectangular fin with insulated tip and base temperature To.

Solution

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along the fin with x = 0 at the base or left surface
where the temperature is To. Since this is a finite fin with length L, the hyperbolic form of the
temperature profile is more convenient.

 = B1sinh(mx) + B2cosh(mx)

The two boundary conditions required solving for B1 and B2 are

a) x = 0, T = To   = o = To  T

5-10
 dT d
b) x =L, = =0
dx xL dx xL

From the first boundary condition: o = B2

d
From the second boundary condition: = mB1cosh(mx) + mB2sinh(mx) = 0
dx xL

sinh(mL) sinh(mL)
B1 =  B2 =  o
cosh(mL) cosh(mL)

Therefore

sinh(mL)
 = osinh(mx) + ocosh(mx)
cosh(mL)

cosh(mL) cosh(mx )  sinh(mL) sinh(mx ) cosh[(m( L  x )]

 = o = o
cosh(mL) cosh(mL)

The heat dissipated by the fin qf is evaluated from

d
qf =  kA
dx x 0

d sinh[(m( L  0)] sinh(mL)

=  mo =  mo =  mo tanh(mL)
dx x 0 cosh(mL) cosh(mL)

qf = kA mo tanh(mL) = hPkA o tanh(mL)

The fin efficiency is given as

qf hPkA o tanh( mL) kPA

f = = = tanh(mL)
h o Af h o Af hA2f

m= hP / kA ; A = Wt

P = 2W + 2t  2W

P2 1
Af = 2WL + 2tL  2WL  2
= 2
Af L

5-11
 kP 2 A 1 kA
f = 2
tanh(mL) = tanh(mL)
hPA f L hP

tanh( mL)
f =
mL

Example 5.3-2

A triangular profile fin with length L, width W, and base thickness t << W is in a convection
environment with a heat transfer coefficient h and an ambient temperature T. Determine the fin
effectiveness and the heat dissipated per unit width by a single fin. The fin efficiency is given by

1 I1 ( 2mL)
f =
mL I 0 ( 2mL)

where In is modified Bessel function of the first kind with order n. L = 6 mm, t = 2 mm, k = 240
W/mK, h = 40 W/m2K, the base temperature To = 250oC, and the ambient temperature T =
25oC.

Figure 5.3-4 A triangular profile fin with base temperature To.

Solution

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along the fin with x = 0 at the base or left surface
where the temperature is To. The parameter m is first evaluated

m= hP / kA

For triangular profile fin P/A = 2W/(Wt) = 2/t

40  2
m= = 12.91 m-1
240  0.002

1 I1 ( 2mL)
The fin efficiency f = can be determined from the following Matlab statements
mL I 0 ( 2mL)

5-12
Matlab script _____

L = 0.006; t = 0.002;
h = 40; k = 240;
PoA = 2/t;
m = sqrt(h*PoA/k);
I1=besseli(1,2*m*L);I0=besseli(0,2*m*L);
fin_e=I1/(m*L*I0)

mL = 0.0775; 2mL = 0.1549

I1(0.1549) = 0.0777; I0(0.1549) = 1.0060

1 I1 ( 2mL) 1 0.0777
f = = = 0.997
mL I 0 ( 2mL) 0.0775 1.006

Fin effectiveness is defined as

qf  q  hA   A
f = qf/qc = = f max = f f o = f f
hAb o hAb o hAb o Ab


Af = 2W L2  (t / 2) 2  1/ 2
; Ab = Wt

f =

2 f L2  (t / 2) 2 
1/ 2

=
( 2)(.997)[.0062  0.0012 ]1 / 2
= 6.1
t 0.002

Heat dissipation per unit width of the fin is given as

 q  hA 
q’f =
qf
W
1/ 2
= f max = f f o = 2fh L2  (t / 2) 2 o
W W
 
q’f = (2)(0.997)(40)[0.0062 + 0.0012]1/2(250  25) = 108 W/m

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 5.3-3

Consider a single stack of rectangular fins of length L and thickness t, with convection conditions
corresponding to h and T. In a specific application, a stack that is 200 mm wide and 100 mm
deep (let D = depth = 100 mm) contains 50 fins, each of length L = 12 mm. The entire stack is
made from aluminum, which is everywhere 1.0 mm thick. Data: To = 400 K, TL = 320 K, T =
290 K, and h = 80 W/m2K. Note: The top surface of the upper plate and the bottom surface of
the lower plate are not exposed to the convection conditions. The thermal conductivity of the fin
material is 200 W/mK.

5-13
a) Determine the differential equation that can be used to solve for the temperature profile along
the fin.
b) Determine the two boundary conditions required to solve the differential equation.
c) Determine the rate of heat transfer from the top surface of the lower plate to the air.
d) Determine the rate of heat transfer from all the fins to the air.

Solution

a) Determine the differential equation that can be used to solve for the temperature profile along
the fin.

Making an energy balance around the control volume tDdx we have

dT dT
 ktD + ktD  2h(D + t)dx(T  T) = 0
dx x dx x  dx

Letting dx  0, we obtain the differential equation

d 2T 2h ( D  t )
2
 (T  T) = 0
dx kDt

b) Determine the two boundary conditions required to solve the differential equation.

The two boundary conditions required to solve the differential equation are

1) x = 0, T = 400 K 2) x = L, T = 320 K

c) Determine the rate of heat transfer from the top surface of the lower plate to the air.

The rate of heat transfer, q, from the top surface of the lower plate to the air is

q = (0.1 m)(0.2  50.001)(m)( 80 W/m2K)(320  290)(K) = 36 W

5-14
d) Determine the rate of heat transfer from all the fins to the air.

The rate of heat transfer from all the fins, qf,total to the air is given by

 dT dT 
qf,total =  50kDt   
 dx 0 dx L 

We first need to find the solution of the differential equation

d 2T 2h ( D  t )
2
 (T  T) = 0
dx kDt

Substituting the numerical values and letting  = (T  T) we have

2h ( D  t ) (2)(80)(.1  .001)
m2 = = = 808 m-2 = (28.425 m-1)2
kDt (200)(.1)(.001)

d 2
 m2  = 0
dx 2

Since this is a finite fin with length L, the hyperbolic form of the temperature profile is more
convenient.

 = B1sinh(mx) + B2cosh(mx)

The two boundary conditions required solving for B1 and B2 are

1) x = 0, T = To   = 0 = T0  T = B2

2) x = L, T = 320oK = TL   = L = TL  T = B1sinh(mL) + 0cosh(mL)

Solving for B1 gives

 L  0 cosh(mL)
B1 =
sinh( mL)

Therefore

 L  0 cosh(mL)
= sinh(mx) + 0cosh(mx)
sinh( mL)

 L sinh(mx )  0 cosh(mL)sinh(mx )  0 sinh(mL) cosh(mx )

=
sinh( mL)

5-15
  L sinh(mx )  0 sinh(m( L  x ))
=
sinh( mL)

The slope of the temperature profile is

dT d m L cosh( mx )  m 0 cosh( m( L  x ))
= =
dx dx sinh( mL)

dT m L  m 0 cosh( mL)
At x = 0, =
dx 0 sinh( mL)

dT m L cosh( mL)  m 0
At x = L, =
dx L sinh( mL)

 dT dT 
qf,total =  50kDt   
 dx 0 dx L 

m L  m 0 cosh( mL)  m L cosh( mL)  m 0

qf,total =  50kDt
sinh( mL)

m( L   0 )  m cosh( mL)( L   0 ) m( L   0 ) 1  cosh( mL)

qf,total =  50kDt =  50kDt
sinh( mL) sinh( mL)

For mL = (28.425)(0.012) = 0.3411  cosh(mL) = 1.0587; sinh(mL) = 0.34776

(28.425)(140)(1  1.0587)
qf,total =  (50)(200)(0.1)(0.001)
0.34776

qf,total = 671.7 W

5-16
Chapter 6
Two dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

6.1 The Energy Balance Method

The general heat conduction equation is given as

cp T = (kT) + q 

t

For steady state, no heat generation, and constant k, the heat conduction equation is simplified to

2T = 0

For 2-dimensional heat transfer in Cartesian coordinate

 2T  2T
+ =0
x 2 y 2

We only consider the numerical solution to the above equation in this course. We divide the
medium of interest into a number of small regions and apply the conservation of energy to these
regions. Each sub-region is assigned a reference point called a node or a nodal point. The
average temperature of a nodal point is then calculated by solving the resulting equations from
the energy balance. Accurate solutions can be obtained by choosing a fine mesh with a large
number of nodes. We will discuss an example from Incropera’s1 text to illustrate the method.

Example 6.1-1

A long column with thermal conductivity k = 1 W/mK is maintained at 500 K on three surfaces
while the remaining surface is exposed to a convective environment with h = 10 W/m2K and
fluid temperature T. The cross sectional area of the column is 1 m by 1 m. Using a grid spacing
x = y = 0.25 m, determine the steady-state temperature distribution in the column and the heat
flow to the fluid per unit length of the column.

Solution

The cross sectional area of the column is divided into many sub-areas called a grid or nodal
network with 25 nodes as shown in Figure 6.1-1. There are 12 nodal points with unknown
temperature, however only 8 unknowns need to be solved due to symmetry so that the nodes to
the left of the centerline are the same as those to the right.

6-1
 x
500 K
m, n+1
y
1 2 1

500 K 3 4 3
m-1, n m, n m+1, n
5 6 5 500 K

7 8 7
h = 300 K m, n-1
h = 10 W/m2K
Figure 6.1-1 The grid for the column cross sectional area.

The energy balance is now applied to the control volume xy1 belongs to node 1 which is an
interior node. To make the derivation general, node 1 can be considered as a node with index (m,
n) in a two-dimensional grid as shown in Figure 6.1-1. The directions of conduction heat flow
are assumed to be the positive x and y directions. For steady state with no heat generation

q(m-1, n)(m, n) + q(m, n-1)(m, n) = q(m, n)(m+1, n) + q(m, n)(m, n+1) (6.1-1)

where q(m-1, n)(m, n) is the conduction heat flow between nodes (m-1, n) and (m, n). Fourier’s law
can be used to obtain

Tm1,n  Tm ,n
q(m-1, n)(m, n) = k(y1)
x
Tm1,n  Tm ,n
where (y1) is the heat transfer area with a unit depth and is the finite-difference
x
approximation to the temperature gradient at the boundary between the two nodes. Appling
Fourier’s law to each term in Equation (6.1-1) yields

Tm1,n  Tm ,n T T T  Tm1,n T  Tm ,n 1
k(y1) + k(x1) m ,n 1 m ,n = k(y1) m ,n + k(x1) m ,n
x y x y

The equation is divided by k(xy1) and simplified to

Tm1,n  2Tm ,n  Tm1,n T  2Tm ,n  Tm ,n 1

+ m ,n 1 =0 (6.1-2)
x 2
y 2

For x = y, Eq. (6.1-2) becomes

Tm1,n  Tm ,n 1  Tm1,n  Tm ,n 1
Tm,n = (6.1-3)
4

6-2
The above result shows that the temperature of an interior node is just the average of the
temperatures of the four adjoining nodal points. Using this formula, the temperatures for the first
six nodes are

1
T1 = ( T2 + T3 + 500 + 500)
4
1
T2 = ( T1 + T4 + T1 + 500)
4
1
T3 = ( T1 + T4 + T5 + 500)
4
1
T4 = ( T2 + T3 + T6 + T3)
4
1
T5 = ( T3 + T6 + T7 + 500)
4
1
T6 = ( T4 + T5 + T8 + T5)
4

Nodes 7 and 8 are not interior points, therefore Eq. (6.1-3) is not applicable.

x
500 K

y
1 2 1

500 K 3 4 3 5 6

5 6 5 500 K

7 8 7
h = 300 K
500 K 7 8 7
2
h = 10 W/m K
Figure 6.1-2 Directions of heat flow for nodes 7 and 8.

Making energy balance for node 7 yields

y 500  T7 T T y T T
k( 1) + k(x1) 5 7 = k( 1) 7 8 + h(x1)(T7  300)
2 x y 2 x

2
Multiplying the above equation by we obtain
k

6-3
 2hx
500  T7 + 2T5  2T7 = T7  T8 + (T7  300)
k

2hx 2  10  0.25
= = 5.0
k 1
1
T7 = (2T5 + T8 + 2000)
9

Similarly an energy balance for node 8 yields

y T T T T y T T
k( 1) 7 8 + k(x1) 6 8 = k( 1) 8 7 + h(x1)(T8  300)
2 x y 2 x

2
Multiplying the above equation by we obtain
k

2hx
T7  T8 + 2T6  2T8 = T8  T7 + (T8  300)
k

1
T8 = (2T6 + 2T7 + 1500)
9

We have 8 linear equations with 8 unknowns that can be solved by matrix method or iterations.
Table 6.1-1 lists the Matlab program using Gauss-Seidel iteration to solve for the temperatures.

Table 6.1-1 ________________________

%
% Initial guesses for the temperatures
T=400*ones(8,1);
for i=1:100
Tsave=T;
T(1)=.25*(T(2)+T(3)+1000);
T(2)=.25*(2*T(1)+T(4)+500);
T(3)=.25*(T(1)+T(4)+T(5)+500);
T(4)=.25*(T(2)+2*T(3)+T(6));
T(5)=.25*(T(3)+T(6)+T(7)+500);
T(6)=.25*(T(4)+2*T(5)+T(8));
T(7)=(2*T(5)+T(8)+2000)/9;
T(8)=(2*T(6)+2*T(7)+1500)/9;
eT=abs(T-Tsave);
if max(eT)<.01, break, end
end
fprintf('# of iteration = %g\n',i)
for i=1:8
fprintf('Node %g, Temperature = %8.2f\n',i,T(i))
end

6-4
>> finite1
# of iteration = 13
Node 1, Temperature = 489.30
Node 2, Temperature = 485.15
Node 3, Temperature = 472.06
Node 4, Temperature = 462.00
Node 5, Temperature = 436.95
Node 6, Temperature = 418.73
Node 7, Temperature = 356.99
Node 8, Temperature = 339.05

The heat transfer rate per unit depth from the column to the fluid is given as

x x
q’/L = 2h[ (500  300) + x(T7  300) + (T8  300)]
2 2

q’/L = (2)(10)(0.25)[100 + (356.99  300) + (0.5)(339.05  300)]

q’/L = 883 W/m

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 6.1-2

The steady-state temperature (oC) associated with selected nodal points of a two-dimensional
system having a thermal conductivity of 2.0 W/moK are shown. The ambient fluid is at 40oC
with a heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2oK. The isothermal surface is at 200oC.

Insulated boundary

0.20 m 139.4 T2 55.8

Ambient fluid
T3
147.0 113.5
0.30 m 77.0
182.9 T1 142.8

Isothermal boundary

(a) Determine the temperature, T1, T2, and T3.

(b) Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit thickness normal to the page from the right
surface to the fluid.

Solution

(a) Determine the temperature, T1, T2, and T3.

6-5
Since x is not equal to y. We need to solve for the temperature at each node by making an
energy balance around that node. For node 1 we obtain

 2 2  182.9  142.8 147  200

 x 2  y 2  T1 = 0.32
+
0.22
 

72.222 T1 = 1.2294104  T1 = 170.22oC

You should note that the temperature T1 is the average of the four neighbouring temperatures
with a higher weight for the closer points in the y-direction.

The temperature at node 2 is given by

139.4  55.8 2 113.5

72.222 T2 = + = 7.8439103
0.09 0.04

T2 = 108.6oC

The temperature at node 3 is given by

113.5  T3 77  T3 T  55.8
ky + k(x/2) = k(x/2) 3 + hy(T3  40)
x y y

2 3 3 30
(113.5  T3) + (77  T3) = (T3  55.8) + 0.2(T3  40)
3 4 4 2

2 3 3
 113.5   77   55.8  3  40
T3 = 3 4 4 = 57.15oC
2 3 3
  3
3 4 4

(b) Calculate the heat transfer rate per unit thickness normal to the page from the right surface to
the fluid.

q’ = 300.2{0.5(200  40) + (77  40) + (57.15  40) + 0.5(55.8  40)} = 852.3 W/m

6-6
6.2 Partial Differential Equation Solver Software

The heat equation could be solved by a partial differential equation solver such as COMSOL
Multiphysics developed by COMSOL Inc. The ability of this software can be found from the
COMSOL User’s Guide:

“COMSOL Multiphysics is designed to make it as easy as possible to model and simulate

physical phenomena. With COMSOL Multiphysics, you can perform free-form entry of custom
partial differential equations (PDEs) or use specialized physics application modes. These physics
modes consist of predefined templates and user interfaces that are already set up with equations
and variables for specific area of physics. Further, by combining any number of these application
modes into a single problem description, you can model a multiphysics problem-such as one
involving simultaneous mass and momentum transfer.”

COMSOL Multiphysics can solved a variety of problems beside heat transfer, including those
in fluid dynamics, chemical reactions, electromagnetics, fuel cells, transport phenomena,
polymer processing and so on. COMSOL is very flexible with a friendly interface. The
Graphical User Interface consists of the following steps:

1. Model Navigator: Use this dialog box to choose the model equation, its dimensions,
stationary or time-dependent analysis.
2. Geometry Modeling: Use this interface to draw or specify object and its dimensions
and coordinates.
3. Physics Settings: The boundary and initial conditions are specified in the Boundary
Settings. The physical properties in the model equations are specified in the
Subdomain Settings.
4. Mesh Generation and Solution: The mesh can be initialized and refined if
necessary. The problem is then solved with various options for solver like: stationary
linear, stationary nonlinear, time dependent and so on. The solver can also be auto
selected.
5. Postprocessing and Visualization: The results can be displayed in different
graphical or numerical formats.

COMSOL Multiphysics will be used to solve many problems discussed in the previous sections
of chapter 6.

6-7
Example 6.2-1

A long column with thermal conductivity k = 1 W/moK is maintained at 500oK on three surfaces
while the remaining surface is exposed to a convective environment with h = 10 W/m2oK and
fluid temperature T = 300oK. The cross sectional area of the column is 1 m by 1 m. Determine
the steady-state temperature distribution in the column and the heat flow to the fluid per unit
length of the column.

Solution
When you start the COMSOL MULTIPHYSIC, the Model Navigator dialog box appears.

Select 2D in the Space dimension list.

In the list of application modes, open the COMSOL Multiphysics > Heat Transfer folder and
then the Conduction node.
Select Steady-state analysis and click OK to go to Geometry Modeling.

The COMSOL Multiphysics – Geom1 dialog box appears.

On the Draw menu point to Specify Objects and click Rectangle.

6-8
In the Rectangle dialog box, find the size area and specify 1 in both the Width and Height edit
fields.

Click OK and click the Zoom Extents button.

The next step is to set the boundary conditions.

Go to the Physics menu and choose Boundary Settings.

In the Boundary Settings dialog box select boundary 1 (the left side).
In the Boundary condition list select Temperature and type 500 in the Temperature edit field.

6-9
Select boundaries 3 and 4 (top and right sides) by click on 3 then shift click or control (Ctrl)
click on 4. In the Boundary condition list select Temperature and type 500 in the
Temperature edit field.

Select boundary 2 (bottom sides). In the Boundary condition list select Heat flux and type 10 in
the Heat transfer coefficient edit field and 300 in the External Temperature edit field.

Click OK.

Next go to the Physics menu and choose Subdomain Settings.

In the Subdomain Settings dialog box choose subdomain 1 and enter the thermal properties in
the domain according to the following screen.

6-10
Click OK.

Initialize the mesh by choosing Mesh on the Main toolbar and clicking the Initialize Mesh
button.

Choose Solve and click the Solve Problem button. The following screen appears.

To get a plot showing the numerical value at various points, use a cross-section plot:
6-11
Go to the Postprocessing menu and choose Cross-Section Plot Parameters.
In the Cross-Section Plot Parameters dialog box enter the following information:

Click Apply and the following screen appears.

The heat flux leaving the bottom surface can be determined by clicking on the Boundary
Integration in the Postprocessing menu. Choose Normal heat flux and boundary 2 then click
Apply. A value of 580.96 W/m is displayed at the bottom of the screen.

6-12
Chapter 7
Unsteady State Conduction

7.1 Introduction
qout

qgen
As

qin
Figure 7.1-1 An isotropic solid with surface As.

An energy balance can be applied to a control V volume to obtain

Vcp T = qin – qout + qgen

t

In this chapter we will consider the situation when the system is time dependent or Vcp T  0.
t
Two approaches can be used to derive the appropriate equation for the system: microscopic or
macroscopic balance. The microscopic or differential energy balance will yield a partial
differential equation that describes the temperature as a function of time and position. This
approach was used in Chapter 3 to obtain the following differential conduction equation

cp T = (kT) + q 

t

There are many situations where a macroscopic balance or Lumped Capacitance is sufficient to
describe the transient behavior of a system. The temperature of system is only a function of time
when the dominant thermal resistance is in the ambience and negligible thermal resistance
resides within the system. The energy equation for this case is

Vcp dT = qin – qout + qgen

dt

where qin and qout may be due to convection or radiation. Consider a system shown in Figure 7.1-
1 where qin = qgen = 0 and the solid is in a convective environment with h and T, then the energy
equation becomes

dE
= Vcp dT = – qout
dt dt

7-1
 Vcp dT = – hAs(T – T)
dt

The ordinary differential equation derived from the Lumped Capacitance method can easily be
solved. However it is much more involved to obtain the solution to the differential conduction
equation. The methods of solution can be analytical, semi-analytical or graphical, and numerical.

7.2 The Lumped Capacitance Method

The variation of temperature within the solid is negligible when the internal thermal resistance is
much smaller than the external thermal resistance. We need to establish the criteria when the
macroscopic energy balance is valid. We will consider a steady state system to illustrate the
relative magnitude of the internal and external thermal resistances. Figure 7.2-1 shows a solid
plate where the heat q is being conducted from the left to the right surface and then to the
surrounding fluid by convection.
x

T2 h

q qc Th

L
Figure 7.2-1 Steady-state temperature distribution in a plate.

Applying the energy balance to the right surface of the plate yields

(T1  T2 )
q = qc  kA = hA(T2  T)
L

Solving for the temperature ratio yields

T1  T2 L / kA hL
= =  Bi
T2  T 1 / hA k

where Bi = Biot number is the ratio of resistance to conduction within the solid over the
resistance to convection. If Bi << 1, T1  T2, the temperature gradient within the solid can be
neglected. If Bi  << 1, T1  T2, the temperature gradient within the solid cannot be neglected.
For engineering approximation, the Lumped Capacitance method can be use when Bi < 0.1. For
a general system, the Biot number is defined as

hLc V
Bi  , where Lc =
k As

where V = volume of the system and As = surface area for heat transfer.

7-2
 2R
H H
L
W W
L L 2R

Figure 7.2-2 Common geometry of system for heat transfer.

Table 7.2-1 lists the characteristic length Lc for some common system shown in Figure 7.2-1. It
should be noted that for Lumped Capacitance method the Biot number is defined as

hLc V
Bi  , where Lc =
k As

However in the solution of the differential conduction equation the Biot number is defined for
cylindrical and spherical system as

hR
Bi  , where R is the radius of the cylinder or sphere.
k

Table 7.2-1 Characteristic length for common geometry (Lumped Capacitance).

System V As Lc
Plate with heat transfer on one side HLW HW L
Plate with heat transfer on both side HLW 2HW L/2
Cylinder with heat transfer on the side R L
2 2RL R/2
Sphere 4R3/3 4R2 R/3

Example 7.2-1

As part of a space experiment, a small instrumentation package is release from a space vehicle. It
can be approximate by a solid aluminum sphere with a radius of 10 cm. If we take the
surrounding space to be 0 K, how long will it take for the temperature of the package to change
from 300 K to 30 K. Physical properties of aluminum: thermal conductivity k = 211 W/mK,
emissivity  = 0.05, density  = 2702 kg/m3, and heat capacity cp = 798 J/kgK.

Solution

qr
o
Tsur = 0 K
Ts
2R

Figure 7.2-3 Heat leaving the sphere by radiation.

7-3
The heat flow from the sphere by radiation is given by

qr = A(Ts4 – Tsur4) = A(Ts2 + Tsur2)( Ts + Tsur)(Ts – Tsur) = Ahr(Ts – Tsur)

where the radiation heat transfer coefficient hr is defined as

hr = (Ts2 + Tsur2)( Ts + Tsur)

To check for the validity of the Lumped Capacitance method, we can use hr to estimate the Biot
number

hr R
Bi 
3k
Since Tsur = 0 K, hr can be estimated at the highest surface temperature

hr = Ts3 = .055.6710-83003 = 0.0765 W/m2K

0.0765  0.1
Bi = = 1.2110-5
3  211

The Lumped Capacitance method can be used to estimate the time it takes for the temperature of
the package to change from 300 K to 30 K.

Vcp dT = qin – qout + qgen = – qr = – ATs4 = – AT4

dt
30
30 dT A t T 3 A 3
300 T 4 = – c pV 0 dt  – 3 =–
c pV
t=–
c p R
t
300

c p (R / 3)  1 1 
t=  3 3 
  30 300 

2702  798  (0.1 / 3)  1 1 

t= 8  3 3 
= 1.56108 s = 1809 days
0.05  5.67  10  30 300 

qout

h, Th
T(t)
As

qin

Figure 7.2-4 A Lumped Capacitance system.

7-4
Consider a Lumped Capacitance system shown in Figure 7.2-4 for which qin = qgen = 0 and the
ambient temperature T(t) can be time dependent. Applying the energy balance over the system
yields

Vcp dT = qin – qout + qgen = – Ah(T – T) (7.2-1)

dt

Vc p dT
= – T + T (7.2-2)
hA dt

Vc p
In term of the time constant  defined as  = , equation (7.1-2) can be written as
hA

dT + T = T (7.2-3)
dt  

Equation (7.1-3) is a first order linear differential equation that can be solved with the initial
condition t = 0, T = Ti to give (see Review)

1 t 
T = e-t/   T (t )e t / dt  Ti  (7.2-4)
 0 

For T = constant

T = T + (Ti T) e-t/ (7.2-5)

Equation (7.1-5) can be solved for the time it takes the system to reach a temperature T

 T  T 
t =  ln  i 
 T  T 

When t = , T is the temperature at e-1 = 0.3679 from the initial value as shown in Figure 7.2-5.

Ti = 1

0.3679

=0

1 2 t/

Figure 7.2-5 Plot of T = T + (Ti T) e-t/ versus t/

7-5
Human Body Temperature Regulation1

Humans are homeotherms, or warm-blood animals, and can regulate body temperature rather
than have it adjusted by the external environment. The average internal temperature of the
human body (core temperature) is maintained to within 0.5oC around the average temperature
of 37oC. The surface skin temperature is lower and under normal conditions is around 31oC. The
body exchanges heat with its ambient by surface radiation Qr (W), by conduction through direct
contact with solid surfaces Qk (W), by surface convection heat transfer Qku (W), and by surface
evaporation energy conversion Slg =  M lg hlg where M lg (kg/s) is the evaporation rate and hlg
(J/kg) is the heat of evaporation for water.

When ambient is at a temperature T lower than the skin, heat flows out of the body into the
ambient. In addition to the surface heat losses, heat is loss through gas, liquid, and solid
discharges. This heat loss is sustained by the generation of heat by conversion of chemical bonds
to thermal energy in metabolic reactions, i.e. chemical reactions, and temporarily by the reducing
the body temperature. When ambient is at a higher temperature, heat flows out of the body by
surface evaporation or sweating since the body must use its energy to break the physical bonds of
the liquid.

The fat tissues have a thermal conductivity of one third of the other tissues, and therefore, act as
an insulator. The blood flow to the surface is controlled by increasing it for heating purposes
(vasodilatation) or by decreasing it for reducing heat losses (vasoconstriction). The conversion of
energy, blood flow rate, and sweating are controlled by the nervous system feedback
mechanisms and this control originates from the hypothalamus in the brain. There are
temperature sensors throughout the body that are heat-sensitive neurons, which send higher
frequency signals to the brain as the temperature increases.

Example 7.2-2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Consider a person under a condition of hypothermia that is generating a maximum heat under
severe shivering of 400 W. However, the total heat loss due to convection and radiation is 800
W. The body energy content (cvV) is assumed to be 5105 J/K. Determine how long it will take
for the body temperature to drop by 10oC.

Solution ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Neglect any other energy loss, the heat balance for the body is

dE dT
= accumulated energy change (W) = cvV = – qout + qgen
dt dt

dT
5105 = – 800 + 400 = – 400  t = 1,25010 = 12,500 s = 3.47 hr.
dt
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 Kaviany, Principles of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002, p. 15

7-6
Chapter 7
Unsteady State Conduction

___________ Review: First Order Linear Ordinary Differential Equations ________

The following differential equation

dT + T = T (7.2-6)
dt  
is a first order linear differential equation with the general form

dT
+ (t) T = f(t) (7.2.-7)
dt
where
1
(t) =

T
f(t) = , f(t) is called the forcing function.


To solve the first order equation, we need to find a function I(t) called the integrating factor.
When the integrating factor is multiplied to Eq. (7.2.7)

dT
I(t)[ + (t) T] = I(t) f(t) (7.2-8)
dt

The left hand side of Eq. (7.2-8) will become an exact derivative

d
I (t )T  = I(t) f(t) (7.2.9)
dt

Compare Eq. (7.2-8) to Eq. (7.2.9)

dT d
I(t)[ + (t)T] = I (t )T 
dt dt

dT dT dI (t )
I(t) + I(t)(t)T = I(t) +T
dt dt dt

dI (t ) dI (t )
I(t)(t) = ; or = (t)dt
dt I (t )

The integrating factor I(t) is then

7-7
 
I(t) = exp   (t)dt  (7.2.10)

Equation (7.2.9) can be integrated to obtain

I(t) T =  I (t ) f (t )dt + C ; or

1 C
T=
I (t )  I (t ) f (t )dt +
I (t )
(7.2-11)

where C is an arbitrary constant of integration.

The integrating factor for Eq. (7.2-6) is

 
 1 
I(t) = exp   (t)dt = exp    dt  = exp(t/)
   
Hence

1 t


T = exp(t/) T  (t )e t / dt + Cexp(t/) (7.2-12)
0

Applying the initial condition t = 0, T = Ti we obtain C = Ti

The final solution is

1 t 
T = e-t/   T (t )e t / dt  Ti 
 0


Example 7.2-3

A liquid droplet rises in heavier, immiscible host liquid and is exposed to vertically increasing
temperatures as shown in Figure 7.2-6. The rising velocity of the liquid drop v is assumed to be
dT
constant. The temperature gradient of the host liquid is also a constant = . If the liquid
dx
droplet is initially at the same temperature as that of the host liquid Ti, determined the
temperature of the liquid droplet as it rises up the column. You can assume the Biot number is
much less than 1.

Solution

Applying the energy balance over the liquid droplet yields

Vcp dT = qin – qout + qgen = – Ah(T – T)

dt
7-8
 Immiscible
liquid (heavy)
Rope heater

x
slope = dTh/dx

v
Droplet (light)
at T
Hypodermic
Needle
Ti Th(x)
Figure 7.2-6 Schematic of apparatus used to superheat liquid droplet.

Rearranging the equation

Vc p dT
= – T + T
hA dt

Vc p
In term of the time constant  defined as  = , the equation can be written as
hA

dT + T = T
dt  

T is not a constant as the liquid drop rises up the column.

dT = dT dx = v  T = T + vt

 i
dt dx dt

The solution for the droplet temperature is given as

1 t 
T = e-t/   T (t )e t / dt  Ti 
 0 

1 t 1 t 1 t 1 t

    vte
T (t )e t / dt = (Ti  vt )e t / dt = Ti e t / dt + t /
dt
0 0  0  0

7-9
 1 t v t

  te
T (t )e t / dt = Ti(et/  1) + t /
dt
0  0

t
 te
t /
The integral dt can be evaluated using integration by part:
0

d(uv) = udv + vdu   udv =  d (uv )   vdu

 udv = uv   vdu
Let u = t  du = dt; dv = et/dt  v =  et/

t t t t
 te dt = t e t /    e t / dt = t et/  2 e t / = t et/  2(et/  1)
t /
0 0 0 0

v t
 te dt = v[t et/  (et/  1)]
t /

 0

1 t v t

  te
T  (t )e t / dt = Ti(et/  1) + t /
dt = Ti(et/  1) + vt et/  v(et/  1)
0  0

1 t 
T = e-t/   T (t )e t / dt  Ti  = e-t/[ Ti(et/  1) + vt et/  v(et/  1) + Ti]
 0 

T = Ti + vt  v(1  e-t/) = T  v(1  e-t/)

For t  , T  T  v as shown in Figure 7.2-7

Immiscible
liquid (heavy)
v

Th
T
T (drop temperature)

v
Droplet (light) Ti
at T
t

Figure 7.2-7 The liquid droplet is cooler than the host liquid.

7-10
Chapter 7
Unsteady State Conduction

7.3 Differential Energy Balance

When the internal temperature gradient is not negligible or Bi  << 1, the microscopic or
differential energy balance will yield a partial differential equation that describes the temperature
as a function of time and position. This approach was used in Chapter 3 to obtain the following
differential conduction equation

cp T = (kT) + q  (7.3-1)

t

For one-dimensional heat transfer in a slab with convective conditions of h and T, equation
(7.3-1) is simplified to

 2T 1 T  2T
cp T = k 2  = (7.3-2)
t x  t x 2

h, Th h, Th

-L x=0 L
Figure 7.3-1 One-dimensional unsteady heat transfer in a slab.

Equation (7.3-2) can be solved with the following initial and boundary conditions

I. C. t = 0, T(x, 0) = Ti

T T
B. C. x = 0, = 0; x = L,  k = h(T  T)
x x 0 x xL

In general, the temperature within the slab depends on many parameters besides time t and
position x.

7-11
 T = T(x, t, Ti, T, L, k, , h)

The differential equation and its boundary conditions are usually changed to the dimensionless
forms to simplify the solutions. We define the following dimensionless variables

T  T
Dimensionless temperature: * =  T = T + *(Ti  T)
Ti  T

x
Dimensionless distance: x* =  x = L x*
L

t L2
Dimensionless time or Fourier number: t* = Fo = t= Fo
L2 

Substituting T, x, and t in terms of the dimensionless quantities into equation (7.3-2) yields

1   * 1  2 *
(Ti  T) = (T i  T)
 L2 Fo L2 x *2

 *  2 *
= (7.3-3)
Fo x *2

Similarly, the initial and boundary conditions can be transformed into dimensionless forms

*(x*, 0) = 1

 *  * hL
= 0; =  Bi**(1, t*), where Bi =
x * x* 0
x * x* 1
k

Therefore * = f(x*,Fo, Bi)

The dimensionless temperature * depends only on x*,Fo, and Bi. Equation (7.3-3) can be solved
by the method of separation of variables to obtain


* = C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo) cos(nx*) (7.3-4)

where the coefficients Cn are given by

4 sin  n
Cn =
2 n  sin(2 n )

and n are the roots of the equation: n tan(n) = Bi.

7-12
Table 7.3-1 lists the Matlab program that evaluates the first ten roots of equation n tan(n) = Bi
and the dimensionless temperatures given in equation (7.3-4). The program use Newton’s
method to find the roots (see Review).


Table 7.3-1 Matlab program to evaluate and plot * = C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo) cos(nx*)

% Plot the dimensionless temperature within a slab

%
% The guess for the first root of equation z*tan(z)=Bi depends on the Biot number
%
Biot=[0 .01 .1 .2 .5 1 2 5 10 inf]';
alfa=[0 .0998 .3111 .4328 .6533 .8603 1.0769 1.3138 1.4289 1.5707];
zeta=zeros(1,10);cn=zeta;
Bi=1;
fprintf('Bi = %g, New ',Bi)
Bin=input('Bi = ');
if length(Bin)>0;Bi=Bin;end
% Obtain the guess for the first root
if Bi>10
z=alfa(10);
else
z=interp1(Biot,alfa,Bi);
end
% Newton method to solve for the first 10 roots
for i=1:10
for k=1:20
ta=tan(z);ez=(z*ta-Bi)/(ta+z*(1+ta*ta));
z=z-ez;
if abs(ez)<.00001, break, end
end
% Save the root and calculate the coefficients
zeta(i)=z;
cn(i)=4*sin(z)/(2*z+sin(2*z));
fprintf('Root # %g =%8.4f, Cn = %9.4e\n',i,z,cn(i))
% Obtain the guess for the next root
step=2.9+i/20;
if step>pi; step=pi;end
z=z+step;
end
%
% Evaluate and plot the temperatures
hold on
Fop=[.1 .5 1 2 10];
xs=-1:.05:1;
cosm=cos(cn'*xs);
for i=1:5
Fo=Fop(i);

7-13
 theta=cn.*exp(-Fo*zeta.^2)*cosm;
plot(xs,theta)
end
grid
xlabel('x*');ylabel('Theta*')

Bi = .5
Root # 1 = 0.6533, Cn = 1.0701e+000
Root # 2 = 3.2923, Cn = -8.7276e-002
Root # 3 = 6.3616, Cn = 2.4335e-002
Root # 4 = 9.4775, Cn = -1.1056e-002
Root # 5 = 12.6060, Cn = 6.2682e-003
Root # 6 = 15.7397, Cn = -4.0264e-003
Root # 7 = 18.8760, Cn = 2.8017e-003
Root # 8 = 22.0139, Cn = -2.0609e-003
Root # 9 = 25.1526, Cn = 1.5791e-003
Root # 10 = 28.2920, Cn = -1.2483e-003

Figure 7.3-2 shows a plot of dimensionless temperature * versus dimensionless distance x* at

various Fourier number for a Biot number of 0.5.
Temperature distribution in a slab for Bi = 0.5
1
Fo=0.1

0.9

Fo=0.5
0.8

0.7
Fo=1

0.6
Theta*

0.5

Fo=2
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fo=10
0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x*

Figure 7.3-2 Dimensionless temperature distribution at various Fourier number.

__________ Review: The Newton-Raphson Method ________________________

The Newton-Raphson method and its modification is probably the most widely used of all root-
finding methods. Starting with an initial guess x1 at the root, the next guess x2 is the intersection
of the tangent from the point [x1, f(x1)] to the x-axis. The next guess x3 is the intersection of the
tangent from the point [x2, f(x2)] to the x-axis as shown in Figure 7.3-3. The process can be
repeated until the desired tolerance is attained.

7-14
 f(x)
f(x1) B

x3 x2 x1

Figure 7.3-3 Graphical depiction of the Newton-Raphson method.

The Newton-Raphson method can be derived from the definition of a slope

f ( x1 )  0 f ( x1 )
f’(x1) =  x2 = x1 
x1  x 2 f ' ( x1 )

In general, from the point [xn, f(xn)], the next guess is calculated as

f ( xn )
xn+1 = xn 
f ' ( xn )

The derivative or slope f(xn) can be approximated numerically as

f ( xn  x )  f ( xn )
f’(xn) =
x

Example

Solve f(x) = x3 + 4x2  10 using the the Newton-Raphson method for a root in the interval [1, 2].

Solution
f ( xn )
From the formula xn+1 = xn 
f ' ( xn )

f(xn) = x n3 + 4 x n2  10  f’(xn) = 3 x n2 + 8xn

7-15
 xn3  4 xn2  10
xn+1 = xn 
3xn2  8 xn

Using the initial guess, xn = 1.5, xn+1 is estimated as

1.53  4  1.52  10
xn+1 = 1.5  = 1.3733
3  1.52  8  1.5

For the roots of equation n tan(n) = Bi, let

f =  tan()  Bi

Then f’ = tan() +(1 + tan()2);

The differential conduction equation for heat transfer in the radial direction of an infinite
cylinder with radius R is

1   T  T =  1   T 
cp T = k r  or r  (7.3-5)
t r r  r  t r r  r 

The differential conduction equation for heat transfer in the radial direction of a sphere with
radius R is

1   2 T  T =  1   2 T 
cp T = k 2 r  or r  (7.3-6)
t r r  r  t r 2 r  r 

Equations (7.3-5) and (7.3-6) can be solved with the following initial and boundary conditions

I. C. t = 0, T(r, 0) = Ti

T T
B. C. r = 0, = 0; r = R,  k = h(T  T)
r r 0 r rR

The solution of equation (7.3-5) for the infinite cylinder is given as


* = C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo) J0(nx*) (7.3-7)

where J0(nx*) is Bessel function of the first kind, order zero. The coefficient Cn are not the same
as those in a slab. The solution of equation (7.3-6) for a sphere is given as


sin( n r*)
* = C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo)
 nr *
(7.3-8)

7-16
 lim sin( n r*) lim  n cos( n r*)
Since = = 1, it should be noted that at r* = 0
r*  0  n r * r*  0 n


* = C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo)

For one-dimensional heat transfer in a semi-infinite solid as shown in Figure 7.3-4, the
differential equation is the same as that in one-dimensional heat transfer in a slab

 2T 1 T  2T
cp T = k 2  =
t x  t x 2

Semi-Infinite Solid

Figure 7.3-4 One-dimensional heat transfer in a semi-infinite solid.

We consider three cases with the following initial and boundary conditions

Case 1: I. C.: T(x, 0) = Ti

B. C.: T(0, t) = Ts, T(x  , t) = Ti

Case 2: I. C.: T(x, 0) = Ti

T
B. C.:  k = q0" , T(x  , t) = Ti
x x 0

Case 3: I. C.: T(x, 0) = Ti

T
B. C.:  k = h(T  T), T(x  , t) = Ti
x x 0
All three cases have the same initial condition T(x, 0) = Ti and the boundary condition at infinity
T(x  , t) = Ti. However the boundary condition at x = 0 is different for each case, therefore
the solution will be different and will be summarized in a table later.

7-17
Example 7.3-1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(Incropera, Heat and Mass Transfer, problem 5.77)
Irreversible cell damage occurs in living tissue maintained at temperature greater than 48oC for a
duration greater than 10 seconds. When a portion of a worker’s body comes into contact with
machinery that is at elevated temperatures in the range of 50 to 100oC, the worker can suffer
serious burn injuries. You can assume that living tissue has a normal temperature of 37oC, is
isotropic, and has constant properties equivalent to those of liquid water. Compute locations in
the tissue at which the temperature will reach 48oC after 10 s of exposure to machinery at 50oC
and 100oC.

Solution ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

T(x,t)
Tissue
Ti = 37oC Ts

Ts Suddenly raised
by contact with 48oC t
machinery at Ts
Ti

0 xb x

The unsteady state temperature distribution in a semi-infinite medium is listed in Table 7.4-3.

Table 7.4-3 Semi-infinite medium

Constant Surface Temperature: T(0, t) = Ts

T ( x, t )  Ts  x  k (Ts  Ti )
= erf   ; qs" (t) =
Ti  Ts  2 t  t

Constant Surface Heat Flux: qs" = q0"

2q" t /     x 2  qo" x
1/ 2
 x 
T(x, t) - Ti = o exp  - erfc 
k  4t  k  2 t 
The complementary error function, erfc(w), is defined as erfc(w) = 1 – erf(w)

T
Surface Convection: - k = h[T - T(0, t)]
x x 0

T ( x, t )  Ts  x    hx h 2t    x h t 
= erfc  - exp  2  erfc  

T  Ts  2 t    k k    2 t k 

7-18
The equation applied to this problem is given by the expression for constant surface temperature

T ( x, t )  Ts  x 
= erf  
Ti  Ts  2 t 

The thermal diffusivity of water at 37oC is 1.51310-7 m2/s. We will determine the location xb from
the skin surface where the temperature is 48oC at 10 seconds. xb is the depth of the tissue layer that
will be damaged if the surface temperature is maintained at elevated temperature for an additional
10 seconds. If Ts = 50oC

T ( x, t )  Ts 48  50
= = 0.154
Ti  Ts 37  50

 x 
Therefore   = erf-1(0.154)
 2 t 

The inverse of the error function can be evaluated using Matlab command erfinv

>> erfinv(.154)
ans =
0.1373
>>
x
= 0.1373  xb = 0.13732(1.51310-710)1/2 = 3.378610-4 m
2 t

xb = 0.34 mm

If Ts = 50oC, 0.34 mm layer of tissue will suffer cell damage for a contact period of 20s.

If Ts = 100oC, xb = 2.36 mm

The temperature history at a location xb = 2 mm can be plotted using the following Matlab
program.

% Temperature history at x = 2 mm from the skin surface maintained at 100 C

t=1:30;
tp=[0 t];
Ti=37;Ts=100;
alfa=1.513e-7;
x=.002;
T=Ts+(Ti-Ts)*erf(x./(2*sqrt(alfa*t)));
Tp=[Ti T];
plot(tp,Tp);grid on
xlabel('Time, t(s)');ylabel('Temperature, T(C)')

7-19
 70

65

60
Temperature, T(C)

55

50

45

40

35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, t(s)

Figure 7.3-5 Temperature history at 2 mm from the skin surface.

From Figure 7.3-5, the critical temperature of 48oC is reach within approximately 7 seconds at 2
mm from the skin surface where a temperature of 100oC is maintained.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7-20
Chapter 7
Unsteady State Conduction

7.4 Approximate Solutions

The summation in the series solution for transient conduction such as equation (7.3-4) can be
terminated after the first term for Fo > 0.2. The full series solution is


* = C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo) cos(nx*) (7.3-4)

The first term approximation is

 * = C1exp(-  12 Fo) cos(1x*) (7.4-1)

where C1 and 1 can be obtained from Table 7.4-1 for various value of Biot number. Table 7.4-2
lists the first term approximation for a slab, an infinite cylinder, and a sphere. Table 7.4-3 lists
the solution for one-dimensional heat transfer in a semi-infinite medium for three different
boundary conditions at the surface x = 0. Table 7.4-4 shows the combination of one-dimensional
solutions to obtain the multi-dimensional results.

Total Energy Transfer

The total heat transfer Q from a system to the ambience up to any t in the transient process can
be evaluated from the temperature distribution since

Q = Ei  Et

where Ei is the initial energy of the system, Ei = cp  Ti dV , and Et is the energy of the system at
V

time t, Et = cp  Tt dV . Therefore

V

Q = cp  (Ti  T )dV = cp  [(Ti  T )  (T  T )]dV

V V

Q = cpV(Ti  T)  cp  (T  T )dV

V

The maximum amount of energy transfer, Q0, between the system and surrounding is cpV(Ti 
T) . Therefore

Q 1 (T  T ) 1
Q0
=1
V V (Ti  T )
dV = 1 
V   * dV
V

Using the approximate solution for heat transfer in a slab, we have

7-21
 T  T
* = = C1exp(-  12 Fo) cos(1x*)
Ti  T

Q 1 L 1

LA 0  cos(
= 1  C1exp(-  12 Fo) cos( 1 x*) Adx = 1  C1exp(-  12 Fo) 1 x*)dx *
Q0 0

1
Q sin( 1 x*) sin( 1 )
= 1  C1exp(-  12 Fo) = 1  C1exp(-  12 Fo)
Q0 1 0
1

With the definition of  0* = C1exp(-  12 Fo), we obtain the formula listed in Table 7.4-2

Q sin( 1 ) *
=1 0
Q0 1
For lumped capacitance system, T is not a function of position, therefore

Q = cp  (Ti  T )dV = cpV (Ti  T) = cpV [(Ti T)  (T  T)] = cpV(i  )
V

If the surrounding is convective with h and T then

T = T + (Ti T) e-t/ or  = i e-t/

The total amount of heat transfer up to any time t is then

Q = cpVi(1  e-t/)

The above formula can also be obtained from the relation

t t t
 qdt =  hAs (T  T )dt = hAs   i e dt = hAsi(1  e-t/)
t / 
Q=
0 0 0

Vc p
Since  = , the final result for the total heat transfer in Lumped Capacitance system is
hAs

Q = cpVi(1  e-t/)

7-22
 Table 7.4-1 Coefficients used in the one-term approximation to the series
solutions for transient one-dimensional conduction or diffusion
_____________________________________________________________________
INFINITE
PLANE WALL CYLINDER SPHERE__________
Bi 1 C1 1 C1 1 C1
(rad) (rad) (rad) ________

0.01 0.0998 1.0017 0.1412 1.0025 0.1730 1.0030

0.02 0.1410 1.0033 0.1995 1.0050 0.2445 1.0060
0.03 0.1732 1.0049 0.2439 1.0075 0.2989 1.0090
0.04 0.1987 1.0066 0.2814 1.0099 0.3450 1.0120
0.05 0.2217 1.0082 0.3142 1.0124 0.3852 1.0149
0.06 0.2425 1.0098 0.3438 1.0148 0.4217 1.0179
0.07 0.2615 1.0114 0.3708 1.0173 0.4550 1.0209
0.08 0.2791 1.0130 0.3960 1.0197 0.4860 1.0239
0.09 0.2956 1.0145 0.4195 1.0222 0.5150 1.0268
0.10 0.3111 1.0160 0.4417 1.0246 0.5423 1.0298
0.15 0.3779 1.0237 0.5376 1.0365 0.6608 1.0445
0.20 0.4328 1.0311 0.6170 1.0483 0.7593 1.0592
0.25 0.4801 1.0382 0.6856 1.0598 0.8448 1.0737
0.30 0.5218 1.0450 0.7465 1.0712 0.9208 1.0880
0.4 0.5932 1.0580 0.8516 1.0932 1.0528 1.1164
0.5 0.6533 1.0701 0.9408 1.1143 1.1656 1.1441
0.6 0.7051 1.0814 1.0185 1.1346 1.2644 1.1713
0.7 0.7506 1.0919 1.0873 1.1539 1.3525 1.1978
0.8 0.7910 1.1016 1.1490 1.1725 1.4320 1.2236
0.9 0.8274 1.1107 1.2048 1.1902 1.5044 1.2488
1.0 0.8603 1.1191 1.2558 1.2071 1.5708 1.2732
2.0 1.0769 1.1795 1.5995 1.3384 2.0288 1.4793
3.0 1.1925 1.2102 1.7887 1.4191 2.2889 1.6227
4.0 1.2646 1.2287 1.9081 1.4698 2.4556 1.7201
5.0 1.3138 1.2402 1.9898 1.5029 2.5704 1.7870
6.0 1.3496 1.2479 2.0490 1.5253 2.6537 1.8338
7.0 1.3766 1.2532 2.0937 1.5411 2.7165 1.8674
8.0 1.3978 1.2570 2.1286 1.5526 2.7654 1.8921
9.0 1.4149 1.2598 2.1566 1.5611 2.8044 1.9106
10.0 1.4289 1.2620 2.1795 1.5677 2.8363 1.9249
20.0 1.4961 1.2699 2.2881 1.5919 2.9857 1.9781
30.0 1.5202 1.2717 2.3261 1.5973 3.0372 1.9898
40.0 1.5325 1.2723 2.3455 1.5993 3.0632 1.9942
50.0 1.5400 1.2727 2.3572 1.6002 3.0788 1.9962
100.0 1.5552 1.2731 2.3809 1.6015 3.1102 1.9990
500.0 1.5677 1.2732 2.4000 1.6020 3.1353 2.0000
1000.0 1.5692 1.2732 2.4024 1.6020 3.1385 2.0000
∞ 1.5708 1.2732 2.4048 1.6020 3.1416 2.0000

7-23
Table 7.4-2 Approximate solutions for diffusion and conduction (valid for Fo>0.2)

t t T  T
Fo = = , *= ,  0* = C1exp(-  12 Fo)
L2
r
0
2
Ti  T
Conduction in a slab
L is defined as the distance from the center of the slab to the surface. If one surface is insulated,
L is defined as the total thickness of the slab.
Q sin( 1 ) *
 * =  0* cos(1x*) ; =1- 0
Qo 1
Conduction in an infinite cylinder
Q 2 *
 * =  0* J0(1r*) ; = 1 - 0 J1(1)
Qo 1
Conduction in a sphere
1 Q 3 0*
 =
*
 sin(1r ) ;
* * = 1 - 3 [sin(1) - 1cos(1)]
 1r * 0 Qo 1
If the temperature at the surface Ts is known T will be replaced by Ts
1 and C1 will be obtained from table at Bi = ∞

Table 7.4-3 Semi-infinite medium

Constant Surface Temperature: T(0, t) = Ts

T ( x, t )  Ts  x  k (Ts  Ti )
= erf   ; qs" (t) =
Ti  Ts  2 t  t

Constant Surface Heat Flux: qs" = q0"

2qo" t /     x 2  qo" x
1/ 2
 x 
T(x, t) - Ti = exp  - erfc 
k  4t  k  2 t 
The complementary error function, erfc(w), is defined as erfc(w) = 1 – erf(w)

T
Surface Convection: - k = h[T - T(0, t)]
x x 0

T ( x, t )  Ts  x    hx h t 
2   x h t 
= erfc   
- exp    erfc  
T  Ts  2 t    k k 2    2 t k 


7-24
 Table 7.4-4 Multidimensional Effects

The temperature profiles for a finite cylinder and a parallelpiped can be obtained from the temperature
profiles of infinite cylinder and slabs.
[ finite cylinder ] = [ infinite cylinder ] × [ slab 2L ]
[ parallelpiped ] = [ slab 2L1 ] × [ slab 2L2 ] × [ slab 2L3 ]

T ( x, t )  T
S(x, t) 
Ti  T Semiinfinite
solid

T ( x, t )  T
P(x, t) 
Ti  T Plane
wall

T ( r, t )  T
C(r, t) 
Ti  T Infinite
cylinder

7-25
Example 7.4-1

A slab with a thickness of 0.050 m is at an initial temperature of 25oC. The slab is heated by
passing a hot gas over its surfaces, with the gas temperature and the convection coefficient
assumed to have constant values of T = 600oC and h = 200 W/m2oK. Slab is made from a
materials with k = 0.50 W/moK and  = 3.510-7 m2/s.

1) Determine the time required to achieve 75% of the maximum possible energy transfer.

2) Determine the highest and lowest temperatures in the slab after 30 minutes.

Solution

h, Th h, Th

-L x=0 L
Figure 7.4-1 One-dimensional unsteady heat transfer in a slab.

1) We use the approximate solution listed in Table 7.4-2 for heat transfer in a slab.

Q sin( 1 ) *
=1- 0
Qo 1

Q
For 75% of the maximum possible energy transfer = 0.75. Heat transfer occurs on both sides
Qo
of the slab, therefore 2L = 0.05 m or L = 0.025 m.

hL 200  0.025
Bi = = = 10
k 0.5

7-26
Chapter 7
Unsteady State Conduction

From Table 7.4-1, 1 = 1.4289, C1 = 1.262,  0* can now be solved

0.25 1
 0* = = 0.36085 = C1exp(-  12 Fo)
sin( 1 )

ln( 0* / C1 )
Fo =  = 0.61319
 12

Since Fo > 0.2, the approximate solution is valid. The time required to achieve 75% of the
maximum possible energy transfer is then

t 0.61319  0.0252
Fo = t= = 1095 s
L2 3.5  10 7

2) Since heat is transferred into the slab, the highest temperature at any time is at the surface
where x* = 1 and the lowest temperature is at the center where x* = 0.

t 3.5  10 7  1800
At t = 30 min = 1800 s  Fo = = = 1.008
L2 0.0252

T ( x *  0, t )  T
 0* = = C1exp(-  12 Fo) = 1.262 exp(-1.428921.008)
Ti  T

 0* = 0.16115

T(x* = 0, 30 min) = 600 + 0.16115(25  600) = 507.3oC

T ( x *  1, t )  T
 =  cos(1
* *
0 x*)  = 0.16115 cos(1.4289) = 0.022791
Ti  T

T(x* = 1, 30 min) = 600 + 0.022791(25  600) = 586.9oC

7-27
Example 7.4-2

Asphalt pavement may achieve temperatures as high as 50oC on a hot summer day. Assume that
such a temperature exists throughout the pavement, when suddenly a rainstorm reduces the
surface temperature to 20oC. Calculate the total amount of energy (J/m2) that will be transferred
from the asphalt over a 30-min period in which the surface is maintained at 20oC. Asphalt: k =
0.062 W/moK,  = 3.210-8 m2/s.

Solution
o
Ts = 20 C

q
x

o
Ti = 50 C

Figure 7.4-2 Heat transfer in a semi-infinite medium.

Asphalt pavement may be treated as a semi-infinite medium with constant surface temperature.
The formula for heat flux is given from Table 7.4 –3 as

k (Ts  Ti )
qs" (t) =
t

This formula assumes heat transfer into the solid as indicated by the x direction shown in Figure
7.4-2. The total amount of energy Q (J/m2) that will be transferred from the asphalt over a 30-
min period is then

t t k (Ts  Ti ) 2k (Ts  Ti ) 1/ 2
 q (t )dt = 
"
Q= s dt = t
0 0 t 

2  0.062  ( 20  50)
Q= 18002 =  4.98105 J/m2
  3.2  10 8

The minus sign indicates heat transfers in the negative x direction.

7-28
Example 7.4-3

A one-dimensional plane wall with a thickness of 0.4 m initially at a uniform temperature of

250oC is suddenly immersed in an oil bath at 30oC. One side of the wall is insulated and the heat
transfer coefficient for the other side is 500 W/m2K. The properties of the wall are k = 50
W/mK, density = 7835 kg/m3, and Cp = 465 J/kgK. Determine the temperature at the center of
the wall after 60 minutes.

Solution

Insulated
surface

h, Th = 30 C
o
o
Ti = 250 C

x=0 L

Figure 7.4-3 Heat transfer through one surface of a slab.

Since heat transfers through only one side of the slab, L is the thickness of the slab: L = 0.4 m.
Using the approximate solution we have

 * = C1exp(-  12 Fo) cos(1x*)

hL 500  0.4
Bi = = =4
k 50

From Table 7.4-1, 1 = 1.2646, C1 = 1.2287.

k 50
= = = 1.372410-5 m2/s
C p 7835  465

t 1.3724  10  5  60  60
Fo = = = 0.3088
L2
.4 2

Since Fo > 0.2, the approximate solution is valid. At the center of the plate x* = 0.5, therefore

7-29
 T ( x *  0.5, t )  T
=  * = C1exp(  12 Fo) cos(1x*)
Ti  T

T ( x *  0.5, t )  T
= 1.2287exp(1.264620.3088) cos(1.26460.5) = 0.6049
Ti  T

T(x* = 0.5, 60 min) = 30 + 0.6049(250  30) = 163.1oC

Example 7.4-4

Two large blocks of different materials, such as copper and concrete, have been sitting in a room
at 23oC for a long time. When you touch the concrete block your heat loss is 0.8 W. Estimate the
heat loss when you touch the copper block. Assume your hand temperature is constant at 37oC.

Data:
Materials k (W/mK) (m2/s)
Copper 401 1.16610-4
Concrete 1.4 6.91710-7

Solution
o
Ts = 37 C

q
x

o
Ti = 23 C

Figure 7.4-4 Heat transfer in a semi-infinite medium.

Large block of material may be treated as a semi-infinite medium with constant surface
temperature boundary condition. The formula for heat flux is given from Table 7.4 –3 as

k (Ts  Ti )
qs" (t) =
t

Let subscript 1 denotes copper and subscript 2 denotes concrete. The ratio of heat loss is then

1/ 2
q1 k (T  Ti )  2 t k  
= 1 s = 1  2 
q2 1t k 2 (Ts  Ti ) k 2  1 

7-30
The heat loss when you touch the copper block is

1/ 2
401  6.917  10 7 
q1 = (0.8)  
4 
= 18 W
1.4  1.166  10 
Example 7.4-5

A short cylinder with height of 0.080 m and radius of 0.030 m is at an initial temperature of
40oC. The slab is plunged into fluid with h = 300 W/m2oK and T = 200oC. Cylinder is made
from a materials with k = 26 W/mK and  = 8.610-6 m2/s. Determine the center temperature of
the cylinder after 5 minutes.

Solution

2R

Short cylinder formed

by intersection of
infinite cylinder and a slab

x
r

2L

Figure 7.4-4 Heat transfer in a finite cylinder.

For heat transfer in a short cylinder, temperature is a function of r, x, and t. The differential
equation

1 T = 2T
 t

7-31
 T  T
in cylindrical coordinate with dimensionless temperature * = is given as
Ti  T

1  * 1    *   2 *
= r +
 t r r  r  x 2

The differential equation can be solved with the following initial and boundary conditions

I. C. t = 0, * = 1

 *  * h *
B. C. on x: x = 0, = 0; x = L, =  (x = L, r, t)
x x 0
x xL
k

 *  * h *
B. C. on r: r = 0, = 0; r = R, =  (x, r= R, t)
r r 0
r rR
k

We assume that the solution can be separated into a product of functions P(x, t) and C(r, t) where

T ( x, t )  T T ( r, t )  T
P(x, t)  and C(r, t) 
Ti  T Plane Ti  T Infinite
wall cylinder

*(x, r, t) = P(x, t)  C(r, t)

Taking the partial derivative of *(x, r, t) with respect to each of the independent variable we obtain

 * C P
= P(x, t) + C(r, t)
t t t

 * P  2 * 2P
= C  = C
x x x 2 x 2

 * C 1    *  1   C 
=P   r  = P r 
r r r r  r  r r  r 

In terms of the new variables, the differential conduction equation becomes

1 C 1 P 1   C  2P
P(x, t) + C(r, t) =P  r  + C
 t  t r r  r  x 2

7-32
Dividing the above equation by PC and rearranging we obtain

1 1 C 1   C  1 1 P 2P
[  r ] + [  ]=0
C  t r r  r  P  t x 2

The differential equation is satisfied if

1 P 2P 1 C 1   C 
 = 0 and  r  =0
 t x 2
 t r r  r 

The differential equation in P can be transformed into dimensionless form

1 P 2P P 2P
=  =
 t x 2 Fo x *2

Similarly, the initial and boundary conditions can be transformed into dimensionless forms

P(x*, 0) = 1

P P hL
= 0; =  Bi*P(1, t*), where Bi =
x * x * 0 x * x* 1 k

Since the differential equation and its initial and boundary conditions are the same as those of
heat transfer in a slab, the solution must be the same.


P= C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo) cos(nx*) (7.3-4)

The differential equation in C is

1 C 1   C 
= r 
 t r r  r 

with the following initial and boundary conditions

I. C. t = 0, C(r, 0) = 1

C C hR
B. C. r = 0, = 0; r = R, =  Bi*C(1, t*), where Bi =
r r 0 r rR k

The solution for C is the same as that of an infinite cylinder given as


C= C
n 1
n exp(  n2 Fo) J0(nx*) (7.3-7)

7-33
In summary, the solution for a finite cylinder with radius R and height 2L may be obtained from
the product of the solution for an infinite cylinder with radius R and the solution for a slab with
thickness 2L. The solution for many multi-dimensional systems may be obtained from the
product solutions of one-dimensional systems as listed in Table 7.4-4.

We now get back to the numerical example:

A short cylinder with height of 0.080 m and radius of 0.030 m is at an initial temperature of
40oC. The slab is plunged into fluid with h = 300 W/m2K and T = 200oC. Cylinder is made
from a materials with k = 26 W/moK and  = 8.610-6 m2/s. Determine the center temperature of
the cylinder after 5 minutes.

For the slab: 2L = 0.08 m or L = 0.04 m.

hL 300  0.04
Bi = = = 0.4615
k 26

t 8.6  10 6  5  60
Fo = = = 1.6125
L2 .04 2

From Table 7.4-1, 1 = 0.6313, C1 = 1.0656. At the center x* = 0.

P = C1exp(-  12 Fo) cos(1x*) = 0.560

For the infinite cylinder

hR 300  0.03
Bi = = = 0.3462
k 26

t 8.6  10 6  5  60
Fo = = = 2.8667
R2 .032

From Table 7.4-1, 1 = 0.7974, C1 = 1.0814. At the center r* = 0.

C = C1exp(-  12 Fo) J0(1r*) = 0.1748

T  T
*(x, r, t) = = P(x, t)  C(r, t) = 0.5600.1748 = 0.0979
Ti  T

T = 200 + 0.0979(40  200) = 184.3oC

7-34
Chapter 8
Convective Heat Transfer

8.1 Introduction

Convection refers to energy transport over macroscopic distances by bulk movement of

matter. Once matter reaches its destination, energy is dissipated by conduction. In general, the
total heat transfer is a superposition of energy transport by molecular interactions and by the bulk
motion of the fluid. Convection occurs between a solid surface and a fluid when the two are at
different temperature. Convection heat transfer is usually classified as forced convection or free
convection. Forced convection occurs when the flow is caused by an external means, such as a
fan or blower, a compressor, a pump, or atmospheric winds. Free convection occurs when the
flow is caused only by the density differences due to temperature variation in the fluid. It should
be note that free convection also exists in forced convection, however the contribution of free
convection in this situation is negligible. Convection can occur with or without a phase change.
When there is no change in phase, the energy that is being transfer is the sensible energy of the
fluid. When a phase change occurs such as boiling or condensation there is an additional heat
exchange due to the latent heat of the fluid from the change in physical molecular bonds.

8.2 Boundary Layer Concept

Consider a flow over a flat plate where the free stream velocity is u. The fluid flow can be
divided into two regions: a velocity boundary layer region next to the solid surface in which
momentum transfer exists and a region outside the boundary layer in which momentum transfer
is negligible or the viscosity of the fluid can be considered to be zero.

Figure 8.2-1 Velocity boundary layer on a flat plate [1].

The thickness of the velocity boundary layer  may be defined as the distance from the surface of
the plate to the location where the velocity in the x direction u is within 1% of the free stream
velocity u or u/u = 0.99. The equations used to solve for the steady-state velocity profile
within the boundary layer are given as

u v
  0 , (Continuity) (8.2-1)
x y

u u 1 p  2u
u v    2 , (x-momentum) (8.2-2)
x y  x y

8-1
v is the velocity in the y direction. The energy equation for convection heat transfer requires the
p
velocity therefore the above two equations must be solved for u and v. is a known quantity
x
p
since within the boundary layer  0 due to the assumption that the thickness of the boundary
y
p dp
layer  is small. Therefore = which is a known quantity from solving the momentum
x dx
equation outside the boundary layer where viscosity is equal to zero.

A thermal boundary layer also exists when the fluid flows over a surface if the fluid free stream
temperature T is not the same as the surface temperatures Ts. Heat transfer is significant within
the thermal boundary layer region.

Figure 8.2-2 Thermal boundary layer on an isothermal flat plate [1].

The thickness of the thermal boundary layer t may be defined as the distance from the surface of
the plate to the location where the fluid temperature T is within 1% of the free stream
temperature T or

Ts  T
= 0.99
Ts  T

The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally not the same as the thickness of the
thermal boundary layer:   t in general. The equation used to solve for the steady-state
temperature profile within the boundary layer is given as

2
T T  2T   u 
u v  2    (8.2-3)
x y y Cp  y 

The left hand side of equation (8.2-3) denotes the convection heat transfer, the first term on the
right hand side denotes conduction heat transfer, and the second term denotes heat generated by
viscous dissipation.

For mass transfer, the equation used to solve for the steady-state concentration profile within the
boundary layer is given as

C A C  2C A
u  v A  D AB (8.2-4)
x y y 2

8-2
Equation (8.2-4) is the species continuity or convective-diffusion equation. The left hand side of
equation (8.2-4) denotes the convection mass transfer and the right hand side denotes diffusion
heat transfer. The conservation equations (8.2-2)-(8.2-4) can be rearranged into dimensionless
forms with the following dimensionless variables

T  Ts C  C A, s
x* = x/L , y* = y/L , u* = u/u , v* = v/u , p*= p/(v2) , T* = , C A* = A
T  Ts C A,   C A, s

Neglecting the viscous dissipation term, the boundary layer equations in terms of the
dimensionless variables are
u * u * dp *   2u *
u*  v*   (8.2-5)
x * y * dx * u L y *2
T * T *   2T *
u* v*  (8.2-6)
x * y * u L y *2
C A * C * D  2C A *
u*  v * A  AB (8.2-7)
x * y * u L y *2

We can use the following dimensionless numbers to further rearrange the conservation equations

u L
ReL = Reynold number = ,


Pr = Prandtl number = ,


Sc = Schmidt number = ,
D AB
   1 1
= = ,
u L u L  Re L Pr

D AB  D AB 1 1
= =
u L u L  Re L Sc

u * u * dp * 1  2u *
u*  v*   (8.2-8)
x * y * dx * Re L y *2

The dimensionless velocity depends only on the variables and dimensionless number contained
within the equation, therefore

dp *
u* = f1(x*, y*, ReL, )
dx *

The shear stress at the solid surface is given as

8-3
 u  u *
s =  ( y  0) = ( y *  0)
y u L y *

The friction coefficient is defined as the ratio of the surface shear stress to the kinetic energy

s 2 u *
Cf = = ( y *  0)
u / 2
2
 Re L y *

u *
The velocity gradient at the surface ( y*  0) does not depend on y* since y* is already
y *
specified (y* = 0).

u * dp *
( y*  0) = f2 (x*, ReL, )
y * dx *

In this expression p*(x) depends on the surface geometry and may be obtained from a separate
consideration of flow conditions. For a prescribed geometry

2
Cf = f(x*, ReL)
Re L

The energy equation in terms of the dimensionless numbers becomes

T * T * 1  2T *
u*  v* 
x * y * Re L Pr y *2

Therefore, the dimensionless temperature is a function given by

dp *
T* = f3 (x*, y*, ReL, Pr, )
dx *

dp * dp *
T* depends on since u* and v* depend on . The heat transfer coefficient h can then be
dx * dx *
obtained from the energy balance at the surface
T
T
y h(Ts - T) = - k f ( y  0)
y
Ts

T  Ts
Since T* = , the heat transfer coefficient in terms of the dimensionless variables is
T  Ts
k f (T  Ts ) T * k T *
h=  ( y *  0) = f ( y *  0)
L(Ts  T ) y * L y *

8-4
The heat transfer coefficient is usually expressed in term of Nusselt Nu number that is essentially
a dimensionless heat transfer coefficient.

hL T *
Nu = = ( y *  0) .
kf y *

For a prescribed geometry

Nu = f4 (x*, ReL, Pr)

The average Nusselt number is defined as

hL
Nu = = f5 (ReL, Pr)
kf

The average Nusselt number does not depend on x* since it is the average property over the
surface area. Once the local heat transfer coefficient h is known, the heat transfer between the
surface and the fluid is calculated from

q=  As
h(Ts  T )dAs

In the special case where Ts is a constant

q = (Ts  T)  hdAs

As

1
The average heat transfer coefficient h is defined as h =
As 
As
hdAs so that the heat transfer q

can also be calculated from

q = h As(Ts  T)

Similarly, the mass transfer coefficient hm is usually expressed in term of Sherwood Sh number
that is essentially a dimensionless mass transfer coefficient

Sh = f6 (x*, ReL, Sc)

The average Sherwood number is defined over the surface area

hm L
Sh = = f7 (ReL, Sc)
D AB

Once the local mass transfer coefficient hm is known, the mole transfer of species A between the
surface and the fluid is calculated from

8-5
 NA = 
As
hm (C A,s  C A, )dAs

NA is the moles of A transferred per unit time. In the special case where CA,s is a constant

NA = (CA,s  CA,)  hm dAs

As

1
The average mass heat transfer coefficient hm is defined as hm =
As 
As
hm dAs so that the nass

transfer NA can also be calculated from

NA = hm As(CA,s  CA,)

In general the momentum, heat, and mass boundary thickness are not the same. They are related
by the following expressions

 
 Prn , and  Scn
t c

The dimensional analysis of the heat and mass conservation equations indicates that

Nu = f4 (x*, ReL, Pr) and Sh = f6 (x*, ReL, Sc)

However experimental data suggest that the dependence of Nu on Pr and the dependence of Sh
on Sc can be factored out so that

Nu = f (x*, ReL) Prn

Sh = f (x*, ReL) Scn

The above formulas indicate that in forced convection Renoylds number is the driving force for
the transfer. Heat transfer also depends on Prandtl number and mass transfer depends on Schmidt
number.

8-6
Chapter 8
Convection Heat Transfer

8.3 Correlations for Heat Convection

Many correlations are available for the estimation of the heat transfer coefficients. In this section
we will outline a procedure that may be used to find the formula that is most suitable for a given
system. The focus is on the application of the formula, therefore only a few basic formulas will
be listed. You will need to find in the literatures the formula that is best for your system if
necessary. Table 8.3-1 lists the outline that may be used to find the correlation needed for a given
system.

-------------- Table 8.3-1 Outline of heat transfer correlations available. ---------------

External forced convection flow
Geometry of the flow: flat plate, cylinder, sphere, ...
Laminar or turbulence
Internal forced convection flow
Geometry of the flow: Circular or noncircular tubes.
Laminar or turbulence
External free convection flow
Geometry of the flow: flat plate, cylinder, sphere, ...
Laminar or turbulence
Free convection within enclosure
Geometry of the flow: rectangular cavities, concentric cylinders, or concentric
spheres.
Boiling
Pool boiling: nucleate or film boiling
Forced convection boiling: external forced convection boiling or two-phase flow.
Condensation
Film condensation: geometry of the system: vertical plate, horizontal tube,...
Dropwise condensation

Once the correlation is found that is valid for the conditions and ranges of the dimensionless
numbers required for your system, you will need to know at what temperature, pressure, and/or
concentration the physical properties are needed.

8-7
External forced convection flow

Table 8.3-2 lists some correlations to determine the heat transfer coefficient for external forced
convection flow. The expressions for the flat plate are obtained from the solutions of the
boundary layer equations. The other formulas are experimental correlations.

------------ Table 8.3-2 Heat transfer coefficients for external forced convection flow. -------------
Correlations Geometry Conditions
1/2
Nux = 0.332Rex Pr 1/3 Flat plate Laminar, local, Tf, 0.6  Pr  50
1/2
Nu x = 0.664Rex Pr 1/3 Flat plate Laminar, average, Tf, 0.6  Pr  50
Nux = 0.0296Rex4/5Pr1/3 Flat plate Turbulent, local, Tf, Rex  108
0.6  Pr  50
Nu x = (0.037Rex4/5  871) Pr1/3 Flat plate Mixed, average, Tf, Rex,c = 5105
Rex  108, 0.6  Pr  50
NuD = 0.3 + [0.62 ReD1/2Pr1/3 Cylinder Average, Tf, ReDPr > 0.2
[1 + (0.4/Pr)2/3]-1/4] Cross flow
[1 + (ReD/282,000)5/8]4/5
NuD = 2 + (0.4ReD1/2 + 0.06ReD2/3)Pr0.4 Sphere Average, T, 3.5 < ReD < 7.6104
(/s)1/4 0.71 < Pr < 380, 1.0 < (/s) < 3.2

The expression for the flat plate

Nux = 0.332Rex1/2Pr1/3

y local h
t
x
average h
Figure 8.3-1 Thermal boundary layer on a flat plate.

provides the local heat transfer coefficient h for laminar flow at a location x from the leading
edge of the flat plate. The Reynolds number Rex is defined as

u x
Rex =


The critical Reynolds number, Rex,c, for transition to turbulent flow is taken to be 5105 unless
specified otherwise from the problem. The physical properties should be evaluated at the film
temperature Tf defined as Tf = 0.5(Ts + T).

The formula

Nu x = 0.664Rex1/2Pr1/3

8-8
provides an average heat transfer coefficient for the heat transfer from the leading edge to
position x.

The formula

Nux = 0.0296Rex4/5Pr1/3

provides the local heat transfer coefficient h for turbulent flow at a location x from the leading
edge of the flat plate.

The formula

Nu x = (0.037Rex4/5  871)Pr1/3

provides a mixed average heat transfer coefficient for the heat transfer from the leading edge to
position x. The first part of the flat plate has laminar flow up to position xc determined from

u x c
5105 =


the later part from xc to x has turbulent flow. If the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
occurs at a critical Reynolds number different than 5105 the mixed average can be determined
from the expression

1  xc
 0 hlam dx  x hturb dx 
x
hx =
x c 

k k
Substituting hlam = 0.332Rex1/2Pr1/3 and hturb = 0.0296Rex4/5Pr1/3 we obtain
x x

k  x dx 
1/ 2 4/5
 u  xc dx  u 
hx = 0.332   1/ 2  0.0296   1/ 5 
x    0 x    xc x 

Integrating, we then obtain

Nu x = [0.664Rex,c1/2 + 0.037(Rex4/5  Rex,c1/2)] Pr1/3

If Rex,c = 500,000, then

Nu x = (0.037ReL4/5  871)Pr1/3

The formula NuD = 2 + (0.4ReD1/2 + 0.06ReD2/3)Pr0.4(/s)1/4 provides an average heat transfer

coefficient for heat transfer to or from a sphere where all the properties except s are to be
evaluated at the fluid temperature T. Therefore  is evaluated at T while s is evaluated at Ts.

8-9
Internal forced convection flow

Table 8.3-3 listed some correlations for forced convection flow in a circular tube.

-------------- Table 8.3-3 Correlations for forced convection flow in a circular tube ---------------

Correlation Conditions
NuD = 3.66 + 0.0499 ReDPr/(L/D) Laminar, Entrance Effect, Ts uniform
0.03ReDPr < L/D
Properties at 0.5(Tm,i + Tm,o)
NuD = 0.023ReD4/5Prn Turbulent, fully developed, Ts uniform
0.7 < Pr < 160
n = 0.3 for Ts < Tm, n = 0.4 for Ts > Tm
Properties at Tm
( NuD )10 = ( NuD ,l )10 + Transitional flow 2,300 < ReD < 10,000
exp[( 2,200  Re D ) / 365] 1 NuD ,l and NuD ,t are the laminar and turbulent
( + )-5
Nu 
D ,l
2
Nu 
D ,t
2 Nusselt number given in this table.

Tm is the bulk fluid temperature that is the temperature averaged over the cross sectional area of
the tube. For non-circular tube, the correlations in Table 8.3-3 may be used with the diameter D
replaced by the effective or hydraulic diameter Dh defined as

4 Ac 4( flow cross  sec tional area )

Dh = =
P wetted perimeter

For flow in an annular space, the effective diameter is

 ( Do2  Di2 )
Dh = = Do  Di
 ( Di  Do )

Annular space

Do
Figure 8.3-2 The concentric tube annulus.

8-10
External free convection flow

Table 8.3-4 listed some correlations for external free convection flow. For free convection, the
driving force for flow is the density difference caused by temperature gradient within the fluid.
Therefore the important dimensionless number for the correlation is the Grashof number that
indicates the ratio of the buoyancy force to the viscous force acting on the fluid.

g (Ts  T ) L3
GrL =
2

where  is the expansion coefficient that depends on the fluid. For an ideal gas,  = p/RT, the
expansion coefficient can be determined

1    1 p 1
=   = =
  T  p  RT 2
T

where T must be the absolute temperature. The Grashof number is usually combined with the
Prandtl number to become the Rayleigh number.

g (Ts  T ) L3
RaL = GrLPr =


-------------- Table 8.3-4 Correlations for external free convection flow ----------------

Correlations Geometry Conditions

NuL = Vertical plate Properties evaluated at Tf
2 May be applied to a vertical cylinder if
 0.387 Ra L
1/ 6
 (D/L)  (35/GrL1/4)
0.825  
 [1  (0.492 / Pr) 9 /16 ]8 / 27 
NuL = 0.54RaL1/4 (104 < RaL < 107) Horizontal plate Tf, Hot surface up or cold surface down
L = As/P
NuL = 0.15RaL1/3 (107 < RaL < 1011)
NuL = 0.27RaL1/4 (105 < RaL < 1010) Horizontal plate Tf, Cold surface up or hot surface down
L = As/P
 1/ 6

2 Horizontal Tf, RaD < 1012
0.387 Ra D
NuD = 0.60   Cylinder
 [1  (0.559 / Pr) 9 /16 ]8 / 27 
0.589 Ra D
1/ 6
Sphere Tf, RaD < 1012, Pr  0.7
NuD = 2
[1  (0.469 / Pr) 9 /16 ]4 / 9

8-11
 Convection Heat Transfer

8.4 Correlations for Boiling and Condensation

Film Pool Boiling

Liquid at saturation Tsat

Ts

Vapor
D film

Figure 8.4-1 Pool boiling with a continuous vapor film surrounds the surface.

The correlation for film boiling on a cylinder or sphere of diameter D is of the form
1/ 4
hconv D  g (  l   v )h' fg D 3 
NuD = = C  , C = 0.62 for horizontal cylinders and
kv   v k v (Ts  Tsat ) 
C = 0.67 for spheres

The corrected latent heat h’fg accounts for the sensible energy required to maintain temperatures
within the vapor blanket above the saturation temperature. h’fg may be approximated as

h’fg = hfg + 0.80cp,v(Ts  Tsat)

Vapor properties are evaluated at the film temperature, Tf = 0.5(Ts + Tsat), hfg and the liquid
density is evaluated at the saturation temperature.

Radiation must also be considered for the evaluation of the heat transfer q between the solid and
the surrounding fluid

q = h As(Ts  Tsat)

where the total heat transfer coefficient h can be estimated from

4/3
h 4/3 = hconv + h rad h 1/3

If h rad < h con, a simpler form may be used

8-12
 3
h = h con + h rad
4

The effective radiation coefficient is defined as

h rad = (Ts2 + Tsat2)( Ts + Tsat)

where  is the emissivity of the solid and  is the Stefan-Boltzman constant,  = 5.6710-8
W/m2oK4.

Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate

x Vapor
at Tsat

Ts
(x)
Liquid

Figure 8.4-2 Film condensation on a vertical surface.

The correlation for laminar film condensation on a vertical surface with height L is of the form
1/ 4
hL L  g (  l   v )h' fg L3 
NuL = = 0.943  
kl   l k l (Tsat  Ts ) 

The modified latent heat h’fg accounts for the effects of thermal advection. h’fg may be
approximated as

h’fg = hfg + 0.68cp,l(Tsat  Ts)

Liquid properties are evaluated at the film temperature, Tf = 0.5(Ts + Tsat), hfg and the vapor
density is evaluated at the saturation temperature.

8-13
Film Condensation on Radial Systems

Vapor at saturation Tsat

Ts

Liquid
D film

Figure 8.4-3 Film condensation on radial systems.

The correlation for film condensation on a cylinder or sphere of diameter D is of the form
1/ 4
 g (  l   v )k l 3h' fg 
hD = C   , C = 0.729 for horizontal cylinders and
  l (Tsat  Ts ) D 
C = 0.826 for spheres

For a vertical tier of N horizontal tubes, the average heat transfer coefficient over N tube is given
as
1/ 4
 g (  l   v )k l 3h' fg 
hD , N = 0.729  
 N l (Tsat  Ts ) D 

The modified latent heat h’fg accounts for the effects of thermal advection. h’fg may be
approximated as

h’fg = hfg + 0.68cp,l(Tsat  Ts)

Liquid properties are evaluated at the film temperature, Tf = 0.5(Ts + Tsat), hfg and the vapor
density is evaluated at the saturation temperature.

8-14
Chapter 8
Convection Heat Transfer

8.5 Examples of Convection Systems

Example 8.5-1

On a summer day the air temperature is 28oC and the relative humidity is 25%. Water evaporates
from the surface of a lake at a rate of 0.10 kg/hr per square meter of the water surface area. If the
water temperature is also 28oC, determine the value of the convection mass transfer coefficient.

Solution

o
Air at 28 C, 25% RH

Water at 28oC
Figure 8.5-1 Water evaporating in air at 28oC.

The density of saturated water vapor w,sat at 28oC can be obtained from a steam table

8-15
 1 1
w,sat = = = 0.0273 kg/m3
vg 36.69m 3 / kg

Since the air temperature is the same as the saturation temperature, at 25% relative humidity

w, = 0.25w,sat = 0.250.0273 = 8.8110-3 kg/m3

The mass transfer coefficient hm is calculated by the equation

n”w = hm (w,s  w,) = hm (w,sat  0.25w,sat) = hm (0.75w,sat)

n" w 0.10
hm = = = 4.884 m/hr = 1.3610-3 m/s
0.75 w,sat (0.75)(0.0273)

Example 8.5-2

1
Insulating “wet” suits worn by scuba divers are usually made of in. thick foam neoprene (k =
8
1
0.025 Btu/hrftoF) which traps next to the skin a layer of stagnant water about in. thick.
8
Determine the rate of heat loss from a 200 lb, 6 ft tall diver swimming at 3 miles per hour in 55oF
sea water if his skin temperature does not fall below 74oF.

Solution

3 miles/hr
D

6 ft
Figure 8.5-2a Swimmer approximated as a cylinder.

We treat the swimmer as a cylinder to estimate the surface area for heat transfer. However we
will use the equation for flat plate to determine the heat transfer coefficient since the available
correlation is for flow normal to the cylinder.

200 D2 800
Volume of swimmer V = = 6  D = = 0.82 ft
62.4 4   6  62.4

Surface area for heat loss: As  0.826 = 15 ft2

8-16
 o
sea water at 55 F

neoprene
sea water L2

Skin at 74oF
Figure 8.5-2b Schematic for heat loss evaluation.

From Figure 8.5-2b, the heat loss can be approximated by

T 74  55
q = As = As
 Rt L1 L2 1
 
k1 k 2 h

where k1 = thermal conductivity of neoprene, k2 = thermal conductivity of sea water, and h = heat
transfer coefficient from the outside surface of neoprene to sea water at 55oF.

Properties of sea water at 60oF:  = 1.2210-5 ft2/s, k2 = 0.336 Btu/hrftoF, Pr = 7.88

Lu 6  3  (5280 / 3600)

ReL = = = 2.16106
 1.22  10 5

The equation needed to evaluate h is

NuL = [0.664Rex,c1/2 + 0.037(ReL4/5  Rex,c1/2)]Pr1/3

If Rex,c = 500,000 then

NuL = (0.037ReL4/5  871)Pr1/3 = (0.037(2.16106)4/5  871)7.881/3 = 6880

k2 0.336  6880
h = NuL = = 385 Btu/hrft2oF
L 6

The heat loss is then

T
q = As
 Rt
L1 L2 1 1 / 96 1 / 96 1
R t =   =
k1 k 2 h
+
0.025 0.336 385
+ = 0.45 hrft2oF/Btu

74  55
q = 15 = 1542.2 = 630 Btu/hr
0.45

8-17
Example 8.5-3

A horizontal copper rod 8 mm in diameter and 100 mm long is in the airspace between surfaces
of an electronic device to enhance heat dissipation. The ends of the rod are at 90oC, while air at
25oC is in cross flow over the cylinder with a velocity of 20 m/s. Determine the temperature at
the midplane of the rod and the rate of heat transfer from the rod.

Solution

L = 50 mm

x
T(x) dT/dx=0
o
air at 25 C

Figure 8.5-3 Heat loss from a cylinder.

NuD = 0.3 + {0.62 ReD1/2Pr1/3[1 + (0.4/Pr)2/3]-1/4}[1 + (ReD/282,000)5/8]4/5

Properties of air at Tf  60oC,  = 15.710-6 m2/s, k = 0.0257 W/mK, Pr = 0.704

Thermal conductivity of copper at 80oC: k = 398 W/moK

u D 20  0.008
ReD = = = 10,200
 15.7  10 6

NuD = 0.3 + {0.6210,2001/20.7041/3[1 + (0.4/0.704)2/3]-1/4}[1 + (10,200/282,000)5/8]4/5 = 23.2

k 0.0257
h = NuD = 23.2 = 75 W/m2oK
D 0.008

The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along the cylinder with x = 0 at the base or left
dT d
surface. The surface at x = L is a plane of symmetry therefore = = 0. The
dx x  L dx x  L
problem is similar to the case of a cylindrical fin with insulated tip. Therefore

 T  T cosh[(m( L  x )]
= =
0 Tb  T cosh(mL)

8-18
 1/ 2
 4  75 
where m= hP / kA = 4h / kD =   = 9.71 m-1
 .008  398 

T  T cosh(0) 1
At x = L, = = = 0.893
Tb  T cosh(9.71  .05) 1.12

T(L) = 25 + 0.893(90  25) = 83oC

The rate of heat transfer from the rod is given by

qf = 2 hPkA o tanh(mL)

hPkA = [(75)(.008)(398)( .0042)]1/2 = 0.194 W/oC

qf = 20.194tanh(9.71*.05) = 25.2 W

8-19
Example 8.5-4

A square, horizontal plate of pure aluminum, initially at 300oC, is allowed to cool in a large
chamber. The plate, 0.5 m by 0.5 m and 8 mm thick, it is insulated at the bottom. The walls of
the chamber and the enclosed air are each maintained at 26oC.

1) If the surface emissivity of the plate is 0.25, what is the initial cooling rate? Neglect heat
transfer from the sides of the plate.

2) Determine the effective Biot number to show that the assumption of uniform plate temperature
is valid.

Solution

Th

Tsur
Ts

Figure 8.5-4 Free convection from a horizontal plate.

dT
1) Determine initial cooling rate
dt t 0

Assuming constant physical properties, a macroscopic energy balance over the plate yields

dT
Vcp =  [hAs(Ts  T) + As(Ts4  Tsur4)]
dt

where V = Asw, w is the plate thickness. The initial cooling rate is then

dT 1
= [h(Ts  T) + (Ts4  Tsur4)]
dt wc p

We need to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient h for free convection of a hot surface facing up.

8-20
The physical properties of air at Tf = 0.5(Ts + T) = 0.5(300 + 26) = 163oC = 436 K:  =
30.7210-6 m2/s, k = 0.0363 W/mK,  = 44.710-6 m2/s, Pr = 0.687. Physical properties of
aluminum at 300oC: k = 232 W/mK,  = 2702 kg/m3, = 1022 J/kgK.

L = As/P = (0.50.5)/(40.5) = 0.125 m

g (Ts  T ) L3 9.81  (1 / 436)(300  26)  0.1253

RaL = GrLPr = = = 6.77106
 6
(30.72  10 )( 44.7  10 )6

NuL = 0.54RaL1/4 (104 < RaL < 107)

NuL = 0.54(8.77106)1/4 = 29.4

k 0.0363
h = NuL = 29.4 = 8.53 W/m2oK
L 0.125

dT 1
= [8.53 (300  26) + 0.25(5.6710-8)(5734  2994)]
dt 2702  0.008  1022

dT
=  0.167 oK/s
dt

2) Check the assumption of uniform plate temperature.

h rad = (Ts2 + Tsur2)( Ts + Tsur)

h rad = 0.25(5.6710-8)(5732 + 2992)(573 + 299) = 5.16 W/m2K

Since h rad < h con, the total heat transfer coefficient is given by

3 3
h = h con + h rad = 8.53 + 5.16 = 12.4 W/m2K
4 4

hw (12.4)(0.008)
Bi = = = 4.310-4 << 1
k 232

Assumption of uniform plate temperature is justified.

8-21
Chapter 9

Heat Exchangers
9.1 Introduction

Heat exchangers are devices for transferring heat between two fluid streams. Heat exchangers
can be classified as indirect contact type and direct contact type. Indirect contact type heat
exchangers have no mixing between the hot and cold streams, only energy transfer is allowed as
shown in Figure 9.1-1.

Hot fluid

Cold fluid

Wall separates streams

Figure 9.1-1 Indirect contact type heat exchanger.

Direct contact type heat exchangers have no wall to separate the cold from the hot streams as
shown in Figure 9.1-2.

Noncondensible
bleed

Warm water

Steam Cold water

Figure 9.1-2 Direct contact type heat exchanger.

Heat exchangers can be classified according to 1) transfer process, 2) number of fluids, 3)

surface compactness, 4) construction, 5) flow arrangements, and 6) heat transfer mechanism.
Table 9.1-1 shows the classification for the first three types. The complete table can be found
from the Heat Transfer Handbook page 17.3.

9-1
 Table 9.1-1. Classification of heat exchangers

Classification according to transfer process

Indirect contact type Direct contact type

Direct transfer Storage Fluidized Immiscible Gas-liquid Liquid-vapor

type type bed fluid

Single phase Multiphase

Classification according to number of fluids

Two-fluid Three-fluid N-fluid (N > 3)

Classification according to surface compactness

Gas-to-fluid Liquid to liquid or phase change

Compact Non-compact Compact Non-compact

(> 700 m2/m3) (< 700 m2/m3) (> 400 m2/m3) (< 400 m2/m3)

Heat exchangers can be found in automotives (radiators) or in power cycles. Figure 9.1-3b shows
a schematic diagram of an air-standard gas turbine with directions for principal heat transfers
indicated by arrows. Gas turbines are usually lighter and more compact than the vapor power
system even though a larger portion of work developed by the gas turbine is required to drive the
compressor.
Fuel
Qin
Combustion
chamber Heat exchanger
2 3

Compressor Turbine Compressor Turbine

Wnet
Wcycle
Air-standard
Simple gas Brayton cycle
turbine
1 4
Heat exchanger
Air Product
Qout
Figure 9.1-3 (a) Simple gas turbine. (b) Air-standard gas turbine cycle

An open gas turbine engine is shown in Figure 9.1-3a. Air is continuously drawn into the
compressor of this engine, where it is compressed to a high pressure. The air then enters a
combustor, a combustion chamber, where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs, resulting
9-2
in combustion products at an elevated temperature. The combustion products do work by
expanding through the turbine and are subsequently discharged to the surroundings. Part of the
turbine work developed is used to drive the compressor. An air-standard study analysis is used to
study the open gas turbine engine with the assumptions that air is the working ideal gas and the
energy generated by combustion is accomplished by a heat transfer source.

With the air-standard idealization, ambient air enters the compressor at state 1 and later returns to
the surrounding at state 4 with a temperature higher than the ambient temperature. The
discharged air would eventually return to the same state as the air entering the compressor so we
can consider the air passing through the gas turbine engine as undergoing a thermodynamic
cycle. The air-standard Brayton cycle represents the states visited by the gas with an additional
heat exchanger for the air to release heat to the surroundings and return to its original state 1. The
air-standard Brayton cycle consists of two heat exchangers, a compressor, and a turbine.

The condenser and evaporator shown in Figure 9.1-4 are the heat exchangers. This figure depicts
the most common refrigeration. In step 4  1, heat is removed at the temperature TL from the
system being refrigerated by the evaporation of a liquid under the pressure PL. In step 1  2,
saturated vapor at PL is compressed isentropically to PH where it becomes superheated vapor. In
step 2  3, heat QH is transferred to the surrounding by condensation at TH. In step 3  4, the
cycle is closed by throttling the liquid to the lower pressure PL. There is no change in enthalpy
during this step.

PH
QH
2
3 2
Condenser
Liquid PL
Throttle 3
valve Compressor
Evaporator Isenthalp
4 1 Vapor
W 1
QL 4
a b c s
Figure 9.1-4 A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle and its Ts diagram.

9-3
9.2 Heat Exchanger types.

We will discuss three types of tubular heat exchangers: concentric tube, cross flow, and shell-
and-tube heat exchangers. A concentric tube or double pipe heat exchanger is the simplest heat
exchanger for which the hot and cold fluids move in the same or opposite directions as shown in
Figure 9.2-1.

Hot fluid Hot fluid

Cold fluid Cold fluid

Parallel flow Counter flow

Figure 9.2-1 Concentric tube heat exchangers.

Figure 9.2-2 shows cross flow heat exchangers where fluid flows perpendicular across the tube
bank rather than parallel with it. There is no mixing of the fluid outside the tube in the y-
direction for the arrangement in the left side of Figure 9.2-2, while there is mixing of the fluid
outside the tube in the y-direction for the arrangement in the right side of Figure 9.2-2. The fluid
inside the tubes is considered unmixed since it is confined and cannot mix with other stream.
Cross flow heat exchangers are usually used to heat or cool a gas such as air.
x

Cross flow
T = f(x, y) Cross flow
T = f(x)

Tube flow

Tube flow
Figure 9.2-2 Cross flow heat exchangers.

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger is the most common configuration. There are many different
forms of shell-and-tube heat exchangers according to the number of shell-and-tube passes. A
common form with one shell pass and two tube passes is shown in Figure 9.2-3. Baffles are
usually installed to increase the heat transfer coefficient of the fluid by introducing turbulence
and cross-flow in the shell side.

9-4
 Baffles
Shell inlet
Tube oulet

Tube inlet

Shell outlet
Figure 9.2-3a Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube passes.

Figure 9.2-3b Details construction of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger.

The advantages of shell and tube exchangers are as follows1:

1) Large surface area in a small volume;

2) Good mechanical layout: a good shape for pressure operation;
3) Well-established fabrication techniques;
4) Construction from a wide range of materials;
5) Easy maintenance;
6) Well-established design procedures.

In general, the tube side is used for fluid which is more corrosive or dirtier or at a higher
pressure. The shell side is used for liquid of high viscosity or gas. It is usually easier to clean the
inside of tubes than to clean the shell side. Heat exchanger shutdowns are most often caused by
fouling, corrosion, and erosion. Figure 9.2-4 shows type designation for shell-and-tube heat
exchangers by the American Tubular Heat Exchanger Manufacturers Association, TEMA. The
TEMA standards cover three classes of exchanger: class R for exchangers in the generally severe
duties of the petroleum and related industries, class C for exchangers in moderate duties of

1 Tower and Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Elsevier, 2008, pg. 801

9-5
commercial and general process application, and class B for exchangers in the chemical process
industries2.

Figure 9.2-4 TEMA Heat Exchanger Types

2 Tower and Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Elsevier, 2008, pg. 803

9-6
The TEMA specifies the standards related to the mechanical design features, materials of
construction, and testing of the shell and tube exchangers3 with a unique nomenclature. The
TEMA nomenclature is a three-letter designation based on the mode of differential thermal
expansion between the shell and the tubes, their degree of disassembly, and the shell-side flow
arrangement. The first letter of the three-letter designation indicates the front end head type. The
second letter of the three relates to the shell type. The last letter of the three indicates the rear
end head type.

(a) Single -segmental baffle

(b) Double-segmental baffle

(c) Disk-and-doughnut baffle

Figure 9.2-5 Types of baffle used in shell and tube heat exchangers.

Baffles improve the rate of heat transfer by increasing the fluid velocity and directing the fluid
stream across the tubes. The most commonly used type of baffle is the single baffle shown in
Figure 9.2-5a; two other types are shown in Figure 9.2-5a and b.

3 Tower and Sinnott, Chemical Engineering Design, Elsevier, 2008, pg. 809.

9-7
 Pt

Pt
Pt
Flow

Triangular Square Rotated square

Figure 9.2-6 Tube patterns.

The tubes in exchangers are usually arranged in an equilateral, square, or rotated square patterns
as shown in Figure 9.2-6 where Pt denotes tube pitch. The triangular and rotated square patterns
have higher heat transfer rates and higher pressure drop than the square pattern. A square or
rotated square pattern is used for heavily fouling fluids, where mechanical cleaning of the
outside tubes is necessary. The tube pitch (distance between tube centers) is normally 1.25 times
the tube outside diameter unless process requirements dictate otherwise.

9-8
Chapter 9

9.3 Analysis of Heat Exchangers

All heat exchangers analyses require energy balances between the fluids. These balances will be
performed for steady state systems with the following assumptions:
a) Heat capacity cp is not a function of temperature;
b) Heat transfer coefficient h is constant and does not vary along tube length. This is the
case for fully developed flow where effect of property variations is not important;
c) The system is well insulated so that there is no heat loss to surroundings;
d) Longitudinal heat conduction in the fluid and walls is negligible. There is no conduction
along the flow direction;
e) Tube walls are smooth without scale of dirt or oxidation;
f) Fluid potential and kinetic energies are negligible;
g) Flow is characterized by bulk or mean velocity and mean temperature at any cross
section.
Tw

Vx T
um Tm

Tw
The mean velocity um and mean temperature Tm is defined by the following equations:

1 1
um =
A  V dA and Tm = u
A x
mA
 V TdA
A x

We will analyze a simple parallel flow heat exchanger depicted in Figure 9.3-1.
Tc i
Tube shell (insulated)

Th i Th o
tube

Shell (insulated) Tc o

Insulated

Tc dqc
Ao = 2roL Tube wall

Ai = 2rL
i
Th dqh ri ro
Centerline x
x
Figure 9.3-1 Simple parallel flow heat exchanger.

9-9
Let Th and Tc be the mean fluid temperatures of the tube and shell sides respectively. The energy
change of the tube side fluid along the x-direction is equal to the energy transferred through the
tube wall

q0”Pdx = q0”dAs =  hum ,h c p ,h A dTh (9.3-1)

In this equation P is the tube perimeter, A is the tube cross sectional area, and q0” is the heat flux
through the tube wall. In terms of the mass flow rate m h =  hum ,h A , Eq. (9.3-1) becomes

dqh = q0”dAs = m h cp,h dTh (9.3-2)

We have a similar equation for the energy received by the cold fluid

dqc =  q0”dAs = m c cp,c dTc (9.3-3)

The energy given up by the hot fluid is absorbed by the cold fluid,

dqc =  dqh = dq (9.3-4)

Equation (9.3-2) can be integrated from the inlet to the outlet of the hot stream,

Tho
 dqh = 
Thi
m h c p ,h dTh

qh = m h cp,h(Tho  Thi) (9.3-5)

Similarly for the cold stream

qc = m c cp,c(Tco  Tci) (9.3-6)

Since qc =  qh = q, equations (9.3-5 and 6) can be written as

q = m h cp,h(Thi  Tho) (9.3-7)

q = m c cp,c(Tco  Tci) (9.3-8)

In the differential form we have

dq =  m h cp,hdTh (9.3-9)

dq = m c cp,cdTc (9.3-10)

We now define the capacitance rates for the hot and cold streams Ch and Cc respectively

Ch = m h cp,h and Cc = m c cp,c

9-10
Equations (9.3-7, 8, 9, and 10) become

q = Ch(Thi  Tho) (9.3-11)

q = Cc(Tco  Tci) (9.3-12)

dq =  ChdTh (9.3-13)

dq = CcdTc (9.3-14)

Control volume

Cold stream Tc
Ao = 2roL dAo dqc Tube wall

Ai = 2rL
i dAi dqh
Hot stream ri ro
Th
Centerline dx
x
Figure 9.3-2 Cross stream heat transfer.

The heat transfer between the hot and cold streams shown in Figure 9.3-2 is now considered.
Without fouling resistance, the heat transfer between the hot and cold streams for the chosen
control volume is given by

Th  Tc Th  Tc
dq = =
1 ln(ro / ri ) 1 1 ln(ro / ri ) 1
   
hi dAi 2 kdx ho dAo hi 2 ri dx 2 kdx ho 2 ro dx

The heat transfer between the streams can be written in terms of the overall heat transfer
coefficients Ui or Uo as follows:

Th  Tc  2 ri dx
dq = = Ui(Th  Tc)dAi
1 ri ln(ro / ri ) 1 ri
 
hi k ho ro

Th  Tc  2 ro dx
dq = = Uo(Th  Tc)dAo
1 ro ro ln(ro / ri ) 1
 
hi ri k ho

The overall heat transfer coefficients Ui and Uo are defined as

9-11
 1 1 1c
Ui = or =
1 ri ln(ro / ri ) 1 ri U i dAi 1 ln(ro / ri ) 1
   
hi k ho ro hi dAi 2 kdx ho dAo

1 1 1c
Uo = or =
r
1 o o r ln( r / r ) 1 U o dAo 1 ln( ro / ri ) 1
 o i
  
hi ri k ho hi dAi 2 kdx ho dAo

dTh U dA
dq =  ChdTh = Uo(Th  Tc)dAo  = o o (9.3-15)
Th  Tc Ch

dTc U dA
dq = CcdTc = Uo(Th  Tc)dAo  = o o (9.3-16)
Th  Tc Cc

Subtracting Eq. (9.3-16) from Eq. (9.3-15) gives

dTh dTc U dA U dA
 = o o  o o
Th  Tc Th  Tc Ch Cc

d Th  Tc   1 1 
=    UodAo (9.3-17)
Th  Tc  Ch Cc 

Tc i
Tube shell (insulated)

Th i Th o
tube

Shell (insulated) Tc o

Figure 9.3-3 Parallel flow heat exchanger.

Integrating Eq. (9.3-17) over the surface area of a parallel flow heat exchanger shown in Figure
9.3-3 and assuming that Uo is independent of x, the distance along the heat exchanger, we obtain

Tho ,Tco d Th  Tc   1 1 

 
Thi ,Tci Th  Tc
=  
Ao C

 h Cc
 UodAo


 T T   1 1 
ln  hi ci  =    UoAo (9.3-18)
 Tho  Tco   Ch Cc 

From Equations (9.3-11 and 12) we have

9-12
 1 T T 1 T T
= hi ho and = co ci
Ch q Cc q

Therefore
1

1 T T T T T  T   Tho  Tco  = T1  T2
= hi ho + co ci = hi ci
Ch Cc q q q q

1 1
We have defined T1 = Thi  Tci and T2 = Tho  Tco for parallel flow. Substituting  =
Ch Cc
T1  T2
into Eq. (9.3-18) gives
q

T1 T1  T2

ln = UoAo
T2 q

Solving for q we obtain

T1  T2
q = UoAoTlm where Tlm = (9.3-19a)
ln  T1 / T2 

We can repeat the procedure with the following expressions

dTh U dA
dq =  ChdTh = Ui(Th  Tc)dAi  = i i
Th  Tc Ch

dTc U dA
dq = CcdTc = Ui(Th  Tc)dAi  = i i
Th  Tc Cc

We then obtain the heat transfer rate based on the inside surface area Ai of the tube.

q = UiAiTlm (9.3-19b)

For counter flow heat exchanger as shown in Figure 9.3-4, we will obtain a similar expression
for the heat transfer rate

q = UoAoTlm = UiAiTlm (9.3-20)

Tco
Tube shell (insulated)

Thi Tho
tube

Shell (insulated) Tci

Figure 9.3-4 Counter flow heat exchanger.

9-13
Thi
Thi
Tho
Tho
Tco
Tco

Tci
Tci

(a) Parallel flow (b) Countercurrent flow

Figure 9.3-5 Flow arrangements in heat exchanger

For countercurrent flow, Tlm is defined by the following equation

(Thi  Tco )  (Tho  Tci ) T1  T2

Tlm = = (9.3-21)
T  Tco
ln hi ln  T1 / T2 
Tho  Tci

Hence, for counter flow T1 = Thi  Tco and T2 = Tho  Tci. For other heat exchanger geometries
such as cross flow and shell and tube heat exchanger, the heat transfer rate is given by

q = UoAoFTlm

In this equation, Tlm is based on counter flow and is given by Equation (9.3-21). F is the
correction factor to account for the configuration in a heat exchanger for which the flow is
neither parallel nor counter current. The F factor for cross-flow heat exchangers with both fluids
unmixed are shown in Figure 9.3-6.

Figure 9.3-6 F factor for cross flow heat exchangers with both fluids unmixed.
9-14
The F factor can be obtained from a chart similar to the one shown in Figure 9.3-7 for shell-and-
tube heat exchangers with one shell pass and two tube passes. Ti and To are the inlet and outlet
temperatures of the fluid on the shell side, respectively. ti and to are the inlet and outlet
temperatures of the fluid on the tube side, respectively.

The two parameters R and P required to read the chart are defined as

Ti  To Thi  Tho t t T T
R= = and P = o i = co ci
to  ti Tco  Tci Ti  t i Thi  Tci

The F factor may also be evaluated from

 R 2  1   (1  P) 
  ln
 R  1   (1  RP) 
F=  


ln 

 2  P R  1  R2  1 



 
 2  P R 1 R 1 
2
 

Figure 9.3-7 F factor for shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube passes.

9-15
If R = 1, the above equation becomes indeterminate, which reduces to

 P R2  1 
 
 1 P 
F=  

 2  P R  1  R2  1

ln 
 

 2  P R 1 R 1

2
 
For exchangers with N shell passes, P is replaced by Px where

1/ N
 RP  1 
1  
 P 1  P
Px = for R  1 and Px = for R = 1
 RP  1 
1/ N
( N  NP  P )
R 
 P 1 

Thi  Tho
The parameter R = is equal to the cold fluid flow rate times the cold fluid mean
Tco  Tci
specific heat, divided by the hot fluid flow rate times the hot fluid specific heat. R is simply the
capacitance ratio of the cold stream to the hot stream. This definition can be obtained from the
following energy balances:

q
q = m h cp,h(Thi  Tho)  Thi  Tho =
Ch

q
q = m c cp,c(Tco  Tci)  Tco  Tci =
Cc

Thi  Tho q / Ch C
Therefore R= = = c
Tco  Tci q / Cc Ch

Either definition of R can be used, whichever is more convenient.

9-16
Chapter 9
Example 9.3-1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A process fluid having a specific heat of 3800 J/kgK and flowing at 4 kg/s is to be cooled
from 100oC to 50oC with chilled water (specific heat of 4180 J/kgK). Cooling water is
available at 15oC with the outlet temperature limited to 35oC. Assuming an overall heat
transfer coefficient Uo of 2000 W/m2K, calculate the required water flow rate and the heat
transfer areas for the following exchanger configurations: (a) parallel flow, (b) counter flow,
and (c) shell-and-tube, one shell pass and 2 tube passes.
Water flows in the tube side of length 9 ft and ¾ in. O.D. with wall thickness = 0.083 in.
Determine the velocity of water.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Calculate the required water flow rate

q = m h cp,h(Thi  Tho) = (4)(3800)(100  50) = 760,000 J/s

The required water flow rate is

q 760, 000
m c = = = 9.09 kg/s
c p ,c (Tco  Tci ) (4180)(35  15)

(a) Parallel flow heat exchanger

T1 = Thi  Tci = 100  15 = 85oC

T2 = Tho  Tco = 50  35 = 15oC

T1  T2 85  15
Tlm = = = 40.36oC
ln  T1 / T2  ln  85 /15 

Area required for parallel flow heat exchanger

q 760, 000
Ao = = = 9.42 m2
U o Tlm (2000)(40.36)

(b) Counter flow heat exchanger

T1 = Thi  Tco = 100  35 = 65oC

T2 = Tho  Tci = 50  15 = 35oC

T1  T2 65  35
Tlm = = = 48.46oC
ln  T1 / T2  ln  65 / 35 

9-17
 Area required for counter flow heat exchanger

q 760, 000
Ao = = = 7.841 m2
U o Tlm (2000)(48.46)

(c) Shell-and-tube, one shell pass and 2 tube passes, heat exchanger

T1  T2 65  35
Tlm = = = 48.46oC
ln  T1 / T2  ln  65 / 35 

Area required for shell-and-tube heat exchanger

q 760, 000 7.841 2

Ao = = = m
U o Tlm F (2000)(48.46)F F

The F factor can be evaluated from

Thi  Tho Tco  Tci

R= = 2.5, P= = 0.2353
Tco  Tci Thi  Tci

 R 2  1   (1  P) 
  ln
 R  1   (1  RP) 
F=   = 0.9228

ln 

 2  P R  1  R2  1 



 
 2  P R 1 R 1 
2
 
Area required for shell and tube heat exchanger

7.841
Ao = = 8.497 m2
0.9228

Outside area of one tube = π(0.75)(9)/12 = 1.7671 ft2 = 0.1642 m2 ( 1 ft2 = .0929 m2)

Number of tubes required = 8.497/0.1642 = 52 tubes

Number of tubes per pass = 52/2 = 36

Cross-sectional area of one tube = π(0.75  2×0.083)2/4/144 = 1.86×10-3 ft2 = 1.728×10-4 m2

Water velocity in tube = 9.09/(1000×36×1.728×10-4) = 1.46 m/s

9-18
Example 9.3-2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Oil having a specific heat of 2350 J/kgK is to be cooled from 160oC to 100oC with chilled
water (specific heat of 4181 J/kgK) which is supplied at a temperature of 15oC and a flow
rate of 2.5 kg/s. Water flows on the tube side with heat transfer coefficient of 3060 W/m2K
and oil on the shell side with heat transfer coefficient of 400 W/m2K. There are 10 thin wall
multiple-passes tubes with diameter of 25 mm. If the water outlet temperature is 85oC,
determine the heat transfer rate, the oil mass flow rate, and the tube length.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(a) The heat transfer rate

qc = m c cp,c(Tco  Tci) = (2.5)(4181)(85  15) = 7.312×105 W

(b) The oil mass flow rate

q 7.312 105
m h = = = 5.19 kg/s
c p ,h (Thi  Tho ) (2350)(160  100)

(c) The tube length

Area required for shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and multiple of two tube
passes.

q
A=
U Tlm F

T1 = Thi  Tco = 160  85 = 75oC

T2 = Tho  Tci = 100  15 = 85oC

T1  T2 75  85
Tlm = = = 79.9oC
ln  T1 / T2  ln  75 / 85 

The F factor can be evaluated from

Thi  Tho T T
R= = 0.86, P = co ci = 0.48
Tco  Tci Thi  Tci

 R 2  1   (1  P) 
  ln
 R  1   (1  RP) 
F=   = 0.88

ln 

 2  P R  1  R2  1 



 
 2  P R 1 R 1 
2
 
9-19
For thin wall

1 1
U= = = 354 W/m2K
1 1 1 1
 
hi ho 3060 400

q 7.312 105
A= = = 29.4 m2
U Tlm F (354)(79.9)(0.88)

A 29.4
Length of tube L = = = 37.4 m
ntube D (10)( )(0.025)
---------------------------------------------

Equation q = UAFTlm can easily be used to determine either q or UA if the inlet fluid
temperatures are known and the outlet temperatures are specified or readily determined from
the following energy balance

q = m h cph(Thi - Tho) = m c cpc(Tco - Tci) (9.2-3)

where m h = mass flow rate of the hot stream

m c = mass flow rate of the cold stream

This procedure is called the log mean temperature difference (LMTD) method. If only the
inlet temperatures are known, an iterative procedure is required by the LMTD method.

Example 9.3-3. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A process fluid at 100oC having a specific heat of 3800 J/kgK and flowing at 4 kg/s is to be
cooled with chilled water (specific heat of 4180 J/kgK). Cooling water with flow rate of 9.09
kg/s is available at 15oC. Assuming an overall heat transfer coefficient Uo of 2000 W/m2K,
calculate the outlet temperatures and the heat transfer rate for a counter flow heat exchanger
with heat transfer area of 7.841 m2.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The heat transfer rate can be obtained from the energy balances:

q = m h cph(Thi - Tho) = m c cpc(Tco - Tci)

q = (4)(3800)(100 - Tho) = (9.09)(4180)( Tco - 15)

q = (15,200)(100 - Tho) = (38,000)( Tco - 15)

9-20
 (100  Tco )  (Tho  15)
q = (15,200)(100 - Tho) = UATlm = (2000)(7.841)
100  Tco
ln
Tho  15
We need to solve the following two equations for two unknowns Tho and Tco:

(15,200)(100 - Tho) = (38,000)( Tco - 15)

(100  Tco )  (Tho  15)

(15,200)(100 - Tho) = (2000)(7.841)
100  Tco
ln
Tho  15

The following Matlab codes can be used to solve the above equations: (Note: The codes
between the dash line (----) must be saved under the file name “LMTD” before the statement
p=fminsearch('LMTD',[60 40]) can be used in the command window to find the solution).

-----------------------
function y=LMTD(p)
Tho=p(1);Tco=p(2);
f1=(15200)*(100 - Tho) - (38000)*( Tco - 15);
f2=(15200)*(100 - Tho) - 2000*7.841*((100 - Tco) - (Tho - 15))/log((100 - Tco)/(Tho -
15));
y=f1*f1+f2*f2;
----------------------
>> p=fminsearch('LMTD',[60 40])

p=

5.0001e+001 3.5000e+001

Therefore Tho = 50oC and Tco = 35oC. The heat transfer rate is then

q = (15,200)(100 - Tho) = (15,200)(100 - 50) = 760,000 W

---------------------------------------------

In Example 9.3-3 we need to solve two nonlinear algebraic equations since the outlet
temperatures are unknown. There is alternative procedure called the effectiveness-NTU
method that may be used to avoid an iterative procedure by the LMTD method.

9-21
9.4 The Effectiveness-NTU Method

If only the inlet temperatures are known, the effectiveness-NTU method may be used to
avoid an iterative procedure by the LMTD method. The NTU method can also be applied
even when this is not the case. From the parallel flow heat exchanger analysis in section 9.3
we list equation (9.3-18)

 T T   1 1 
ln  hi ci  =    UoAo (9.3-18)
 Tho  Tco   Ch Cc 

Tc i
Tube shell (insulated)

Th i Th o
tube

Shell (insulated) Tc o

Figure 9.4-1 Parallel flow heat exchanger.

We now define Cmin to be the minimum of Cc and Ch and Cmax to be the maximum of Cc and
Ch. We also define T1 = Thi  Tci and T2 = Tho  Tco. Equation (9.3-18) becomes

T1  1 1 
ln =   UA (9.4-1)
T2  Cmin Cmax 

UA
Factoring out Cmin and defining NTU to be we have
Cmin

T2 UA  Cmin   Cmin 

ln = 1   =  NTU 1  
T1 Cmin  Cmax   Cmax 

or

T2 T T   C  
= ho co = exp  NTU 1  min  (9.4-2)
T1 Thi  Tci   Cmax  

We now define the effectiveness  of the heat exchanger as the ratio of the actual heat
transfer rate to the maximum heat transfer rate:

q
= (9.4-3)
qmax

9-22
In this equation, the actual heat transfer rate is given by

q = m h cph(Thi  Tho) = m c cpc(Tco  Tci) (9.4-4)

The maximum heat transfer rate qmax is defined for the heat transfer in an infinite long
counter flow heat exchanger as shown in Figure 9.4-2 for the cases Ch > Cc and Ch < Cc.

Thi Ch > Cc Thi

Ch < Cc
Tc o
Tc o
Tho
Tho
Tc i
Tc i

Figure 9.4-2 Infinite long counter flow heat exchanger.

In an infinite long counter flow heat exchanger, when the hot stream has more energy that
can be received by the cold stream (Ch > Cc), the outlet temperature of the cold stream Tco
will eventually reach the inlet temperature of the hot stream, i.e., Tco = Thi. Hence

qmax = m c cpc(Tco  Tci) = Cc(Thi  Tci) = Cmin(Thi  Tci)

On the other hand, when all the energy of the hot stream can be received by the cold stream
(Ch < Cc), the outlet temperature of the hot stream Tho will eventually reach the inlet
temperature of the cold stream, i.e., Tho = Tci. Hence

qmax = m h cph(Thi  Tho) = Ch(Thi  Tci) = Cmin(Thi  Tci)

The maximum heat transfer rate is therefore always given by

qmax = Cmin(Thi  Tci) (9.4-5)

The heat exchanger effectiveness is then

q Ch Thi  Tho  C T  T 
= = = c co ci (9.4-6)
qmax Cmin Thi  Tci  Cmin Thi  Tci 

If Cmin = Ch then  =
Thi  Tho 
Thi  Tci 

9-23
 If Cmin = Cc then  =
Tco  Tci 
Thi  Tci 

Tho  Tco   C  
We now want to express = exp  NTU 1  min   in term of  only. Adding and
Thi  Tci   Cmax  
subtracting Thi and Tci

Tho  Tco Tho  Thi  Thi  Tco  Tci  Tci Tho  Thi   Thi  Tci   Tco  Tci 
= =
Thi  Tci Thi  Tci Thi  Tci

Tho  Tco Tho  Thi Thi  Tci Tco  Tci

= + 
Thi  Tci Thi  Tci Thi  Tci Thi  Tci

From Equation (9.4-6),

Ch Thi  Tho  T T C
=  ho hi =   min
Cmin Thi  Tci  Thi  Tci Cmax

Let Cmin = Cc and Cmax = Ch then  =

Tco  Tci  . Hence
Thi  Tci 

Tho  Tco C C    C  
=   min + 1   = 1    min  1 = exp  NTU 1  min  
Thi  Tci Cmax  Cmax    Cmax  

Solving for , we obtain with the definition Cr = Cmin/Cmax

  C  
1  exp  NTU 1  min 
  Cmax   1  exp  NTU 1  Cr 
 = = (9.4-7)
C 1  Cr
1  min
Cmax

Exercise: If Cmin = Ch and Cmax = Cc show that the above equation is still valid.

In general  = f  NTU , Cr  . If NTU, Cmin, Cmax, Thi, and Tci are known then Tho and Tco can
be computed directly with the effectiveness-NTU method with no iteration as with the LMTD
method.

q Ch Thi  Tho  C T  T 
= = = c co ci
qmax Cmin Thi  Tci  Ch Thi  Tci 

Since  is known, the above equation can be solved for Tho and Tco.

9-24
Chapter 9
Table 9.4-1 shows the expressions of effectiveness for a variety of heat exchangers. For
shell-and-tube heat exchanger with n shell passes, (NTU)1 would first be calculated using the
heat transfer area for one shell, 1 would then be calculated from Equation (9.4-9), and 
would finally be calculated from Equation (9.4-10). For Cr = 0, as in a boiler or condenser,
the heat exchanger behavior is independent of flow arrangement and  is given by Equation
(9.4-14). Figure 9.4-3 shows the effectiveness of parallel and counter flow heat exchanger.

Table 9.4-1 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Relations1

Concentric tube
Parallel flow 1  exp  NTU 1  Cr  (9.4-7)
=
1  Cr
Counter flow 1  exp  NTU 1  Cr  (9.4-8)
=
1  Cr exp  NTU 1  Cr 
NTU
=
1  NTU
Shell-and-tube
One shell pass 1
(9.4-9)
 1  exp   NTU1 1  Cr 2   
1/ 2
2, 4,…tube passes   
1 = 2 1  Cr  (1  Cr2 )1/ 2 1/ 2 
 1  exp   NTU1 1  Cr   
2

  
n Shell pass  1   C  n   1   C  n 
1 (9.4-10)
2n, 4n,…tube passes  =  
   C r
1 r
1 r
 1  
 1  1    1  1  
Cross-flow (single pass)
Both fluids unmixed  1   (9.4-11)

 = 1  exp   ( NTU )0.22 exp  Cr ( NTU )0.78   1  
  Cr  
Cmax(mixed),  1  (9.4-12)
Cmin(unmixed),  =   (1  exp{Cr-1[1  exp( NTU)]})
 Cr 
Cmin(mixed),  = (1  exp{Cr-1[1  exp( NTU)]}) (9.4-13)
Cmax(unmixed),
Exchangers with Cr = 0
 = 1  exp( NTU) (9.4-14)

1 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2007, pg. 689
9-25
 Figure 9.4-3 Effectiveness of parallel and counter flow heat exchanger.

Example 9.4-1. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1  exp[  NTU (1  Cr )]
Derive the relation  = for a parallel-flow concentric tube heat
1  Cr
exchanger. You can assume m c c p ,c < m h c p ,h and first evaluate the outlet temperature of the
cold fluid Tco in terms of the known parameters: Tci, Thi, m c , m h , A, and U.

Thi x x+dx Tho

Hot fluid Hot fluid

x Cold fluid
Cold fluid

Tci Tco Parallel flow

Shell volume
dV = Adx

Figure E9.4-1. A schematic of a parallel-flow concentric tube heat exchanger.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9-26
Choose a control volume Acdx at a distance x from the inlets where Ac is the cross-secrional
area of the tube. Appling the energy balance around this control volume gives

m c c p ,c Tc|x  m c c p ,c Tc|x+dx + UPdx(Th  Tc) = 0

Let Cmin = m c c p ,c . Rearranging the equation and dividing by dx gives

Cmin Tc x  dx
 Tc 
x
=  UP(Tc  Th)
dx

In the limit dx  0, we have

dTc
Cmin =  UP(Tc  Th) (E-1)
dx

In this equation, P is the perimeter of the inner tube. Before integrating the equation over the
length of the heat exchanger we need to express Th as a function of Tc. Choose a control
volume over the first part of the heat exchanger from 0 to x, the energy supplied to the cold
stream by the hot stream is given by

qx = m h c p ,h (Thi  Th)

qx is also the energy received by the cold stream, therefore

qx = m h c p ,h (Thi  Th) = m c c p ,c (Tc  Tci)

Cmax(Thi  Th) = Cmin(Tc  Tci)

Thi x Tho

Hot fluid Th
Tc
Cold fluid
Th
Tci Tco

Solving for Th gives

Cmin
Th = Thi  (Tc  Tci) = Thi  Cr(Tc  Tci)
Cmax

9-27
Substituting the expression for Th into Eq. (E-1) we obtain

dTc
Cmin =  UP(Tc  Th) =  UP[Tc  Thi + Cr(Tc  Tci)]
dx

dTc
Cmin =  UP[(1 + Cr)Tc  Thi  Cr Tci]
dx

Separating the variables and integrating over the length of the heat exchanger gives

Tco dTc UP L
Tci (1  Cr )Tc  Thi  CrTci
=
Cmin 
0
dx

1 (1  Cr )Tco  Thi  CrTci UPL UA

ln = = =  NTU
1  Cr (1  Cr )Tci  Thi  CrTci Cmin Cmin

The outlet temperature Tco of the cold stream can then be evaluated from the following
expression:

(1  Cr )Tco  Thi  CrTci

= exp[ NTU(1 + Cr)] (E-2)
(1  Cr )Tci  Thi  CrTci

We can rearrange equation (E-2) to solve for .

q Cmin (Tco  Tci ) Tco  Tci

Since = = =
qmax Cmin (Thi  Tci ) Thi  Tci

The left hand side of Eq. (E-2) will be expressed in terms of 

Cr (Tco  Tci )  Tco  Thi

= exp[ NTU(1 + Cr)]
Tci  Thi

Tco  Tci  Tci  Thi

 Cr + = exp[ NTU(1 + Cr)]
Tci  Thi

 Cr   + 1 =  (1 + Cr)  + 1= exp[ NTU(1 + Cr)]

Hence

1  exp[  NTU (1  Cr )]
=
1  Cr

9-28
Example 9.4-2. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(p. 9.271) Gray whales have counter-flow heat exchange in their tongues to preserve heat.
The tip of the tongue is cooled with the cold sea water. The heat exchange is between the
incoming warm bloodstream (entering with the deep-body temperature) flowing through the
arteries and the outgoing cold bloodstream (leaving the tongue surface region) flowing
through the veins. This is shown in Figure 9.4-1. In each heat exchanger unit, nine veins of
diameter Dc completely encircle (no heat loss to the surroundings) the central artery of
diameter Dh. The length of the heat exchange region is L. Determine the exit temperature of
the cold bloodstream Tc,o. The inlet temperature of the cold bloodstream Tc,i is 2oC. The inlet
temperature of the warm bloodstream Th,i is 36oC. L = 55 cm, Dh = 3 mm, Dc = 1 mm, uh = 1
mm/s, uc = 1 mm/s. The resistance to heat transfer by conduction through the tongues tissues
is Rcond = 5oC/ W. The resistance in the bloodstreams can be obtained from the following
relations

1 kf 1 kf
= Ah Nuh , = Ac Nuc , for Re < 10, Nu = 4.36
Rconv ,h Dh Rconv ,c Dc

Use the following properties for blood: ρf = 1,000 kg/m3, kf = 0.590 W/m-K , νf = 1.13 × 10-6
m2/s, cp,f = 4,186 J/kg-K

Figure E9.4-2. A schematic of the vascular heat exchanger in the gray whale tongue.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Since only the inlet temperatures are given, we will use the effectiveness-NTU method to
solve for the exit temperature of the cold blood stream. First, we evaluate the Reynolds
numbers in the artery and in the veins

uh Dh 10 3 ( m / s )  3  10 3 ( m )
Reh = = = 2.655
f 1.13  10 6 ( m 2 / s )

1 Kaviany, Principles of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002, p. 350

9-29
 uc Dc 10 3 ( m / s )  10 3 ( m )
Rec = = = 0.885
f 1.13  10 6 ( m 2 / s )

The values of the Reynolds number are less than 10. Therefore we can use the given
expression to determine the thermal resistance in the blood streams.

1 kf kf
= Ah Nuh = DhLNuh = LNuhkf
Rconv ,h Dh Dh

1
= (0.55)(4.36)(0.59) = 4.448 W/oK  Rconv,h = 0.225 K/W
Rconv ,h

1 kf kf
= Ac Nuc = 9DcLNuc = 9LNuhkf
Rconv ,c Dc Dc

1
= 9(0.55)(4.36)(0.59) = 40.0 W/oK  Rconv,c = 0.025 K/W
Rconv ,c

The total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances

Rt = Rconv,c + Rcond + Rconv,h = 0.025 + 5.0 + 0.225 = 5.25 K/W

1
UA = = 0.1905 W/K
Rt

The cold and hot blood flow rates are given by

Dc2  (10 3 ) 2
m c = 9f uc = (9)(1000) 10-3 = 7.0710-6 kg/s
4 4

Dh2  (3  10 3 ) 2
m h = f uc = (1000) 10-3 = 7.0710-6 kg/s
4 4

The hot and cold heat capacity rates are then calculated

Ch = m h c p ,h = (7.0710-6)(4186) = 0.0296 W/K

Cc = m c c p ,c = (7.0710-6)(4186) = 0.0296 W/K

C min
Therefore Cr = = 1 and the number of transfer unit NTU is:
C max

9-30
 UA 0.1905
NTU = = = 6.437
C min 0.0296

For counter flow heat exchanger with Cr = 1, we have

NTU C (T  Tc ,i ) (T  Tc ,i )
= = 0.8656 = c c ,o = c ,o
1  NTU C min (Th ,i  Tc ,i ) (Th ,i  Tc ,i )

The exit temperature of the cold bloodstream, Tc,o, is finally

Tc,o = Tc,i + 0.8656(Th,i  Tc,i) = 2 + 0.8656(36  2) = 31.43oC

Example 9.4-3. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Oil having a specific heat of 2000 J/kgK and flowing at 1 kg/s is to be cooled from 340 K to
310 K with water. Cooling water is available at 290 K with the outlet temperature limited to
300 K.
(a) Determine UA for a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube
passes.
(b) Water enters the exchanger with UA = 2212 W/K at 290 K and a capacitance rate of
6300 W/K. If oil with a specific heat of 2100 J/kgK enters the exchanger at 370 K
and 0.75 kg/s, determine the outlet temperatures of oil and water.

Solution -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) Determine UA

T1 = Thi  Tco = 340  300 = 40 K

T2 = Tho  Tci = 310  290 = 20 K

T1  T2 40  20
Tlm = = = 28.85 K
ln  T1 / T2  ln  40 / 20 

UA required for shell-and-tube heat exchanger

q
AU =
Tlm F

q = m h cp,h(Thi  Tho) = (1)(2000)(340  310) = 60,000 J/s

The F factor can be evaluated from

Thi  Tho Tco  Tci

R= = 3, P= = 0.2
Tco  Tci Thi  Tci

9-31
  R 2  1   (1  P) 
  ln
 R  1   (1  RP) 
F=   = 0.935

ln 

 2  P R  1  R2  1 



 
 2  P R 1 R 1 
2
 
q 60, 000
AU = = = 2224 W/K
Tlm F (28.85)(0.935)

(b) Outlet temperatures of oil and water

We use the effectiveness-NTU method.

Ch = (2100)(0.75) = 1575 W/K < Cc = 6300 W/K

UA 2212 C 1575
NTU = = = 1.4044, Cr = min = = 0.25
Cmin 1575 C max 6300

1
 1  exp   NTU 1  Cr 2   
1/ 2

    = 0.686
 = 2 1  Cr  (1  Cr2 )1/ 2 
1  exp   NTU 1  Cr 2   
1/ 2

  

Ch (Thi  Tho ) T T
 = 0.686 = = hi ho
Cmin (Thi  Tci ) Thi  Tci

Tho = Thi  0.686(Thi  Tci) = 370  0.686(370  290) = 315.1 K

Cc (Tco  Tci )
 = 0.686 =
Cmin (Thi  Tci )

Cmin 1575
Tco = Tci + 0.686(Thi  Tci) = 290 + 0.686(370  290) = 303.7 K
Cc 6300

9-32
Chapter 10

Radiation Heat Transfer

10.1 Introduction

Definition of Radiation

Radiation heat transfer is the energy carried by electromagnetic waves called photon heat
carriers. In thermal radiation, the energy is emitted at the surface of a solid only as a result of its
temperature. If the temperature is at absolute zero, there is no thermal radiation. If Ts > Tsur,
experiments show that a solid cools even in vacuum. This cooling is a direct consequence of the
emission of the thermal radiation from the surface since the vacuum prevents energy loss from
the surface of the solid by conduction or convection.

Tsur

Solid
at Ts
Vacuum

Mechanism of Radiation

Radiation is due to the molecular electronic, rotational, and vibrational energy transitions
of the matter. The emission of thermal radiation is associated with thermally excited conditions
within the matter. 'Excited' molecules at a surface releases 'packets' of energy which, from
quantum mechanics, interact with matter in discrete quanta or 'photons'. Photons travel in straight
line at speed of light, c, (2.998108 m/s).

Photon

Layer thickness for radiation

'Excited' molecule solid/liquid: 1 molecule thick
metals: few molecules
nonmetals: few micron

'Wave' with frequency of emissions  and wavelength  can be attributed to photons, the two
properties are related by

10-1
 c
=


A photon has an energy E given by Planck's law

E = h

where h = Planck's constant = 6.62510-34 Js/molecule. Energy exchange is by photon

interaction. In this chapter mostly the surface-radiation heat transfer will be discussed.

photon travel in From anstrong (10 cm)

-8

T1 straight line -6
to microns (10 cm)
T2

Wavelength of photon defines kind of radiation emitted such as ultraviolet, visible light, infrared,
or microwave. The wavelength of visible light is between 0.4 m and 0.7 m. 'White' light is the
total sum of all colors or electromagnetic radiation from 0.1 m to 10 m. Thermal radiation is
electromagnetic radiation from 0.1 m to 100 m. Only this range of the spectrum is relevant to
heat transfer since for wavelength less than 0.1 m the temperature will be too high and for
wavelength greater than 100 m the flux will be too low.

Figure 10.1-1 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation1.

10.2 Blackbody Radiation

The blackbody is an ideal radiator with the following properties.

1 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Wiley, 2002, pg. 702

10-2
  A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation independent of wavelength and direction.
 No surface can emit more energy than a blackbody at the same temperature and
wavelength.
 A blackbody is a diffuse emitter since its emission is independent of direction.

An actual blackbody does not exist; the closet approximation to a blackbody is a cavity whose
inner surface is at a uniform temperature. When radiation enters the cavity through a small
aperture it is almost completely absorbed by the cavity since it is very likely to be reflected many
times before leaving the cavity.

Diffuse emitter
Complete absorption

Figure 10.2-1 shows the spectral emissive power E,b of a blackbody as a function of temperature
and wavelength [2]. The term spectral is used to denote the dependence of the emissive power
on wavelength. The surface emissive power is the rate at which energy is released per unit area.

Figure 10.2-1 Spectral blackbody emissive power2.

2 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002,pg. 714

10-3
 C1
E,b = (10.2-1)
 [exp(C 2 / T )  1]
5

where C1 = 3.742108 Wm4/m2 and C2 = 1.439104 mK. The unit of E,b is W/m2m.

The total emissive power of a blackbody is the rate of thermal radiation energy emitted over the
entire spectrum at a given temperature,


 C1
Eb =  E
0
,b d =   [exp(C
0
5
2 / T )  1]
d (10.2-2)

C2 C C 1 x 5T 5
Let x = then  = 2 ; d =  22 dx ; 5 =
T xT Tx  C 25

Eq. (10.2-2) becomes

C 0x3  4  C1  x3  4
Eb =   14
 C2
 e  1  T =
x
dx  4
 C2

0
dx
ex 1 
 T = T4 (10.2-3)

C1  x3 C1  4
where  =
C 24 0 e 1
x
dx = 4
C 2 15
= 5.6710-8 W/m2K4

Divide the spectral emissive power by T5 to obtain

E  ,b C1
=
T 5
 T [exp(C 2 / T )  1]
5 5

E  ,b
The plot of versus T yields a single curve with a maximum at T = 0.028978 mK.
T5

10-4
Chapter 10

Radiation Heat Transfer

10.3 Radiation Intensity

z

rd 
 d
rsin
 dAn
r
dA1
y
rs
in 

x
Figure 10.3-1 The differential area dAn at (r, , )

Radiation intensity I,e is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is emitted at the wavelength
 in the (, ) direction, per unit area of the emitting surface normal to this direction dA1cos,
per unit solid angle d, and per unit wavelength interval d.

W dq
I,e [ ]= (10.3-1)
m  sr  m
2
( dA1 cos )( d )( d )

The solid angle d is defined as the ratio of the element of area dAn on the sphere to the square
of the sphere’s radius.

dAn ( rd )( r sin d )

d = 2
= = sin d d (10.3-2)
r r2

The unit of solid angle is steradian (sr) and the unit of wavelength is micrometer (m).

Emissive Power

The spectral, hemispherical emissive power E is the rate at which radiation of wavelength  is
emitted in all directions from a surface per unit wavelength d and per unit surface area dA1. The
spectral, hemispherical emissive power is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity I,e over
the solid angle sin d d.

W 2  /2
E [
m  m
2
]=  
0 0
I  ,e cos sin d d (10.3-3)

10-5
E is a flux based on the actual surface area dA1, whereas the radiation intensity I,e is based on
the projected area dA1cos. Therefore the cos term is included in the integrand of equation
(10.3-3) so that cos I,e is the radiation intensity based on the actual area dA1.

W dq dq
I,e cos [ ]= cos =
m  sr  m
2
( dA1 cos )( d )( d ) ( dA1 )( d )( d )

For a diffuse emitter, I,e is independent of direction, equation (10.3-3) can easily be integrated

2  /2 2  /2 sin(2 )
E =   I  ,e cos sin d d = I,e   d d
0 0 0 0 2

 /2
sin(2 ) d =  I,e   cos(2 ) 
 /2 1
E =  I,e  =  I,e( 1  1)
0
 2 0 2

E =  I,e (10.3-4)

The total, hemispherical emissive power E is obtained by integrating the spectral, hemispherical
emissive power E over all wavelengths.


E=  E d
0

For a diffuse emitter

E =  Ie (10.3-5)

Irradiation and Radiosity

The same concepts may be applied to radiation intensity I,i incident upon a surface. Irradiation is
defined as the flux at which radiant energy arrives at a surface. The spectral irradiation G is
related to the incident radiation intensity I,i of diffuse sources by an equation similar to (10.3-4)

G =  I,i (10.3-6)

The total irradiation G is related to the incident radiation intensity Ii of diffuse sources by an
equation similar to (10.3-5)

G =  Ii (10.3-7)

Radiosity accounts for all the radiant energy leaving a surface. The spectral radiaosity J is
related to the radiant intensity by an equation similar to (10.3-4)

J =  I,e+r (10.3-8)

10-6
The total radiaosity J is related to the radiation intensity of diffuse sources by an equation similar
to (10.3-5)

J =  Ie+r (10.3-9)

The distinctions between radiant energy of emission, irradiation, and radiosity are shown in
Figure 10.3-1.

Radiosity
Emission
Irradiation

Reflected
portion of
irradiation

Figure 10.3-1 Distinctions between emission, irradiation, and radiosity.

Example 10.3-1

Consider a small surface of area A1 = 10-4 m2, which emits diffusively with a total, hemispherical
emissive power of E1 = 5104 W/m2.

1) Determine the rate of radiant energy incident upon a surface of area A2 = 210-4 m2 oriented as
shown in Figure 10.3-2.

n2 A2
20o

r = .6 m
n1
o
40

A1
Figure 10.3-2 Orientation of two small surfaces.1

2) Determine the irradiation G2 on A2.

Solution

1 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

10-7
1) Rate of radiant energy emitted from surface A1 incident upon surface A2

q12 = Ie1(, ) A1cos1 d2-1

E1
Since surface A1 is diffuse Ie1(, ) = Ie1 = . The solid angle subtended by A2 with respect to

A1 is

A2 cos 2
d2-1 =
r2

E1 A2 cos 2
q12 = A1cos1
 r2

5  104 2  10 4 cos 20o

q12 = (10-4cos 40o) = 6.3610-4 W
 0.62

2) The irradiation G2 on A2.

The irradiation G2 is simply the flux of energy arrives at surface A2, therefore

G2 = q12/A2 = 6.3610-4/210-4 = 3.18 W/m2.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 10.3-2

A furnace with an aperture of 20-mm diameter and emissive power of 3.72105 W/m2 is used to
calibrate a heat flux gage having a sensitive area of 1.610-5 m2.
(a) At what distance, measured along a normal from the aperture, should the gage be
positioned to receive irradiation of 1000 W/m2.
(b) If the gage is tilted off normal by 20o, what will be its irradiation?2

Solution

a) The heat transfer rate from the furface to the detector is given by

2 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

10-8
 q fd
qfd = IeAfcosfd-f where G = 1000 W/m2 =
Ad

Ad cos  d
d-f = solid angle subtended by surface Ad with respect to Af =
L2

E
Since Ie = and cosf = cosd = 1

1/ 2
E Af Ad  E Af 
G= L=  G 
 Ad L2  

1/ 2
 3.72  105   0.012 
L=   = 0.193 m
  1000 

b) The irradiation is given by

G20o = Gcosd = (1000)cos(/9) = 939.7 W/m2

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 10.3-3

According to its directional distribution, solar radiation incident on the earth’s surface may be
divided into two components. The direct component consists of parallel rays incident at a fixed
zenith angle , while the diffuse component consists of radiation that may be approximated as
being diffusely distributed with . Consider clear sky conditions for which the direct radiation is
incident at  = 30o, with a total flux (based on an area that is normal to the rays) of q”rad = 100
W/m2, and the total intensity of the diffuse radiation is Idif = 70 W/m2sr. What is the total solar
irradiation at the earth’s surface?3

Solution

3 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

10-9
 The direct irradiation at the earth’s surface is given by

Gdir = q”dircos

The diffuse irradiation at the earth’s surface is given by

Gdif = Idif

The total irradiation at the earth’s surface is then

G = Gdir + Gdif = (1000)cos(/2) + (70)() = 1086 W/m2

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 10.3-4

Solar radiation incident on the earth’s surface may be divided into two components. The direct
component consists of parallel rays incident at a fixed zenith angle , while the diffuse
component consists of radiation that may be approximated as being diffusely distributed
with . Consider conditions for a day in which the intensity of the direct solar radiation is
Idir = 2.10107 W/m2sr in the solid angle subtended by the sun with respect to the earth,
s = 6.7410-5 sr. The intensity of the diffuse radiation is Idif = 70 W/m2sr.
(a) What is the total solar irradiation at the earth’s surface when the direct radiation is
incident at  = 30o.
(b) Verify the prescribed value for s, recognizing that the diameter of the sun is 1.39109
m and the distance between the sun and the earth is 1.4961011 m (1 astronomical unit).4

Solution

(a) Gdir = Idircos s

Gdir = (2.10107)cos(/6)( 6.7410-5) = 1225.8 W/m2

Gdif = Idif  = (70)  = 219.9 W/m2

The total solar irradiation at the earth’s surface is

4 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

10-10
 G = 1225.8 + 219.9 = 1446 W/m2

(b) Verify the prescribed value for s

dAn  Ds2 / 4  (1.39  109 )2

s = = = = 6.7810-5 sr
r2 2
res 4(1.496  10 ) 11

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example 10.3-5

On an overcast day the directional distribution of the solar radiation incident on the earth’s
surface may be approximated by an expression of the form Ii = Incos , where In = 80 W/m2sr is
the total intensity of radiation directed normal to the surface and  is the zenith angle. What is
the solar irradiation at the earth’s surface?5

Solution

The solar irradiation at the earth’s surface is given by

2  /2
G =  I i ( ) cos  sin  d d
0 0

 /2
 /2  cos3  
G =2In  cos  sin  d = 2(80)  
2
0
 3 0

1
Therefore G = 2(80) = 167.6 W/m2
3

5 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

10-11
Example 10.3-6

The energy flux associated with solar radiation incident on the outer surface of the earth’s
atmosphere has been accurately measured and is known to be 1353 W/m2. The diameters of the
sun and the earth are 1.39109 m and 1.29107 m, respectively, and the distance between the sun
and the earth is 1.51011 m.
(a) What is the emissive power of the sun?
(b) Approximating the sun’s surface as black, what is its temperature?
(c) At what wavelength is the spectral emissive power of the sun a maximum?
(d) Assuming the earth’s surface to be black and the sun to be the only source of energy for
the earth, estimate the earth’s surface temperature.6

Solution

(a) Emissive power of the sun: Es(Ds2) = 4(ds-e  De/2)2qs”

4(1.5  1011  1.29  107 / 2) 2 (1353)

Es = = 6.302107 W/m2
(1.39  109 ) 2

(b) Approximating the sun’s surface as black, what is its temperature?

1/ 4 1/ 4
E   6.302  107 
Es = T 4 T=  s = 8 
= 5,774oK
   5.67  10 

(c) At what wavelength is the spectral emissive power of the sun a maximum?

max = C3/T = 2897.4/5774 = 0.50 m

(d) Estimate the earth’s surface temperature.

Ee(De2) = (De/2)2qs”  Ee = qs”/4 =  Te4

1/ 4 1/ 4
 q "  1353 
Te =  s  = 8 
= 278oK
 4   4  5.67  10 

6 Incropera, F. P. and DeWitt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

10-12
Appendix A
Previous Exams
CHE 312 (Winter 2008) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #1
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. A thin flat plate of length L = 0.8 m, thickness t = 5 mm, and width w >> L is thermally joined
to two large heat sinks that are maintained at a temperature of 60oC and 0oC, respectively.

L
x
60C 0C

The bottom of the plate is well insulated, while the net heat flux q" to the top surface is known to
have a uniform value. The thermal conductivity of the plate is 100 W/moK.

(1) The steady state temperature T(x) profile of the plate may be obtained from solving

dT dT dT dT
a.  kwt + kwt + q"tdx = 0 b. kwt  kwt + q"tdx = 0
dx x dx x  dx dx x dx x  dx

dT dT
c. kwt  kwt + q"wdx = 0 d. None of the above (Ans.)
dx x dx x  dx

(2) If the temperature profile is given as T =  2000x2 + 2320x + 60, where T is in oC and x is in
m. The highest temperature of the plate is
__________

dT
=  4000x + 2320 => x = 0.580
dx

T =  2000(0.58)2 + 2320(0.58) + 60 = 732.8oC

II. Consider the heat conduction equation: cp T = (kT) + q 

t
A. This equation is only valid for rectangular coordinate system.
B. q  represents heat generation in W/m2 for SI units.

a. A and B are true b. Only A is true c. Only B is true d. A and B are false (Ans.)

A-1
III. Consider a cylindrical rod with radius R and length L with temperature at the base ( x = 0)
equal to Tb > Tinf. Temperature is a function of x and r. A shell balance can be performed to
obtain T(x,r). The control volume for the shell balance is

IV. A nitrogen meat freezer uses nitrogen gas from a pressurized liquid nitrogen tank to freeze
meat patties as they move carried by a conveyor belt. The nitrogen flows inside a chamber in
direct contact with the meat patties, which move in the opposite direction. The heat transfer
mechanism between the nitrogen gas and the meat patties is surface convection. Meat patties are
to be cooled down from their processing (initial) temperature of Ti = 10oC to the storage (final)
temperature of To = -15oC. Each meat patty has a mass M = 80 g, diameter D = 10 cm, and
thickness l = 1 cm. Assume for the meat the thermophysical properties of water, i.e., specific
heat in the solid state Cp,s = 1,930 J/kg-K , specific heat in the liquid state Cp,l = 4,200 J/kg-K,
heat of solidification hls = -3.34 × 105 J/kg, and freezing temperature Tls = 0oC. The average
surface-convection heat transfer between the nitrogen and the meat patties is estimated as 4,000
W/m2 and the conveyor belt moves with a speed of uc = 0.01 m/s. You can assume that the
temperature is uniform within the meat parties and neglect the heat transfer between the
conveyor belt and the meat parties. Do not neglect the heat transfer from the edge of the meat
parties.

(5) Determine the time for the (liquid) meat parties to cool from 10oC to 0oC. ___________

A = π(10×1 + 25)×10-4 = 0.011 m2

(4,000)(0.011)t = (.08)(4,200)(10) => t = 76.4 s

(6) Determine the time for the solidification process. ___________

(4,000)(0.011)t = (.08)( 3.34×105) => t = 607.5 s

(7) Determine the time for the (solid) meat parties to cool from 0oC to -15oC. ___________

A = π(10×1 + 25)×10-4 = 0.011 m2

(4,000)(0.011)t = (.08)(1,930)(15) => t = 52.6 s

A-2
V. An experiment to determine the convection coefficient associated with air flow over the
surface of a thick steel casting involves insertion of thermocouples in the casting at distances of
10 and 20 mm from the surface along a hypothetical line normal to the surface. The steel has a
thermal conductivity of 10 W/moK. The thermocouples measure temperatures of 52 and 40oC in
the steel when the air temperature is 120oC.

The convection coefficient is __________

T 12
h(120  64) = k = 10 => h = (10)(1200)/56 = 214.3 W/m2oK
x .01

VI. In the two-dimensional body illustrated, the gradient at surface A is found to be T/y = 25
K/m.

Insulation Surface B
80oC

0.6 m

y
Surface A
20oC

x
1.0 m

At surface B, T/x = ____________

At surface B, T/x = ____________

(1) T/y|A = (0.6) T/x|B => T/x|B = 25/0.6 = 41.67 K/m

VII. Determine the work required for a heat pump to deliver 2000 kJ to a water heater if the COP
for the heat pump is 3 and the compressor efficiency is 75%.
____________

COP = 3 = 2000/(0.75Wc)  Wc = 2000/(30.75) = 889 kJ

A-3
CHE 312 (Winter 2008) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #2
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

The questions on mass transfer were deleted from this quiz.

I. A spherical aluminum tank, inside radius R1 = 3 m, and wall thickness l1 = 4 mm, contains
liquid-vapor oxygen at 1 atm pressure and 90.18oK. Heat of evaporation of oxygen is 2.123105
J/kg. Under steady state, at the liquid gas surface, the heat flowing into the tank causes boil off at
a rate M g . In order to prevent the pressure of the tank from rising, the gas resulting from boil off
is vented through a safety valve as shown in Figure 1. An evacuated air gap, extending to
location r = R2 = 3.1 m, is placed where the combined conduction-radiation effect for this gap is
represented by a conductivity ka = 0.005 W/mK. A layer of insulation with ki = 0.032 W/mK
and thickness l2 = 10 cm is added. The outside surface temperature is kept constant at T2 =
283.15oK. . Neglect the heat resistance through the aluminum.

Figure 1. Liquid oxygen in a spherical container.

(1) Determine the rate of heat leak Qk,2-1 in W ____________

.096
Rt,air = = 0.1641 K/W
(0.005)(4 )(3.004  3.1)

.10
Rt,insulation = = 0.0251 K/W
(0.032)(4 )(3.1 3.2)

283.15  90.18
Qk,2-1 = = 1020 W
.1641  .0251

A-4
(2) If Qk,2-1 = 1200 W, determine the amount of boil off M g in kg/s. ____________

1200
M g = = 5.6510-3 kg/s
2.123 105

(3) If Qk,2-1 = 1200 W, determine the temperature at the inner surface (r = R2) of the insulation
using the thermal resistance concept through the insulation layer.

.10
Rt,insulation = = 0.0251 K/m ____________
(0.032)(4 )(3.1 3.2)

T2  T
1200 =  T = 283.15  (1200)(0.0251) = 253.07oK
Rt ,insulation

II. The air inside a chamber at T,i = 50oC is heated convectively with hi = 25 W/m2K by a 0.25-
m-thick wall having a thermal conductivity of 5 W/mK and a uniform heat generation of 2000
W/m3. To prevent any heat generated within the wall from being lost to the outside of the
chamber at T,o = 15oC with ho = 30 W/m2K, a very thin electrical strip heater is placed on the
outer wall to provide a uniform heat flux, qo" .

Strip heater
Wall

Outside chamber Inside chamber

x
0 L

If no heat generated within the wall is lost to the outside of the chamber, determine the
temperature at the wall boundary T(L).

(4) T(L) = _________

(2000)(.25)
2000L = hi(TL  T,i)  TL = + 50 = 70oC
25

A-5
VI. A thin electrical heater is wrapped around the outer surface of a cylindrical tube whose inner
surface is maintained at a temperature of 5oC. The tube wall has inner and outer radii of 25 and
75 mm, respectively, and a thermal conductivity of 10 W/mK. The thermal contact resistance
between the heater and the outer surface of the tube (per unit length of the tube) is Rt' ,c = 0.01
mK/W. The outer surface of the heater is exposed to a fluid with T =  10oC and a convection
coefficient of h = 100 W/m2K. The length of the tube is L.

10) The heater power per unit length of tube required to maintain the heater at To = 25oC is

To  Ti T T To  Ti T T
A) + o  B) + o 
ln(ro / ri ) 1 ln(ro / ri ) 1
 R 't ,c  R 't ,c
2 kL h Do L 2 k h Do L

To  Ti T T
C) + o  D) None of the above
ln(ri / ro ) 1
 R 't ,c
2 k h Do

A-6
CHE 312 (Winter 2008) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #3
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

The questions on mass transfer were deleted from this quiz.

I. Consider a single stack of rectangular fins of length L

and thickness t, with convection conditions corresponding
to h and T. In a specific application, a stack that is 200
mm wide and 100 mm deep (let D = depth = 100 mm)
contains 50 fins, each of length L = 12 mm. The entire
stack is made from aluminum, which is everywhere 1.0 mm
thick. Data: To = 400 K, TL = 300 K, T = 100 K, and h =
80 W/m2oK. Note: The top surface of the upper plate and
the bottom surface of the lower plate are not exposed to the
convection conditions.

1) The differential equation that can be used to solve for the temperature profile along the fin is
d 2T h( D  t ) d 2T 2h( D  t )
A)  (T  T ) = 0 B)  (T  T) = 0 (Ans)
dx 2 kDt dx 2 kDt
d 2T 2h ( D  t )
C) 2
+ (T  T) = 0 D) None of the above.
dx kDt

dT dT
 ktD + ktD  2h(D + t)dx(T  T) = 0
dx x dx x  dx

2) The rate of heat transfer from the top surface of the lower plate to the air is ____________

q = (0.1 m)(0.2  50.001)(m)( 80 W/m2oK)(300  100)(oK) = 240 W

3) The rate of heat transfer from all the fins to the air is given by

 dT dT   dT dT 
A) 50kDt   . B)  50kDt   
 dx 0 dx L   dx 0 dx L 
 dT dT 
C)  50kDt    (Ans) D) None of the above.
 dx 0 dx L 

A-7
II. A solid steel sphere with radius ri is coated with a dielectric material layer with thickness ro –
ri and thermal conductivity kd. The coated sphere is initially at a uniform temperature of 400oC
and is suddenly quenched in a large oil bath for which T = 30 C, and h = 2500 W/m2oK.

4) The steel sphere may be considered as a lumped capacitance system with an overall heat
transfer coefficient U given by

1 r r 1 1 r r 1
A) = o i + B) = o i +
4ro U
2
4 rr
i o kd 4ro2 h 4ri U
2
4 rr
i o kd 4 ri 2 h
1 r r 1
C) = o i + D) None of the above. Ans.
4ro U
2
4 rr
i o kd 4ri 2 h

5) If U = 40 W/m2 and ri = 0.10 m, determine the time (in minutes) required for the coated sphere
temperature to reach 100oC. Density of steel is 7832 kg/m3 and heat capacity of steel is 560
J/kgoK.

___________

dT dT 3U 3(40)
(4/3)ri3Cp = U4ri3(T  T)  = (T  T) = (T  30)
dt dt ri  C p (0.1)(7832)(560)

dT 1 370
= 2.73610-4(T  30)  t = 4
ln = 6,085s = 101 min
dt 2.736 10 70

A-8
CHE 312 (Winter 2008) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #4
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. The steady-state temperature (oC) associated with selected nodal points of a two-dimensional
system having a thermal conductivity of 2.0 W/moK are shown on the right. The ambient fluid is
at 50oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2oK. The isothermal surface is at 210oC.

Insulated boundary

0.20 m 149.4 T2 65.8

Ambient fluid
T3
157.0 123.5
0.30 m 87.0
192.9 T1 152.8

Isothermal boundary

(1) The temperature, T1, at node 1 is ____________

 2 2  192.9  152.8 157  210

 x 2  y 2  T1 = 0.3 2
+
0.2 2
 72.222 T1 = 1.3016104
 

T1 = 180.22oC

(2) The temperature at node 2 is ____________

149.4  65.8 2 123.5

72.222 T2 = + = 8.5661103  T2 = 118.61oC
0.09 0.04

(3) The temperature at node 3 is ____________

123.5  T3 87  T3 T  65.8
ky + k(x/2) = k(x/2) 3 + hy(T3  50)
x y y

2 3 3 30
(123.5  T3) + (87  T3) = (T3  65.8) + 0.2(T3  50)
3 4 4 2

2 3 3
123.5   87   65.8  3  50
T3 = 3 4 4 = 67.15oC
2 3 3
  3
3 4 4

A-9
(4) If the temperature at node 3 is 75oC, calculate the heat transfer rate per unit thickness normal
to the page from the right surface to the fluid.
______________

q’ = 300.2{0.5(210  50) + (87  50) + (75  50) + 0.5(65.8  50)} = 899.4 W/m

II A unsteady heat transfer analysis is used for the short cylinder shown with the bottom surface
insulated.

5) At location A (center of the cylinder) : x* = ____0.5_____ r* = __0____

6) At location B (at the top edge of the cylinder)

x* = ____1____ r* = ____1___

III. A truncated solid cone is of circular cross section, and its diameter is related to the axial
coordinate by an expression of the form D = ax3/2, where a = 1.0 m-1/2. If the sides are well
insulated, the rate of heat transfer is given by

a 2 k (T1  T2 ) a 2 k (T1  T2 )
a. b. T1 x1
1 1   1 1 
2    2 2
 x1 x 2   x1 x2 

a 2 k (T1  T2 ) x2
c. d. None of the above T2
 1 1 
4 2  2 
 x1 x2 

D 2 dT a 2 x 3 dT x2 dx a2
q= k = k  q  3 =  k(T1  T2)
4 dx 4 dx x1 x 4

1  1 1  a2 a 2 k (T1  T2 )
  2  2  q =  k(T1  T2)  q = Ans: d
2  x2 x1  4  1 1 
2 2  2 
 x1 x 2 

A-10
IV. The temperature of hot flue gases flowing
through the large stack (diameter D) of a boiler Flue gases
is measured by means of a thermocouple
enclosed within a cylindrical tube as shown. The Surroundings
stack is fabricated from sheet metal that is at a
uniform temperature Ts and is exposed to Ambient
ambient air at T and large surroundings at Tsur. air
Thermocouple
tube
1. A. If Ts is lower, the difference between the
gas and thermocouple temperature will be
larger.

B. If the outside heat transfer coefficient (between stack and ambient air) is higher, the
difference between the gas and thermocouple temperatures will be smaller.

a. A and B are true b. Only A is true c. Only B is true d. A and B are false

V. Asphalt pavement may achieve temperatures as high as 50oC on a hot summer day. Assume
that such a temperature exists throughout the pavement, when suddenly a rainstorm reduces the
surface temperature to 20oC. The total amount of energy (J/m2) that will be transferred from the
asphalt over a time t period in which the surface is maintained at 20oC can be obtained from the
following expression

k (Ts  Ti )t k (Ts  Ti )t 1 / 2
A) B)
 
2k (Ts  Ti )t 1/ 2
C) Ans D) None of the above.


Semi-infinite medium: Constant Surface Temperature: T(0, t) = Ts

T ( x, t )  Ts  x  k (Ts  Ti )
= erf   ; qs" (t) =
Ti  Ts  2 t  t

t t k (Ts  Ti ) 2k (Ts  Ti ) 1/ 2
 q (t )dt = 
"
Q= s dt = t
0 0 t 

A-11
VI. In IC (internal combustion) engines, during injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder, it is
possible for the injected fuel droplets to form a thin liquid film over the piston as shown in
Figure VI. The heat transferred from the gas above the film and from the piston beneath the film
causes surface evaporation. The liquid-gas interface is at the boiling Tlg, corresponding to the
vapor pressure. The heat transfer from the piston side is by conduction through the piston and
then by conduction through the thin liquid film. The surface-convection heat transfer from the
gas side to the surface of the thin liquid film is 13,500W.
Data:
Heat of evaporation of fuel = 3.027105 J/kg, thermal conductivity of fuel, kf = 0.083 W/mK, Tlg
= 398.9oK, liquid fuel density l = 900 kg/m3, thermal conductivity of piston ks = 236 W/mK,
temperature of piston at distance L = 3 mm from the surface is T1 = 500oK. Piston diameter D =
12 cm, thickness of liquid film Lf = 0.05 mm.

Liquid film
Lf

Piston
L
T1
Cylinder

Figure VI. An IC engine, showing liquid film formation on top of the piston3.

The thermal resistance (K/W) from T1 to the top of the liquid film is ___________

L L 1  L Lf 
Rt =  f =   
ks A k f A A  k s k f 

D 2  (0.12) 2
A= = = 1.13110-2 m2
4 4

1  L Lf  1  0.003 0.00005 
Rt =    = 2 
  = 0.0544 K/W
A  k s k f  1.131  10  236 0.083 

3 Kaviany, Principles of Heat Transfer, Wiley, 2002

A-12
CHE 312 (Winter 2008) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #5 (50 minutes)
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.
The questions on mass transfer were deleted from this quiz.

I. Saturated steam at 99.63oC condenses on the outside of a 5-m long, 4-cm-diameter thin
horizontal copper tube by cooling liquid water that enters the tube at 25oC at an average velocity
of 3 m/s and leaves at 55oC. Liquid water density is 997 kg/m3, Cp of liquid water is 4.18
kJ/kgoC.
1) The rate of heat transfer to water is __________

m = VA = (997)(3)(0.022) = 3.7586 kg/s

Q = m Cp (To  Ti) = (3.7586)(4.18)(55  25) = 471.3 kW

2) If the rate of heat transfer to water is 500 kW, the

rate of condensation of steam is __________

200
m = = 0.2214 kg/s
2675.5  417.46

Data for internal energy (U) and enthalpy (H) of saturated liquid and saturated vapor
T (oC) Ul (kJ/kg) Ug (kJ/kg) Hl (kJ/kg) Hg (kJ/kg)
99.63 417.36 2506.1 417.46 2675.5

II. A furnace with an area of 3.1410-4 m2 and emissive power of 3.72105 W/m2 is used to
calibrate a heat flux gage having a sensitive area of 1.610-5 m2. Data: L = 1.5 m and d = 30o.

Furnace L Detector
aperture, Af d Ad = 1.6x10-5 m2

3) The solid angle subtended by surface Ad with respect to Af is ________

Ad cos  d
d-f = = (1.610-5)(cos 30)/1.52 = 6.158410-5
L2

4) If the solid angle in (3) is 1.610-5 sr, the irradiation (W/m2) received by the detector is
_________
I A cos( f )d  f  3.72 10 /   3.14 10   cos 0  1.6 10 
5 4 5
q
G = fd = e f = = 37.2 W/m2
Ad Ad 1.6 105

A-13
III. Consider a counter flow concentric tube heat exchanger shown with m c c p ,c < m h c p ,h . Let U
and P be the overall heat transfer coefficient and the perimeter of the inner tube.

Tho Thi
Hot fluid Th
Tc
Cold fluid
Th
Tci Tco
5) The following differential equation describes the temperature Tc of the cold fluid in the heat
exchanger

dTc dTc
A) Cmin = UP(Tc  Th) B) Cmax =  UP(Tc  Th)
dx dx

dTc
C) Cmin =  UP(Tc  Th) Ans D) None of the above
dx

6) Tc and Th are related by the following expression

A) Th = Thi  Cr(Tc  Tci) B) Th = Tho + Cr(Tc  Tci) Ans

C) Th = Tho + Cr(Tco  Tc) D) None of the above

A-14
V. In IC (internal combustion) engines, during injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder, it is
possible for the injected fuel droplets to form a thin liquid film over the piston as shown in
Figure 3. The heat transferred from the gas above the film and from the piston beneath the film
causes surface evaporation. The liquid-gas interface is at the boiling Tlg, corresponding to the
vapor pressure. The heat transfer from the piston side is by conduction through the piston and
then by conduction through the thin liquid film. The surface-convection heat transfer from the
gas side to the surface of the thin liquid film is 13,500 W.
Data:
Heat of evaporation of fuel = 3.027105 J/kg, thermal conductivity of fuel, kf = 0.083 W/mK, Tlg
= 398.9oK, liquid fuel density l = 900 kg/m3, thermal conductivity of piston ks = 236 W/mK,
temperature of piston at distance L = 3 mm from the surface is T1 = 500oK. Piston diameter D =
12 cm, thickness of liquid film Lf = 0.03 mm.

Liquid film
Lf

Piston
L
T1
Cylinder

Figure 3. An IC engine, showing liquid film formation on top of the piston.

(7) The initial heat resistance in K/W from T1 to the top surface of the liquid film is

___________

A = D2/4 = (0.12)2/4 = 1.13110-2 m2

L L 1  3 103 3 105 
RT = + f =    = 0.0331 K/W
k s A k f A 0.01131  236 0.083 

(8) If the heat resistance from T1 to the top surface of the liquid film remains constant at 0.02
K/W, determine the time it will take for the liquid film to evaporate completely
___________

13,500 + (500  398.9)/0.02 = m (3.027105)  m = 0.0613 kg/s

 Lf A (900)(3 105 )(1.131102 )

t= = = 0.00498 s
m 0.0613

A-15
Appendix B
Previous Exams
CHE 312 (Winter 2009) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #1
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. An annealing process shown in Figure 1 uses a hot plate operating at an elevated temperature
Th. The wafer, initially at a temperature of Tw,i, is suddenly positioned at a gap separation h = 0.2
mm from the hot plate. The emissivity of both the hot plate and the wafer is 1.0. The silicon
wafer has a thickness of d = 0.78 mm, a density of 2700 kg/m3, and a specific heat of 875 J/kgK.
The thermal conductivity of the gas in the gap is 0.0436 W/mK. The wafer is insulated at the
bottom. Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4.

Hot plate, Th

gap h Stagnant gas, k

Silicon wafer, T w
Figure 1. Annealing of silicon wafer.

For Th = 600oC and Tw,i = 20oC, calculate

(1) The radiative heat flux across the gap _____________

(2) The heat flux by conduction across the gap ______________

 dT 
(3) The initial time rate of change in the temperature of the wafer,  w  , if the total heat flux
 dt i
across the gap is 200 kW/m . 2 _______________

B-1
II. A small sphere of reference-grade iron with a specific heat of 447 J/kgK and a mass of 0.515
kg is suddenly immersed in a water-ice mixture. Fine thermocouple wires suspend the sphere,
and initial time rate of change in the sphere temperature is observed to be 0.1575 K/s. The
experiment is repeated with a metallic sphere of the same diameter, but of unknown composition
with a mass of 1.263 kg. If the initial time rate of change in the temperature of this sphere is
0.2179 K/s, what is the specific heat of the unknown material?
______________

III. Consider the process arrangement where a wafer is in an evacuated chamber whose wall are
maintained at 27oC and within which heating lamps maintain a radiant flux q”s at its upper
surface. The wafer is 0.78 mm thick, has a thermal conductivity of 30 W/mK, and an emissivity
that equals its absorptivity to the radiant flux ( =  = 0.65). For q”s = 3.0×105 W/m2, the
temperature on its lower surface is measured by a radiation thermometer and found to have a
value of Tw,l = 997oC.
Heating lamps
Ts ur

q"s

o
Silicon wafer, T w,l = 997 C
The temperature, Tw,u, at the top surface of the wafer can be obtained from:

A) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65×5.6710-8[Tw,u  (27 + 273)4]  30(Tw,u  997)/0.00078 = 0

B) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65[Tw,u4  (27 + 273)4]  30(Tw,u  997)/0.00078 = 0
C) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65×5.6710-8[Tw,u4  (27 + 273)4] + 30(Tw,u  997)/0.00078 = 0
D) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65×5.6710-8[Tw,u4  (27 + 273)4]  30(Tw,u  997)/0.00078 = 0
E) None of the above

IV. The free convection heat transfer coefficient on a thin hot vertical plate suspended in still air
can be determined from observations of the change in plate temperature with time as it cools.
The ambient air temperature is 25oC and the plate measures 0.3 × 0.3 m with a mass of 3.75 kg
and a specific heat of 2770 J/kgK.

(6) Assuming the plate is isothermal and radiation exchange with its surroundings is negligible,
evaluate the convection coefficient at the instant of time when the plate temperature is 225oC and
the change in plate temperature with time (dT/dt) is  0.022 K/s.
____________

B-2
(7) If the surroundings temperature is 25oC, the heat transfer coefficient is 10 W/m2K, and the
emissivity of the plate is 0.42, determine the ratio of the heat transfer by radiation to the heat
transfer by convection at the instant of time when the plate temperature is 225oC.
___________

V. The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of 800 W/m2, while the
underside is perfectly insulated. The convection coefficient between the roof and the ambient air
is 20 W/m2K.
(8) Neglecting radiation exchange with the surroundings, calculate the temperature of the
roof under steady-state conditions if the ambient air temperature is 20oC.
____________

(9) For the same ambient air temperature, calculate the temperature of the roof if its surface
emissivity is 0.8.
______________

VI. Liquid oxygen, which has a boiling point of 90oK and a latent heat of vaporization of 214
kJ/kg, is stored in a spherical container whose outer surface is of 500-mm diameter and at a
temperature of 263 K. The container is housed in a laboratory whose air and walls are at 298 K.
If the surface emissivity is 0.20 and the heat transfer coefficient associated with free convection
at the outer surface of the container is 20 W/m2K, what is the rate, in kg/s, at which oxygen
vapor must be vented from the system?
____________

B-3
CHE 312 (Winter 2009) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #2
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. A solar flux of 700 W/m2 is incident on a flat-plate solar collector used to heat water. The area
of the collector is 3 m2, and 90% of the solar radiation passes through the cover and is absorbed
by the absorber plate. Water flows through the tube passages on the back side of the absorber
plate and is heated from an inlet temperature Ti to an outlet temperature To. The cover glass,
operating at a temperature of 30oC, has an emissivity of 0.94 and experiences radiation exchange
with the sky at  10oC. The convection coefficient between the cover glass and the ambient air at
25oC is 10 W/m2K. Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4.

Cover glass
Air space
Absorber plate
Water tubing
Insulation

(1) Determine the heat collected per unit area, q”c, of the collector _____________

(2) If q”c = 500 W/m2, flow rate of water = 0.01 kg/s, specific heat of water = 4179 J/kg K,

determine the temperature rise of water, To  Ti, ______________

(3) The collector efficiency  is defined as the ratio of the heat collected to the rate at which

solar energy is incident on the collector. If q”c = 500 W/m2, determine  _______________

B-4
II. One-dimensional, steady-state conduction whit uniform internal energy generation occurs in a
plane wall with a thickness of 50 mm and a constant thermal conductivity of 10 W/mK. For
these conditions, the temperature distribution has the form, T(x) = a + bx + cx2. The surface at x
= 0 has a temperature of T(0) = T0 = 150oC and experiences convection with a fluid for which T
= 10oC and h = 400 W/m2K. The surface at x = L is well insulated.

(4) Determine the internal energy generation rate, q : ____________

(5) Determine the coefficient b ____________

III. In an orbiting space station, an electronic package is housed in a compartment having a

surface area As = 1 m2 which is exposed to space. Under normal operating conditions, the
electronics dissipate 800 W, all of which must be transferred from the exposed surface to space.
If the surface emissivity is 1.0 and the surface is not exposed to the sun, what is its steady-state
temperature? If the surface is expose to a solar flux of 750 W/m2 and its absorptivity to solar
radiation is 0.35, what is its steady-state temperature?
__________

VI. The air inside a chamber at T,i = 60oC is heated convectively with hi = 40 W/m2K by a 200-
mm-thick wall having a thermal conductivity of 10 W/mK and a uniform heat generation of
1600 W/m3. To prevent any heat generated within the wall from being lost to the outside of the
chamber at T,o = 25oC with ho = 10 W/m2K, a very thin electrical strip heater is placed on the
outer wall to provide a uniform heat flux, qo" .

B-5
 Strip heater
Wall
Outside Inside
chamber chamber

x L
(7) Determine the temperature at the inside wall surface T(L) ___________

(8) Determine T(0)  T(L) ___________

(9) If T(0) = 70oC, determine the value of qo" that must be supplied by the strip heater so that
all heat generated within the wall is transferred to the inside of the chamber.
__________

(10) If the heat generation in the wall were switched off while the heat flux to the strip heater
is 600 W/m2, what would be the steady-state temperature, T(0), of the outer wall surface?

___________

B-6
CHE 312 (Winter 2009) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #3
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. A homeowner, whose water pipes have frozen during a period of cold weather, decides to melt
the ice by passing an electric current I through the pipe wall. The inner and outer radii of the wall
are designates as r1 and r2, and its electrical resistance per unit length is designated as R’e (/m).
The pipe is well insulated on the outside. During melting the ice (and water) in the pipe remain at
a constant temperature Tm = 0oC associated with the melting process. Ice:  = 920 kg/m3, hfg =
3.34105 J/kg. Data: I = 120 A, R’e = 0.40 /m, r1 = 50 mm and r2 = 70 mm.

1) Determine the heat generated per unit volume in the pipe wall. ____________

2) Determine the time tm required to completely melt the ice. ____________

II. A long cylindrical rod of diameter D1 = 200 mm with thermal conductivity k of 0.5 W/mK
experiences uniform volumetric heat generation q of 24,000 W/m3. The rod is encapsulated by a
circular sleeve having an outer diameter of D2 = 400 mm and a thermal conductivity ks of 4
W/mK. The outer surface of the sleeve is exposed to cross flow of air at T∞ = 27oC with a
convection coefficient h of 25 W/m2K.
3) The temperature T1 at the interface between the rod and sleeve can be determined from

T1  T T1  T
A) q = B) q =
ln(r2 / r1 ) 1 ln(r2 / r1 ) 1
 
2 k h D1 2 k s h D1

T1  T T1  T
C) q = D) q r12 =
ln(r2 / r1 ) 1 ln(r2 / r1 ) 1
 
2 k s h D2 2 k s h D2

4) The temperature at the center of the rod can be determined from

 22
qr  12
qr
A) T = T1 + B) T = T1 +
4k 2k
 2
qr  2
qr
C) T = T1 + 1 D) T = T∞ + 1
4k 4k
B-7
III.

r t

Specify the control volume required to derive the temperature T(r) in a circular fin with radius R
and thickness t.
___________

IV. A solid steel sphere with radius ri is coated with a dielectric material layer with thickness ro –
ri and thermal conductivity kd. The coated sphere is initially at a uniform temperature of 400oC
and is suddenly quenched in a large oil bath for which T = 30 C, and h = 2500 W/m2oK.

The steel sphere may be considered as a lumped capacitance system with an overall heat transfer
coefficient U given by

1 r r 1 1 r r 1
A) = o i + B) = o i +
4ro U
2
4 rr
i o kd 4ro2 h 4ri U
2
4 rr
i o kd 4 ro2 h

1 r r 1
C) = o i + D) None of the above.
4ro U
2
4 rr
i o kd 4ri 2 h

V. In IC (internal combustion) engines, during injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder, it is
possible for the injected fuel droplets to form a thin liquid film over the piston as shown in
Figure 5. The heat transferred from the gas above the film and from the piston beneath the film
causes surface evaporation. The liquid-gas interface is at the boiling Tlg, corresponding to the
vapor pressure. The heat transfer from the piston side is by conduction through the piston and
then by conduction through the thin liquid film. The surface-convection heat transfer from the
gas side to the surface of the thin liquid film is 9,500 W.
Data:
Heat of evaporation of fuel = 3.027105 J/kg, thermal conductivity of fuel, kf = 0.083 W/mK, Tlg
= 398.9oK, liquid fuel density l = 900 kg/m3, thermal conductivity of piston ks = 236 W/mK,
temperature of piston at distance L = 3 mm from the surface is T1 = 500oK. Piston diameter D =
12 cm, thickness of liquid film Lf = 0.05 mm.

Show all your work and reasoning for this problem.

B-8
 Liquid film
Lf

Piston
L
T1
Cylinder

Figure 5. An IC engine, showing liquid film formation on top of the piston.

(a) (4 pts) Estimate the time it will take for the liquid film to evaporate completely assuming the
thermal resistance to the liquid film remains constant at the initial value. Show all your work.

(b) (4 pts) Write down the equation needed to calculate the time it will take for the liquid film to
evaporate completely if the thermal resistance to the liquid film is not a constant. Explain how
you can solve the equation but do not solve it. Will the time be longer or shorter than that
obtained from part (a)? Why? Show all your work

B-9
CHE 312 (Winter 2009) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #4
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. The steady-state temperature (oC) associated with selected nodal points of a two-dimensional
system having a thermal conductivity of 2.0 W/moK are shown on the right. The ambient fluid is
at 60oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2oK. The isothermal surface is at 220oC.
Insulated boundary

0.20 m 159.4 T2 75.8

Ambient fluid
T3
167.0 133.5
0.30 m 97.0
202.9 T1 162.8

Isothermal boundary

(1) The temperature, T1, at node 1 is ____________

(2) The temperature at node 2 is ____________

(3) The temperature at node 3 is ____________

B-10
(4) If the temperature at node 3 is 80oC, calculate the heat transfer rate per unit thickness normal
to the page from the right surface to the fluid.
______________

II. A truncated solid cone is of circular cross section, and its diameter is related to the axial
coordinate by an expression of the form D = ax3/2, where a = 1.0 m-1/2. If the sides are well
insulated, the rate of heat transfer is given by

a 2 k (T1  T2 ) a 2 k (T1  T2 )
a. b. T1 x1
1 1   1 1 
2   2 2  2 
 x1 x 2   x1 x2 

a 2 k (T1  T2 ) T2 x2
c. d. None of the above
 1 1 
4 2  2 
 x1 x2 

III. Consider a hollow cylinder with radius Ri and Ro with heat transfer from the inside fluid at Ti
to the outside fluid at To. The inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are hi and ho
respectively. The thermal conductivity of the cylinder is k. Specify the two boundary conditions
necessary to solve for the temperature distribution within the cylinder.

_____________________ ______________________

IV. A. The unsteady state solution for temperature distribution in a cylinder T(r, t) requires
the evaluation of a Bessel function.
B. If the initial temperature for an infinite cylinder is not uniform, temperature
distribution T(r, t) cannot be obtained.

a. A and B are true b. Only A is true c. Only B is true d. A and B are false

B-11
V. Copper-coated, epoxy-filled fiberglass circuit boards are treated by heating a stack of them
under high pressure as shown in the sketch. The stack, referred to as a book, is comprised of 10
boards and 11 pressing plates. Calculate the total thermal resistance (K/W) through the stack if
each of the boards and plates has a thickness of 2.36 mm and the following properties: board (b)
kb = 0.30 W/mK; plate (p) kp = 12 W/mK.

__________

VI. A long bar of rectangular cross section

is 60 mm by 90 mm on a side and has a
thermal conductivity of 1.5 W/mK. One
surface is exposed to a convection process
with air at 100oC and a convection
coefficient of 100 W/m2K, while the
remaining surfaces are maintained at 50oC.
Using a grid spacing of 30 mm the
temperature at node 1 is related to the
temperature at node 2 according to the
equation:
T1 = AT2 + B

(9) A = ___________ (10) B = ______________

B-12
CHE 312 (Winter 2009) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #5
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. Saturated steam at 110oC condenses on the outside of a 5-m long, 4-cm-diameter thin
horizontal copper tube by cooling liquid water that enters the tube at 25oC at an average velocity
V of 2 m/s and leaves at 45oC. Liquid water density, , is 997 kg/m3, Cp of liquid water is 4.18
kJ/kgoC.
1) The rate of heat transfer to water is __________

2) If the rate of heat transfer to water is 250 kW, the

rate of condensation of steam is __________

The data for internal energy (u) and enthalpy (h) of saturated liquid and saturated vapor are given

T (oC) ul (kJ/kg) ug (kJ/kg) ul (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg)

110 461.2 2518.1 461.3 2691.5

3) The following equation can be integrated over the length of the tube to determine the
overall heat transfer coefficient U for the heat transfer from the steam to the water: (Note: D is
the tube diameter and Ts is the steam temperature)

dT dT
A) DVCp = U(Ts  T) B) DVCp = 4U(Ts  T)
dx dx

dT
C) DVCp =  4U(Ts  T) D) None of the above
dx

B-13
II. The steady-state temperature (oC) associated with selected nodal points of a two-dimensional
system having a thermal conductivity of 2.0 W/moK are shown on the right. The ambient fluid is
at 60oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2oK. The isothermal surface is at 220oC.

Insulated boundary
T3
0.20 m 159.4 T2
Ambient fluid
T4
167.0 133.5
0.30 m T5
202.9 T1 162.8

Isothermal boundary

Temperature at node 4 is related to temperatures at nodes 3 and 5 by the equation

T4 = AT3 + BT5 + C

4) A = __________ 5) B = __________ 6) C = __________

B-14
III. A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and two tube passes uses hot water on
the tube side to heat oil on the shell side. The water enters at 87oC and 50.0 kg/s and leaves at
27oC. Inlet and outlet temperatures of the oil are 7 and 37oC. The heat exchanger contains 200
tubes which have inner and outer diameters of 20 and 24 mm and a length of 5.0 m. Density of
water is 995 kg/m3 and Cp of water is 4200 J/kg.K.
Evaluate F correction factor

 R 2  1   (1  P ) 
  ln
Ti  To to  ti  R  1   (1  RP ) 
R= m P= F=  
to  ti Ti  t i  2 / P  1  R  R 2  1 
ln  
 2 / P  1  R  R 2  1 

7) The F correction factor for the log mean driving force is _________

8) The (total) outside area for heat transfer is ____________

9) Water velocity is _____________

10) If Ui is 100 W/m2K then Uo is _____________

B-15
Answers to Quizzes 2009

Quiz 1
1) 32,500 W/m2 2) 126,440 W/m2 3) 108.5 K/s 4) 132 J/kgK
5) None of the above 6) 6.35 W/m2K 7) 0.6385 8) 60.0oC
9) 311.6 K = 38.6oC 10) 2.710-3 kg/s

Quiz 2
1) 385.4 W/m2 2) 35.9oC 3) 0.7143 4) 1.12106 W/m3
5) 5,600 oC/m 6) 370 K 7) 68oC 8) 3.2oC
9) 450 W/m2 10) 67.76oC

Quiz 3
1) 7.64×105 W/m3 2) 419 s 3) D 4) C
5) 2πrtdr 6) B 7) 0.0136 s
5105 dL f

0 3.711107
3.083 103 
1.271105  12.048 L f
8)

Quiz 4
1) 190.22oC 2) 128.61oC 3) 77.15oC 4) 869.4 W/m
5) b T T
6) r = Ri, hi(Ti  T) =  k , r = Ro,  k = ho(T  To)
r r
7) b 8) 0.08083 K/W 9) A = 0.25 10) B = 62.5

Quiz 2
1) 209.5 kW 2) 0.1121 kg/s 3) B 4) 0.1452
5) 0.1452 6) 52.0645 oC 7) 0.5322 8) 75.4 m2
9) 1.60 m/s 10) 83.3 W/m2K

B-16
Appendix C
Previous Exams
CHE 312 (Winter 2010) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #1
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. An annealing process shown below uses a hot plate operating at an elevated temperature Th.
The wafer, initially at a temperature of Tw,i, is suddenly positioned at a gap separation h = 0.5
mm from the hot plate. The emissivity of both the hot plate and the wafer is 1.0. The silicon
wafer has a thickness of d = 0.80 mm, a density of 2700 kg/m3, and a specific heat of 1050
J/kgK. The thermal conductivity of the gas in the gap is 0.0436 W/mK. The wafer is insulated
at the bottom. Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4.

Hot plate, Th

gap h Stagnant gas, k

Silicon wafer, T w

For Th = 700oC and Tw,i = 25oC, calculate

(1) The radiative heat flux across the gap 50,370 W/m2

(2) The heat flux by conduction across the gap 58,860 W/m2

 dT 
(3) The initial time rate of change in the temperature of the wafer,  w  , if the total heat flux
 dt i
across the gap is 200 kW/m . 2 88.18 K/s

II. (4) A small sphere of reference-grade iron with a specific heat of 447 J/kgK and a mass of
0.515 kg is suddenly immersed in a water-ice mixture. Fine thermocouple wires suspend the
sphere, and initial time rate of change in the sphere temperature is observed to be 0.1575 K/s.
The experiment is repeated with a metallic sphere of the same diameter, but of unknown
composition with a mass of 1.263 kg. Both spheres have the same initial temperature.
A. The initial rate of heat transfer to (or from) the iron sphere is the same as the initial heat
transfer rate to (or from) the metallic sphere.
B. The initial time rate of change in the temperature of the iron sphere is the same as the
initial time rate of change in the temperature of the metallic sphere.

a. A and B are true b. Only A is true c. Only B is true d. A and B are false

C-1
III. (5) Consider the process arrangement where a wafer is in an evacuated chamber whose wall
are maintained at 27oC and within which heating lamps maintain a radiant flux q”s at its upper
surface. The wafer is 0.78 mm thick, has a thermal conductivity of 30 W/mK, and an emissivity
that equals its absorptivity to the radiant flux ( =  = 0.65). For q”s = 3.0×105 W/m2, the
temperature on its lower surface is measured by a radiation thermometer and found to have a
value of Tw,l = 997oC.
Heating lamps
Ts ur

q"s

o
Silicon wafer, T w,l = 997 C
The temperature, Tw,u, at the top surface of the wafer can be obtained from:

A) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65×5.6710-8[Tw,u  (27 + 273)4]  30(Tw,u  1270)/0.00078 = 0

B) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65[Tw,u4  (27 + 273)4]  30(Tw,u  1270)/0.00078 = 0
C) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65×5.6710-8[Tw,u4  (27 + 273)4] + 30(Tw,u  1270)/0.00078 = 0
D) 0.65×3.0×105  0.65×5.6710-8[Tw,u4  (27 + 273)4]  30(Tw,u  1270)/0.00078 = 0 Ans
E) None of the above

IV. (6) Liquid oxygen, which has a boiling point of 90oK and a latent heat of vaporization of 214
kJ/kg, is stored in a spherical container whose outer surface is of 500-mm diameter and at a
temperature of 10oC. The container is housed in a laboratory whose air and walls are at 25oC.
If the surface emissivity is 0.50 and the heat transfer coefficient associated with free convection
at the outer surface of the container is 20 W/m2K, what is the rate, in kg/s, at which oxygen
vapor must be vented from the system?
2.8910-3 kg/s

V. (7) A surface whose temperature is maintained at 400oC is separated from an air flow by a
layer of insulation 25 mm thick for which the thermal conductivity is 0.05 W/mK. If the air
temperature is 25oC and the convection coefficient between the air and the outer surface of the
insulation is 500 W/m2K, what is the temperature of this outer surface?
26.49oC

VI. (8) An experiment to determine the convection coefficient associated with airflow over the
surface of a thick steel casting involves insertion of thermocouples in the casting at distances of
10 and 20 mm from the surface along a hypothetical line normal to the surface. The steel has a
thermal conductivity of 20 W/mK. If the thermocouples measure temperatures of 55 and 40oC in
the steel when the air temperature is 100oC, what is the convection coefficient?
1000 W/m2K

C-2
VII. The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of 900 W/m2, while the
underside is perfectly insulated. The convection coefficient between the roof and the ambient air
is 20 W/m2K.
(9) Neglecting radiation exchange with the surroundings, calculate the temperature of the
roof under steady-state conditions if the ambient air temperature is 20oC.
65.0oC

(10) For the same ambient air temperature, the following equation can determine the
temperature of the roof if its surface emissivity is 0.8.
______________

q”S,absAs = h As(Ts  T) + AsTs4

A) 900  20(Ts  293) + 0.85.6710-8Ts4 = 0

B) 800  20(Ts  293)  0.85.6710-8Ts4 = 0
C) 900  20(Ts  20)  0.85.6710-8Ts4 = 0
D) 900  20(Ts  293)  0.85.6710-8Ts4 = 0 Ans
E) None of the above

C-3
CHE 312 (Winter 2010) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #2
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. A spherical aluminum tank, inside radius R1 = 3 m, and wall thickness l1 = 4 mm, contains
liquid-vapor oxygen at 1 atm pressure and 90.18oK. Heat of evaporation of oxygen is 2.123105
J/kg. Under steady state, at the liquid gas surface, the heat flowing (leak) into the tank causes
boil off at a rate M g . In order to prevent the pressure of the tank from rising, the gas resulting
from boil off is vented through a safety valve as shown in Figure 1. An evacuated air gap,
extending to location r = R2 = 3.1 m, is placed where the combined conduction-radiation effect
for this gap is represented by a conductivity ka = 0.008 W/mK. A layer of insulation with ki =
0.040 W/mK and thickness l2 = 10 cm is added. The outside surface temperature is kept constant
at T2 = 283.15oK. Neglect the heat resistance through the aluminum.

Figure 1. Liquid oxygen in a spherical container.

(1) Determine the rate of heat leak Qk,2-1 in W 1574 W

(2) If Qk,2-1 = 2000 W, determine the amount of boil off M g in kg/s. 9.4210-3 kg/s

II. The air inside a chamber at T,i = 50oC is heated Strip heater
convectively with hi = 25 W/m2K by a 0.25-m-thick Wall
wall having a thermal conductivity of 5 W/mK and a
uniform heat generation of 1500 W/m3. To prevent
any heat generated within the wall from being lost to Outside chamber Inside chamber
the outside of the chamber at T,o = 15oC with ho = 10
W/m2K, a very thin electrical strip heater is placed on x
"
the outer wall to provide a uniform heat flux, qo . 0 L

(3) Determine the temperature at the inside wall surface T(L) 65.0oC

C-4
 (4) Determine T(0)  T(L) 9.375oC

(5) If T(0) = 80oC, determine the value of qo" that must be supplied by the strip heater so that
all heat generated within the wall is transferred to the inside of the chamber.
650 W/m2

(6) If the heat generation in the wall were switched off while the heat flux to the strip heater
is 600 W/m2, what would be the steady-state temperature, T(0), of the outer wall surface?

T0 = 61.8oC

III. (7) A transistor, which may be approximated as a hemispherical heat source of radius ro, is
embedded in a large silicon substrate and dissipates heat at a rate q. All boundaries of the silicon
are maintained at an ambient temperature of T, except for a plane surface that is well insulated.

The substrate temperature distribution is given by

2
r  r 
A) T = T  (T  Ts)  o  B) T = T + (T  Ts)  o 
r r

r  r 
C) T = T  (T + Ts)  o  D) T = T  (T  Ts)  o 
r  r  Ans

E) None of the above

IV (8) Two identical closed beakers contain equal masses

of liquid at a temperature of 20oC as shown above. One
beaker is filled with water and the other beaker is filled
with ethanol (ethyl alcohol). The temperature of each
liquid is increased from 20oC to 40oC using identical
heaters immersed in the liquids. Each heater is set to the
same power setting. It takes 2 minutes for the ethanol
temperature to reach 40oC and 3 minutes for the water
temperature to reach 40oC.

C-5
Ignoring evaporation losses, to which liquid was more energy transferred during the
heating process?

____________

A) Water because it is heated longer. Ans

B) Alcohol because it heats up faster.
C) Both liquids received the same amount of energy because they started at the same initial
temperature and ended at the same final temperature.
D) Can’t determine from the information given because heat transfer coefficients from the
water and alcohol beaker surfaces are needed.
E) Can’t determine from the information given because heat capacities of water and ethanol
are needed.
F) Water because it has a higher boiling point than ethanol.

V. (9) An engineering student walking barefoot (without shoes or socks) from a tile floor onto a
carpeted floor notices that the tile feels cooler than the carpet. Which of the following
explanations seems like the most plausible way to explain this observation?

___________

A) The carpet has a slightly higher temperature because air trapped in the carpet retains
energy from the room better.
B) The carpet has more surface area in contact with the student’s foot than the tile does, so
the carpet is heated faster and feels hotter.
C) The tile conducts energy better than the carpet, so energy moves away from the student’s
foot faster on tile than carpet. Ans.
D) The rate of heat transfer into the room by convection (air movement) is different for tile
and carpet surfaces.
E) The carpet has a slightly higher temperature because air trapped in the carpet slows down
the rate of energy transfer through the carpet into the floor.

VI. (10) You are in the business of melting ice at 0oC using hot blocks of metal as an energy
source. One option is to use one metal block at a temperature of 200oC and a second option is to
use two metal blocks each at a temperature of 100oC. All the metal blocks are made from the
same material and have the same weight and surface area.
If the blocks are placed in insulated cups filled with ice water at 0oC, which option will melt
more ice?
__________
A) The 100oC blocks.
B) The 200oC block.
C) Either option will melt the same amount of ice. Ans
D) Can’t tell from the information given.

C-6
CHE 312 (Winter 2010) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #3
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. A homeowner, whose water pipes have frozen during a period of cold weather, decides to melt
the ice by passing an electric current I through the pipe wall. The inner and outer radii of the wall
are designates as r1 and r2, and its electrical resistance per unit length is designated as R’e (/m).
The pipe is well insulated on the outside. During melting the ice (and water) in the pipe remain at
a constant temperature Tm = 0oC associated with the melting process. Ice:  = 920 kg/m3, hfg =
3.34105 J/kg. Data: I = 120 A, R’e = 0.40 /m, r1 = 50 mm and r2 = 70 mm.

1) The differential equation required to solve for T(r) is ____________

k d  dT  k d  dT 
A) r dr  r dr   q = 0 B) r  + q = 0 Ans
r dr  dr 

1 d  dT  k d  dT 
C) r  + q = 0 D) r  + q = 0
r dr  dr  r 2 dr  dr 

E) None of the above

2) The two boundary conditions required to solve for T(r) are

dT
___ r = r2, = 0 _______ _______ r = r1, T = Tm = 0______
dr

3) Specify the control volume needed to obtain the differential equation in (1) ___2πrLdr___

4) The temperature profile for T(r) is given by

 22  r1  q 2 2 2
qr  22  r1  q 2 2 2
qr
A) T = Tm  ln   
2k  r  4k
 r  r1  B) T = Tm + ln   
2k  r  4k
 r  r1 
 2  r  q 2 2 2
qr  2  r  q 2 2 2
qr
C) T = Tm  2 ln  1  
2k  r  2k
 r  r1  D) T = Tm  2 ln  1  +
2k  r  4k
 r  r1 

E) None of the above Ans

C-7
II) An air heater may be fabricated by coiling Nichrome wire and passing air in cross flow over
the wire. Consider a heater fabricated from wire of diameter D = 1 mm, length L = 2 m, electrical
resistivity e = 10-6 m, thermal conductivity k = 25 W/mK, and emissivity  = 0.20. The heater
is designed to deliver air at a temperature of T∞ = 50oC under flow conditions that provide a
convection coefficient of h = 250 W/m2K for the wire. The temperature of the housing that
enclosed the wire and through which the air flow is Tsur = 50oC. The temperature of the wire is
1200oC.  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4.

5) Determine the heat transfer by radiation 335 W

6) If the heat transfer by radiation is 600 W, determine the power delivered by the heater

2410 W

7) You enter a cold room in a house and adjust a simple thermostat to heat the room to a more
comfortable level. A simple thermostat is an on-off switch which is in the “on” position if the
room temperature is below the desired setting and is in the “off” position otherwise. If you want
the room temperature to increase quickly, should you set the thermostat setting to the
desired temperature or set it much higher than the desired temperature?
__________
A) All the way up
B) Set to desired temperature
C) Either setting will heat the room at the same rate (Ans)
D) Can’t determine from the information given

C-8
8) Your answer to Question 7 is correct because ___________

A) A higher setting will produce hotter air in the furnace which will heat the house faster
B) Heat transfer is proportional to temperature difference so a higher setting will heat the
house faster
C) The furnace heats at the same rate as long as the desired room temperature hasn’t been
reached yet (Ans)
D) A higher setting will move air through the furnace at a faster rate which will heat the
house faster
E) Can’t determine unless heating rate of the furnace is known
F) The furnace is designed to most efficiently heat a home if the thermostat is set to the
desired temperature

9) Water flows steadily through the pipe shown above. The pipe wall is heated so that the
temperature of flowing water increases from an average of T1 at the pipe inlet to an average of T2
at the outlet. Assume the pipe wall temperature is uniform and constant. If we consider the pipe
and water contained in it as the unit of analysis (i.e. the control volume), which of the
following statements is true?
__________

A) Pipe control volume is at steady-state; water and pipe wall are in thermal equilibrium
B) Pipe control volume is not at steady-state; water and pipe wall are in thermal equilibrium
C) Pipe control volume is at steady-state; water and pipe wall are not in thermal equilibrium
(Ans)
D) Pipe control volume is not at steady-state; water and pipe wall are not in thermal
equilibrium

10) Your answer to question 9 is correct because: __________

A) control volume can never be at steady-state until T2 equals the pipe wall temperature
B) steady-state and equilibrium occur together – you can’t have one without the other
C) average water temperature at any distance along the pipe is not changing with time but is
less than the pipe wall temperature (Ans)
D) heat transfer is occurring at the water/pipe wall interface so the control volume can never
come to steady-state

C-9
 Quiz #4
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. In IC (internal combustion) engines, during injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder, it is
possible for the injected fuel droplets to form a thin liquid film over the piston as shown in the
figure. The heat transferred from the gas above the film and from the piston beneath the film
causes surface evaporation. The liquid-gas interface is at the boiling Tlg, corresponding to the
vapor pressure. The heat transfer from the piston side is by conduction through the piston and
then by conduction through the thin liquid film. The surface-convection heat transfer from thefilm
Liquid
gas side to the surface of the thin liquid film is 14,000 W. Lf
Data:
Heat of evaporation of fuel = 3.027105 J/kg, thermal Piston
o
L
conductivity of fuel, kf = 0.083 W/mK, Tlg = 398.9 K, liquid T1
fuel density l = 900 kg/m3, thermal conductivity of piston ks = Cylinder
236 W/mK, temperature of piston at distance L = 3 mm from
the surface is T1 = 500oK. Piston diameter D = 12 cm,
thickness of liquid film Lf = 0.05 mm.
.
D

(1) Determine the initial rate of evaporation of the liquid fuel in kg/s. 0.0524 kg/s

(2) If the liquid evaporation rate is constant at 0.0350 kg/s, determine the time (in s) for the
liquid film to evaporate completely
0.0145 s

(3) Consider the heat flux q”x for 1-dimensional heat transfer
A. For steady state q”x is a constant..
B. For steady state with no heat generation q”x is a constant.

a. A and B are true b. Only A is true c. Only B is true d. A and B are false Ans

(II) Gaseous combustion occurs between two plates, as shown in the Figure below. The energy
converted by combustion S r,c in the gas flows through the upper and lower bounding plates. The
upper plate is used for surface radiation heat transfer and is made of solid alumina (k = 5.931
W/m-K). The lower plate is porous and is made of silica (k = 0.373 W/m-K). Each plate has a
length L, a width w, and a thickness l. The outside surfaces of the two plates are at temperatures
Ts,1 and Ts,2.
S r,c = 104 W, Ts,1 = 1,050◦C, Ts,2 = 500◦C, L = 0.3 m, w = 0.3 m, l = 0.02 m.

C-10
(4) If the inside surface temperature of the top plate is 1400oC, determine the fraction of heat
generated flow through the top plate.
0.9333

(5) If the inside surface areas of the two plate are at the gas temperature, determine the gas
temperature.
1370oC

(III) Given the temperature at three x-coordinates: T(x = 0.1 m) = 75oC, T(x = 0.2 m) = 80oC,
d 2T
and T(x = 0.3 m) = 90oC. Estimate at x = 0.2 m using central finite difference.
dx 2
500 oC/m2

IV. The steady-state temperature (oC) associated with selected nodal points of a two-dimensional
system having a thermal conductivity of 2.0 W/moK are shown on the right. The ambient fluid is
at 40oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2oK. The isothermal surface is at 200oC.
Insulated boundary

0.20 m 139.4 T2 55.8

Ambient fluid
T3
147.0 113.5
0.30 m 77.0
182.9 T1 142.8

Isothermal boundary
Note: x is not equal to y. Solve for the temperature at each node by making an energy balance
around that node.

(7) The temperature, T1, at node 1 is T1 = 170.22oC

(8) The temperature at node 3 is 57.15oC

C-11
(V) Two copper cylinders, each at 75oC, are allowed to cool in a room where the air temperature
is 25oC. Cylinder 1 is taller than cylinder 2 but both cylinders have the same diameter. The top
and bottom of each cylinder is perfectly insulated so the only heat loss is through the sides of the
cylinders.

(9) Which of the following graphs would most closely approximate the average temperature
of the two cylinders?

a. Graph A b. Graph B c. Graph C d. Graph D Ans

(10) Your answer to Question (9) is correct because: ________

a) Cylinder 2 contains less mass and less stored energy so will cool faster
b) Cylinder 1 has more heat transfer area in contact with the atmosphere and therefore will cool
faster
c) Both cylinders will cool at the same rate because the surface area/volume ratio is the same for
each Ans

C-12
CHE 312 (Winter 2010) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #5
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. A chemical with volume V, density  and specific heat c is heated in an adiabatic stirred
reactor. The chemical is to be heated from room temperature Ti to a process temperature T by
passing saturated steam at Th through a coiled, thin-walled with diameter D. Steam condensation
within the tube maintains an interior convection coefficient hi, while the highly agitated liquid in
the stirred vessel maintains an outside convection coefficient ho.

1) The overall heat transfer coefficient U for this process is 1,667 W/m2K

2) If U = 1,200 W/m2K, determine the area of the submerged tubing required to heat the
chemical from Ti to T in 60 minutes.
1.91 m2

II. (3) Air is flowing steadily through a horizontal, constant diameter pipe. The pipe wall is
heated uniformly so that the temperature of the air increases as the air flows through the pipe.
You may assume that the air temperature is constant across the cross-section at any length down
the pipe. If the air pressure remains constant (pressure drop is small enough to ignore),
what can you say about the average velocity of air in the pipe?
_________
a) Velocity remains constant because pipe is rigid so air can’t expand or change density.
b) Velocity will increase in the flow direction because density decreases as air temperature
increases. Ans
c) Velocity remains constant since flow is steady
d) Velocity will increase because increased temperature indicates the air molecules are moving
faster and have higher kinetic energy
e) Velocity will decrease because hot pipe walls will increase friction in flowing air.

C-13
III. A plane wall of a furnace is fabricated from plain carbon steel (k = 60 W/mK,  = 7850
kg/m3, c = 430 J/kgK) and is of thickness L = 10 mm. To protect it from the corrosive effects of
the furnace combustion gases, one surface of the wall is coated with a thin ceramic film which,
for a unit surface area, has a thermal resistance of R”t,f = 0.01 m2K/W. The opposite surface is
well insulated from the surroundings. At furnace start up the wall is at an initial temperature Ti =
300oK, and the combustion gases at T = 1300oK enter the furnace, providing a convection
coefficient of h = 25 W/m2K at the ceramic film. The film has negligible thermal capacitance.
What is the temperature Ts,o of the exposed surface of the ceramic film at this time?

4) Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient U (W/m2K) between the steel and the
combustion gas.
20 W/m2K

5) What is the temperature Ts,o of the exposed surface of the ceramic film when Ts,i = 1100oK?

1140oK

6) If U = 50 W/m2K, how long will it take for the inner surface of the steel to achieve a
temperature of Ts,i = 1100oK?
1086 s = 18.1 min

IV. (7) If 25oC (77oF) air feels warm on our skin, why does 25oC water feel cool when we swim
in it?
_________
a) When water contacts human skin, it vaporizes at the surface, which causes the water to feel
cooler than air.
b) Water holds energy better than air does, so air feels warmer since it is transferring energy
faster.
c) The heat transfer rate from skin to water is faster than the rate from skin to air because of
differences in fluid physical properties. Ans
d) Water opens pores in human skin better than air does, so the heat transfer area is larger with
water.

C-14
 PLANE WALL CYLINDER SPHERE__________
Bi 1 rad C1 1 rad C1 1 rad C1
∞ 1.5708 1.2732 2.4048 1.6020 3.1416 2.0000
t t * T  T
Fo = 2 = 2 ,  = ,  0* = C1exp(-  12 Fo)
L r0 Ti  T
Conduction in a slab
Q sin( 1 ) *
 * =  0* cos(1x*) ; =1- 0
Qo 1
If the temperature at the surface Ts is known T will be replaced by Ts
1 and C1 will be obtained from table at Bi = ∞

V. In a tempering process, glass plate, which is initially at a uniform temperature Ti, is cooled by
suddenly reducing the temperature of both surfaces to Ts. The plate is 20 mm thick, and the glass
has a thermal diffusivity of 610-7 m2/s.
8) How long will it take for the midplane temperature to achieve 50% of its maximum possible
temperature reduction?
63.135 s

9) The maximum temperature gradient in the glass at any time is given by ___________

a)  0* cos(1)(Ti  Ts) b)  0* 1sin(1x*)(Ti  Ts)

c)  0* 1sin(1)(Ti  Ts) d)   0* 1sin(1)(Ti  Ts)

e) None of the above Ans

VI. (10) On a very cold winter day, a group of engineering students noticed that quickly licking
the metal end of an ice scraper left outside overnight caused their tongues to freeze to the metal
surface. However, a quick lick of the plastic handle of the scraper didn’t cause any freezing
to occur. How can you explain this observation?
___________
a) Metal is colder than plastic because it transfers energy to the atmosphere faster.
b) Metal is colder than plastic because metal is more dense and therefore retains cold better.
c) Metal is colder than plastic because plastic stores energy better.
d) Metal conducts energy better than plastic, so energy moves away from the tongue faster when
touching metal. Ans

C-15
Appendix D
Previous Exams
CHE 312 (Winter 2011) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #1
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. An annealing process shown below uses a hot plate operating at an elevated temperature Th.
The wafer, initially at a temperature of Tw,i, is suddenly positioned at a gap separation h = 0.6
mm from the hot plate. The emissivity of both the hot plate and the wafer is 0.90. The silicon
wafer has a thickness of d = 0.50 mm, a density of 2700 kg/m3, and a specific heat of 1050
J/kgK. The thermal conductivity of the gas in the gap is 0.0436 W/mK. The wafer is insulated
at the bottom. Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4.

Hot plate, Th

gap h Stagnant gas, k

Silicon wafer, T w

For Th = 650oC and Tw,i = 25oC, calculate

(1) The radiative heat flux across the gap 36,634 W/m2

(2) The heat flux by conduction across the gap 45,417 W/m2

 dT 
(3) The initial time rate of change in the temperature of the wafer,  w  , if the total heat flux
 dt i
across the gap is 100 kW/m . 2 70.55 K/s

II. (4) Consider the process arrangement where a wafer is in an evacuated chamber whose wall
are maintained at 27oC and within which heating lamps maintain a radiant flux q”s at its upper
surface. The wafer is 0.78 mm thick, has a thermal conductivity of 30 W/mK, and an emissivity
that equals its absorptivity to the radiant flux ( =  = 0.65). For q”s = 3.0×105 W/m2, the
temperature on its lower surface is measured by a radiation thermometer and found to have a
value of Tw,l = 997oC. (Note: Use T(K) = T(C) + 273)

D-1
 Heating lamps
Ts ur

q"s

o
Silicon wafer, T w,l = 997 C
The temperature, Tw,u, at the top surface of the wafer is _________

A) 999.56oC B) 1002.56oC C) 1005.56oC D) 998.56oC

0.65×3.0×105  0.65×5.6710-8[Tw,u4  (27 + 273)4]  30(Tw,u  1270)/0.00078 = 0

III. (5) Liquid oxygen, which has a boiling point of 90oK and a latent heat of vaporization of 214
kJ/kg, is stored in a spherical container whose outer surface is of 500-mm diameter and at a
temperature of 10oC. The container is housed in a laboratory whose air and walls are at 25oC.
If the surface emissivity is 0.70 and the heat transfer coefficient associated with free convection
at the outer surface of the container is 40 W/m2K, what is the rate, in kg/s, at which oxygen
vapor must be vented from the system?
5.5910-3 kg/s

IV. (6) A surface whose temperature is maintained at 450oC is separated from an air flow by a
layer of insulation 30 mm thick for which the thermal conductivity is 0.04 W/mK. If the air
temperature is 25oC and the convection coefficient between the air and the outer surface of the
insulation is 500 W/m2K, what is the temperature of this outer surface?
26.13oC

V. (7) An experiment to determine the convection coefficient associated with airflow over the
surface of a thick steel casting involves insertion of thermocouples in the casting at distances of
10 and 20 mm from the surface along a hypothetical line normal to the surface. The steel has a
thermal conductivity of 40 W/mK. If the thermocouples measure temperatures of 55 and 40oC in
the steel when the air temperature is 100oC, what is the convection coefficient?
2000 W/m2K

VI. (8) The roof of a car in a parking lot absorbs a solar radiant flux of 900 W/m2, while the
underside is perfectly insulated. The convection coefficient between the roof and the ambient air
is 15 W/m2K. Neglecting radiation exchange with the surroundings, calculate the temperature of
the roof under steady-state conditions if the ambient air temperature is 25oC.
85.0oC

D-2
VII. You have a glass of tea in a well-insulated cup that you would like to cool off before
drinking. You also have 2 ice cubes to use in the cooling process and have access to an ice
crusher.

9) Assuming no energy is lost from the tea into the room and no ice is lost in the crushing
process, which form of ice (cubes or crushed ice) added to your tea will give a lower drink
temperature?

_______

A) The crushed ice

B) The ice cubes
C) Either will lower the drink temperature the same amount (Ans.)
D) Can’t tell from the information given

10) Your answer to the previous question is correct because: ________

A) Crushed ice has more surface area so energy transfer rate will be higher
B) Energy transfer is proportional to the mass of ice used (Ans.)
C) Crushed ice will melt faster and will transfer energy from the tea faster
D) Ice cubes contain less energy per mass that crushed ice so tea will cool more
E) Ice cubes have a higher heat capacity than crushed ice

D-3
CHE 312 (Winter 2011) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #2
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. (1). Two engineering students are conducting

an experiment with air using a frictionless, well-
insulated piston system as shown above.
Initially the air is at room temperature and the
piston sits in the lower position. They notice
that when the air is heated and the temperature
increases, the volume expands and the piston
rises to the upper position.

What if the students conduct the experiment differently? That is, what will happen to the air
temperature if they manually pull the piston from the lower position to the upper position and hold
it there?

A) The air temperature will increase because the piston still moves between the same initial and
final positions
B) The air temperature will decrease because work is done on the surroundings when the piston
moves upward. (Ans.)
C) The air temperature will increase because pulling the piston upward does work on the air
inside the piston system
D) The air temperature will decrease because energy will be lost as friction as the piston moves
upward

(2) Two metal blocks of equal size and mass are initially at room temperature (~20oC) and are
then placed in a furnace operating at 200oC. Block 1 reaches a uniform temperature of 200oC in 5
minutes while block 2 takes 10 minutes to reach 200oC.

To which block was more energy transferred during the heating process? __D_____

A) Block 2 because it is heated longer

B) Block 1 because it heats up faster (temperature rises faster)
C) Both blocks received the same amount of energy because they started at the same initial
temperature and ended at the same final temperature
D) Can’t determine from the information given because heat transfer coefficients from the block
surfaces are needed
E) Can’t determine from the information given because heat capacities of the metals used to
make the blocks are needed

II The air inside a chamber at T,i = 50oC is heated convectively with hi = 20 W/m2K by a 200-
mm-thick wall having a thermal conductivity of 4 W/mK and a uniform heat generation of 1000
W/m3. To prevent any heat generated within the wall from being lost to the outside of the
chamber at T,o = 25oC with ho = 5 W/m2K, a very thin electrical strip heater is placed on the
outer wall to provide a uniform heat flux, qo" . No heat generated within the wall is lost to the
outside of the chamber. The outer wall surface is at x = 0.

D-4
(3) Which of the following sketch best represents the temperature profile in the wall:

____A______
T T T T

(A) (B) (C) (D)

0 L 0 L 0 L 0 L

(4) Determine T(L) 60oC

(5) Determine T(0)  T(L) 5oC _

(6) If the heat generation in the wall were switched off while the heat flux to the strip heater
remained constant, what would be the steady-state temperature, T(0), of the outer wall
surface?
55oC

III (7). In a manufacturing process, a transparent film is being bonded to a substrate as shown in
the sketch. to cure the bond at a temperature To, a radiant source is used to provide a heat flux qo"
(W/m2), all of which is absorbed at the bonded surface. The back of the substrate is maintained at
T1 while the free surface of the film is exposed to air at T and a convection heat transfer
coefficient h. Assume the following conditions: T = 20oC, h = 50 W/m2K, and T1 = 30oC.

Calculate the heat flux qo" required to maintain the bonded surface at To = 60oC 2833 W/m2

IV (8). A transistor, which may be approximated as a hemispherical heat source of radius ro =

0.1 mm, is embedded in a large silicon substrate (k = 125 W/mK) and dissipates heat at a rate q.
All boundaries of the silicon are maintained at an ambient temperature of T = 27oC, except for a
plane surface that is well insulated. The general expression for the substrate temperature
r
distribution is given by T = T  (T  Ts) o
r

D-5
Evaluate the surface temperature Ts of the heat source for q = 4W 77.9oC

V A storage tank consists of a cylindrical section that has a length and inner diameter of L = 2 m
and Di = 1 m, respectively, and two hemispherical end sections. The tank is constructed from 20-
mm-thick glass (Pyrex) and is exposed to ambient air for which the temperature is 300oK and the
convection coefficient is 10 W/m2K. The tank is used to store heated oil, which maintains the
inner surface at a temperature of 400oK. Radiation effects may be neglected, and the Pyrex may
be assumed to have a thermal conductivity of 1.4 W/mK.

9) Determine the heat loss in the cylindrical section of the tank 5704 W

10) Determine the heat loss in the two hemispherical end sections of the tank 2958 W

D-6
CHE 312 (Winter 2011) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #3
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. Electronic power devices are mounted to a heat sink having an exposed surface area of 0.045
m2 and an emissivity of 0.80. The devices dissipate a total power of 40 W and the air and
surroundings are at 27oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 25 W/m2K. Determine the steady
state temperature of the heat sink using Newton method, one iteration and initial guess of 300 K.
329.73 K

II. A computer consists of an array of five printed circuit boards (PCBs), each dissipating Pb =
20 W power. Cooling of the electronic components on a board is provided by the forced flow of
air, equally distributed in passages formed by adjoining boards, and the convection coefficient
associated with heat transfer from the components to the air is approximately h = 200 W/m2K.
Air enters the computer console at a temperature of Ti = 20oC, and flow is driven by a fan whose
power consumption is Pf = 25 W.
2) If the temperature rise of the air flow, (To  Ti), is not to exceed 15oC, what is the minimum
allowable volumetric flow rate of the air? The density and specific heat of the air may be
approximate as  = 1.161 kg/m3 and Cp = 1007 J/kgK, respectively.
7.1310-3 m3/s

3) The component that is most susceptible to thermal failure dissipates 1 W/cm2 of surface area.
What is its surface temperature at the location to minimize thermal failure?
70oC

III) A spherical stainless steel ( = 8055 kg/m3, Cp = 510 J/kgoK) canister is used to store
reacting chemicals that provide for a uniform heat flux qi" to its inner surface. The canister is
suddenly submerged in a liquid bath of temperature T < Ti and heat transfer coefficient of 500
W/m2K. Ti is the initial temperature of the canister wall. (Ti = 500 K, T = 300 K, Ri = 0.5 m, Ro
= 0.6 m.
(4)Assuming negligible temperature gradient in the canister wall and a constant heat flux
determine the initial rate of change of the wall temperature if qi" = 105 W/m2.  0.088 K/s

5) What is the steady-state temperature of the wall? 439 K

IV) The steady-state temperatures associated with selected

nodal points of a two-dimensional system having a thermal
conductivity of 1.0 W/m*K are given. The grid spacing is
0.1 m for both directions. Data: Isothermal surface
temperature = T0(C) = 170, Tinf(C) = 21, h(W/m2K) = 80,
T(1) = 149.5, T(2) = 124.3, T(4) = 42.9, T(5) = 151.9, T(6)
= 129.0, T(7) = 95.8, T(9) = 159.0, T(11) = 118.5, and
T(12) = 64.1 all in oC.

D-7
6) Temperature at node 10 is ___144.1 C __

7) Temperature at node 3 is ___89.7 C ___

8) Temperature at node 8 is ___31.7oC

9) Two copper cylinders, each at 75oC, are allowed to cool in a room where the air temperature is
25oC. As shown, cylinder 1 is taller than cylinder 2 but both cylinders are the same diameter. The
top and bottom of each cylinder is perfectly insulated so the only heat loss is through the sides of
the cylinders.

Which of the following graphs would most closely approximate the average temperature of the
two cylinders? Graph D (Ans.)

10) A solid steel sphere (AISI 1010), 300 mm in diameter, is coated with a dielectric material
layer of thickness 2 mm and thermal conductivity 0.04 W/moK. The coated sphere is initially at
a uniform temperature of 500oC and is suddenly quenched in a large oil bath for which T =
100oC and h = 3300 W/m2K. Estimate the time (in hr) required for the coated sphere
temperature to reach 140oC. Neglect the effect of energy storage in the dielectric material, since
its thermal capacitance (cV) is small compared to that of the steel sphere. AISI steel:  = 7832
kg/m3, c = 559 J/kgK, k = 48.8 W/ mK.
25,355 s = 7.04 hr

D-8
CHE 312 (Winter 2011) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #4
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. Electronic power devices are mounted to a heat sink having an exposed surface area of 0.05 m2
and an emissivity of 0.80. The devices dissipate a total power of 50 W and the air and
surroundings are at 27oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 25 W/m2K. Determine the steady
state temperature of the heat sink using Newton method, one iteration and initial guess of 310 K.

__332.97 K _

(II) Given the temperature at three x-coordinates: T(x = 0.1 m) = 76oC, T(x = 0.2 m) = 79oC, and
d 2T
T(x = 0.3 m) = 88oC. Estimate at x = 0.2 m using central finite difference.
dx 2
_600 oC/m2

III. A. The unsteady state solution for temperature distribution in a cylinder T(r, t) requires
the evaluation of a Bessel function.
B. If the initial temperature for an infinite cylinder is not uniform, temperature
distribution T(r, t) cannot be obtained.

a. A and B are true b. Only A is true (Ans) c. Only B is true d. A and B are false

IV. The steady-state temperature (oC) associated with selected nodal points of a two-dimensional
system having a thermal conductivity of 2.0 W/moK are shown on the right. The ambient fluid is
at 40oC with a heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2oK. The isothermal surface is at 200oC.

Insulated boundary

0.20 m 139.4 T2 55.8

Ambient fluid
T3
147.0 113.5
0.30 m 77.0
182.9 T1 142.8

Isothermal boundary

(4) The temperature, T2, at node 2 is 108.61oC

(5) The temperature at node 3 is 57.15oC, calculate the heat transfer rate per unit thickness
normal to the page from the right surface to the fluid. 852.3 W/m

D-9
V. The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along a cylindrical fin with x = 0 at the base or
left surface where the temperature is 100oC. The end of the fin is insulated. Data: Length = 20
cm, diameter 1 cm, k = 240 W/mK, h = 40 W/m2K, and the ambient temperature T = 25oC.
The temperature profile for the fin is:  = B1sinh(cx) + B2cosh(cx)

(6) Determine the numerical value of c 8.1650 m-1

If c = 5 m-1, determine the numerical values of B1 and B2

(7) B1 = ___75oC ____ (8) B2 = __ 57.12 oC __

V. A masonry slab of width W = 0.05 m, which is at an initial temperature of 25oC, is heated by

passing a hot gas through the two surfaces, with the gas temperature and the convection
coefficient assumed to have constant values of T = 600oC and h = 100 W/m2s . Properties of
masonry material are  = 1900 kg/m3, c = 800 J/kgK and k = 0.625 W/mK.

(9) How long will it take to achieve 75% of the maximum possible energy storage?
1245 s = 20.75 min

(10) What is the maximum temperature of the masonry at 20 min? 539.4oC

D-10
CHE 312 (Winter 2011) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #5
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along a square (1 cm by 1 cm) fin with x = 0 at
the base or left surface where the temperature is 120oC. The end of the fin is not insulated. Data:
Length = 20 cm, k = 240 W/mK, h = 20 W/m2K, and the ambient temperature T = 25oC. The
temperature profile for the fin is:  = B1sinh(cx) + B2cosh(cx)

(1) Determine the numerical value of c 5.7735 m-1

If c = 5 m-1, determine the numerical values of B1 and B2

(2) B1 = ___-73.008oC ____ (3) B2 = __95oC ____

II. A long bar of rectangular cross section is 60 mm by 90

mm on a side and has a thermal conductivity of 2 W/mK.
One surface is exposed to a convection process with air at
100oC and a convection coefficient of 100 W/m2K, while
the remaining surfaces are maintained at 50oC. Using a
grid spacing of 30 mm the temperature at node 1 is given
by
T1 = AT2 + B

4) A = ___0.2857___ 5) B = __57.14 C___

III. A process fluid having a specific heat of 3500 J/kgK and flowing at 2 kg/s is to be cooled
from 80oC to 50oC with chilled water (specific heat of 4180 J/kgK), which is supplied at a
temperature of 15oC and a flow rate of 2.5 kg/s. Assuming an overall heat transfer coefficient of
2000 W/m2K, calculate the required heat transfer areas for the following exchanger
configurations: (a) parallel flow, (b)

6) Parallel flow 3.087 m2 7) Counter flow 2.642 m2

IV. A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and four tube passes uses hot water on
the tube side to heat oil on the shell side. The water enters at 87oC and 50.0 kg/s and leaves at
27oC. Inlet and outlet temperatures of the oil are 7 and 37oC. The heat exchanger contains 200
tubes which have inner and outer diameters of 20 and 24 mm and a length of 5.0 m. Density of
water is 995 kg/m3 and Cp of water is 4200 J/kg.K.

8) Water velocity is 3.20 m/s

D-11
V. A masonry slab of width W = 0.05 m, which is at an initial temperature of 25oC, is heated by
passing a hot gas through the one surface while the other surface is insulated, with the gas
temperature and the convection coefficient assumed to have constant values of T = 600oC and h
= 100 W/m2s . Properties of masonry material are  = 1900 kg/m3, c = 800 J/kgK and k = 0.625
W/mK.

(9) How long will it take to achieve 75% of the maximum possible energy storage? __________

3937 s = 65.61 min = 1.0935 h

(10) What is the maximum temperature of the masonry at 50 min? _552.5oC _

D-12
Appendix E
Previous Exams
CHE 312 (Winter 2012) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #1
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. An annealing process shown below uses a hot plate operating at an elevated temperature Th.
The wafer, initially at a temperature of Tw,i, is suddenly positioned at a gap separation h = 0.6
mm from the hot plate. The emissivity of both the hot plate and the wafer is 0.90. The silicon
wafer has a thickness of d = 0.50 mm, a density of 2700 kg/m3, and a specific heat of 1050
J/kgK. The thermal conductivity of the gas in the gap is 0.04 W/mK. The wafer is insulated at
the bottom. Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4.

Hot plate, Th

gap h Stagnant gas, k

Silicon wafer, T w

For Th = 700oC and Tw,i = 25oC, calculate

(1) Determine the total heat flux across the gap 90,336 W/m2

 dT 
(2) Determine the initial time rate of change in the temperature of the wafer,  w  , if the total
 dt i
heat flux across the gap is 90 kW/m . 2 63.5 K/s

II. (3)
A. The thermal conductivity is due to the flow of free electron, lattice vibrational waves, and
molecular collisions.
B. For pure metals, the contribution to thermal conductivity due to phonon (lattice
vibrational) is more important.
a) Both A and B are true b) Only A is true (A) c) Only B is true d) Both A and B are false

III. (4) Liquid oxygen, which has a boiling point of 90oK and a latent heat of vaporization of 214
kJ/kg, is stored in a spherical container whose outer surface is of 500-mm diameter and at a
temperature of 10oC. The container is housed in a laboratory whose air is at 0oC and walls are
at 25oC. If the surface emissivity is 0.60 and the heat transfer coefficient associated with free
convection at the outer surface of the container is 40 W/m2K, what is the rate, in kg/s, at which
oxygen vapor must be vented from the system?
1.85510-3 kg/s

E-1
IV. (5) An experiment to determine the convection coefficient associated with airflow over the
surface of a thick steel casting involves insertion of thermocouples in the casting at distances of
10 and 20 mm from the surface along a hypothetical line normal to the surface. The steel has a
thermal conductivity of 40 W/mK. If the thermocouples measure temperatures of 52 and 40oC in
the steel when the air temperature is 90oC, what is the convection coefficient?
1846 W/m2K

V. (6) A surface whose temperature is maintained at 400oC is separated from an air flow by a
layer of insulation 30 mm thick for which the thermal conductivity is 0.04 W/mK. If the air
temperature is 25oC and the convection coefficient between the air and the outer surface of the
insulation is 200 W/m2K, what is the temperature of this outer surface?
27.48oC

VI. In the two-dimensional body illustrated, the gradient at surface A is found to be T/y = 20 K/m.

7) Determine T/y at surface B ___0___

8) Determine T/x at surface B _40 K/m

VII. A well-insulated pipe of 2.54 cm inside diameter carries air at 2 bar pressure and 366.5oK. It
is connected to a 0.0283 m3 insulated bulge, as shown . The air in the bulge is initially at one bar
pressure and 311oK. A and D are flow meters which accurately measure the air mass flow rate.
Valves B and C control the air flow into and out of the bulge. Connected to the bulge is a 0.283
m3 rigid, adiabatic tank which is initially evacuated to a very low pressure.

At the start of the operation, valve B is opened to allow 4.54 g/s of air flow into the bulge;
simultaneously, valve C is operated to transfer exactly 4.54 g/s from the bulge into the tank.
These flows are maintained constant as measured by the flow meters. Air may be assumed to be
an ideal gas with a specific heat ratio  = Cp/Cv = 1.4, Cp = 29.3 J/moloK, and molecular weight
= 29. Gas constant R = 8.314 m3Pa/moloK.

Air at 2 bar Tank

Bulge
pressure
A B C D

dT
(9&10). Determine when the temperature in the bulge is 340oK. 5.8 K/s
dt

E-2
CHE 312 (Winter 2012) __________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #2
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. A well-insulated pipe of 2.54 cm inside diameter carries air at 2 bar pressure and 366.5oK. It is
connected to a 0.0283 m3 insulated bulge, as shown . The air in the bulge is initially at 110 kPa
pressure and 311oK. A and D are flow meters which accurately measure the air mass flow rate.
Valves B and C control the air flow into and out of the bulge. Connected to the bulge is a 0.283
m3 rigid, adiabatic tank which is initially evacuated to a very low pressure. At the start of the
operation, valve B is opened to allow 4.54 g/s of air flow into the bulge; simultaneously, valve C
is operated to transfer exactly 4.54 g/s from the bulge into the tank. These flows are maintained
constant as measured by the flow meters. Air may be assumed to be an ideal gas with a specific
heat ratio  = Cp/Cv = 1.4, Cp = 29.3 J/moloK, and molecular weight = 29. Gas constant R =
8.314 m3Pa/moloK.

Air at 2 bar Tank

Bulge
pressure
A B C D

1) Determine the mass inside the bulge 34.9 g

dT
2) If the initial mass inside the bulge is 40 g, determine the initial 8.82 K/s
dt

II. A) For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall with no heat generation
and constant thermal conductivity, the temperature varies linearly with x.
B) For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall with heat generation and
constant thermal conductivity, the temperature varies linearly with x.

a) Both A and B are true b) Only A is true (A) c) Only B is true d) Both A and B are false

III. (4) The wall of an oven used to cure plastic parts is of thickness L = 0.05 m and is exposed
to large surroundings and air at its outer surface. The air and the surroundings are at 300 K. If the
temperature of the outer surface is 400 K and its convection coefficient and emissivity are
h = 20 W/m2K and  = 0.8, respectively, what is the temperature of the inner surface if the wall
has a thermal conductivity of k = 0.7 W/mK? (Note:  = 5.67×10-8 W/m2K4)
600 K

IV (5). In a manufacturing process, a transparent film is being bonded to a substrate as shown in

the sketch to cure the bond at a temperature To, a radiant source is used to provide a heat flux qo"
(W/m2), all of which is absorbed at the bonded surface. The back of the substrate is maintained at
T1 while the free surface of the film is exposed to air at T and a convection heat transfer
coefficient h. Assume the following conditions: T = 20oC, h = 20 W/m2K, and T1 = 30oC.

Calculate the heat flux qo" required to maintain the bonded surface at To = 60oC 2167 W/m2

E-3
V. The wind chill, which is experienced on a cold, windy day, is related to increased heat
transfer from exposed human skin to the surrounding atmosphere. Consider a layer of fatty tissue
that is 3 mm thick and whose interior surface is maintained at a temperature of 36oC. On a calm
day the convection heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface is 25 W/m2K, but with 30 km/h
winds it reaches 65 W/m2K. In both cases the ambient air temperature is  15oC.

6) What is the ratio of the heat loss per unit area from the skin for the calm day to that for
the windy day?
0.553

7) What will be the skin outer surface temperature for the calm day? 22.1oC

8) What will be the skin outer surface temperature for the windy day? 10.8oC

VI. A storage tank consists of a cylindrical section that has a length and inner diameter of L = 2
m and Di = 1 m, respectively, and two hemispherical end sections. The tank is constructed from
20-mm-thick glass (Pyrex) and is exposed to ambient air for which the temperature is 300oK and
the convection coefficient is 20 W/m2K. The tank is used to store heated oil, which maintains
the inner surface at a temperature of 400oK. Radiation effects may be neglected, and the Pyrex
may be assumed to have a thermal conductivity of 1.4 W/mK.

9) Determine the heat loss in the cylindrical section of the tank 10120 W

10) Determine the heat loss in the two hemispherical end sections of the tank 5239 W

E-4
CHE 312 (Winter 2012) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #3
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. Consider the annular fin shown on the right with thickness t. The
ambient air is at T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h. The base is at
temperature Tb. The inside and outside radii of the annular fin are r1 and
r2, respectively.

1) Specify the control volume required to solve for T(r) __2rtdr_

2) The differential equation required to solve for T(r) is: __________

d  dT  h d  dT  h
a) r   (T  T ∞) = 0 b) r  + (T  T ∞) = 0
dr  dr  k dr  dr  k

1 d  dT  h 1 d  dT  h
c) r   (T  T ∞) = 0 d) r   (T  T ∞) = 0
r dr  dr  k r dr  dr  kt

e) None of the above (A)

3) Specify the two boundary conditions required to solve for T(r):

dT
a) _r = r1, T = Tb b) r = r2,  k = h(T  T∞)
dr

II. Copper tubing is joined to a solar collector plate of thickness t, and the working fluid
maintains the temperature of the plate above the tubes at To. There is a uniform net radiation heat
flux q”rad to the top surface of the plate, while the bottom surface is well insulated. The top
surface is also exposed to a fluid at T that provides for a uniform convection coefficient h. L is
the mid-point between the copper tubing.

4) The differential equation required to solve for T(x) is: __________

d 2T q" h d 2T q" h
a) 2
+ rad = (T  T) b) 2
+ rad = (T  T) (A)
dx k kt dx kt kt

d 2T q" h d 2T q" h
c) 2
+ rad + (T  T) = 0 d) 2
+ rad = (T  T)
dx kt kt dx k k

e) None of the above

dT
5) Specify the two boundary conditions required to solve for T(x): x = 0, T = To b) x = L, =0
dx
E-5
III. Circular copper (k = 400 W/mK) rods of diameter D = 2 mm and length L = 25 mm are used to
enhance heat transfer from a surface that is maintained at Ts,1 = 100oC. One end of the rod is attached
to this surface (at x = 0), while the other end (x = 25 mm) is joined to a second surface, which is
maintained at Ts,2 = 0oC. Air flowing between the surfaces (and over the rods) is also at a
temperature of T = 0oC, and a convection coefficient of h = 100 W/m2K is maintained. The
 sinh(mx )  b sinh[m( L  x )]
temperature along the rod is given by  = L
sinh( mL)

6) The rod temperature at x = 15 mm is 38.3oC

7) The heat transfer from a single rod to the surface at x = 25 mm is 4.774 W

8) If the heat transfer from a single rod to air is 1 W and a bundle of the rods is installed on 8-
mm centers, the total rate of heat transfer from a 80 mm by 80 mm section of the surface at
100oC to air is: ________

a) 100 W b) 81 W

c) 160.86 W (A) d) 141.86 W

e) None of the above

IV. A spherical system with radius of 0.1 m and uniform heat generation, q , is in an environment
with h = 20 W/m2oC and T = 25oC. Thermal conductivity of the system is 5 W/moC. The
differential equation for T(r) is

k d  2 dT 
r  + q = 0
r 2 dr  dr 

9) If the surface temperature (at r = 0.1 m) of the system is 100oC, determine the heat generation
per unit volume of the system
45,000 W/m

10) If the surface temperature (at r = 0.1 m) of the system is 75oC and the heat generation is
30,000 W/m3, the temperature at r = 0.05 m is
82.5oC

E-6
CHE 312 (Winter 2012) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #4
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. Consider the annular fin shown on the right with thickness t. The
ambient air is at T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h. The base is at
temperature Tb. The inside and outside radii of the annular fin are r1 and
r2, respectively. Energy balance over a differential control volume is
required to obtain the differential equation to solve for T(r).

1) Specify the expression for the heat leaving the differential control
volume by convection. 4rdrh(T  T∞)

2) Specify the expression for the heat entering the differential control
dT
volume at r by conduction.  2rtk
dr
Insulated boundary
II. The nodal points of a two-dimensional system T1
having a thermal conductivity of 2.0 W/moK are shown 0.20 m
Ambient fluid
on the right. The ambient fluid is at 40oC with a heat T2
transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2oK. The isothermal
0.30 m
surface is ar 110 oC. If T1 = 60oC, T2 = 70oC, and T3 = T3
85oC, calculate the heat transfer rate per unit thickness
normal to the page from the right surface to the fluid. Isothermal boundary

720 W/m

III. Irreversible cell damage occurs in living tissue maintained at temperature greater than 48oC
for a duration greater than 10 seconds. You can assume that living tissue has a normal
temperature of 37oC, is isotropic, and has thermal diffusivity of 1.51310-7 m2/s.. Calculate the
thickness of a layer of cell damage if part of the body is in contact with a surface at 80oC for a
period of 30 s.
Data:
T ( x, t )  Ts  x 
= erf   2.795410-3 m
Ti  Ts  2 t 
x erf(x)
0.7000 0.6778
0.7442 0.7074
0.8035 0.7442
0.8500 0.7707

IV. The x-coordinate is assigned in the direction along a cylindrical fin with x = 0 at the base or
left surface where the temperature is 120oC. The end of the fin is insulated. Data: Length = 30
cm, diameter 1.5 cm, k = 240 W/mK, h = 40 W/m2K, and the ambient temperature T = 25oC.
The temperature profile for the fin is:  = B1sinh(cx) + B2cosh(cx)

(5) Determine the numerical value of c 6.67 m-1

E-7
If c = 5 m-1, determine the numerical values of B1 and B2

(6) B1 = 95oC (7) B2 =  85.99oC

V. A masonry slab of width W = 0.05 m, which is at an initial temperature of 25oC, is heated by

passing a hot gas through the two surfaces, with the gas temperature and the convection
coefficient assumed to have constant values of T = 600oC and h = 100 W/m2s . Properties of
masonry material are  = 1900 kg/m3, c = 800 J/kgK and k = 0.625 W/mK.
Data:
Conduction in a slab
L is defined as the distance from the center of the slab to the surface. If one surface is insulated,
L is defined as the total thickness of the slab.
t t T  T
Fo = 2 = 2 ,  * = ,  0* = C1exp(-  12 Fo)
L r0 Ti  T
Q sin( 1 ) *
 * =  0* cos(1x*) ; =1- 0
Qo 1
Bi 1 C1
1.0 0.8603 1.1191
2.0 1.0769 1.1795
3.0 1.1925 1.2102
4.0 1.2646 1.2287
5.0 1.3138 1.2402

(8) How long will it take to achieve 60% of the maximum possible energy storage? 798 s

(9) What is the average temperature of the masonry at this time? 255oC

VI. A long column with thermal conductivity k = 2 W/moK is maintained at 500oK on three
surfaces while the remaining surface is exposed to a convective environment with h = 10
W/m2oK and fluid temperature T. The cross sectional area of the column is 1 m by 1 m. Using a
grid spacing x = y = 0.25 m, the nodal points for this system are given in the following figure:
x
500 K
m, n+1
y
1 2 1

500 K 3 4 3
m-1, n m, n m+1, n
5 6 5 500 K

7 8 7
h = 300 K m, n-1
h = 10 W/m2K

10) The temperature at node 7 is given by the expression: T7 = AT5 + BT8 + C, where

A(numerical value) = 0.30769

E-8
CHE 312 (Winter 2012) _______________________
LAST NAME, FIRST
Quiz #5
Note: Your answers must be correct to 3 significant figures and have the appropriate units.

I. Consider a square rod (W×W) with length L. The ambient air is at T∞ with heat transfer
coefficient h. The base is at temperature Tb with x as the distance along the rod. Energy balance
over a differential control volume is required to obtain the differential equation to solve for T(x).

1) Specify the expression for the heat leaving the differential control volume by convection.
4Wdxh(T  T∞)

2) Specify the expression for the heat entering the differential control volume at r by conduction
dT
 W2k
dx

II. A shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell pass and four tube passes uses hot water on
the tube side to heat oil on the shell side. The water enters at 87oC and 50.0 kg/s and leaves at
27oC. Inlet and outlet temperatures of the oil are 7 and 37oC. The heat exchanger contains 300
tubes which have inner and outer diameters of 20 and 24 mm and a length of 5.0 m. Density of
water is 995 kg/m3 and Cp of water is 4200 J/kg.K.

3) Water velocity is 2.13 m/s ___________

4) If ho = 400 W/m2K, determine the shell side convective heat transfer resistance (for the heat
exchanger, not for one tube) 2.21×10-5 K/W

III. Irreversible cell damage occurs in living tissue maintained at temperature greater than 48oC
for a duration greater than 10 seconds. You can assume that living tissue has a normal
temperature of 37oC, is isotropic, and has thermal diffusivity of 1.51310-7 m2/s.. Calculate the
thickness of a layer of cell damage if part of the body is in contact with a surface at 80oC for a
period of 20 s. 1.9810-3 m
Data:
T ( x, t )  Ts  x 
= erf  
Ti  Ts  2 t 

x erf(x)
0.7000 0.6778
0.7442 0.7074
0.8035 0.7442
0.8500 0.7707

IV. Saturated steam at 110oC condenses on the outside of a 5-m long, 4-cm-diameter thin
horizontal copper tube by cooling liquid water that enters the tube at 25oC at an average velocity
V of 2 m/s and leaves at 45oC. Liquid water density, , is 997 kg/m3, Cp of liquid water is 4.18
kJ/kgoC.

E-9
The data for internal energy (u) and enthalpy (h) of saturated liquid and saturated vapor are given

T (oC) ul (kJ/kg) ug (kJ/kg) hl (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg)

110 461.2 2518.1 461.3 2691.5

6) The rate of heat transfer to water is 209.5 kW

7) If the rate of heat transfer to water is 250 kW, the

rate of condensation of steam is 0.1121 kg/s

V. A long column with thermal conductivity k = 4 W/moK is maintained at 500 K on three

surfaces while the remaining surface is exposed to a convective environment with h = 10
W/m2oK and fluid temperature T = 300 K. The cross sectional area of the column is 1 m by 1
m. Using a grid spacing x = y = 0.25 m, the nodal points for this system are given in the
following figure:
x
500 K
m, n+1
y
1 2 1

500 K 3 4 3
m-1, n m, n m+1, n
5 6 5 500 K

7 8 7
h = 300 K m, n-1
h = 10 W/m2K

The temperature at node 7 is given by the expression: T7 = AT5 + BT8 + C, where

8) A(numerical value) = 0.38095 9) B(numerical value) = 0.19048________

10) C(numerical value with unit) = 166.67 K

E-10